CIV 4204: ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Course outline
o Introduction and definitions
o Environmental policies and guidelines (water and effluent discharge standards)
o Environmental impact analysis
o Environmental monitoring of construction works
o Water pollution control
o Waste load allocations
o AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
o Noise pollution
o Wetlands protection
o Control of land/soil pollution

7: AIR POLLUTION CONTROL

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Air pollution refers to the presence of particulate material, noxious gases, greenhouse gases, and other
substances in the bulk air of the atmosphere. Most air pollutants are produced by humans and human activities.
This means that their release can be controlled. The methods of control depend on the type of pollutant, and the
willingness and ability of individuals, governments, and industries to make changes. Behavioural change and
new technologies are a large factor in effectively controlling air pollution. Voluntary changes may need to be
supplemented by regulations and fines to protect the environment.

Fig. 7.1 The atmosphere (Enger & Smith, 2004)

7.1.1 Natural composition of the atmosphere

Pure air consists of primarily of Nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). The composition of the atmosphere is very
consistent in the troposphere – see Table 7.1 below. The units applied are % and ppm, both as volume by
volume (v/v). So 1 ppm is equivalent to a cubic metre (m3) of air. There is a direct relationship between the
volume and partial pressure of the trace gas present (Dalton’s law). Thus at ground level, where the pressure is
1 atm (101.325 Pa), a gas present at 1 ppm will have a pressure of 10-6 atm.

The water content of the air varies from 0 up to 2%, depending on the temperature and the relative humidity.
The water vapour content in air is essential for human comfort. Dry air irritates the eyes, nose and throat, while
a high water vapour content may make the skin feel uncomfortable and damp.

The mixing time with the troposphere is less than 0.2 years. Mixing with the stratosphere is, however, much
slower (several years) owing to the presence of the tropopause. If the residence time of the pollutant is long

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enough, the pollutant can reach the air at any point on the globe. It is also important to note that accumulations
of many small sources of air pollution may cause as big a problem as a large source of emissions.

Table 7.1: Composition of dry unpolluted air in the troposphere (by volume)
Gas Concentration
Nitrogen 78.084 %
Oxygen 20.946 %
Argon 0.934 %
Carbon dioxide 340 ppm
Neon 18.18 ppm
Helium 5.24 ppm
Methane 1.3 – 1.6 ppm
Krypton 1.14 ppm
Hydrogen 0.5 ppm
Nitrous oxide 0.25 – 0.35 ppm
Xenon 0.087 ppm

7.2 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

The effects of air pollution can be subdivided as follows:
1. Effects on visibility and meteorological parameters (particulates, temperature effect, greenhouse effect,
U.V. radiation, reduction of ozone layer, reduction of sunshine)
2. Biological effects on the health of humans and animals (acute illness, physiological changes, chronic
diseases, irritation of sense organs, loss of comfort)
3. Damage to plants (reduction of yield, forest decline, colouring of leaves)
4. Attack of materials, buildings, monuments (physical erosion and chemical corrosion by the action of
chemicals)

7.3 GENERAL SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS PRINCIPLES

Before a technique can be selected for the sampling and analysis of pollutants in the air, the objectives must be
well defined. First, a distinction must be made between measurements in the ambient air, measurements in
working environments (industrial hygiene) and source testing (emission measurements). This will define
sampling technique, site, length and frequency. The following discussion is largely concerned with ambient air
measurements.

The objectives may be;

a) Control of emission limits or ambient air quality
b) Trend analysis (study of the evolution of the concentrations)
c) Geographical distribution and migration of the pollutants in the air
d) Efficiency of control measures
e) Scientific research (model-validation; dose/effect studies; interactions between contaminants)

Since the emission measurements are generally intended to control or measure the impact on the population or
the environment, the expression “receptor oriented” is often used.

In any sampling process, a representative sample should be taken. Among other considerations should be;
a) The personnel doing sampling
b) The equipment
c) The number of sampling stations
d) Sampling frequency
e) Sampling efficiency

For the control of exposure to a worker in an industrial environment three strategies are possible:
a) Area monitoring
b) Personal monitoring
c) Biological sampling

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A distinction must be made between discontinuous (manual) sampling and automatic continuous recording
(monitoring) of the air quality. Discontinuous sampling requires less expensive equipment but needs much
labour and a chemical laboratory for subsequent analysis. A continuous recording instrument is generally very
expensive, but may give a wealth of information. A computer for data recording (data logger) is required.

7.3.1 Techniques for sampling

A continuously recording instrument requires a well-defined stream of air through the instrument.

For a discontinuous measurement a fraction of the air must be separated, or the pollutant in it pre-concentrated.

Passive sampling does not require a forced movement of the air. It is based on the exposure of an active surface
to the ambient or work room environment.

Examples of sampling techniques include:

a) Badges or a tube, carried by the worker and covered with a thin layer of gold (mercury absorption) or
some other reagent that produces a colour or absorbs organic components, for subsequent analysis in
the laboratory
b) Dynamic or extractive sampling, implies a forced movement of air through an absorbing solution, over
a filter or a container
c) Absorption in a liquid by passing air through a fritted glass scrubber or wet impaction
d) Adsorption on a solid
e) Filtration on a filter paper
f) Grab-sampling

The equipment for the sampling consists of pumps, tubing, filter holders, flow rate meters, integrating gas
meters, etc. It is important that contamination of the equipment with, or adsorption by the equipment of, the
pollutants be avoided as much as possible.

7.3.2 Automatic measurement instruments

When considering the acquisition of an instrument, a number of characteristics of the equipment must be taken
into account. The figures of merit of the performances of the instrument must be compared to the objectives of
the measurement.

The major required characteristics of an automatic measurement instrument are;

a) Accuracy and specificity
b) Sensitivity
c) The response time
d) Independently functioning
e) Possibility for automatic data treatment
f) Reliability
g) The price of the monitor, the reagents, the calibrants, and the data reduction

7.3.3 Sampling of gaseous pollutants

Sampling is of primary importance and it should first be accurate and complete. The procedure applied is
dependent on the compound to be measured and the detection method used. For manual (discontinuous)
detection and measurement, fitted glass scrubbers and impingers in a variety of shapes and volumes are applied
for wet impaction into an absorbing liquid.

The requirements set for the absorbing liquid include collection efficiency (capacity), volatility, viscosity,
corrosiveness, inflammability and price. No solvent satisfies all these requirements for the absorbing liquid, but
water (with some reagents added to it) is the best compromise for inorganic components. Sometimes other
techniques such as adsorption to solid adsorbers or freeze-out (of organic components) are applied.

If automatic (generally continuous) monitors of the concentration are applied, the air sample is guided into the
instrument with or without dilution (in the case of high concentrations in or close to the source).

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Sample analysis should be sensitive, accurate and reproducible. Manual techniques are often based upon
titrimetric reactions or colorimetric measurements. Continuous recording instruments are based upon physico-
chemical techniques such as colorimetry, potentiometry, chemo-luminescent radiation, and infrared (IR) or
ultraviolet (UV) radiation or absorption.

7.4 SELECTED POLLUTANTS AND THEIR ABATEMENT

7.4.1 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Sulphur dioxide is the best known air pollutant because it has been linked to accidents, catastrophes, etc. It is
produced by natural and anthropogenic processes. It has a sharp odour, irritates respiratory tissue, and
aggravates asthmatic and respiratory conditions. SO2 contributes to smog production. Smog is a combination of
smoke, fog, and dust.

Sources
Biogenic emissions of H2S over the oceans (80x106 tons S/yr) and over the continents (90 x106 tons S/yr) and
volcanic emissions lead, after oxidation in the atmosphere, to production of ~350x106 tons SO2 per annum (p.a.)
in the air. With residence times of about 5 days the SO2 is converted to SO3, H2SO4, and (NH4)2SO4, etc., and is
removed by wet and dry deposition or immediately by absorption in the oceans or by vegetation.

The anthropogenic emissions of SO2 (~120x106 ton p.a.) contribute thus less than one third, but are very much
concentrated in the northern hemisphere (110x106 ton p.a.). The major sources are the combustion of sulphur
containing solid fossil fuel (80x106 to p.a.), and liquid fossil fuels (20x106 to p.a.). Roasting/smelting of
minerals (12x106 ton p.a.) and petroleum refining (4x106 ton p.a.) contribute less significantly.

The emergency level is a 1-hour average of 830µg/m3. For work places, there is a threshold limit value (TLV)
for professionally exposed persons of 14,300µg/m3 for an 8 hour working day.

Procedures for abatement of the SO2 emissions

1. Use low sulphur fossil fuels (coals: 0.5 – 6%, natural gas < 0.1%, fuel oil 0.1 – 6%)
2. Remove S from the fuel (liquid fuels). This is very expensive
3. Gasification of the fuel and removal of H2S and (NH4)2S
4. Treatment of exhaust gases: oxidize SO2 to SO3, addition of removal by scrubbing or electrostatic
precipitation. This procedure is also expensive and liquid or solid waste is formed (low quality H 2SO4,
(NH4)2SO4, CaSO4 or S)
5. Build very high exhaust stacks to enhance the dilution effect and reduce concentrations. This leads to
acid rainfall if the dilution is inadequate

7.4.2 Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)

Sources and effects
The major sources of H2S are the petroleum industry, coke production, hydrolysis of minerals, waste water
purification, wastes of animals and plants, the paper and pulp industry, the textile industry and strongly polluted
surface waters. H2S is a noxious gas, with a smell of rotten eggs.

Background concentrations are below 0.001ppm. Ambient air standards vary from 2.5 (Netherlands) to
100µgm-3. The USEPA annual average standard is 60µgm-3. For professionally exposed persons the TLV is 10
ppm. In the air it is oxidized by bacteria and photosynthesis to SO2.

7.4.3 Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, NOx)

Dinitrogen oxide (N2O) is a natural component (0.25ppm) of the atmosphere and is not considered as a
pollutant. The major gaseous pollutants are nitric oxide also known as nitrogen monoxide (NO), and nitrogen
dioxide (NO2). They are often considered together as NOx. Natural concentrations of NOx do not exceed
0.01ppm.

Sources
When air is heated to high temperatures (e.g. during combustion of fossil fuels with air), oxides of nitrogen are
produced, following the reactions:

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N2 + O2 2 NO + O2 2 NO2

The equilibrium constants indicate that at temperatures exceeding 600oC, NO (and very little NO2) can be
produced. When the exhaust gases cool to ambient temperature, the NO is oxidized to NO2. This is a slow
process with residence times of the NO varying from a few hours to several days. This results in typical
NO:NO2 ratios of 2 to 0.5.

Abatement can be achieved by;

1. reducing the residence time in the hot temperature zone;
2. reducing the flame temperature
3. increasing the heat transport
4. limiting the excess air

Abatement in internal combustion engines is achieved by re-entrainment of the exhaust gases and by catalytic
reduction of the exhaust gases.

In polluted air, concentrations vary from 0.005 to 0.3ppm NO and 0.005 to 0.2ppm NO2. The USEPA has a
primary air quality standard of 0.05ppm (annual average).

7.4.4 Ozone and Oxidants (O3)

The natural ozone cycle

The atmosphere absorbs part of the incoming sunlight. The UV-light is partly absorbed by photochemical
processes in the upper atmosphere. The layer between 20 and 120km is therefore called “chemosphere”.

One of the major factors is the ozone cycle. Radiations shorter than 245nm may dissociate O2.
UV light
O2 O+O

The atomic oxygen produced reacts further in different ways, one of them being the reaction which produces
ozone. The ozone produced undergoes photolysis:
UV light
O3 O + O2

These reactions absorb 99% of the UV-light energy coming from the sun, and prevent most UV radiation from
reaching the earth’s surface. The O and O2 can recombine to form ozone again to be available to absorb more
UV light radiation. The result is a maximum ozone concentration at 20 – 25km. A uniform distribution of the
ozone over the atmosphere would result in a concentration of 0.2 to 0.3ppm at ground level. The ozone is
primarily broken down by the reaction;

O + O3 O2 + O2 + energy

This reaction is catalysed by NO, Cl, Br and OH radicals. At ground level, ozone is very quickly reduced with
SO2, H2S, NO, and with radicals, or by contact with aerosols. Therefore the natural ozone content at sea level is
less than 0.03ppm. Increase in ground level ozone is a potential effect of global warming.

In the upper atmosphere there are indications that the ozone layer is reduced (1 to 10%) by an increased radical
concentration coming from anthropogenic emissions of freons also called CFCs (CCl3F, CCl2F2, CClF3),
methane (from rice cultivation and cattle breeding) and N2O (from use of excess fertilizer).

The odour threshold for O3 is at 0.02 to 0.05ppm, while drying of the mucous membranes occurs from 0.05 to
0.1ppm. Irritation of the eyes and the alveoli of the lungs would start at 0.25ppm. Therefore (in the USA and
other countries) a standard has been set at 240µgm-3 (0.12ppm) as a 1-hour average.

Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants including ozone, aldehydes, and nitrates resulting from the
interaction of nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic compounds with sunlight in a warm environment. In many

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urban areas all the ingredients for the production of photochemical smog are present as a result of emissions
from cars and industrial processes. This follows a cyclic pattern over a 24-hour period, the main steps of which
are;
1. Emission of NOx and hydrocarbons to the atmosphere. The NOx absorb solar energy required to drive
reactions of the hydrocarbons
sunlight
2. Absorption of sunlight causing photodissociation of NO2, i.e. NO2 NO + O*
3. Consumption of NOx and simultaneous build up of “oxidant”. The latter term includes O3, O, peroxides
and excited states of O2
4. Oxidation of hydrocarbons to produce a wide variety of products. These include aerosols and eye
irritants
5. Dispersal of the pollutants

A temperature (thermal) inversion, or other meteorological or topographic factor which prevents dispersion of
an air mass while steps 2, 3 and 4 are occurring, adds considerably to the severity of the problem. A thermal
inversion occurs when there is cool air trapped close to the earth’s surface. Normally air becomes cooler the
further it is from the earth’s surface which allows warm less dense air to rise and mix with higher cooler and
denser air. However, if the site in question is surrounded by hills, mountains, or a large water body, cool air
may be trapped near the surface as if in a bowl since it cannot mix with the warmer less dense air above it.

If a thermal inversion persists for several days over a habitation, the pollutants trapped in the cool dense air may
cause severe health effects for the residents, including nausea, respiratory irritation, headaches, sore throats, and
chest pains.

7.4.5 Carbon monoxide (CO)

Natural CO cycle
The principal sources of carbon monoxide (CO) in the environment are incomplete combustion of organic
materials such as wood, coal, petrol, garbage, and garden wastes like leaves. Other sources include combination
of hydroxyl radicals with methane derived from decomposition of living matter, the oceans, and the growth and
decomposition of plants containing chlorophyll. Chemical reactions involved are:

2C + O2 2CO

CH2O CO + H2 (± 80%)

CO (ocean) CO (air) (± 15%)

C55H70 MgN4O6 (chlorophyll) CO + other products (≈5%)

Removal occurs by oxidation to CO2, by means of OH-radicals and by bacteria in the soil. Bacteria in the soil
can also reduce CO to methane (CH4).

The natural concentrations of CO are below 0.5ppm. But in cities and highly populated areas mean
concentrations vary between 1 and 12ppm. Along streets, in transportation tunnels, etc., peak concentrations of
up to 5 ppm are measured. The total natural production is estimated on a worldwide basis between 900 and
3500x106 tons per year.

CO binds to blood haemoglobin, making the haemoglobin less able to carry oxygen. It is most dangerous in
enclosed spaces, and other places where there is not enough dilution by fresh air. Congested traffic, cooking in
kitchens with closed or no doors and windows, cigarette smoking, indoor wood burning for heat, poorly
maintained vehicles, etc. are some sources of exposure. About 60% of CO comes from vehicles driven on
roads. Effects of exposure include headaches, drowsiness, and blurred vision. Death may result from acute
exposure.

Emission standards (ambient air quality) for USA and Germany are given for CO as follows (10mgm-3 =
9ppm):
USA 9ppm (8-hour average)
35ppm (1-hour average)
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Germany 10mgm-3 (8-hour average)

7.4.6 Fluorides
Sources
The major sources of air pollution by fluorides (HF, NH4F, NaF, SiF4, etc.) are:
a) The production of phosphate fertilizer. Fluoro-apatite, 3Ca3(PO4)2•CaF2 may contain up to 4% fluorine.
During dissolution in H2SO4 some of it escapes as HF
b) The production of Al from bauxite
c) Where kryolite (Na3AlF6 and AlF3) are used for the production of steel; sometimes CaF2 is added to
reduce the melting point
d) In the production of bricks and ceramics, clay containing fluorine is used. Fluorine escapes as SiF4 or as
H2SiF6
e) Coal contains about 100ppm fluorine
f) Incineration of municipal waste results in the emission of HF

Some plants are especially sensitive to fluorine, and are used as bio-indicators. Evidence of toxicity to the
plants is a sign that the fluorine in their environment has exceeded acceptable limits.

7.4.7 Particulate matter (PM)

If one wants to define, name, control or measure the particulate matter in the atmosphere several different
expressions are used, and it is not always clear what the right meaning is. Examples of the terms in use are:
particulate matter, aerosols, particles, dusts, mists, suspended particulates, smoke, fumes, staining, fall-out,
deposition.

Particulate matter can easily be seen, and its effects are readily detected by the public (e.g. black smoke from a
factory, vehicle exhaust fumes, and accumulated dust on objects), so it may get more public attention than other
air pollutants.

Physical properties
Most of the differences between all these terms rely on the dimensions, the size and the density of the
substances considered.

Fig 7.2 Sizes of environmental particles (Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen, 1998)

By definition, an aerosol is a solid or liquid phase distributed or suspended in a gas. The gas is in the present
case obviously the ambient air. The solid or liquid phase can be in the form of individual substances or particles
ranging in dimensions from 5 x 10-4 µm (conglomerates of 10 to 30 molecules) up to several hundred µm. First
the dimensions of such a substance, that can have all kinds of forms, must be defined. Therefore a so-called
“aerodynamic equivalent diameter” (AED) is defined. This is the diameter of a sphere with unit density that
falls with the same speed in the air as the particle or substance considered.

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Sources and removal processes
Two main processes are involved in producing and removing particulate material: condensation processes and
dispersion processes. Condensation of hot gases forms primary particles which coagulate and form larger
aggregates. Also, chemical reactions of gases (SO2, NH3, NO2, H2S, etc.) generate products with high boiling
points such as salts and acids and result in the formation of droplets or particles, which can coagulate or grow
by uptake of water in a humid atmosphere (accumulation mode). Dispersion results from natural and
anthropogenic mechanical processes – best known are the sea spray and wind blown dust. Also anthropogenic
activities such as combustion, transport, mining, sieving, grinding, etc. give rise to primary particles. These are
coarse particles and will be removed by sedimentation. The fall-out of the particles roughly follows Stoke’s
Law.

Major effects of aerosols

The major effects of aerosols include:
a) Reduction of sunshine (±5% for 100µgm-3)
b) Reduction of visibility (turbidity, haze, and smog). The light scattering by suspended particles impairs
visibility. This reduces aesthetic quality, and may be a safety problem for transportation
c) Deposition and corrosion of materials, and deposition on plants
d) Catalytic effects of atmospheric reactions (production of photochemical smog and acidified deposition)
e) Inhalation by humans. Airborne particulate matter like dust, pollen, etc. may cause breathing and
respiratory problems
f) Disease transmission. Suspended particles may carry bacteria, fungi and viruses which humans may
inhale or ingest. Airborne diseases like the common cold, flu, measles, chicken pox, and tuberculosis,
are carried by aerosols
g) Transport and delivery of toxic materials like heavy metals (Cd, Pb, etc.), asbestos fibres, and toxic
organics which may be inhaled

Aerosols may be classified according to two major criteria; chemical and physical.

The importance of the chemical composition is obvious. For example;

Heavy metals are catalysts in atmospheric reactions (in forming photochemical smog they may catalyse
the oxidation of SO2 to SO3, etc.)
Some elements may be hazardous to humans in relatively low concentrations including arsenic (As),
cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), benzopyrene (BP), etc.
The chemical composition is helpful in studies of source localization, source processes, atmospheric
transport and removal from the atmosphere

Determination of the aerodynamic or physical size of the particles is often essential.

The aerodynamic size determines the respirability, and thus the toxicity to humans
Small particles have a larger surface for the same mass, and are thus more efficient as catalysts for
atmospheric reactions
The aerodynamic particle size establishes the residence time in the air. These residence times vary from
less than an hour for giant particles (>10µm) to more than 10 days for some sub-micrometer particles

7.4.8 Other important air pollutants

Some other important air pollutants are outlined below:

Lead
In the past, lead was used in several products that contributed to human exposure. Some of these products
included house paint, ceramic glazes including dishware, solder for joining water pipes, petrol additives to
enhance engine performance, etc. Humans and plants were exposed to lead for several decades by inhalation of
vehicle exhaust fumes and deposition on roadside plants and buildings, from dishware, domestic water supply,
etc. Adverse health effects from lead accumulation in the blood include kidney damage, elevated blood

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pressure, mental retardation, and anaemia. Lead is a potential carcinogen. Today, now that the adverse health
effects of lead are known, we have lead-free alternatives such as unleaded petrol, solderless piping, etc.

Benzene
Benzene is an aromatic compound with a 6-carbon ring structure. It is a component of petrol, a common
solvent, and a constituent of tobacco smoke. Benzene is also used in glues and cleaners. It is a known human
carcinogen, and inhalation may cause leukemia, and lymphomas. Cigarette smoking, and inhalation of second-
hand smoke by nonsmokers (passive smoking) is a source of benzene exposure.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CFCs were developed for use as the working fluid in refridgerators and air conditioners. They are also used as
aerosol propellants (e.g. in deodorant spray cans), and as a foaming agent. They have low toxicity and are very
stable in the environment. The stability of CFCs makes them persist long enough in the atmosphere that they
are transported to the stratosphere where they decompose under ultraviolet (UV) radiation releasing chlorine
which destroys ozone in the stratosphere. This increases the intensity of UV radiation that reaches the earth’s
surface. The radiation can cause damage to living cells and increase the risk of skin cancer.

CFCs are being phased out internationally. The 1987 Montreal Protocol featured an agreement by several
industrialized countries to freeze CFC production at current levels and reduce production by 50% by the year
2000. This has led to improvement in technologies and alternative refridgerants. Kenya banned the use and
import of CFCs in 2009. Uganda plans a ban in 2010. However, already installed and second-hand refrigerators
and air-conditioning units may continue to be a problem for some time.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

These are formed during combustion of hydrocarbon fuels with insufficient oxygen. Soot from diesel engines,
smoke from wood fires, and cigarette smoke are rich in PAHs. In developing countries where wood fuel is used
for cooking, this is a major source of exposure for women and children. PAHs are potential carcinogens.
Benzopyrene from burning wood fuel and other biomass is a known carcinogen.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)

PCBs are used in electrical equipment such as capacitors and transformers. PCBs are very stable and therefore
persist in the environment even after the equipment they are used in has been discarded.

Pesticides (e.g. lindane, chlordane, DDT, etc.)

Because pesticides are usually aerosolized for wide application (using hand sprayers, crop dusting aeroplanes,
spray cans, etc.) they can persist as aerosols in the atmosphere for long periods of time and be inhaled by
humans and animals. Chlordane, for example, was used widely as a pesticide/insecticide for termite and ant
control. It is a potential human carcinogen, a neurotoxin, and causes liver damage. As greater understanding of
the effects of pesticides grows, some are being banned or restricted for specific uses.

Dioxins
Dioxins are formed as byproducts of some processes such as manufacture of some pesticides, when plastics
containing chlorine are burned or incinerated, when paper pulp is bleached with chlorine, etc. Dioxins are
generally highly toxic, and do not decompose easily which makes them persist in the environment. Incineration
of wastes with chlorine-containing plastics such as hospital wastes and municipal wastes is a potential source of
dioxin emmissions.

Radon
Radon is a naturally occuring inert radioactive gas with a half-life of about 4 days. It is found in soils and rocks
containing decaying naturally occuring uranium and radium. It enters buildings through cracks in the
foundation and basements, gaps around water and sewer pipes, etc. Exposure to high concentrations, or over a
long period, may lead to lung cancer when inhaled, as the decay products of radon are solid, chemically active
materials that remain in the lungs for their half-lives. Providing aeration by opening windows and doors to
allow the radon to escape is helpful.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

These are composed primarily of hydrogen and carbon, and are sometimes referred to as hydrocarbons. They
evaporate into the air and become airborne. Sources include stored fuel supplies, vehicle engines, oil-based
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paints, lighter fluid, paraffin, etc. Some are toxic and hazardous. They also contribute to ozone depletion, and
smog formation. Reduction of VOCs can be done by using more efficient engines, more complete burning of
fuels by providing aeration, proper storage, well-fitting caps and sealing to avoid escape of gases and leaks
from fuel containers, etc.

Dust
Improper land use an be a source or airborne particles like dust. Mining, earth-moving, farming practices, and
transfer of particles like grains, flour, coal, murram, etc., all produce dust. Motor vehicles on unpaved roads and
construction of buildings and other structures also produce dust (fugitive dust). Very fine dust can remain
airborne for long periods of time, and may be transported over long distances, causing effects far away from
their original source. Control of dust production necessitates changing normal practices. Curbing overgrazing
by animals, imposing and enforcing speed limits on unpaved roads, and watering down construction sites, are
some ways that dust can be controlled.

7.5 INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS

The air within homes can be even more polluted than the air outside, having an adverse impact on human
health. Indoor air pollutants include CO, biological pollutants (dust mites, moulds, viruses, etc.), tobacco
smoke, and VOCs (paint fumes, paraffin fumes, cleaners, etc.). A summary of indoor air pollutants is given in
Table 7.2.

Table 7.2: Indoor air pollutants, and effects of exposure to high concentrations or protracted exposure

Source: Enger & Smith, 2004

7.6 GLOBAL WARMING AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Gases such as CO2, CFCs, CH4, and N2O are known as greenhouse gases because they let sunlight enter the
atmosphere, but slow the loss of heat from the earth’s surface. As greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere increase, predictive models show that global temperatures will increase. The warming effect is
known as the greenhouse effect. It is beneficial as it naturally warms the earth’s surface, making it habitable.
However, human activities have increased the production of greenhouse gases. Burning fossil fuels, and
deforestation for example, have increased the production of CO2 beyond what is naturally produced by
respiration. This means that the concentration of greenhouse gases available to retain heat near the earth’s
surface has increased – which is a precursor for global warming.

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Models suggest that global warming will lead to increased incidences of severe weather, and changes in rainfall
patterns resulting in droughts, and floods. Melting of the ice caps and glaciers due to warmer temperatures
would cause rising ocean levels flooding coastal regions and inundating low-lying islands. The entire water
cycle could be affected leading to impacts on hydropower generation, water supply and demand, and
navigation, among others.

The health effects due to global warming include an increase in vector-borne diseases like malaria and yellow
fever as winters (which kill off many vectors) become warmer. A proliferation of dust, mould spores, airborne
pollen, etc. which are respiratory irritants or allergens may occur. The most vulnerable populations would be
those in developing countries, the very young, the elderly, and the sick or immunocompromised.

There may also be changes in vegetation cover, agriculture and food supply as the climate changes and seasons
become less predictable.

Several policies and technologies are being encouraged to address climate change. Most of them deal with
increased efficiency in energy production and use. These include use of solar power and photovoltaics, wind
power, carbon sequestration, alternative fuels like ethanol and hydrogen, and protection of natural vegetation
like rain forests.

The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 called for industrialized countries to limit and reduce their national emmissions of
CO2 and other greenhouse gases to below 1990 levels. It also introduced the concept of international carbon
emmissions trading which uses market-based incentives to encourage use of opportunities and technologies for
reduction of carbon emmissions.

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