BIOLOGY: CELLS

A cell is the basic building block of any living organism. They

cannot be seen with the naked eye; however, they can be seen
with the use of a microscope.

There are two types of microscopes:

1. Light microscope: this microscope uses visible light to magnify

objects. Magnification range: 10-400 times.

2. Electron microscopes: this microscope uses electron beams in

place of light to magnify objects. This microscope is very
powerful and can magnify thousands of time the actual size.

CELL TYPES: PLANT CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS

All plant and animal cells have a similar basic structure but they
have different characteristics which make them unique.

An organelle is the structures which are found within the cell.

ORGANELLE FUNCTION
Cell wall Prevents a plant cell from bursting when filled
with water. It also gives the cell a fixed shape.
Cell A rigid structure that controls what moves in and
Membrane out of the cell.
Cytoplasm A jelly like substance in which all the other
organelles are spread out. It also allows chemical
reactions to take place.
Nucleus Controls the functioning of the cell.
Chromosome Thin strand that contains DNA that is stored in
the nucleus.
Mitochondrion This is the “powerhouse” of the cell. This is
where respiration takes place.
Permanent Important in the exchange of water and minerals
Vacuole and stores waste products.
Chloroplast This is where photosynthesis takes place in a
plant cell.
UNICELLULAR MICROBES

These are tiny organisms than cannot be seen with the naked
eye. You would require a microscope to see them.

They include: viruses, protozoa and bacteria.

VIRUSES

They can only be observed with the use of an electron

microscope. They cannot be killed with antibiotics such as
penicillin.

UNICELLUALR AND MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS

Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell eg anomeda

and correla . They are independent but are still able to carry ot
the characteristics of life.

Multicellular organisms are organisms that are made up more

than one cell. They are made up of millions of cells that work
with one another. Eg muscle cells, blood cells, nerve cells.

Cells->tissues->organs->organ systems

OSMOSIS AND DIFFUSION

Osmosis is the movement of water particles from a high

concentration to a low concentration through a selectively
permeable membrane.

When a cell is place in a solution whose water content is equal to

inside the cell there is no net movement of water.

When placed in a hypotonic solution, H2O passes through the cell

membrane into the vacuole by osmosis. The vacuole swells and
pushes outward with a higher pressure. The cell wall presses
inward when turgid.
When place in a hypertonic solution, H2O leaves the vacuole by
osmosis. The vacuole shrinks pulling the cytoplasm away from
the cell wall. This condition is known as flaccid.

DIFFUSION is the movement of particles from a high

concentration to a low concentration down a concentration
gradient.

END OF CHAPTER: EXAM STYLE QUESTIONS

(1). Light Microscope: uses visual light to magnify an object from

10-400.

. Electron microscope: uses electron beams to magnify objects

thousands of times their actual size.

Cells are described to be microscopic since they can only be

seen with the use of a microscope.

An advantage of being a multicellular organism is that if one cell

is damaged the organism can continue to live on.

A tissue is the result of similar or identical cells combining

themselves while an organ is a combination of tissues.

Muscle Tissue and heart and nucleus.

The H2O outside the onion cell moved into the vacuole of the cell
through the cell wall and cell membrane. When this occurs, the
vacuole swells pushing in an outward fashion causing an
increase in diameter.

The H2O inside the cell moves out of the vacuole and into the
container of salt water since the water concentration outside the
cell is lower than inside the cell.
CHAPTER 9- PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The term photosynthesis refers to the process plants preform to

make their own food. During this process, insoluble inorganic
compounds (water and carbon dioxide) are onverted into soluble
organic substances (glucose) which the plant uses to make
carbs, lipids and proteins.

AUTOTROPE HETROTROPE SAPROPHYTE

This is an organism This is an organism This is an organism
that is capable of that feeds on that feeds off dead
making its own food autotrophs or other organic matter
(plants) heterotrophs (bacteria)
(Human)

Photosynthesis requires sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to

take place.

EQUATION FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑠

Ie 6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+O2

Without nitrogen, plants cannot make chlorophyll and thus

photosynthesis cannot take place.

Light dependent stage

Chloroplasts contain a green pigment known as chlorophyll

which traps the sunlight required for photosynthesis. The light
that is traped is used to split water atoms to hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms are considered waste thus they
are disposed from the leaf by diffusion.

Light Independent stage

 The hydrogen atoms obtained from the spitting of water atoms
are combined with carbon atoms to make gluscose.

Adaptations of Plants for Photosynthesis

 Plant leaves are usually thin to allow easy penetration of

light.
 They are branched out at the stem to absorb sufficient
sunlight.
 They are broad and flat to absorb as much sunlight as
possible.
 They are perpendicular to the sun rays.
 Stomata (small holes) are present at the lower eperdimis to
ensure gases move in and out easily.
 Chloroplasts are abundant in the paliscade layer where it is
close to the sunlight entering the cell.

Guard Cells (Stoma, Stomata)

The stoma/stomata are located at the lower epidermis where

gases move in and out of the cell. It regulates the amount of
gases that move in and out of the cell and the water lost during
transpiration.

HOW DOES EVERYTHING GET TO THE CHLOROPLAST

1. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the cell through the

stomata(guard cells). It moves into the air spaces
surrounding the mesophyll cells then into the cells
themselves.
2. Water moves into the roots by osmosis then it is take to the
leaves by xylem vessels. It then moves by osmosis
3. Sunlight passes through the leaf al around.

PRODUCTS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Glucose is the main product that is produced during photosynthesis.
This is broken down during respiration to produce energy for growth
and development. It can also be converted into starch and stored
for later use.

LIMITING FACTORS IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

1. Temperature: the rate of reaction increases with the

temperature since particles move at the fastest when heated.

2. Carbon Dioxide concentration: from what was read from

earlier in this chapter, we learnt that carbon dioxide is an
important element in photosynthesis. If there were to be a
lower concentration in carbon dioxide in the air
Photosynthesis will slow down.

Water: water is another very important abiotic factor which can

greatly affect the rate at which photosynthesis occurs. When
there is a low concentration of water, plants cannot produce
glucose since they would not be able to acquire the hydrogen
needed.
CHAPTER10- FEEDING AND DIGESTION

DIET

Animals need various materials which include carbs, proteins,

lipids, vitamins and minerals.

The term diet describe the quality and quantity of the food eaten.
A balanced diet is one which contains sufficient amounts of the
necessary components required to lead a healthy lifestyle.

About 70% of the body is made up of water; if sufficient water is

not in taken, many systems in the body will not function properly.

Fiber (roughage) is the tough fibers that come from plant

material.

Organic Nutrients Inorganic Nurtrients

Carbohydrates Minerals
Contain: carbon ,hydrogen and Conatin: calcium, iron,
oxygen potassium, sodium, iodide
and phosphorus.
Protiens
Contain: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur and nitrogen.
Lipids
Contain: carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen
Vitamins
Contain: carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen and other essential
elements.
ORGANIC NUTRIENTS

1. Carbohydrates: contains: carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

atoms in the ratio 1carbon:2hydrogen:1oxygen. Eg glucose

A monosaccharide is known as a simple sugar. It consist of

five carbon atoms and an oxygen atom in a ring. They are
soluble and sweet . Eg glucose and fructose.

A disaccharide are two rings joined together. They are called

complex sugars and are sweet and soluble. Eg maltose sucrose

Polysaccharide consistt of long rings joined together. They are

insoluble and do not have a sweet taste. Eg starch, cellulose and
glycogen.

Protein consists of many long chains of amino acids joined

together. The arrangement of these amino acids determines the
type of protein it is.

Lipids consist of four molecules( three fatty acids and one

glycerol.) They insoulibe in water

Vitamins A- aids in vision

B- assists in respiration

C- keeps tissues healthy

D- aids in absopriton of calcium.

K- aids in blood clotting.

FOOD ADDITIVES

Natural additives: pepper, corn syrup and sugar while artificial

additives include sweeteners and flavours.
  DYES AND COLORINGS

These are purely cosmetic and rarely additional content. It causes

hyper activity in children, allergic reactions and adverse effects on
asthmatics. EG Tartazine

 PRESERVATIVES

Prevents bacterial infestation of food thus reducing spoilage.

 Synthetic Flavours

These are used to change or enhance the flavour of food.

 PROPELLANTS

Carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide may each be used to form an

aerosol, forcing food out of containers.

 ACIDS

These are used to add a sour taste to foods.

MALNUTRITION is bad nutrition, this include bad eating habits,

under-eating and over eating.

UNDEREATING is when a person eats food that is not sufficient for

their bodies to function normally in other words, this is when a
person eats under his/her maintains calories.

DIGESTION AND ABSORBTION ALONG THE ALIMENTRY CANAL

THE MOUTH

The mouth houses both chemical and mechanical digestion. The

food is crushed up into smaller units by the teeth and is mixed with
saliva which contains an enzyme known as salivary amylase.
Salivary amylase converts starch into maltose. The food is then
formed into bolus by the tongue and sent down to the back of the
throat and into the phynax.

THE OESOPHAGUS

The oesophagus is a tube that connects the back of throat to the

stomach. It cotracts and relaxes pushing the food down into the
stomach. This contraction and relaxation motion is known as
perstalis.

THE STOMACH

The stomach is a muscular organ which accepts the food from the
oesophagus and begins the majority of the chemical digestion
processes. The food is mixed up in gastric juices (hydrochloric acid,
pepsin and mucus). In the stomach, the digestion of protein begins
since large chains of amino acids are broken down by pepsin.
Hydrochloric acid kill the bacteria that may be on the food and
provides the acidic medium by which the enzyme pepsin works
best.

PEPTIC ULCERS

This is a sore of hole in the stomach lining. This is caused by a

particular type of bacteria known as helicobacter pylori.

THE DUODENUM

The duodenum is the first region of the small intestine. It receives

the chime from the stomach and the secreations from the pancreas
and the liver. The liver produces bile which is stored in the gall
bladder; this breaks down lump of fat into tiny droplets. This
processes is known as emulsification.

Pancreatic juice contains amylase, lipase and trypsin. These

enzymes work best in a neutral environment. The food that came
from the stomach is still acidic since it was mixed in hydrochloric
acid. The pancreatic juice contains hydrogencarbonate which
neutralises the hydrochloric acid.
THE ILEUM

This is the second part of the small intestine and is the site of
absorption of the alimentary cannal. By the time food reaches here,
it was fully broken down into glucose, fatty acids, amino acids,
vitamins, minerals and water.

The adaption of the ileum for absorption

. It is about 6m long and has a large surface area.

THE COLON

By the time the food reaches the colon, the food is in the form of
facese. The colon absorbs water from the waste.

THE RECTUM

The faeces are stored here to soon be disposed from the body via
egestion.

HOLOZONIC NUTRITION

Ingestion- this is when food is intaken by the mouth.

Digestion- this is the chemical breakdown of food.

Absorption- This the acceptance of the broken down food molecules

into the blood stream.

Assimilation- When the absorbed food is used by the body.

Egestion- The removal of the undigested food from the body.

CHAPTER11- RESPIRATION

The term respiration refers to the process of taking ingested food

and releasing energy from it.

Aerobic respiration is when oxygen is used in a reaction. The

process is done by enzymes and is called cellular, internal or tissue
respiration.