ARTHRITIS & RHEUMATISM
Vol. 48, No. 12, December 2003, pp 3464–3474
Stem Cell Therapy in a Caprine Model of Osteoarthritis
J. Mary Murphy,1 David J. Fink,1 Ernst B. Hunziker,2 and Frank P. Barry1
Objective. To explore the role that implanted
mesenchymal stem cells may play in tissue repair or
regeneration of the injured joint, by delivery of an
autologous preparation of stem cells to caprine knee
joints following induction of osteoarthritis (OA).
Methods. Adult stem cells were isolated from
caprine bone marrow, expanded in culture, and trans-
duced to express green fluorescent protein. OA was
induced unilaterally in the knee joint of donor animals
by complete excision of the medial meniscus and resec-
tion of the anterior cruciate ligament. After 6 weeks, a
single dose of 10 million autologous cells suspended in a
dilute solution of sodium hyaluronan was delivered to
the injured knee by direct intraarticular injection. Con-
trol animals received sodium hyaluronan alone.
Results. In cell-treated joints, there was evidence
of marked regeneration of the medial meniscus, and
implanted cells were detected in the newly formed
tissue. Degeneration of the articular cartilage, osteo-
phytic remodeling, and subchondral sclerosis were re-
duced in cell-treated joints compared with joints treated
with vehicle alone without cells. There was no evidence
of repair of the ligament in any of the joints.
Conclusion. Local delivery of adult mesenchymal
stem cells to injured joints stimulates regeneration of
meniscal tissue and retards the progressive destruction
normally seen in this model of OA.
Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the capac-
ity to differentiate into a variety of connective tissue
cells (1–4) including bone, cartilage, tendon, muscle, and
adipose tissue (3,5–10). These cells may be isolated from
bone marrow with ease and expanded in culture through
1
J. Mary Murphy, PhD, David J. Fink, PhD, Frank P. Barry,
PhD: Osiris Therapeutics, Baltimore, Maryland; 2Ernst B. Hunziker,
MD: M. E. Müller Institute for Biomechanics, University of Bern,
Bern, Switzerland.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Frank P.
Barry, PhD, Osiris Therapeutics Inc., 2001 Aliceanna Street, Balti-
more, MD 21231. E-mail: fbarry@osiristx.com.
Submitted for publication February 4, 2003; accepted in
revised form August 28, 2003.
3464
DOI 10.1002/art.11365
© 2003, American College of Rheumatology
many generations, while retaining their capacity to dif-
ferentiate when exposed to appropriate signals. The
isolation of these cells from adult tissues raises oppor-
tunities for the development of novel cellular therapies
without the ethical considerations associated with the
use of embryonic stem cells. Multipotent cells have been
isolated from various mesenchymal tissues in adults,
including skeletal muscle, fat, and synovial membrane
(11–13) as well as hematopoietic (14), neural (15), and
hepatic (16) tissues. Because of their multipotentiality
and capacity for self-renewal, adult stem cells may
represent units of active regeneration of tissues dam-
aged as a result of trauma or disease (14). In certain
degenerative diseases such as osteoarthritis (OA), stem
cells are depleted and have reduced proliferative capac-
ity and reduced ability to differentiate (17). The systemic
or local delivery of stem cells to these individuals may
therefore enhance repair or inhibit the progressive loss
of joint tissue.
OA is characterized by degeneration of the artic-
ular cartilage, with loss of matrix, fibrillation, formation
of fissures, and ultimately complete loss of the cartilage
surface. Other articular tissues are also affected, includ-
ing the subchondral bone, ligaments, joint capsule, syno-
vial membrane, and periarticular muscles (18,19). Al-
though OA affects a large proportion of the population,
there are few, if any, effective therapies available today
that alter the pathobiologic course of the disease (20).
The objective of this study was to determine if
delivery of stem cells to the knee following traumatic
injury would enhance repair of damaged tissue or im-
pede the progression to OA that is the usual conse-
quence of such injuries (21). There are several examples
of the use of stem cells for articular cartilage repair
(22,23). There are also reports describing the use of
these cells for the repair of segmental bone defects in
long bones (24). However, there are no reports describ-
ing the use of these cellular therapies in trauma-induced
OA. In general, the cells have been delivered to either
cartilage or bone using a 3-dimensional scaffold that is
fixed to the defect site, usually by means of an open
STEM CELL THERAPY IN OA
surgical procedure. There are many issues associated
with the selection of the scaffold material, including its
ability to support cell viability and differentiation and its
retention and degradation in situ.
In the present study, we used a simpler, scaffold-
free approach in which the cells were delivered as a
suspension by direct intraarticular injection. The suspen-
sion was prepared in a dilute solution of sodium hyalu-
ronan, which is commonly used for the treatment of OA
(25) and also has the effect of increasing the chondro-
genic activity of MSCs (26). There was evidence of cell
engraftment in several tissues in the joint and a marked
regeneration of the excised meniscus. In addition, there
was evidence of a reduction in OA progression in the
cell-treated joints. We suggest that the enhanced repair
response results from interaction between the implanted
cells and fibroblasts derived from the host synovium at
the site of injury.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Preparation of caprine MSCs. A heparinized bone
marrow aspirate (3–7 ml) was obtained from the iliac crest of
castrated male Western Cross goats. The aspirate was washed
with medium (Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium
[DMEM]–low glucose; Hyclone, Logan, UT) containing 1%
antibiotic–antimycotic (Gibco, Grand Island, NY), and centri-
fuged. The precipitated cells were then suspended in medium
with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS; Hyclone) at a final density
of 1.4–1.6 ⫻ 106 cells/ml. Cells were seeded on T-185 flasks
and maintained at 37°C with 95% humidity and 5% CO2 in the
same medium. After 5 days, red blood cells were washed off
with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and fresh medium was
added. Colonies of adherent cells formed within 9 days and the
colonies were trypsinized from the flasks when the colonies
covered 60–90% of the plate. The cells were cryopreserved at
the end of primary culture.
Differentiation assays. Chondrogenesis was performed
with modifications of the pellet culture system described
previously (7,9), using dexamethasone at 10 nM (Sigma, St.
Louis, MO) and 10 ng/ml recombinant human transforming
growth factor ␤3 (Oncogene Research Products, San Diego,
CA). After 14 days in culture, pellets were harvested and fixed
in 10% formalin, and cut sections were stained with Safranin O
and with an antibody specific for type II collagen (27). For
osteogenic differentiation, the cells were cultured in 10 nM
dexamethasone, 10 nM ␤-glycerophosphate, 50 ␮M ascorbic
acid 2-phosphate, 100 nM prostaglandin E2, and 5% FBS
(6,28). To evaluate the differentiation potential of the cells in
ectopically implanted scaffolds, MSCs were loaded onto
hydroxyapatite/tricalcium phosphate cubes (3 ⫻ 3 ⫻ 3 mm;
Zimmer, Warsaw, IN) at a density of 5 ⫻ 106 cells/ml, and
implanted subcutaneously on the dorsal surface of nude mice
(5). The cubes were removed 6 weeks later and sections were
stained with hematoxylin and modified Mallory aniline blue for
the presence of bone and cartilage.
3465
Retroviral vector construction and virus production.
Caprine MSCs were transduced to express the Aequorea
Victoria enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) using the
retroviral vector pOT24. The construction of this vector has
been described previously (29). Briefly, the GFP-1 gene from
pEGFP-1 (Clontech, Palo Alto, CA) was cloned into the
pJM573neo retroviral vector (30,31). Vector supernatants con-
taining different pseudotyped vector particles were generated
using the gibbon ape leukemia virus envelope containing the
PG13 packaging cell line (32). Retroviral supernatants con-
taining the GFP vector were produced as follows: plasmid
pOT24 was transfected into GP&E86 ecotropic producer cells
(American Type Culture Collection [ATCC] CRL-9642) (33)
using DOTAP (Boehringer-Mannheim, Indianapolis, IN) as
directed by the manufacturer. The transfected cells were grown
at 37°C, 5% CO2, 90% humidity in DMEM–high glucose
medium supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated FBS, 1%
penicillin–streptomycin, and 0.5 mg/ml protamine sulfate–
G418 (Sigma) as a selective agent.
Cultures were grown to 70% confluence, the medium
was replaced with fresh retroviral medium (without G418), and
the cells were incubated at 32°C for 2 days. The ecotropic
retrovirus was used to transduce the gibbon ape leukemia virus
envelope containing the PG13 retroviral producer cells (ATCC
CRL-9078). Transduction was performed using the centrifugal
transduction procedure outlined below, followed by selection
with G418 (0.5 mg/ml). The culture medium containing the
retroviral vectors was collected, filtered through a 0.45-␮m
filter, and stored at ⫺80°C.
Transduction and expansion of caprine MSCs. Pri-
mary frozen cultures of caprine MSCs were thawed and plated
in T-75 flasks at 500,000 cells/flask with DMEM–high glucose
containing 1% antibiotic–antimycotic and 10% FBS. After 1
day, the culture medium was aspirated and 15 ml of retroviral
supernatant, containing 8 mg/ml polybrene (Sigma), was added
to each flask. Culture medium with polybrene only was used
for mock-transduced cultures. Following transduction for 24
hours, the vector-containing medium was aspirated and a
second round of transduction was performed with fresh retro-
viral supernatant. Selection of transduced cells with G418 (1.0
mg/ml) was performed for 7–10 days until confluence was
reached. The selected cells were trypsinized and expanded to
the end of passage 2. A sample of the cells was washed with
PBS containing 2% weight/volume bovine serum albumin and
0.1% w/v sodium azide for assessment of eGFP using
fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis. Intrinsic
fluorescence from the GFP-transduced MSCs was compared
with that from untransduced controls. All cells were resus-
pended in FACS buffer containing 1% paraformaldehyde
(Electron Microscopy Sciences, Fort Washington, PA) imme-
diately before analysis. Cells were analyzed by collecting 10,000
events on a Becton-Dickinson Vantage instrument using
CellQuest software (Becton-Dickinson, Franklin Lakes, NJ).
Surgical protocol. The Institutional Animal Care and
Use Committee approved all procedures used. Castrated male
Western Cross goats (weighing 70–112 kg, ages 29–34 months;
n ⫽ 24), confirmed to be free of Q fever, brucellosis, and caprine
arthritis encephalitis, were used. Animals were treated with
butorphenol (0.05–0.10 mg/kg) and diazepam (0.1–0.2 mg/kg) by
intravenous injection and with an equal mixture of ketamine (100
mg/ml) and diazepam (5 gm/ml) at a dose of 0.5 ml/kg as
3466
Table 1. Study design*
Postsurgery
termination,
Group No. Treatment weeks
1 (control) 3 Vehicle injection 6 weeks postsurgery 12
2 (test) 6 GFP-transduced MSC/vehicle injection 12
6 weeks postsurgery
3 (control) 6 Vehicle injection 6 weeks postsurgery 26
4 (test) 9 GFP-transduced MSC/vehicle injection 26
6 weeks postsurgery
* GFP ⫽ green fluorescent protein; MSC ⫽ mesenchymal stem cell.
anesthetic. Intraoperative anesthesia was maintained with isoflu-
rane (⬃1.5%) in oxygen delivered by endotracheal tube.
For combined anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tran-
section and medial meniscectomy, a lateral parapatellar skin
incision was made beginning at a level 2 cm proximal to the
patella and extending to the level of the tibial plateau. Subcu-
taneous tissue was incised, and the lateral fascia was separated
from the joint capsule for ⬃1 cm in either direction away from
the incision. The lateral aspect of the vastus lateralis and the
joint capsule were incised and the patella was luxated medially
to expose the trochlear groove and medial and lateral condyles
of the distal femur.
ACL removal was performed by first excising its at-
tachment on the medial aspect of the lateral femoral condyle.
The proximal attachment was brought forward and the entire
ligament was excised from its tibial attachment. The stifle was
moved in a drawer test to ensure that the entire cruciate
ligament had been excised. The medial meniscus was removed
by sharp excision. The caudal horn of the meniscus was
grasped with a hemostat and its axial (lateral) attachment was
excised from its tibial attachment. Working from caudal to
lateral, then cranial, the meniscus was excised from its attach-
ments until it was completely removed. ACL excision was
carried out first, followed by meniscectomy.
Study design. Animals were randomized into 4 groups
as described in Table 1 and Figure 1. The control groups were
not different from the test groups with respect to age and
weight, but the test animals underwent a bone marrow aspira-
tion for cell preparation 2 weeks prior to surgery. OA was
induced unilaterally in the knee joint of donor animals by
complete excision of the medial meniscus and resection of the
ACL as described above, and after a recovery period of 3
weeks, all animals were exercised once daily by having them
run on a hard surface for a distance of 90 meters. At all other
times, animals were allowed free movement in an unconfined
environment. Control animals received an injection of vehicle
alone in the operated joint 6 weeks after surgery. This con-
sisted of 5 ml sodium hyaluronan (Hylartin-V; Pharmacia &
Upjohn, Peapack, NJ) at a concentration of 4 mg/ml. Test
animals received a single intraarticular injection of 10 ⫻ 106
autologous GFP-transduced MSCs as a suspension in the
vehicle at 6 weeks after surgery.
Intraarticular injection of MSCs. Frozen cells were
thawed rapidly at 37°C, washed with culture medium and PBS,
centrifuged, and resuspended in Hylartin solution at a density
of 2 ⫻ 106 cells/ml. Goats were anesthetized, intubated, and
placed in dorsal recumbency. Five milliliters of the cell sus-
MURPHY ET AL
Figure 1. Study design. Experimental plan used to evaluate the effect
of delivery of autologous stem cells to the knee following meniscec-
tomy and resection of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) for
induction of osteoarthritis. Color figure can be viewed in the online
issue, which is available at http://www.arthritisrheum.org.
pension was injected into the medial compartment of the
operated joint after aspiration of synovial fluid. An 18-gauge
needle was inserted posterior to the medial edge of the patellar
ligament, through the triangle formed by the epicondyle of the
femur, the meniscal/tibial plateau, and the notch formed by
their junction. Following injection, the joint was repeatedly
flexed and extended for dispersal of the suspension throughout
the intraarticular space.
Histochemical analysis of bone and cartilage. Imme-
diately after the animals were killed, the distal head of the
femur and the proximal tibial plateau were removed and fixed
in 10% formalin. The medial condyles and the anterior portion
of the tibial plateau were dehydrated through a series of
increasing ethanol concentrations and embedded in methyl
methacrylate. Serial sagittal sections were cut using a diamond
Table 2. Histologic grading scheme
Parameter, grade Description
Articular cartilage structure
0–10 Ref. 35*
Reduction of articular
cartilage matrix staining
0 None
1 Mild
2 Moderate
3 Severe
Presence of osteophytes
0 None
1 Cartilage/connective tissue
2 Mainly cartilage/some bone formation
3 Mainly bone formation
Subchondral bone plate
thickening
0 None
1 Mild
2 Moderate
3 Severe
* 0 ⫽ normal; 10 ⫽ complete loss to subchondral bone.
STEM CELL THERAPY IN OA 3467

Figure 2. Isolation and characterization of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from goat marrow.
Adherent cells from bone marrow aspirates grew as a monolayer in passage 1 culture (A) (original
magnification ⫻ 40) and were uniformly SH4⫹/CD14⫺ by fluorescence-activated cell sorter
analysis (B). Goat MSCs deposited calcium in osteogenic cultures in vitro (C) and were capable of
elaborating a proteoglycan-rich (D) and type II collagen–positive (E) extracellular matrix in
chondrogenic pellet cultures in vitro. Goat MSCs loaded on a hydroxyapatite/tricalcium phosphate
scaffold (S) and implanted subcutaneously in nude SCID mice showed differentiation into bone
(B), fat (L), marrow (M), and cartilage (C) after 6 weeks in vivo (F and G), while control, unloaded
scaffolds showed no evidence of mesenchymal differentiation and the pores (P) were empty or
infiltrated with host hematopoietic cells (H). Bar ⫽ 100 ␮M.

saw (Leco, St. Joseph, MN) from the tissues of both the
operated and contralateral (unoperated) joints. The sections
were glued onto plexiglass object holders, milled to a thickness
of ⬃100 ␮m with a Polycut E apparatus (Reichert-Jung,
Nussloch, Germany), and polished and surface-stained with
McNeil’s tetrachrome/toluidine blue O/basic fuchsine (34).
Sections from each condyle and tibial plateau (a minimum of
3) were graded by a blinded assessor based on the following
parameters: 1) articular cartilage structure, 2) reduction of
articular cartilage matrix staining, 3) presence of osteophytes,
and 4) subchondral bone plate thickening. The articular carti-
lage structure was graded on a scale ranging from 0 (normal)
to 10 (complete loss to subchondral bone) as described previ-
ously (35). The remaining parameters were scored 0–3 (as
described in Table 2).
Histochemical analysis of meniscal tissue. Neomenis-
cal tissue from the posterior horn in the medial compartment
was fixed in 10% buffered formalin and embedded in paraffin.
Sulfated glycosaminoglycan was visualized by staining with
toluidine blue for 5 minutes at 60°C and with 0.1% Safranin O
for 5 minutes at room temperature. Type I collagen was
detected using monoclonal antibody I-8H5 at 0.2 ␮g/ml (On-
cogene, San Diego, CA) and type II collagen using monoclonal
antibody C4F6 (27) at 0.5 ␮g/ml. Sections were stained using
the EnvisionSystem autostainer (Dako, Carpinteria, CA). In-
cubation with the primary antibody was for 30 minutes.
Visualization was performed with diaminobenzidine and coun-
terstaining with hematoxylin.
Statistical analysis. Comparisons between the histo-
logic scores for each group were made using analysis of
variance. A P value of less than 0.05 was significant.
RESULTS
Characterization of caprine MSCs. MSCs were
isolated from bone marrow aspirates obtained from the
3468
superior iliac crest of adult male goats and expanded to
form confluent cultures of adherent cells with a fibro-
blastic morphology (Figure 2A). The cells were homo-
geneously SH4⫹/CD14⫺ (Figure 2B) and CD44⫹/
CD34⫺ (3). The capacity of the cells to differentiate
into chondrocytes and osteocytes was demonstrated in
vitro (Figures 2C–E), and in vivo when implanted sub-
cutaneously in nude mice (Figures 2F and G). The
efficiency of transduction was 62.3 ⫾ 6.5% (mean ⫾
SD). Transduction of human MSCs with eGFP had no
effect on the differentiation potential of the cells, and
transgene expression was maintained after induction
along the osteogenic, adipogenic, and chondrogenic
pathways (36).
Clinical observations. In this study we assessed
the capacity of MSCs to impact OA progression in goats
following trauma to the joint caused by unilateral medial
meniscectomy and transection of the ACL. All animals
were mobile 1–2 hours after surgery and there were no
instances of infection. No immobilization or splinting of
the joints was used and animals were bearing weight on
the operated joint within 3–5 days. Animals tolerated the
cell injection well, and there was no evidence of local
inflammation, immobilization, or unloading of the joint
resulting from the cell treatment.
The effect of delivery of autologous GFP-
transduced MSCs on the joint pathology was assessed by
macroscopic evaluation. Appearance of meniscal-like
repair tissue, or neomeniscus, was observed in associa-
tion with the posterior medial compartment of cell-
treated knees at 6 weeks after injection (Figures 3A–C).
This tissue was hyaline in nature and appeared to
provide a bearing surface for the tibial and femoral
condyles. Immunohistochemical staining of the neome-
niscus indicated a dense, type I collagen–containing
network surrounding cells with fibroblastic morphology
and some areas containing cells of rounded morphology
surrounded by a type II collagen–positive matrix (results
not shown). There was also evidence of vascularization
in the neomeniscus close to the point of synovial attach-
ment. This tissue was not observed in control
(hyaluronan-treated) animals at this time point.
Twenty weeks after delivery of cells there was
again evidence of repair tissue associated with the
posterior medial compartment in 7 of 9 treated joints.
The tissue was organized, generally detached from both
femoral and tibial surfaces, and extended into the artic-
ulating region between these areas (Figures 3D and E).
Functional entheses with the tibial bone were formed
with repair of the meniscal insertional ligaments (Figure
3E, arrow). Control joints at this time showed evidence
MURPHY ET AL
Figure 3. Appearance of regenerated medial meniscus after intraar-
ticular treatment with autologous mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs).
The cell treatment resulted in the formation of tissue in the posterior
compartment at 12 weeks after complete medial meniscectomy. The
excised tissues (B and C) inserted between the distal head of the femur
and proximal tibial plateau (A) are shown. Regenerated hyaline-like
meniscal tissue is also evident at 20 weeks after MSC injection (D and
E). The regenerated meniscal horn protected the posterior tibial
plateau (D) and had reformed a functional enthesis with the tibial bone
via the meniscal insertional ligament (arrow in E).
of disorganized repair tissue at the same site, which was
generally attached to the proximal tibia, and there was
little evidence of extension between the articulating
surfaces (result not shown). There was no evidence of
repair of the severed ACL in any of the joints, regardless
of treatment.
Protection from OA damage. Transection of the
ACL and complete medial meniscectomy in the caprine
knee resulted in the development of lesions characteris-
tic of OA (37–41), including 1) large areas of erosion of
the articular cartilage on the femoral condyle and tibial
plateau, 2) formation of periarticular osteophytes, and
3) changes to the trabecular organization of the sub-
chondral bone. We carried out a histologic assessment of
the medial femoral condyle from all animals to deter-
mine if there were differences between the cell-treated
and control groups. In the control (vehicle-treated)
joints, there was substantial fibrillation of the articular
surface with loss of extracellular matrix, as well as large
areas of osteophytic remodeling (Figures 4A–F) as
compared with the contralateral (unoperated) joints
(Figure 4Q). In the cell-treated joints, the degree of
cartilage destruction, osteophyte formation, and sub-
chondral sclerosis were all reduced compared with that
in the control joints (Figures 4G–N). In 4 of the 6
cell-treated joints (Figures 4G–N), there was less dam-
STEM CELL THERAPY IN OA 3469

Figure 4. Microscopic analysis of the medial femoral condyle. Goat knee joints were subjected to total medial meniscectomy and anterior cruciate
ligament resection, which was followed 6 weeks later by an intraarticular injection of hyaluronan (A–F) or mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)
resuspended in hyaluronan (G–P). Osteoarthritic changes such as proteoglycan depletion (indicated by a reduction in surface staining), severe
fibrillation, and loss of cartilage, and osteophytes (Os) and bone remodeling were evident in vehicle-treated joints (A–E). Large chondrocyte clones
(arrows) were evident in areas distant to the primary lesion (F). Boxed areas in A, C, and E are shown as expanded images in B, D, and F,
respectively. In joints that demonstrated evidence of meniscal regeneration after MSC application (G–N), changes to the cartilage and bone were
much less severe. Mild surface roughening (H) and proteoglycan depletion in the surface zone (H–N) were evident. Proliferation of cells at the
cartilage surface was also seen (L and N). Boxed areas in G, I, K, and M are shown as expanded images in H, J, L, and N, respectively. Protection
from severe osteoarthritic changes was not evident in cell-treated joints in areas where meniscal regeneration did not occur. In a contralateral
(unoperated) control joint from the same goat as in E, the appearance of a normal condyle can be seen (Q). Bar ⫽ 1 mm.
3470
Figure 5. Histologic grading of the joint. Changes to the middle
medial condyle after 6 weeks of exposure to the mesenchymal stem
cells (MSC) were independently assessed with regard to articular
cartilage structure, reduction of articular cartilage matrix staining, the
presence of osteophytes, and subchondral bone plate thickening.
Scores were compared using analysis of variance. ⴱ ⫽ P ⬍ 0.05
between groups. Bars show the mean and SD.
age to the articular surface and less evidence of osteo-
phytic changes, indicating that there was some degree of
protection provided to the condyle. In the remaining 2
cell-treated joints (Figures 4O and P), there was less
evidence of protection of the condyle. In these joints,
there was little evidence of formation of neomeniscus.
Reduction of articular cartilage matrix staining,
changes in osteophyte formation, and subchondral bone
plate thickening were graded as described in Table 2
(35). Histologic scores for all parameters were closer to
normal in the middle medial condyle of cell-treated
joints 6 weeks after injection, and treatment had a
significant effect on maintenance of the articular carti-
lage structure and subchondral bone plate thickening
(Figure 5). Twenty weeks after cell injection, there were
significant OA lesions in both the cell-treated and
control joints, despite the presence of neomeniscal tissue
in the treated joints. It is likely that the cumulative effect
of the abnormal load imposed as a result of the severed
ACL resulted in progressive cartilage damage that was
not prevented by repair of the meniscus alone.
MSC engraftment. Fluorescence microscopy of
sections of neomeniscal tissue indicated that the GFP-
transduced implanted cells were associated with the
regenerated tissue (Figures 6A–D). The cells were gen-
erally associated with the surface (Figures 6B and C) of
the tissue and, in some cases, were also detected in the
interior (Figure 6D). Immunohistochemical staining in-
dicated a dense, type I collagen–rich fibrillar network
populated with cells with a fibroblastic morphology. In
addition, there were regions containing cells with a
MURPHY ET AL
rounded morphology that were type II collagen positive
(Figures 6E and F). Twenty weeks after injection, the
regenerated meniscus had large areas positive for pro-
teoglycan and type II collagen with the typical appear-
ance of fibrocartilage (Figures 6G–J).
Cell engraftment in the injured joint was evalu-
ated in a separate experiment by delivery of GFP-
transduced cells by intraarticular injection into goat
knee joints 12 weeks following ACL resection or com-
plete medial meniscectomy. Cells were also injected into
the noninjured contralateral joints. Seven days after
injection, labeled cells were detected in the synovial fluid
and synovial fluid lavage whether or not OA was
present. These cells were viable and proliferated when
seeded in tissue culture flasks (results not shown). In
addition, the injected cells colonized and integrated into
surface layers of soft tissues within the joint, including
the synovial lining, fat pad, and lateral meniscus. In
some of these experiments, sodium hyaluronan was used
as the vehicle and, in other cases, PBS was used, but the
nature of the vehicle had no effect on cell engraftment.
Likewise, the pattern of distribution of injected cells was
the same whether ACL transection or meniscectomy was
used.
The synovial capsule, fat pad, and lateral menis-
cus showed a high incidence of cell engraftment (Figures
7A and B). In some cases, cell engraftment was detected
on the epiligament, or sheath, of the posterior cruciate
ligament and the extensor digitorum longus. Analysis of
articular cartilage from the middle regions of the medial
and lateral femoral condyles and from the medial and
lateral unprotected tibial plateaus showed no cell en-
graftment on either the intact or the fibrillated cartilage.
Small, fluorescently bright bodies were found that were
similar in size and fluorescence intensity to red blood
cells. GFP-positive cells were found in some areas of
synovial lining on both the intracondylar aspect and the
outer aspect of the lateral and medial condyles (Figure
7C).
DISCUSSION
This study evaluates the utility of stem cell ther-
apy for delaying the progression of arthritic lesions that
occur following joint injury. Adult MSCs were delivered
by intraarticular injection as a suspension without the
use of a solid biomatrix 6 weeks after total medial
meniscectomy and resection of the ACL. The involve-
ment of injected GFP-transduced cells with the devel-
opment of appreciable neomeniscal tissue in treated
joints was associated with protection against degenera-
STEM CELL THERAPY IN OA 3471

Figure 6. Microscopic analysis of regenerated meniscal tissue. Green fluorescent protein (GFP)–positive
cells were detected primarily at the surface (B and C) and also in the center (D) of neomeniscal tissue 6
weeks after injection of GFP-transduced mesenchymal stem cells. Neomeniscal tissue not exposed to the
joint environment was used as a negative control (A). Immunohistochemical staining of the posterior
meniscal-like tissue indicated a dense, cellular, type I collagen positive fibrous network (results not shown)
with small areas of more rounded cells that were type II collagen positive (E and F). By 20 weeks after
injection, the neomeniscus had areas of Safranin O–positive proteoglycan and type II collagen (G and I,
respectively) in a type I collagen background (H). Further analysis of the type II collagen staining (boxed
area of I) showed the typical appearance of fibrocartilage (J). (Original magnification ⫻ 200 in A–D; ⫻
20 in G–I; ⫻ 100 in E, F, and J.)

tive changes in these cell-treated joints 6 weeks after
treatment. The biphasic ultrastructure of meniscus and
articular cartilage is critical for load distribution, a
smooth low-friction gliding surface, and resilience to
compression in the complex biomechanics of the knee
joint (42). Data on the incidence of OA after meniscal
injury highlight the importance of restoring a functional
meniscus as soon as possible after injury. Even after
repair, isolated meniscal rupture has been associated
with a 10-fold increase in the risk of development of
arthrosis, and meniscectomy doubles this risk in a joint
Figure 7. Retention of cells in the joint. Green fluorescent protein–
transduced mesenchymal stem cells, injected into normal (noninjured)
joints or into joints 12 weeks after medial meniscectomy or anterior
cruciate ligament resection, were found to be integrated into the cell
layers lining joint structures such as the meniscus (A), synovial capsule
(B), and periosteum on the medial aspect of the medial condyle (C) 1
week after injection.
with intact ligaments (21). Ligament rupture associated
with meniscal injury further increases this risk, and the
fact that reconstruction of the ACL was not performed
in this study may explain the continuing degradation of
treated joints that occurred at the 26-week time point.
Several surgical and tissue-engineering ap-
proaches are currently in use for the repair of meniscal
tissue. These have involved the use of a broad variety of
materials, including small intestine submucosa (43),
devitalized tissue (44) or collagen scaffolds (45), or the
placement of meniscal allograft tissue derived from
cadavers (46,47). These approaches are specifically de-
signed for replacement of damaged meniscal tissue but
may have no general effect on surrounding joint tissues.
Human and animal studies have shown a regenerative
response to meniscectomy (48–50). This regeneration,
although minimal, is enhanced in the case of human
studies by preservation of the meniscal rim (50). MSCs
may contribute to and enhance this normal repair pro-
cess.
Some augmentation of natural repair by MSCs
loaded on a collagen sponge in a rabbit partial menis-
cectomy model has been described (51). Activation of
mesenchymal cells is an important and perhaps rate-
3472
limiting step in the formation of granulation tissue
during wound healing (52). Hyaluronan also contributes
to the granulation phase of both fetal and adult wound
healing (53,54) and stimulates the migration and mitosis
of mesenchymal and epithelial cells (55,56). MSC-based
repair in the presence of hyaluronan may therefore
accelerate and amplify the natural repair process of
recruiting these cells to the site of tissue repair or
regeneration, and may contribute to the formation of
new meniscus after meniscectomy. Meniscal regenera-
tion after partial meniscectomy in a rabbit model was
enhanced by 5 injections of hyaluronan (57). Because
the cells used in the present study were retrovirally
transduced to express GFP, it is conceivable that ex-
pressed GFP or the vector used for the transduction may
have affected the outcome. However, transduction of
the cells did not affect their capacity to proliferate, and
engraftment of the transduced cells in the neomeniscus
occurred without evidence of an immune response at
this site or elsewhere in the joint.
Several tissue-engineering approaches have been
used for the repair of joint lesions. For example, the
fixation of implanted chondrocytes beneath a sutured
flap of ectopic tissue, such as periosteum, has been
widely used for the treatment of cartilage defects (58).
Other approaches have centered on the use of cells
loaded on a scaffold and delivered to a lesion site. These
methods are applicable to the repair of focal defects of
defined dimensions, but not to the treatment of complex
lesions that cover a large surface area of the joint and
that may be associated with severe and progressive
inflammatory conditions such as OA. Multipotent cells
have been isolated from the surface zone of articular
cartilage (59) and MSCs have the capacity to repair
fibrillated cartilage in vitro (60). It is attractive to
hypothesize that MSCs could have a role in cartilage
protection by a direct resurfacing of the articular carti-
lage or act to preserve subchondral or trabecular bone
structure–associated mechanical integrity of the joint.
Early bone changes have been associated with develop-
ment of OA and may precede changes to the articular
cartilage (61,62). MSCs injected into the knee joint did
not bind to normal or fibrillated articular cartilage in
vivo, but we cannot exclude the hypothesis that the cells
may act to mediate OA progression by an effect other
than that seen on meniscal regeneration.
This study suggests that there may be a therapeu-
tic benefit associated with intraarticular injection of
stem cells following traumatic injury to the knee. The
longer term effect of this may be a reduction or delay in
the progression to OA. This is a scaffold-free method for
MURPHY ET AL
cell delivery and is therefore unencumbered by the
complexities associated with placement of a solid cell
construct. Other cell-based approaches are possible that
might enhance the effects observed in this study. For
example, direct implantation of meniscal cells, chondro-
cytes, or stem cells, perhaps in combination with delivery
of appropriate mitogens or growth factors to stimulate
host cell proliferation, may lead to a sustained therapeu-
tic effect. Alternative approaches might also involve the
delivery of cell-binding or cytotactic factors to enhance
the local progenitor cell population, leading ultimately
to the reversal of the degradative process. Finally,
because of the close integration of the implanted cells
with host tissues, use of genetically modified cells to
deliver therapeutic genes to the site of injury in the joint
may also enhance the observed effects.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Stephanie Oppenheimer, Jerry Skwarek,
Mike Ponticiello, Karl Kavalkovich, and Don Simonetti for
their expert technical assistance, and Drs. Alastair Mackay and
Arnold Caplan for critical review of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
1. Friedenstein AJ. Precursor cells of mechanocytes. Int Rev Cytol
1976;47:327–59.
2. Owen M, Friedenstein AJ. Stromal stem cells: marrow-derived
osteogenic precursors. In: Evered D, Hartnett S, editors. Cell and
molecular biology of vertebrate hard tissues. Chichester, UK:
Wiley; 1988. p.42–60.
3. Pittenger MF, Mackay AM, Beck SC, Jaiswal RK, Douglas R,
Mosca JD, et al. Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchy-
mal stem cells. Science 1999;284:143–7.
4. Colter DC, Sekiya I, Prockop DJ. Identification of a subpopulation
of rapidly self-renewing and multipotential adult stem cells in
colonies of human marrow stromal cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S
A 2001;98:7841–5.
5. Haynesworth SE, Goshima J, Goldberg VM, Caplan AI. Charac-
terization of cells with osteogenic potential from human marrow.
Bone 1992;13:81–8.
6. Jaiswal N, Haynesworth SE, Caplan AI, Bruder SP. Osteogenic
differentiation of purified, culture-expanded human mesenchymal
stem cells in vitro. J Cell Biochem 1997;64:295–312.
7. Mackay AM, Beck SC, Murphy JM, Barry FP, Chichester CO,
Pittenger MF. Chondrogenic differentiation of cultured human
mesenchymal stem cells from marrow. Tissue Engineering 1998;4:
415–28.
8. Young RG, Butler DL, Weberm W, Caplan AI, Gordon SL, Fink
DJ. Use of mesenchymal stem cells in a collagen matrix for
Achilles tendon repair. J Orthop Res 1998;16:406–13.
9. Barry F, Boynton RE, Liu B, Murphy JM. Chondrogenic differ-
entiation of mesenchymal stem cells from bone marrow: differen-
tiation-dependent gene expression of matrix components. Exp Cell
Res 2001;268:189–200.
10. Toma C, Pittenger MF, Cahill KS, Byrne BJ, Kessler PD. Human
mesenchymal stem cells differentiate to a cardiomyocyte pheno-
type in the adult murine heart. Circulation 2002;105:93–8.
11. De Bari C, Dell’Accio F, Tylzanowski P, Luyten FP. Multipotent
STEM CELL THERAPY IN OA
mesenchymal stem cells from adult human synovial membrane.
Arthritis Rheum 2001;44:1928–42.
12. Gronthos S, Franklin DM, Leddy HA, Robey PG, Storms RW,
Gimble JM. Surface protein characterization of human adipose
tissue-derived stromal cells. J Cell Physiol 2001;189:54–63.
13. Deasy BM, Jankowski RJ, Huard J. Muscle-derived stem cells:
characterization and potential for cell-mediated therapy. Blood
Cells Mol Dis 2001;27:924–33.
14. Weissman IL. Translating stem and progenitor cell biology to the
clinic: barriers and opportunities. Science 2000;287:1442–6.
15. Gage FH. Mammalian neural stem cells. Science 2000;287:1433–8.
16. Alison M, Sarraf C. Hepatic stem cells. J Hepatol 1998;29:676–82.
17. Murphy JM, Dixon K, Beck S, Fabian DF, Feldman A, Barry FP.
Reduced chondrogenic and adipogenic activity of mesenchymal
stem cells from patients with advanced osteoarthritis. Arthritis
Rheum 2002;46:704–13.
18. Creamer P, Hochberg MC. Osteoarthritis. Lancet 1997;350:503–8.
19. Buckwalter JA, Mankin HJ. Articular cartilage: degeneration and
osteoarthritis, repair, regeneration, and transplantation. Instr
Course Lect 1998;47:487–504.
20. Felson DT, Lawrence RC, Hochberg MC, McAlindon T, Dieppe
PA, Minor MA, et al. Osteoarthritis: new insights. Part 2: treat-
ment approaches. Ann Intern Med 2000;133:726–37.
21. Gillquist J, Messner K. Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction
and the long-term incidence of gonarthrosis. Sports Med 1999;27:
143–56.
22. Wakitani S, Goto T, Pineda SJ, Young RG, Mansour JM, Caplan
AI, et al. Mesenchymal cell-based repair of large, full-thickness
defects of articular cartilage. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1994;76:
579–92.
23. Wakitani S, Imoto K, Yamamoto T, Saito M, Murata N, Yoneda
M. Human autologous culture expanded bone marrow mesenchy-
mal cell transplantation for repair of cartilage defects in osteoar-
thritic knees. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2002;10:199–206.
24. Bruder SP, Jaiswal N, Ricalton NS, Mosca JD, Kraus KH,
Kadiyala S. Mesenchymal stem cells in osteobiology and applied
bone regeneration. Clin Orthop 1998;355:S247–56.
25. Rydell N, Balazs EA. Effect of intra-articular injection of hyal-
uronic acid on the clinical symptoms of osteoarthritis and on
granulation tissue formation. Clin Orthop 1971;80:25–32.
26. Kavalkovich KW, Boynton RE, Murphy JM, Barry F. Chondro-
genic differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells within an
alginate layer culture system in vitro. Cell Develop Biol—Animal
2002; 38:457–66.
27. Srinivas GR, Chichester CO, Barrach HJ, Pillai V, Matoney AL.
Production of type II collagen specific monoclonal antibodies.
Immunol Invest 1994;23:85–98.
28. Bruder SP, Jaiswal N, Haynesworth SE. Growth kinetics, self-
renewal, and the osteogenic potential of purified human mesen-
chymal stem cells during extensive subcultivation and following
cryopreservation. J Cell Biochem 1997;64:278–94.
29. Mosca JD, Hendricks JK, Buyaner D, Davis-Sproul J, Chuang LC,
Majumdar MK, et al. Mesenchymal stem cells as vehicles for gene
delivery. Clin Orthop 2000;379:S71–90.
30. Keller G, Paige C, Gilboa E, Wagner EF. Expression of a foreign
gene in myeloid and lymphoid cells derived from multipotent
hematopoietic precursors. Nature 1985;318:149–54.
31. Ghattas IR, Sanes JR, Majors JE. The encephalomyocarditis virus
internal ribosome entry site allows efficient coexpression of two
genes from a recombinant provirus in cultured cells and in
embryos. Mol Cell Biol 1991;11:5848–59.
32. Miller AD, Garcia JV, von Suhr N, Lynch CM, Wilson C, Eiden
MV. Construction and properties of retrovirus packaging cells
based on gibbon ape leukemia virus. J Virol 1991;65:2220–4.
33. Markowitz D, Goff S, Bank A. A safe packaging line for gene
transfer: separating viral genes on two different plasmids. J Virol
1988;62:1120–4.
3473
34. Hunziker EB. Growth-factor-induced healing of partial-thickness
defects in adult articular cartilage. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2001;
9:22–32.
35. Carlson CS, Guilak F, Vail TP, Gardin JF, Kraus VB. Synovial
fluid biomarker levels predict articular cartilage damage following
complete medial meniscectomy in the canine knee. J Orthop Res
2002;20:92–100.
36. Lee K, Majumdar MK, Buyaner D, Hendricks JK, Pittenger MF,
Mosca JD. Human mesenchymal stem cells maintain transgene
expression during expansion and differentiation. Mol Ther 2001;
3:857–66.
37. Pond MJ, Nuki G. Experimentally-induced osteoarthritis in the
dog. Ann Rheum Dis 1973;32:387–8.
38. Altman RD, Tenenbaum J, Latta L, Riskin W, Blanco LN, Howell
DS. Biomechanical and biochemical properties of dog cartilage in
experimentally induced osteoarthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1984;43:
83–90.
39. Rorvik AM, Teige J. Unstable stifles without clinical or radio-
graphic osteoarthritis in young goats: an experimental study. Acta
Vet Scand 1996;37:265–72.
40. Little C, Smith S, Ghosh P, Bellenger C. Histomorphological and
immunohistochemical evaluation of joint changes in a model of
osteoarthritis induced by lateral meniscectomy in sheep. J Rheu-
matol 1997;11:2199–209.
41. Smith MM, Little CB, Rodgers K, Ghosh P. Animal models used
for the evaluation of anti-osteoarthritis drugs. Pathol Biol 1997;
45:313–20.
42. Rangger C, Kathrein A, Klestil T, Glotzer W. Partial meniscec-
tomy and osteoarthritis: implications for treatment of athletes.
Sports Med 1997;23:61–8.
43. Gastel JA, Muirhead WR, Lifrak JT, Fadale PD, Hulstyn MJ,
Labrador DP. Meniscal tissue regeneration using a collagenous
biomaterial derived from porcine small intestine submucosa. Ar-
throscopy 2001;17:151–9.
44. Peretti GM, Caruso EM, Randolph MA, Zaleske DJ. Meniscal
repair using engineered tissue. J Orthop Res 2001;19:278–85.
45. Rodkey WG, Steadman JR, Li ST. A clinical study of collagen
meniscus implants to restore the injured meniscus. Clin Orthop
1999;367:S281–92.
46. Jackson DW, Whelan J, Simon TM. Cell survival after transplan-
tation of fresh meniscal allografts: DNA probe analysis in a goat
model. J Sports Med 1993;21:540–50.
47. Rodeo SA. Meniscal allografts: where do we stand? Am J Sports
Med 2001;29:246–61.
48. Lutfi AM. Morphological changes in the articular cartilage after
meniscectomy: an experimental study in the monkey. J Bone Joint
Surg Br 1975;57:525–8.
49. Elmer RM, Moskowitz RW, Frankel VH. Meniscal regeneration
and postmeniscectomy degenerative joint disease. Clin Orthop
1977;124:304–10.
50. Burr DB, Radin EL. Meniscal function and the importance of
meniscal regeneration in preventing late medical compartment
osteoarthrosis. Clin Orthop 1982;171:121–6.
51. Walsh CJ, Goodman D, Caplan AI, Goldberg VM. Meniscus
regeneration in a rabbit partial meniscectomy model. Tissue Eng
1999;5:327–37.
52. McClain SA, Simon M, Jones E, Nandi A, Gailit JO, Tonnesen
MG, et al. Mesenchymal cell activation is the rate-limiting step of
granulation tissue induction. Am J Pathol 1996;149:1257–70.
53. Chen WY, Abatangelo G. Functions of hyaluronan in wound
repair. Wound Repair 1999;7:79–89.
54. Dostal GH, Gamelli RL. Fetal wound healing. Surg Gynecol
Obstet 1993;176:299–306.
55. McCarty MF. Glucosamine for wound healing. Med Hypotheses
1996;47:273–5.
56. Murashita T, Nakayama Y, Hirano T, Ohashi S. Acceleration of
3474
granulation tissue ingrowth by hyaluronic acid in artificial skin.
Br J Plast Surg 1996;49:58–63.
57. Kobayashi K, Amiel M, Harwood FL, Healey RM, Sonoda M,
Moriya H, et al. The long-term effects of hyaluronan during
development of osteoarthritis following partial meniscectomy in a
rabbit model. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2000:8:359–65.
58. Brittberg M, Tallheden T, Sjogren-Jansson B, Lindahl A, Peterson
L. Autologous chondrocytes used for articular cartilage repair: an
update. Clin Orthop 2001;391:S337–48.
59. Archer CW, Redman S, Bishop J, Bowyer S, Dowthwaite GP. The
identification and characterization of articular cartilage progenitor
MURPHY ET AL
cells. Transactions of the 48th Annual Meeting of the Orthopaedic
Res Society S009; 2002.
60. Kavalkovich KW, Murphy JM, Barry FP. Adhesion of mesenchy-
mal stem cells to fibrillated osteoarthritic cartilage [abstract].
Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2000;8 Suppl B:S24.
61. Li B, Aspden RM. Composition and mechanical properties of
cancellous bone from the femoral head of patients with osteo-
porosis or OA. J Bone Miner Res 1997;12:641–51.
62. Dequeker J, Mokassa L, Aerssens J, Boonen S. Bone density and
local growth factors in generalized OA. Microsc Res Tech 1997;
137:358–71.