Research Methods in Psychology

Objectives:

At the end of the session, the students are expected to:

1. Justify why psychology is a science;

2. Enumerate and explain the five steps of scientific method;

3. Examine the purpose and nature of the different types of psychological research; and

4. Discuss the significance of ethical research.

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 Research Methods in Psychology

A. PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
It is the use of the scientific method that makes
psychology a science (Ray, 2012 in King, 2013). A key
theme in the scientific method is that knowledge comes
from empirical research. (King, 2013). Indeed most of the
studies psychologists publish in research journals follow
the scientific method, which is summarized in these five
steps:
1. Observing Phenomenon. The first step in conducting
scientific inquiry involves observing some phenomenon in
the world. The phenomena that the scientists study are
called variables – anything that can change. One example
of a variable is happiness. Some people are happier than
the others. What might account for the difference?
Considering the probable answer to this question, scientists
often develop a theory.
A theory is a broad idea or set of closely related
ideas that attempts to explain observation (King, 2013). An
important characteristic of scientific theory is that it must
be falsifiable; meaning that even a scientist who believes
that a theory is true must be able to generate ideas about
research that would prove the theory wrong and test those
ideas.

2. Formulating Hypotheses and Predictions. A hypothesis

is a testable prediction that derives logically from theory.
For example, a researcher who believes that social
belonging is the most important aspect of human
functioning might predict that people who belong to social
groups will be happier than others, or might hypothesize

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that individuals who are excluded of the social group will

be more aggressive.

3. Testing through Empirical Research. To test

hypotheses, the researchers collect and analyze data. The
use of various research methods allows them to test
prediction, however, the first thing that the researchers need
in order to conduct the study is a concrete way to measure
the variables of interest. Thus, an operational definition of
the variable provides an objective definition of how a
variable is going to be measured and observed in a
particular study.

A key aspect of the process of testing hypothesis is

data analysis. Data refers to all information (all those
numbers) researchers collect in the study. With data
analysis, mathematical procedures (e.g. statistics) are
applied to understand what the numerical information
means (Howell, 2013 in King, 2013).

4. Drawing Conclusions. The scientists then draw

conclusions from their research based on the results of the
data analyses. If the results of the study (or a series of
studies) support predictions, then a theory may gain
credibility, however, a theory is always open to revision.
Before a theory is accepted or changed, the scientific
community must establish that the research can be
replicated by other scientists using different methods.

5. Evaluating Conclusions. The final step in the scientific

method, evaluating conclusions, is one that never ends.
Researchers submit their work for publication, and it
undergoes rigorous review. Afterward, the published
studies are there for all to see, read, and evaluate
continually.

B. Types of Psychological Research

Naturalistic observations are research studies that

are conducted in the environment in which the behavior
typically occurs. Naturalistic observation can provide a
picture of behavior as it normally occurs. However, in

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conducting such, researchers should attempt to minimize

reactivity to ensure that they are observing the true
behavior of their participants (Pastorino & Doyle-Portillo,
2013)
Case study is an in-depth observation of one
participant. This participant may be a person, an animal, or
even setting such as business or a school. It provides in-
depth information on rare and unusual conditions that we
might not otherwise be able to study. However, the main
disadvantage of case study method is its limited
applicability to other situations. It lacks generalizability or
how well a researcher’s findings apply to other individuals
and situations (Pastorino & Doyle-Portillo, 2013).

Survey is a straightforward way to measure

psychological variables, thus, constructing them requires
care (Stangor, 2011 in King, 2013). Survey presents a
standard set of questions or items, to obtain people’s self-
reported attitudes or beliefs about a particular topic (King,
2013).
Correlational studies test the relationship between
or more variables (e.g. television watching and violent
behavior, or depression and gender). The researcher does
not control variables but rather measures them to see
whether any reliable relationship exists between them. The
strength of correlation is measured in terms of correlation
coefficient – statistic that tells us how strong the
relationship between two factors is. Correlation
coefficients range from -1.00 to +1.00. The closer the
correlation coefficient is to -1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the
correlation or the more related the two variables are. A
positive correlation exists when one variable increases, the
second variable also tend to increase, or as one variable
decreases, the other variable tends to decrease. On the
other hand, negative correlation exists if one variable
increases, the other variable tends to decrease or there is
inverse relationship (Pastorino & Doyle-Portillo,2013)
Longitudinal design involves observing and
measuring the same variables periodically over time.
Longitudinal research can suggest potential causal
relationships because if one variable is thought to cause
changes in another, it should at least come before that
variable in time (King, 2013).
Experimental method determines whether a causal
relationship exists between variables (Myers & Hansen,
2012 in King, 2013). An experiment is a carefully

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regulated procedure in which the researcher manipulates

one or more variables that are believed to influence some
other variable. If manipulation led to differences between
two groups (e.g. intelligence), the manipulated variable
caused the difference. Causation is based on the idea that if
participants are randomly assigned to groups, the only
systematic difference between them must be the
manipulated variable (King, 2013). Random assignment
means the researchers assign participants to groups by
chance. This technique reduces the likelihood that the
experiment’s results will be due to any preexisting
differences between groups (Eimes, Kantowitz, &
Roediger, 2012 in King, 2013).
Experiments have two types of variables:
independent and dependent. An independent variable is a
manipulated experimental factor. It is the variable that the
experimenter changes to see what its effects are; it is the
potential cause. A dependent variable is the outcome – the
factor that can change in an experiment in response to
changes in the independent variable. Experiments involve
experimental and control groups. An experimental group
consists of the participants in an experiment who receive
the treatment that is of interest to the researcher; the control
group is as much like the experimental group as possible
and is treated in every way like the experimental group
except for a manipulated factor, the independent variable..
The control group provides a comparison against which the
researcher can test the effects of the independent variable
(King, 2013). In some experiments, the control group
receives a placebo or inactive substance such as a sugar
pill, rather than being given nothing. The placebo effect
occurs when participants show changes simply because
they believe or expect a treatment to have certain effects.
In double-blind studies, neither experimenters nor
participants know who is receiving a placebo and who is
receiving the actual treatment; they are blind to which
group (experimental or control) a person has been assigned.
In this way, neither the participant’s nor the experimenter’s
expectations will bias the results ((Pastorino & Doyle-
Portillo,2013)

Within-participant designs ensure that a control

group and an experimental group are as similar as possible.
Instead of relying on random assignment to produce
equivalent groups, a researcher has the same group of
participants experience the various conditions of the study.

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For instance, a researcher predicts that the presence of other

people (independent variable) decreases math performance

(dependent variable), she/he might have participants

complete math problems first whole alone and then with
others, and compare performance in two conditions to test
her prediction. The advantages of this design are (a) only
requires only half of the number of the participants and (b)
knowing that the groups are the same people in each
condition. The disadvantages include concerns about
whether the two math tests are really equivalent and how
the order of the conditions might influence their effects on
performance s(King, 2013).
Quasi-experimental design is somewhat similar to
experimental research but the key difference is that quasi-
experimental design does not include random assignment
of participants to condition, because such assignment is
either impossible or unethical (Reichardt, 2009 in King,
2013).
C. Research Samples
When psychologists conduct a study, they usually
want to be able to draw conclusions that will apply to a
larger group of people than the participants they actually
study. The entire group of people about which the
investigator wants to draw conclusions is the population.
The subset of the population chosen by the investigator for
study is the sample. However, to mirror the population as
closely as possible, the researcher uses a random sample, a
sample that gives every member of the population an equal
chance of being selected. In selecting a sample, the
researcher must strive to minimize bias (Matlin, 2012 in
King 2013) in terms of ethnicity, gender , religion and other
factors because psychology is the scientific study of human
behavior.
D. Conducting Ethical Research
Ethics is an important consideration for all science.
At the base of all ethical guidelines is the notion that a
person participating in psychological research should be no
worse off coming out of the study than he or she was on the
way in. The American Psychological Association (APA)
has developed ethical guidelines for its members. The
APA code of ethics instructs psychologists to protect their
participants from mental and physical harm. The

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participants’ best interest need to be kept foremost in the

researcher’s mind (Christensen, Johnson, & Turner, 2011 in
King, 2013). APA’s guidelines address four important
issues:
 Informed Consent: All participants must know what their
participation will involve and what risks might develop.
 Confidentiality: Researchers are responsible for keeping
all the data they gather on individuals completely
confidential, and when possible, completely anonymous.
 Debriefing: When preliminary information about the study
is likely to affect the results, participants can at least be
debriefed after the completion of the study by informing
them the purpose and the methods used.
 Deception: This can range from deception by omission to
active deception. Deception by omission means not telling
participants what a study is really about. Active deception
means misleading participants about what is going on in the
study (e.g. giving participants false feedback about their
performance on task or leading them to believe that a
confederate is just another participant in the study. In all
cases of deception, however, psychologist must ensure that
the deception will not harm the participants and that the
participants will be told the true nature of the study (will be
debriefed) as soon as possible after the study is completed.

Reference:
King, L. (2013). Experience psychology. (2nd ed.)
Columbia. McGrawHill

Lahey, B. (2012). Psychology: An Introduction. (11th Ed.)

NY: McGraw Hill.

Pastorino, E. & Doyle-Portillo, S. (2013). What is

Psychology? Essentials. (2nd Ed.) Canada: Wadsworth,
Cengage Learning.

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