This document will discuss the derivation of rules for sketching the root locus. It
is not necessary to understand all of these in order to do the sketches, but it can
be helpful to understand whence come the various rules. Instead of presenting
examples in this document, there are links to files that contain five separate
examples. After each rule, you can select the link for each of the five examples,
and the application of that specific rule to the selected rule is displayed (along with
a brief discussion). Each of the five examples can also be examined in its entirety
by clicking on the link below.
Examples (Click to see root locus for each Transfer Function)
1 2 3 4 5
Note: the example files are edited versions of web pages generated automatically with a MatLab
script, RLocusGui.
To sketch a root locus there are several techniques that can be used as a
guide. Not all of these are applicable to all loci. The steps used to sketch a root
locus plot are enumerated below:
We can write the loop gain as a ratio of polynomials, (we will assume K>0, a0>0,
b0>0; generally a0=1). N(s), the numerator polynomial, is defined to be mth order;
D(s) is nth order. N(s) has zeros at zi (i=1..m); D(s) has zeros at pi (i=1..n). Note
the zeros of D(s) are the poles of the loop gain. The difference between the
orders of the numerator and denominator polynomial, n and m, is q, so q=n-m.
We assume here that the transfer function is proper - in other words q≥0.
It is convenient for the derivation of many of the rules that follow to rewrite the
characteristic equation as follows.
Many of the rules discussed below come from two conditions imposed by the
characteristic equation. Since this equation involves a complex quantity both the
magnitude and phase of the two sides of the equation must be equal.
Since K≥0, it has a phase of 0° and can be ignored. The angle of -1 is any odd
multiple of 180°.
Note: an alternate set of rules, for K<0 can be derived; this is referred to as the complementary root
locus.
.
The difference between n and m is q, so q=n-m.
Rules
Rule 1: Symmetry
Since the characteristic equation has real coefficients, any zeros must occur in
complex conjugate pairs (which are symmetric about the real axis). Since the root
locus is just a diagram of the roots of the characteristic equation as K varies, it
must also be symmetric about the real axis.
It is apparent that if K→0, the only way the left hand side of the equation can be
equal to 1 is if the quantity in the absolute value goes to infinity. This happens
when D(s)→0. So the poles of the loop gain (D(s)=0) are the starting points for
the loci (when K=0).
It is also apparent that if K→∞, the only way the left hand side of the equation
can be equal to 1 is if the quantity in the absolute value goes to zero. This
happens when N(s)→0, and it also happens as s→∞ if the order of the
denominator is greater than the order of the numerator. So the zeros of the loop
gain (which occur at N(s)=0, and perhaps as s→∞) are the ending points for the
loci (when K→∞).
Now consider the angle between a point "s" (the red vector) on the real axis,
and a point "z" (the blue vector) that is also on the real axis. The diagrams below
show the vector "s-z" f(the green vector) or the case when "s" is to the left of "z,"
and when s is to the right of z. (Review: How to subtract vectors).
In both figures, "s" is shown by a red vector, and "z" is shown by a blue vector.
The difference can be found by drawing a vector from the point "z" to the point "s,"
which is shown by a green vector. When "s" is to the left of "z" (left diagram), the
angle of the vector "s-z" is 180° (or any odd multiple of 180°). When "s" is to the
right of "z" (right diagram), the angle of the vector "s-z" is 0° (or any even multiple
of 180°).
However, we still need to consider complex conjugate poles and zeros. To see
their contribution, consider the diagram below.
In this diagram the vector "s" is red, "z" and its conjugate "z*" are blue and "s-z"
and "s-z*" are green. Clearly the angle contributions from "z" and its conjugate
"z*" (shown in dotted green) are equal and opposite, and so cancel each other
out. Therefore we need not consider the contribution of complex conjugate zeros,
or poles; we need only consider the contribution of zeros and poles that are on the
real axis.
This equation indicates that any zeros to the left of a quantity "s" on the real axis
contributes 180°, a pole to the left will contribute -180°, but a pole or zero to the
right of "s" on the real axis contributes 0°. Since the sum of angle contributions
from zeros on the real axis minus the sum of contributions from poles on the real
axis is an odd multiple of 180°, this indicates that if a point "s" on the real axis will
only be on the locus if it is to the left of an odd number of zeros and poles that are
on the axis.
K, a0, b0 and M are all positive so they don't contribute to the angle, so
To summarize: as |s|→∞ , the loci are asymptotic to a set of lines that that
radiate outward from the origin with angles of θ=±r180°/q where r=1, 3, 5...
This tells us that the angle of "s" is given by ±r180°/q, where r=1, 3, 5...
Taking both the magnitude and phase into consideration this shows
that
Now let's do some manipulations to get this into a more useful form. First,
we let |s|→∞ and only keep the two highest order terms of the polynomials.
We can multiply the numerator and denominator by the same term. This
simplifies the numerator.
Aside: Approximation of
Again, if this isn't obvious, consider the third order case (which
generalizes to higher order):
As |s|→∞ we can, again, simplify this by keeping only the highest order term
This is expression has the same form as the one in the denominator of the
expression we just derived (i.e., loop gain as |s|→∞). We can make the
substitution:
our expression for the loop gain as |s|→∞ becomes
Putting this back into our expression for the characteristic equation we get
(as |s|→∞ ):
This represents a set of vectors that intersect the real axis at s=-σ, that
radiate outward with angles of θ= ±r180°/q where r=1, 3, 5...
Since
This tells us that the locus is asymptotic to these lines because both the
locus and (s-σ)q have the same form as |s|→∞ .
At the break-away (and -in) points, the derivative of the characteristic equation is
also zero.
I prefer to switch the order of the subtraction (though it really makes no difference),
.
Note: Many times, especially for simple root loci, there are no break-away or break-in points. In
these cases, this step is not necessary.
Examples (Click to see rule explained for each Transfer Function)
1 2 3 4 5
To find the angle at which the locus leaves from the pole pj, we can rewrite the
angle criterion by isolating the angle between the locus and pj.
or
In this equation we have taken r=1 since the solutions are the same for all values
of r. Now if we consider a point "s" on the locus that is very close to pj, then all
the terms on the right hand side can be approximated by the angle between the
pole or zero and pj. In other words, if "s" is very close to pj, then we can
approximate the angle criterion as:
Note: Many times, especially for simple root loci, there are no complex poles in loop gain. In these
cases, this step is not necessary.
If the loop gain, G(s)H(s), has a simple zero on the real axis, we know that the
locus will arrive at the zero, as K→∞ , along the axis. However, if the zero is
complex it can arrive at any angle. To find the angle at which the locus arrives at a
complex zero, we start from the re-stated angle criterion (from the "Locus on Real
Axis" rule):
To find the angle at which the locus arrives from the pole zj, we can rewrite the
angle criterion as
or
In this equation we have taken r=1 since the solutions are the same for all values
of r. Now if we consider a point "s" on the locus that is very close to zj, then all
the terms on the right hand side can be approximated by the angle between the
pole or zero and zj. In other words, if "s" is very close to zj, then we can
approximate the angle criterion as:
Note: Many times, especially for simple root loci, the root locus does not cross the imaginary axis, or
does so along the real axis. In these cases, this step is not necessary.
Examples (Click to see rule explained for each Transfer Function)
1 2 3 4 5
or
The values a0...an and b0...bm are all known. So given a value of K we can
determine the resulting polynomial and factor it to find the roots of the
characteristic equation (this may require a computer).
Key Concept: Find Location of Closed Loop Poles from Value of "K"
Rewrite characteristic equation as D(s)+KN(s)=0. Put value of K into
equation, and find roots of characteristic equation.
or
So, given a value of "s" that is on the locus, it is possible to solve for the
corresponding value of K.
Note that if the value of "s" is obtained by inspection of a root locus plot, it is
only approximate. If the chosen value does not actually lie on the locus, the
resulting value of K may be complex. If this happens, the imaginary part will be
small, so just take the imaginary part of K. You should then use this value of K
(see above) to find the exact value of the root location.
Key Concept: Find Value of "K" from Location of Closed Loop Pole
Rewrite characteristic equation as , replace "s" by the desired
References
© Copyright 2005 to 2015 Erik Cheever This page may be freely used for educational
purposes.
Comments? Questions? Suggestions? Corrections?
Erik Cheever Department of Engineering Swarthmore College