PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Characteristics of a Research Problem

1. Interesting. It should sustain interest over a prolonged period of time.
2. Researchable. It can be investigated, tested, and observed. The data should exist
in the real world. The meaning of the concepts or variables must be clear.
3. Practical/Feasible. All the necessary activities related to the research problem
can be executed.

Questions to ask:
• It is feasible, considering time and the availability of subjects, materials, and
equipment?
• Can the researcher afford the cost of data gathering?

For instance, it is not practical for a group of nursing students to conduct a

longitudinal study about the effect of maternal separation on the behavior of
toddlers when they reach the school age. The study will be too costly and will run
beyond the duration of a regular nursing course.

A nursing research should have practical and/or theoretical significance to the

field of nursing. Its findings should contribute to the improvement of patient care
or to the advancement of the nursing profession.

4. Ethical. The subjects should be protected from harm. Informed consent should be
obtained from the participants. Anonymity and confidentiality should be strictly
observed.

Example of a non-researchable problem:

​How many beds are there in hospital X?
Example of a researchable problem:
​What is the relationship between the bed capacity (number of beds) of a
hospital and the quality of its nursing care?

Sources of Research Problems

1. Experience

For example, students noticed that nurses caring for pediatric patients were
careless in their compliance with the universal precaution guidelines, particularly
by not wearing gloves for IV sticks. Thus, the following research problem was
formulated:
“To what extent do the nurses in the pediatric unit conform to the universal

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 precaution guidelines”

2. Observation

A group of nurses, for instance, observed that the younger nurses did not adhere
to the guidelines of universal precaution. They also observed that the younger
and the sticker the child, the less likely the nurses were to adhere to the universal
precaution. Thus, a research study was conducted to validate this observation.

3. Literature

It is important for a researcher who is interested to find a research problem to

look at the recommendations of studies reviewed.

Researchers may also replicate studies in a different setting to see if findings can
generalized.

4. Theory

Investigation of problems derived from theory can provide meaningful

contribution to scientific knowledge. A theory is not merely a body of facts; it
provides an explanation of facts that is in turn used to elucidate or predict certain
phenomena.

Selection of a Research Problem

1. Identify a general problem area related to your interests and experiences.

2. Narrow down the problem you have identified to one specific area.

Example:
​General Problem Area: Successful breastfeeding in primiparas
​Narrowed down;
​What is the effect of teaching breastfeeding to primiparas? Or
What is the effect of individualized versus group instruction on successful
breastfeeding practices in primiparas?

Title of the study

- the title of the study gives a general idea of what the research is all about.

- research titles must be clearly stated , concise, and should be limited to at most 15
words ( Nieswiadomy, 2008), if possible

- the variables of the study are reflected in the title, particularly the relationship
variables and the proposed target populations

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 Introduction or the background of the study includes the following
1. The context of the problem and its historical background
2. Authoritative viewpoints on the problem
3. The researcher’s interest in working on the problem
4. The purpose of the study in relation to the problem

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a statement that explains or predicts the relationship between two or

more variables in terms of expected results or outcomes of the study (Fain, 2004). It
attempts to explain phenomena; hence, provides a rationale for expecting variables to
behave in a certain way.

Purpose of Hypothesis

1. To guide scientific inquiry in the advancement of knowledge

2. To provide direction for the research design and the collection, analysis, and
interpretation of data.

3. To provide a framework for reporting the conclusion of the study

Characteristics of Hypotheses

Good hypotheses state clearly and concisely the expected relationship (or difference)
between two or more variables. Regardless of the specific format used to state a hypothesis,
the statement includes the variables being studied, the population being studied, and the
predicted outcomes.

Statistical Versus Research Hypotheses

A statistical hypothesis is also referred to as a null hypothesis (Ho). It stated that no

relationship (or difference) exists between two variables. Statistical hypotheses are usually used
because they suit the statistical techniques that determine whether an observed relationship is
probably a chance relationship or a true relationship.

A research hypothesis is also referred to as an alternative (H1 or Ha), declarative, or scientific

hypothesis. It stated that a relationship or difference, exists between variables. This type of
hypothesis indicates what the researcher expects to find as a result of conducting a study.

Null Hypotheses

1. There is no significant difference in the perceived level of social support between

married and unmarried patients with type II diabetes mellitus.
2. There is no significant relationship between the perceived level of social support
and compliance to self-care practices among patients with type II diabetes
mellitus (Cacanindin, 1986).

Research Hypotheses

1. There is a significant difference in the perceived level of social support between

married and unmarried patients with type II diabetes mellitus.
2. There is a significant relationship between the perceived level of social support
and compliance to self-care practices among patients with type II diabetes

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 mellitus.

Testing Hypotheses

Hypotheses testing is what scientific research is all about. To test a hypothesis, the
researchers determine the sample, measuring instruments, design, and procedure for collecting
data. A testable hypothesis contains measurable variables, with a relationship that can be
either supported or not supported by the data collected.

Scope and Limitations of the study

Scope and Limitations- Spells out the context of the study in terms of the
subjects, concepts, and specific characteristics of the phenomenon, treatment,
sampling and time frame

Limitations – includes anticipated shortfalls and specific constraints such as

foreseen weakness in the methodology and design, the exclusion of certain
sectors of the population, the inaccessibility of data, statistical treatment and
analysis and failure to get a representative sampling must be clearly stated

Delimitations- Sets of parameters of the study by accepting what should be

included, and rejecting what should be excluded. In delimiting aspects of the
study, the researcher states specific constraints such as, scope and coverage,
expected manageability of the problem, limitations of the study.

Review of Related Literature

Functions of Related Literature

The functions of related literature in research are the following:

a. Provides research ideas
b. Orients the researcher to what is already known
c. Provides conceptual context; and
d. Provides information about research approaches.
Sources of Related Literature
The main sources of literature include the following:

a. Journals
b. Abstract journals
c. Indexes
d. Bibliographies and book lists
e. Computerized and bibliographic database
f. Guides and directions
g. Statistical reports
Sources Available to be Researcher
Primary Data Sources
Primary data sources provide a description of a research study as written by the
original researcher/s. They are highly valuable to historians-far greater than secondary
data. These sources can be found in many forms and in many places:

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 a. Oral history
b. Life history
c. Published sources
d. Diaries
e. Historical societies
f. Official minutes
g. Audio and visual recordings
h. Eyewitnesses
i. Pictorial sources
j. Other print sources
k. Physical evidence

Secondary Data Sources

A description of a study or studies prepared by someone other than the original

researcher/s. They can be classified into:
a. Interpretations – historical researchers depend on another person’s private frame
of reference for information. This means that their interpretations may or may not
be entirely correct.
b. Hearsay – is simply what people think they heard.
Example: In the game called telephone, a group of people sits in a circle and one
person starts by whispering a sentence or phrase to the person next to him. The
message is then passed around until it comes back to its original source. It is
always interesting to discover how the message has changed along the way.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

When an idea about a study first emerges, the researcher begins to have a
theory on its possible outcomes and that which explains why such are expected. When
a researcher talks about his/ her plan to employ a particular variable or why a specific
result is expected, he/ she is laying out the conceptual framework of the study. This
framework spells out the logic the researcher used in planning the conduct of the
research. All findings will be interpreted in relation to the theory (theoretical framework)
endorsed by the researcher. The question of whether the theory is correct should be
answered at the end of the study.

What is Theory?
A theory is an integrated set of defined concepts and statements that attempt to
describe, explain, predict, and/ or control a particular phenomenon.
Theories Are Abstract

Theories being abstract means that they have no reference to any specific
instance. In contrast, concrete ideas are concerned with reality and actual instances.
For example, whereas anxiety represents an abstract idea, a family in the waiting room
of an intensive care unit is a particular instance of reality and, thus, is concrete. The
abstract ideas is theories can be tested through research to verify that they hold true in
a concrete reality.
Theories Versus Conceptual Model

Theories are similar to conceptual models in that they are also composed of
interesting concepts.

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 ​ CONCEPT CONCEPT CONCEPT

THEORY

Figure 1

However, theories, unlike conceptual models, contain more specific information.

Characteristic of a Theory
A theory is composes of specific concepts and propositions that attempt to
account for a particular notion that is observed in the real world. A theory can be
described as follows:

a. A phenomenon
b. Consists of interrelated concepts that introduce a different view of reality that is
logical in nature
c. Simple but generalizable
d. Acts as basis of hypotheses that can be tested
e. Contributes to increasing the general body of knowledge
f. Can be utilized/applied. (Figure shows that a theory supports nursing practice and
that nursing practice can be a basis formulating theories)
g. Consistent which previously validated knowledge
h. Invented; not discovered

A theory may…

a. Describe an idea
Example: Identifying factor that influence feelings of loneliness in the elderly.

b. Explain an idea
Example: Identifying how pain is experienced during acute stress.

c. Predict what might be observed

Example: Stating what social support affects coping behaviors.

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 Conceptual Models
A conceptual model is a framework for communicating a particular perception of
the world. It is similar to a theory that it is sometimes referred to as one, although it is
actually more abstract than a theory. A conceptual model broadly explains a
phenomena of interest, expresses assumptions, and reflects a philosophical stance. A
phenomenon is an occurrence or a circumstances that is observed-something that
impresses the observer as extraordinary or anything that presents itself to and its
constructed by the mind.
Framework

The framework of a study provides guidelines of thinking, observing, and

interpreting what is seen, identifying a question to ask about a certain phenomenon, and
proposing solutions to problems.
It is a brief explanation of a theory or those portions of a theory to be tested in the
study. In a well thought out study, the researcher would explain abstractly in the
framework why one variable is expected to affect the other. The idea would be
concretely expressed as a hypothesis to be tested through the actual conduct of the
research.
Borrowed Models

These are conceptual models taken from scientific disciplines outside of nursing
that are reckoned to provide a better picture of what is seen in nursing and more
relevant explanation of how the world operates.

Significance of Theories and Frameworks

1. They make scientific finding meaningful and generalized.
2. Theories allow scientists to knot together observation and facts into an orderly
scheme.
3. Frameworks are efficient mechanisms for drawing together and summarizing
accumulated facts, even sometimes form separate and isolated investigations.
4. They guide scientists in understanding not only the “what” of natural phenomena
but also the “why” their occurrence.
5. They help to stimulate research and the extension of knowledge providing both
direction and impetus.

Defining Terms

1. Operational definition – refers to the definition of variables in terms of the

procedures (operational) by which they are to be measured.

An operational definition assigns meaning to a variable and describes the

activities required to measure it. This refers to how the concept is used in the
study.

2. Conceptual definition- Is a definition that is universally understood. It I a general

statement of properties or qualities common to a number of cases to a number of
cases or examples. Possible sources includes ; dictionary, related literatures,
authoritative sources

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 APA Referencing (6th ed.)
€ The American Psychological Association reference style uses the Author-Date
format.
€ When quoting directly or indirectly from a source, the source must be
acknowledged in the text by author name and year of publication.

IN TEXT

To cite information directly or indirectly, there are two ways to acknowledge citations:
1) Make it a part of a sentence or 2) put it in parentheses at the end of the sentence.

Direct quotation – use quotation marks around the quote and include page numbers
1) Cohen and Lotan (2014) argue that "many different kinds of abilities are essential for any
profession" (p.151).
2) “Many different kinds of abilities are essential for any profession" (Cohen & Lotan, 2014,
p.151).

N.B. See the Library’s APA webpage for a quotation of 40 or more words.

Indirect quotation/paraphrasing/summarising – no quotation marks

1) Professional knowledge alone does not make someone a very capable professional (Cohen
& Lotan, 2014).
2) According to Cohen and Lotan (2014), professional knowledge alone does not make
someone a very capable professional.

N.B. Page numbers are optional when paraphrasing, although it is useful to include
them (Publication Manual, p. 171).

Citations from a secondary source

1) Gould’s (1981) research “raises fundamental doubts as to whether we can continue to think
of intelligence as unidimensional” (as cited in Cohen & Lotan, 2014, pp. 151-152).
2) Intelligence cannot be believed to consist of one single entity any more (Gould, 1981, as
cited in Cohen & Lotan, 2014).

N.B. To cite a source you found in another source, you must acknowledge all the
authors.
• The author(s) of the source referred to i.e. Gould, 1981
• The author(s) of the work which contains the original source i.e. Cohen & Lotan, 2014

In the reference list, only the book by Cohen & Lotan should be acknowledged. Do not
list Gould.

References must be listed in alphabetical order by author.

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 EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES BY TYPE

In a reference list In-text

citation

1. Book with one author (King, 2000) or

King, M. (2000). Wrestling with the angel: A life of Janet Frame. Auckland, King (2000)
New Zealand: Viking. compares
N.B. The first letter of the first word of the main title, subtitle and all Frame ...
proper nouns have capital letters.

2. Book with two authors (Dancey &

Dancey, C. P., & Reidy, J. (2004). Statistics without maths for psychology: Reidy, 2004)
Using SPSS for Windows (3rd ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson/Prentice Hall. or
N.B. Before “&” between authors, do not forget to put a comma. Dancey and
Reidy (2004)
stated
When
paraphrasing
in text, use
and, not &.

3. Book with three to five authors (see Library APA referencing (Krause,
webpage for six or more authors) Bochner, &
Krause, K.L., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S. (2006). Educational psychology Duchesne,
for learning and teaching (2nd ed.). Melbourne, Australia: Thomson. 2006)
N.B. Use & between authors’ names, except when paraphrasing in text. then
When a work has three, four or five authors, cite all authors the first (Krause et al.,
time, and in subsequent citations include only the first author followed 2006)
by et al.

4. Book or report by a corporate author e.g. organisation, association, (International

government department Labour
International Labour Organization. (2007). Equality at work: Tackling the Organization,
challenges (International Labour Conference report). Geneva, Switzerland: 2007) or
Author. (International
N.B. When the author and the publisher are the same, use Author in the Labour
publisher field. In text, some group authors may be abbreviated in Organization
subsequent citations if they are readily recognisable [ILO], 2007),
then
(ILO, 2007)

5. Book chapter in edited book (Kestly, 2010) or

Kestly, T. (2010). Group sandplay in elementary schools. In A. A. Drewes & Kestly (2010)
C. E. Shaefer (Eds.), School-based play therapy (2nd ed., pp. 257-282). compares
Hoboken, NJ: John Wileys & Sons. educational
N.B. Include the page numbers of the chapter after the book title. settings of ...

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 6. Electronic book (eBook) (Nydegger,
Nydegger, R. (2018). Clocking in: The psychology of work. Retrieved from 2018) or
https://ebookcentral.proquest.com Nydegger
N.B. Use the URL of the eBook's homepage or the DOI (Digital Object (2018)
identifier). examines...

7. Course handout/Lecture notes (electronic version) (Archard, Merry,

Archard, S., Merry, R., & Nicholson, C. (2011). Karakia and waiata & Nicholson,
[Powerpoint slides]. Retrieved from TEPS757-11B (NET): Communities of 2011)
Learners website: http://elearn.waikato.ac.nz/mod/resource/view.php? then
id=174650 subsequently,
N.B. Put format in square brackets - e.g. [Lecture notes] [Panopto if 3-5 authors
video]. This referencing format should be used only for your (Archard et al.,
assignments. 2011)

8. Video (e.g. YouTube) (University of

University of Waikato Library. (2017, September 18). APA referencing [Video Waikato Library,
file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch? 2017) or
v=8nhWZ_RumSE&list=PLV6rcj47rsw8LffYhAwlL v37MQDArYFNw University of
N.B. Use the uploader’s name as the author. Waikato Library
(2014)
demonstrates…
9. Journal article (academic/scholarly) with DOI (Cavenagh &
Cavenagh, N., & Ramadurai, R. (2017). On the distances between Latin Ramadurai,
squares and the smallest defining set size. Journal of Combinatorial Designs, 2017)
25(4), 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcd.21529 or
N.B. DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is a unique code assigned to a Cavenagh and
scholarly/academic publication, which links to the article online. Note: Ramadurai
Many journals in Psychology and other disciplines use continuous (2017)
pagination, so the issue number is not required recommend…

9a. Journal article with no DOI Germann,

Germann, F., Ebbes, P., & Grewal, R. (2015). The chief marketing officer Ebbes, and
matters! Journal of Marketing, 79(3), 1-22. Grewal (2015)
N.B. Retain original punctuation of titles. A capital letter is used for key claim that “there
words in the journal title. The journal title and volu have been …”
(p. 19).
then
subsequently,
if 3-5 authors
Germann et al.
(2015) argue …
10. Magazine – popular/trade/general interest (Goodwin, 2002)
Goodwin, D. K. (2002, February 4). How I caused that story. Time, 159(5), or
69. Goodwin (2002)
N.B. Full date is used if published weekly; month and year if monthly. defends ...

11. Newspaper article (Coster, 2017)

Coster, D. (2017, June 12). Driver who caused man's death is placed into or Coster (2017)
dementia care. Stuff. Retrieved from http://www.stuff.co.nz/ reports ...
N.B Use the URL of the newspaper’s homepage, as a direct link to an
online article in a newspaper website is not a persistent link.

12. Personal Communication (W. Bush,

N.B. Information such as Letters, telephone conversations, emails, personal
interviews, and private social networking is called “Personal communication,
Communication”, and no reference list entry is required March 19, 2017)

(Cerveny &

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 13. Reference book – dictionary or encyclopedia entry ( Haines-Young,
Cerveny, R. S., & Haines-Young, R. (2016). Climate change. In D. S. G. 2016) or
Thomas & A. Goudie (Eds.), The dictionary of physical geography (4th ed.). Cerveny and
Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell. Haines-Young
N.B. If no author stated, the entry’s title takes the author position. For (2016) state ...
online dictionaries and encyclopedias, a retrieval statement takes the
place of publisher location / name

14. Webpage (New Zealand

New Zealand Trade and Enterprise. (n.d.). Agribusiness. Retrieved from Trade and
https://www.nzte.govt.nz Enterprise, n.d.,
N.B. (n.d.) = no date. The basic format is: (1) Author (could be para. 1)
organisation). (2) Date (either date of publication or latest update). (3) For direct
Title. (4) URL. quote, cite the
paragraph
number in text

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