CHAPTER 1:

SIZE, FORM, &

EARTH
STRUCTURE

.
 GEOLOGY

• An earth science that deals with study

of solid Earth, the rocks of which is
composed, and the processes by which
they change. From the Greek word
meaning, “Study of Earth”.
 ENGINEERING

• The application of mathematics,

empirical evidence and scientific,
economic, social, and practical
knowledge in order to invent, innovates,
design, build, maintain, research, and
improve structures, machines, tools,
systems, components, materials, processes
and organizations.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

• The application of the geological

sciences to engineering study for the
purpose of assuring that the geological
factors regarding the location, design,
construction, operation and
maintenance of engineering works are
recognized and accounted for.
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
• HYDROGEOLOGY - studies the movement of
subsurface water through rocks and the effect of
moving water on rocks, including their erosion.
• GEOPHYSICS - a subject of natural science
concerned with the physical processes and physical
properties of the Earth and its surrounding space
environment, and the use of quantitative methods
for their analysis.
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
• GEOCHEMISTRY - is the science that uses the
tools and principles of chemistry to explain the
mechanisms behind major geological systems such
as the Earth's crust and its oceans.
• SEISMOLOGY - the science of earthquakes,
involving observations of natural ground vibrations
and artificially generated seismic signals, with many
theoretical and practical ramifications (see
Earthquake).
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
• VOLCANOLOGY - the study of volcanoes, lava,
magma, and related geological, geophysical and
geochemical phenomena.
• HISTORICAL GEOLOGY – is a discipline that
uses the principles and techniques of geology to
reconstruct and understand the geological history
of the Earth.
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
• PETROLEUM GEOLOGY – the study of
origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and
exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the
specific set of geological disciplines that are applied
to the search for hydrocarbons.
• GEOMORPHOLOGY – the scientific study of
the origin and evolution of topographic and
bathymetric features created by physical, chemical
or biological processes operating at or near the
Earth’s surface
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
• MINERALOGY – the science of minerals that
deals with their crystallography and their physical
and chemical properties in general, their
classification, and the ways of finding and
distinguishing them.
• PETROLOGY – a science that deals with the
origin, history, occurrence, structure, chemical
composition, and classification of rocks.
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
• PALEONTOLOGY – a science that deals with
the life of past geological periods, is based on the
study of fossil remains of plants and animals, and
gives information especially about the phylogeny
and relationships of modern animals and plants
and about the chronology of the history of the
earth.
• SEDIMENTOLOGY – a branch of science that
deals with sedimentary rocks and their inclusions.
 BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
• MARINE GEOLOGY – the study of the history
and structure of the ocean floor. It involves
geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and
paleontological investigations of the ocean floor
and coastal zone.
• ENGINEERING GEOLOGY – the application
of engineering principles to geologic problems.
Two fields of engineering that use geology
extensively are civil engineering and mining
engineering.
 IMPORTANCE OF
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
• Understanding the principles of
Geology helps one to associate and
integrate thereto in the study of
engineering and structural analyses.
Thus, the success of stability and life of
man-made structure is reflected on the
knowledge of geologic interpretation.
 RELEVANCE OF GEOLOGY
TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
• Rocks obtained in excavation may be
used as a construction material. The
feasibility, the planning and design, the
construction and costing, and the safety
of a project may depend critically on
the geological conditions where
construction takes place.
 APPLICATIONS OF EARTH
SCIENCE IN GEOTECHNICS

• Basic knowledge on rocks and minerals

(Petrology and Mineralogy), the land
forms (Geomorphology), soil
(Pedology), etc. are all pre-requisite to
sound geotechnical studies.
 APPLICATIONS OF EARTH
SCIENCE IN GEOTECHNICS

• Soil mechanics, for instance, is based on

physics and mechanics, particularly on
the study of stresses and strains in soil.
 EARTH
• One of the terrestrial planets, (a planetary
group which includes Mercury, Venus, and
Mars) in the Solar System, and is third nearest
to the sun. It is the only life-sustaining planet
capable of providing the sufficient needs of
living beings.
PLANET
EARTH
 EARTH

• SHAPE: Oblate spheroid (commonly

called “squashed” spheroid) – a type of
spheroid where the major axis
(horizontal axis) is longer than its minor
axis (vertical axis), otherwise, it is a
prolate spheroid (football-shaped
spheroid).
OBLATE PROLATE
SPHEROID SPHEROID
 EARTH

• SIZE:
• Equatorial radius: 6,378.1 𝑘𝑚
• Polar radius: 6,356.8 𝑘𝑚
• Mean radius: 6,371.0 𝑘𝑚
• MASS: 5.97237 × 1024 𝑘𝑔
 MOON

• The only natural satellite that revolves

around the Earth.

MOON
 MOON

• Formation: The most widely accepted theory

of the Moon's origin, the Giant Impact
Theory, states that it formed from the
collision of a Mars-size proto-planet called
Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis
explains (among other things) the Moon's
relative lack of iron and volatile elements, and
the fact that its composition is nearly identical
to that of Earth's crust.
 MOON

Theia colliding
with Early
Earth.

Courtesy of National Geographic Channel

 MOON

• SIZE:
• Mean radius: 1,737.1 𝑘𝑚
• Circumference: 10,921 𝑘𝑚
22
• Mass: 7.342 × 10 𝑘𝑔
• Distance to Earth (center to center):
384,400 𝑘𝑚
LAYERS OF THE EARTH
 CRUST

• The outermost solid shell (0 to

35 𝑘𝑚 thick).
 TYPES OF CRUSTS:

• OCEANIC CRUST
• CONTINENTAL CRUST
 TYPES OF CRUSTS:

• OCEANIC CRUST – a layer of

rocks that forms the seabed
(oceans and trenches)
MARIANA
TRENCH
 TYPES OF CRUSTS:

• CONTINENTAL CRUST – a
layer of rocks that forms the
continents and the areas of
shallow seabed close to their
shores; mainly lies above sea level.
 PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

• A series of active volcanoes that lies

under/on seabed and above sea level in
the Pacific Plate.
SOIL HORIZON

• TOPSOIL – the upper, outermost

layer of soil, usually the top 2 inches
(5.1 𝑐𝑚) to 8 inches (20 𝑐𝑚). It has the
highest concentration of organic
matter and microorganisms and is
where most of the Earth's biological
soil activity occurs.
SOIL HORIZON

• SUBSOIL – the layer of soil under the

topsoil on the surface of the ground.
Like topsoil it is composed of a variable
mixture of small particles such as sand,
silt and/or clay, but it lacks the organic
matter and humus content of topsoil.
SOIL HORIZON

• BEDROCK – the lithified rock that

lies under the loose softer material
(regolith) at the surface of the Earth or
other terrestrial planet. The broken and
weathered regolith includes soil and
subsoil.
 LITHOSPHERE

• The rigid, outermost shell of a

terrestrial-type planet. On Earth, it is
composed of crust and upper mantle.
 MANTLE

• The part of the interior of a terrestrial

planet and especially the Earth that lies
beneath the crust and above the central
core.
 SECTIONS OF MANTLE

• The mantle is divided into sections

which are based upon results from
seismology. These layers (and their
thicknesses/depths) are the following:
 SECTIONS OF MANTLE

• The upper mantle (starting at the Moho, or base of the crust

around 7 to 35 𝑘𝑚 downward to 410 𝑘𝑚),
• The transition zone (410 − 660 𝑘𝑚),
• The lower mantle (660– 2,891 𝑘𝑚), and
• Anomalous core–mantle boundary with a variable thickness
(on average ~200 𝑘𝑚 thick).
• Asthenosphere can also be located 100 − 700 𝑘𝑚 deep,
inside the mantle.
INNER and OUTER CORE
 INNER and OUTER CORE

• The outer core of the Earth is a fluid layer

about 2,300 𝑘𝑚 thick and composed of iron
and nickel that lies above Earth's solid inner core
and below its mantle. Its outer boundary lies
2,890 𝑘𝑚 beneath Earth's surface. The
transition between the inner core and outer core
is located approximately 5,150 𝑘𝑚 beneath the
Earth's surface.
 INNER and OUTER CORE

• The Earth's inner core is the Earth's

innermost part and according to
seismological studies, it has been believed
to be primarily a solid ball with a radius of
about 1,220 𝑘𝑚. It is composed of an
iron–nickel alloy and some light elements.
The temperature at the inner core
boundary is approximately
5700 𝐾 (5400 °𝐶).
 LANDFORMS

• Plains – a flat area; usually occurs as

lowlands. These are important for
agriculture because where the soils were
deposited as sediments they may be deep
and fertile, and the flatness facilitates
mechanization of crop production; or
because they support grasslands which
provide good grazing for livestock.
 LANDFORMS

• Plateau – also called a high plain or

tableland, is an area of highland,
usually consisting of relatively flat
terrain that is raised significantly above
the surrounding area, often with one or
more sides with steep slopes.
 LANDFORMS

• Valley - a low area between hills,

often with a river running through it.
 LANDFORMS

• Hill – a usually rounded natural

elevation of land lower than a mountain
 LANDFORMS

• Mountain – a large landform that

stretches above the surrounding land in
a limited area, usually in the form of a
peak. It is generally steeper than a hill.
 LANDFORMS

• Volcano – a rupture in the crust of a

planetary-mass object, such as Earth,
that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and
gases to escape from a magma chamber
below the surface.
 LANDFORMS

• Canyon – a deep narrow valley with

steep sides and often with a stream
flowing through it.
 LANDFORMS

• Desert – a very dry land with usually

sparse vegetation
 LANDFORMS

• Cave – a hollow place in the ground,

specifically a natural underground space
large enough for a human to enter.
 DANGERS/HAZARDS

• NATURAL CALAMITIES
• SINKHOLE – a hole in the ground
that is formed especially when soil
and rocks are removed by flowing
water.
 DANGERS/HAZARDS

• SOIL EROSION - removal of rock

and soil material by natural processes,
principally running water, glaciers,
waves, and wind. Erosion transports
rocky material after the process of
weathering has broken bedrock down
into smaller, moveable pieces.
 DANGERS/HAZARDS

• LANDSLIDES – a large mass of

rocks and earth that suddenly and
quickly moves down the side of a
mountain or hill.