Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology

Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal District – 501 301 (T S)

AUTONOMOUS
DEPARTMENT OF FRESHMAN ENGINEERING

Applied Physics Detailed Notes

UNIT-I: Quantum Mechanics

Introduction to quantum physics:

According to classical mechanics, in the microscopic systems particles are stationary or

moving with ordinary speed. But it fails to explain the experimental results of atomic phenomena
involving electrons, photons, etc. t\To explain the microscopic systems and their behavior,
quantum mechanics was developed. The phenomenon of interference, diffraction and
polarization were explain on the basis of wave nature of light, whereas the phenomena of photo
electric effect and Compton effect were explained on the basis of particle nature of light. This
corresponding nature of light is known as duel nature of radiation. Basing on the dual nature of
radiation debroglie hypothesized the concept of matter waves which is the base of quantum
mechanics. Quantum mechanics is a mathematical framed work or set of rules for the
construction of physical theories at sub atomic level.

The classical (Newtonian) Mechanics explains the macroscopic particles but fail to
explain the motion of microscopic particles like electrons, photoelectric effect, Compton effect
etc. Whereas quantum theory successfully explains the motion of microscopic particles,
interference, diffraction and polarization of electromagnetic waves, black body radiation,
photoelectric effect etc. Explanation of the above effects by quantum theory shows the dual
nature of waves [Wave nature and particle nature].

Classical theory applicable to macroscopic particles, when the classical concepts were
applied to the particles of atomic dimensions like electrons then they failed to explain the actual
behavior. Thus the classical concepts cannot be applied to atomic phenomenon.

1
 An atom consists of a heavy positive nucleus with negative electrons which revolve
around the nucleus in circular orbits. The negatively charged electrons experiences force due to
positively charged nucleus.

Therefore the energy of electron should decrease continuously and it comes closer and
closer until it collapses with nucleus, but this is not happening. This indicates the instability of
the atom. Thus the classical mechanics failed to explain the stability of atom.

Drawbacks of classical mechanics (Failed to explain the following)

 The stability of atom
 Origin of discrete spectra of atoms
 The spectrum of blackbody radiation
 Zeeman effect, photoelectric effect, Compton Effect etc.

Black Body radiation:

Experience show that, the temperature of a hot and a cold object placed close to each
other equalize in vacuum. All macroscopic objects in all temperature emit (and absorb) thermal
radiation spontaneously. This radiation consists of electromagnetic waves. The energy of the
electromagnetic waves emitted by a surface, in unit time and in unit area, depends on the nature
of the surface and on its temperature. The thermal radiation emitted by many ordinary objects
can be approximated as blackbody radiation. A perfectly insulated cavity that is in thermal
equilibrium internally contains blackbody radiation and will emit it through a hole made in its
wall, provided the hole is small enough to have negligible effect upon the equilibrium.

Fig.1 Blackbody absorption

The (absolute) blackbody absorbs all energy, and reflects nothing, which is of course an
2
idealization. A black-body at room temperature appears black, as most of the energy it radiates is
in infra-red region and cannot be perceived (visualized) by the human eye. Black-body radiation
has a characteristic, continuous frequency spectrum that depends only on the body's temperature.
The spectrum is peaked at a characteristic frequency that shifts to higher frequencies
(shorter wavelengths) with increasing temperature, and at room temperature most of the emission
is in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum as shown in fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Electromagnetic spectrum of blackbody radiation

From figure 2, with the decreases of temperature the peak of blackbody radiation shifts to
lower intensities and lower wavelengths.
Wien’s displacement law indicates that the maximum of the energy distribution is displaced
within the radiation spectrum of a blackbody in case of a change in temperature.
λmaxT = b
Where b is called Wien's displacement constant, is equal to 2.89×10−3 Km.
The Stefan–Boltzmann law states that the power emitted by the surface of a black body is
directly proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature and, of course, its surface
area „A‟.
P = σT4A
Where σ ≈ 5, 67×10-8 W/ (m2K4) is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant
It was impossible to explain the measured spectral emissivity distribution by the concepts and
laws of classical physics. In 1900 Max Planck theoretically derived a formula, which accurately
described the radiation. In order to do that, he had to suppose that energy of the electromagnetic
energy inside the cavity does not exist in a continuous, but only in quantized form, in other

3
words, the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit
E = hν
where h is Planck's constant, h = 6.626×10-34 Js (Joule-Sec).
Characteristics of black body radiation:
 The black body radiation is important in studying thermal radiation and electromagnetic
radiation transfer in all wavelengths.
 Black body as an ideal radiation absorber and it is used as a standard for comparison with
the radiation of real physical bodies.

Planck’s law (qualitative):

Photoelectric effect:
Statement: when light incident on the surface of a metal, there is an emission or liberation of
electrons from the surface of a metal is called photoelectric effect.

4
Explanation: In order to explain photoelectric effect, let us consider an experimental
arrangement as shown in fig (3). The experimental arrangement contains an evacuated quartz
bulb in which two metal plates are arranged.

Fig. 3
The plate which is connected to the -ve terminal of the battery is -ve potential and hence it acts
like a cathode and the plate connected to the +ve terminal of the battery is maintained at +ve
potential and hence it acts anode. When light falls on the surface of a cathode then the valence
electrons attains required energy and converted into free electrons which are emitted by the
cathode.
The electrons, emitted or liberated from the surface of cathode are attracted towards anode
by resulting current in the circuit. Here current is due to light and hence this effect is called
“photoelectric effect”, and the current is due to these electrons is called “photoelectric effect
current” or “photo current”

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 Photoelectric effect depends on the following factors
1) Stopping potential
2) Intensity of radiation
3) Frequency of radiation
4) Photo metal
1. Stopping potential: the variation of photo current with voltage is shown in fig 4. As shown in
fig. 4, as the voltage increases then there is increase in photo current and finally reaches a
constant value is called “ saturated photo current “. On the other hand there is the decrease in
voltage, but photo current is not “zero at „0‟ voltage. At a particular voltage, the photo current in
the circuit „0‟ and this voltage is called “stopping potential “, denoted by‟ Vo‟

Fig.4
2. Intensity of radiation: the variation of photo current with voltage for different intensities of
radiation is shown in fig.5. As shown in fig.5 the stopping potential is independent of intensity of
radiation. It means that the stopping potential (V0) is same for different light intensities. With
increase of intensity of radiation there is increase in photo saturated current.

Fig.5
3. Frequency of radiation: The variation of stopping potential with frequency of radiation for a
given photo metal is shown in fig.6. Upto a certain frequency there no emission of photo
electrons and hence there is no photo current. At a particular frequency called “threshold
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frequency or cut – off frequency”. The emission of photo electrons starts and hence photo current
is produced.

Fig.6
The frequency at which the photoelectric effect is started is represented by „vo‟. The variation of
stopping potential against frequency is a straight line not passing through the origin.
4. Photo metal: The variation of stopping potential with frequency for different for photo metals
is shown in fig.7. As shown in fig.7, the cut off frequencies are different for different photo
metals, it mean that cut off frequency is not same for different photo metals.

Fig.7

Characteristic of Photoelectric effect:

1. Threshold frequency is different for different material.
2. Photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of light.
3. The K.E. of photoelectrons is directly proportional to frequency of light.
4. Stopping potential is directly proportional to frequency.
5. Photoelectric emission process is instantaneous.

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de-Broglie’s hypothesis:

According to de-Broglie hypothesis the matter should also have dual nature, like
radiation can acts as wave sometimes and like particles at other times.
According to de-Broglie, „a moving particle is associated with a wave which is known as
de Broglie wave’.
h
The wavelength of matter wave is   , Where m = mass of the particle, v = velocity
mv
of the particle.
Expression for de Broglie wavelength:
The expression of the wavelength associated with a material particle can be derived as follows.
According to Planck‟s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon is given by
c
E  h  h    (1)

Where c=velocity of light in vacuum
  Wavelength, h = Planck‟s constant
According to Einstein‟s mass –energy relation
E  mc2    (2)
c
mc 2  h

h
From (1) & (2)  
mc
h
  [ c  v  velocity ]
mv
We know that momentum p= mv
If we consider a material particle of mass “m” moving with a velocity „v‟ then wavelength
associated with this particle can be expressed as
h h
 
mv p
h
 
p

8
 1
If „E‟ be the KE of the material particle then E  mv 2
2
1 m2v 2
E
2 m
P2
E [ p  mv]
2m
P 2  2mE
P  2mE
h
We know the de Broglie wavelength  
p
h
 
2mE
This is the de Broglie wavelength in terms of K.E.
When a charged particle carrying a charge q is accelerated by a potential difference „V‟ volts,
then its K.E.‟E‟ is given byE=q v
Hence the de-Broglie wavelength associated with this particle is given by
h

2mqv
de Broglie wavelength associated with electron
Let „e‟ be the charge of the electron, „m‟ is the mass of the electron. When the electron is
accelerated by a potential of „V‟ volts then
1 2
mv  eV .
2
2eV
V2  .
m
2eV
V .
m
We know that de Broglie wavelength

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 h

mV
h

2eV
m
m
h
 .
2meV
6.62 1034

2  9.110.31 1.6 1019  V
12.25 0
 A
V
Where „V‟ is the applied potential
If the voltage applied to accelerate the electron „V‟ is 100 Volts then
12.26
  1.226 A0
100
 Characteristics or properties of matter waves
h
We know that the de- Broglie wavelength  
mv
h
 .
p
From this mass „m‟ velocity „v‟ and wavelength “  ‟ are inversely proportional to each other.
A de-Broglie wave (or) a matter wave has got the following characteristic properties.
(1) When „m‟ is small then corresponding de- Broglie wavelength is high and vice versa.
(2) When the velocity is low then the de- Broglie wavelength is high and vice versa.
(3) These waves are not electromagnetic waves.
(4) Matter waves are generated by the motion of particles. If the particles are at rest, then there is
no meaning of matter waves associated with them i.e. if V=0,   .
(5) The wavelength of matter waves are independent of charges on the particles, but depend upon
the velocity of particles.
(6)The velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of light. This can be proved as
follows.
According to Planck‟s equation E=h &According to Einstein equation E=mc2.

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 h  mc 2
mc 2

h
The wave velocity (ω) is given by
mc 2  h 
    .   
h  mv 
mc 2 h
 .
h mv
C2

V
As the particle velocity „v‟ cannot exceed velocity of light „c‟  is greater than velocity of light.
(7) In matter waves the wave nature and the particle nature are not exhibited simultaneously.

Wave-particle duality:

Wave: A wave is spread out over a relatively large region of space and it cannot be said to locate
just here and there. Actually a wave is nothing but rather a spread out disturbance. A wave is
specified by its frequency, wavelength, phase or wave velocity, amplitude and intensity.

Particle: A particle (matter) has mass and it is located at some definite point. It can move from
one place to another and it gives energy when slowed down or stopped. The particle is specified
by its mass, velocity momentum and energy.

By accepting the above facts, it appears very difficult to accept that radiation (visible
light, X-rays, U-V ray etc) exhibits the dual nature i.e. Radiation is a wave that spreads out in a
medium uniformly in all directions and a particle that has definite mass and occupies a particular
point.
In the experiments of photoelectric effect and Compton effect, radiation like visible light,
x-rays and U.V rays etc is exhibiting particle nature where as in the experiments of interference
and diffraction, it is exhibiting wave nature. Hence it can be concluded that radiation is
exhibiting dual nature.
But it is not possible to exhibit both the wave nature and particle nature at the same time.

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Davisson and Germer experiment:

Fig: 8 Davisson and Germer‟s Experiment

„Davisson and Germer experimentally verified the existence of matter waves. The experimental
arrangement is as shown in figure above.
Davisson and Germer were studying the reflection of electrons from the Nickel target.
The reflected electrons are diffracted like X-rays. The apparatus consists of an electron gun. It
consists of a filament „F‟, if filament „F‟ is heated to high temperature by sending current
through it then the electrons are emitted from the filament.
These electrons are accelerated by applying the potential difference „V‟. The electrons
are made into narrow beam with the help of two slits. The energetic electron beam is reflected
and enters into the Faraday cylinder.
Faraday cylinder is a double walled cylinder a negative potential is maintained between
them. So the fast moving electrons coming from the electron gun may enter inside the cylinder.
The faraday cylinder can be rotated on a circular scale in between 200to 900.
The Galvanometer shows deflection only due to the electrons coming from electron gun.
So the variation in the current can be noted with the help of Galvanometer. At different
potentials in the electron gun the current is measured at different angles.
Now a graph is plotted taking angle on x-axis and current along Y-axis. The graphs are obtained
as shown in the figure.

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A bump is started at 44 volts and it is gradually increases become maximum at 54 volts beyond
that the bump decreases and disappearing at 64V.
12.25 0

A
V
12.25
de Broglie wavelength 
54
  1.67 A0
From X-rays Analysis the Bragg‟s law is 2d sin   n
For Ni crystal the interplanar distance is d  0.91A0
According to the experiment   650
2  0.911010  sin 650    n  1 for first order 
   1.65 A0
 So the two wavelengths are nearly equal. Hence this experiment verifies the de Broglie
concept of matter waves.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle:

“According to Heisenberg it is impossible to measure both the position and momentum of a

particle simultaneously and accurately”.
This principle states that the order of magnitude of the uncertainties of two variables must be
equal to Planck‟s constant.
(or)
The product of uncertainty in locating the position and uncertainty in measuring the momentum
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 h
should not less than . Where „h‟ is Planck‟s constant.
4
Considering the pair of physical variables of a particle as position and momentum, we have
h
Px .x 
4
Where Px is the error (or) uncertainty in determining the momentum along x-axis and x is the

h
E.t 
4
uncertainty in determining the position of the particle similarly
h
J .  .
4
Where  and t the uncertainties are the energy and time J and  are the uncertainties in
determining the angular momentum and the angle. In an atomic process, let energy E be emitted
during the time interval t .
Let the minimum uncertainty in the number of waves that we count in a wave group be one
wave. Since
number of wave
Frequency = time int erval
1
  .
t

Hence the corresponding uncertainty in energy  = h Δυ

h
 
And so t
.t  h.
More precise calculation based on the nature of wave groups modifies this result to
h
.t 
4
This gives uncertainty in the measurement of energy and time of a process.

Born’s interpretation of the wave function: (Physical Significance of Wave Function ( ))

The wave function  has no direct physical meaning. It is a complex quantity representing the
variation of matter wave. It connects the particle nature and its associated wave nature
statistically.

14
1. The wave function is used to identify the state of a particle in an atomic structure.

2.  * (or )    is the probability density function *dxdydz gives the probability of

2

finding the electron in the region of space between x and x+dx ,y and y+dy and z and z+dz.


  dxdydz  1.
*



3. The wave function  satisfying this requirement is said to be normalized. If a

Particle exists in the space it can be represented by


   /  ( x) / dxdydz  1
2

0 0 0

Where dxdydz is the volume element

If the particle is confined to x-y plane only then the probability to find the particle can be
expressed as


  /  ( x) / dxdy  1
2

0 0

If the particle is confined to X-axis only than the probability to find the particle is


 /  ( x) / dx  1
2

5. The wave function or complex displacement  is a complex quantity and we cannot measure
it.

Limitations of Wave Function ( ):

There are certain limitations to take  as a solution for the Schrödinger‟s wave equation, they
are
1.  Must be finite for all values of x.
2.  Must be single valued i.e. for each set of x, y and z,  must have only one value.
3.  Must be continuous in all regions except where potential energy is infinite.
4.  is analytical, i.e. it possess continuous first order derivative.
5.  Vanishes at boundaries.

15
Schrodinger’s time independent wave equation:

Consider a particle of mass “m” moving with velocity “v” in space.Suppose a system of
stationary waves is associated with the particles at any point in space in the neighborhood of
particle.

We know that:

16
17
Particle in one dimensional box:

Consider an electron of mass „m‟ in an infinitely deep one-dimensional potential box with a
width of „a‟ units in which potential is constant and zero. The motion of the electron is
constrained by the walls of the box as shown in figure.

Fig: One-dimensional potential well of infinite depth

V ( x)  0, 0  x  L
V ( x)  , x  0 & x  L      (1)
The motion of the electron in one dimensional box can be described by the Schrödinger‟s wave
equation
d 2  2m
 2 ( E  V )  0
dx 2 
Inside the box, the potential V=0
Then,

18
 d 2  2m
 2 E   0    (2)
dx 2 
d 
2

2
 K 2  0
dx
2ME
Where K 2  .
2
The solution of equation (2) can be written as ( x)  A sin kx  B cos kx    (3)
Where A, B and K are unknown quantities.
To calculate the above values it is necessary to construct boundary condition
Hence, boundary conditions are
I. When x=0 then the wave function,   0 i.e /  / 2  0

II. When x=L then the wave function,   0 i.e /  / 2  0

Applying the first boundary condition in equation (3)
0  A sin 0  BCos0 B=0
So the equation (3) can be written as ( x)  ASinkx    (4)
Applying second boundary condition in equation (4) 0=A sinkL
Considered particle is present in the box and it cannot come out from the box, because the
potential is infinite outside the box, therefore A cannot be zero. Hence
sin KL  0
SinKL  Sinn
KL  n
n
k    (5)
L
n x
Substitute equation (5) value in equation (4) ( x)  A sin    (6)
L
To calculate the unknown constant A, it is must to consider the normalization condition i.e. the
probability to find an electron in one dimensional box is maximum and equals to unity.
L
i.e. /  ( x) 2 / dx  1
0

 n x 
L

A  dx  1
2
sin 2 
0  L 
1  2n x  
L
A2  1  cos   dx  1
0
2   2 

19
 L
  2n x  
2  sin  
A
x   L  1
2   2n  
  
 L   0
A2
( L  0)  0  1
2
A2 L 2
1 A 
2 L

2  n x 
Substitute „A‟ value in equation (6)  ( x)  sin  
L  L 
To calculate the Eigen values, Let us consider the equation

2mE
2
 K2

n
K
L
n 2 2
k2  2
L
2mE n 2 2
From (5) 2  2
 L
n  2
2 2
E 2 .
L 2m
n 2 2 h2  h 
 2 . 2    
L 4 .2m  2 

n2 h2 n2 2  h 
E ( or ) E   
8mL2 2mL2 2 
Where n= 1, 2, 3, etc. By using above equation the energy values of the electron are discrete.
That electron will be in any one of the above energy states or Eigen state  at a given time.

h2
These energy values are often referred to as Eigen values. The lowest energy level E1 
8mL2

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UNIT II: Introduction to theory of solids

The electron theory of solids has been developed in three main stages.

 The Classical Free Electron Theory proposed by Drude & Lorentz → the metals
containing free electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics. The collection of valence
electrons from all the atoms in a given metal forms electron gas and is free to move
throughout the volume of the metal. Here the electrons assumed to move in a constant
potential.

 The Quantum free electron theory proposed by Somerfield → the electrons obeys
quantum laws. According to this theory electrons in a lattice moves in a constant
potential and obeys laws of quantum mechanics.

 The failures of the free electron models (both classical and quantum) is mainly due to the
assumption of the potential due to a positive ion core is zero or rather constant throughout
the crystal thus the interaction between a free or detached electrons and positive ion cores
is negligible. But, in reality, the free electron-ion core interaction cannot be neglected. As
such the potential due to the positive ion cores cannot be taken as constant throughout the
crystal.

 The Zone theory (Band theory of solids) proposed by Bloch →the free electrons move
in a periodic potential field provided by the periodicity of the lattice. It explains the
mechanism of conductivity, semi conductivity on the basis of energy bands and hence
band theory.

Electron in a periodic potential

While the Somerfield theory accounts satisfactorily for electrical conductivity in most
metals, it failed to explain why other substances that also contain free electrons have virtually no
conductivity and are considered to be excellent insulators. A solution to this problem is given by
the zone theory or Band theory of solids.

The effect of the periodic lattice field on the motion of the electrons leads to the zone or
band theory of solids, which is of the greatest importance for understanding the structure and
properties of metals, alloys and non-metallic solids. According to the zone theory, electrons

21
move in a periodic potential provided by the lattice.

The potential of the solid varies periodically with the periodicity of space lattice and the
potential energy of the electron is zero near the nuclei which it is maximum halfway between the
adjacent nuclei which are separated by a interatomic spacing „a‟.

Bloch′s theorem

According to this theorem, the solution of the Schrodinger equation for a periodic
potential would be of the form of a plane wave modulated with the periodicity of lattice.

Crystalline solid consists of a lattice, composed of a large number of ionic cores at

regular intervals and the conduction electrons move throughout the lattice.

Let us consider the lattice of one dimension, i.e., an array of ionic cores along x-axis. If
we plot the potential energy of a conduction electron and its position in the lattice, the variation
of potential energy. The potential is minimum at the positive ion sites and maximum between the
two ions.

(a) Periodic positive ion cores inside b) One dimensional periodic

metallic crystals. potential in crystal.

The one dimensional Schrodinger equation in this case can be written as

𝑑²𝜓 8𝜋²𝑚
+ [E-V(x)] ψ=0 → (1)
𝑑𝑥 ² 𝑕²

The periodic potential V(x) may be defined as

V(x) = V(x+a) → (2)

22
Where „a‟ is the lattice constant

Bloch considered the solution of eqn. 1 as

ψK (x)=𝑒𝑥𝑝(ikx)Uk(x) → (3)

Eqn (2) is known as Bloch function. The function Uk (x) is periodic with the periodicity of the
crystal lattice. The free electron wave is modulated by periodic function Uĸ(x.

For a linear chain of atoms of length „L‟ in one dimensional case with „N‟ (=even) number of
atoms in the chain,

Uĸ(x) = Uĸ (x+Na) → (4)

From eqn (3) and eqn (4)

Ψĸ(x +na) = Uĸ(x+Na) 𝑒 [𝑖𝑘(𝑥+𝑁𝑎]

= 𝑒 (𝑖𝑘𝑁𝑎 ) Uĸ(x) 𝑒 (𝑖𝑘𝑥 )

= ψĸ(x) 𝑒 (𝑖𝑘𝑁𝑎 ) → (5)

This is referred to as Bloch condition.

Now,

ψĸ(x+Na)ψĸ*(x+Na) = ψĸ(x)𝑒 ( ikNa).ψĸ*(x) e(-ikNa)

= ψĸ(x) ψĸ*(x) e(0)

Ψĸ(x+Na) Ψĸ*(x+na) = Ψĸ(x) Ψĸ*(x) → (6)

This means that the electron is not located around any particular atom and the probability of
finding the electron is same throughout the crystal.

Kronig-Penny Model

Quantum free electron theory of metals fails to explain why some solids are behave as
conductors, some as insulators and some as semiconductors. But this classification of solids well
explained by band or zone theory.

23
 According to zone theory the electrons move in a periodic potential. It is assumed that the
potential energy of the electron is zero near the positive ion core and maximum in between the
adjacent ions in the lattice Kronig Penny proposed a simple potential in the form of an array of
square wells and barriers with periodicity a+b

a series of rectangular wells of width „a‟ and are placed at a separation of b. in the regions
where 0<x<a, the potential energy is zero and in regions such as –b<x<0, the potential energy is
V₀.

One dimensional periodic potential assumed by Kronig and Penny

The main features of the model and its predictions can be explained qualitatively.

Main features of the model

a. Schrodinger equation

The dynamical behavior of electrons in the Kronig-Penny model is represented by the following
Schrodinger equation,

𝑑²𝜓 2𝑚
+[ ħ² ] Eψ=0 for 0<x<a
𝑑𝑥 ²

𝑑2𝜓 2𝑚
And + [ ħ2 ] 𝐸 − 𝑉0 𝜓 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 𝑏 < 𝑥 < 0 → (1)
𝑑𝑥 2

Let us assume that total energy „E‟ of the electron under consideration is less than V₀.

2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚
Further, let us substitute α²= and β² = (V₀-E) → (2)
ħ² ħ²

Where α and β are real quantities.

24
Now Eq(1) becomes

𝑑²𝜓
+ α²ψ=0, for 0<x<a
𝑑𝑥 ²

𝑑²𝜓
And – β²ψ=0, for –b<x<0 → (3)
𝑑𝑥 ²

These equations can be solved with the help of Bloch theorem. The final solution of eq (3) is
given in the form of the following condition.

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑎
P + cosαa =coska → (4)
𝛼𝑎

𝑚𝑏
Where P= ħ² V₀a is scattering power of the potential barrier and V₀ is barrier strength. That

means, eq (3) will have a solution only when the condition (4) is satisfied.

𝑷𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜶𝒂
b. Graph of αa versus + cosαa
𝜶𝒂

To clearly understand the eq (4), let us consider the plot of eqn. (4) i.e. L.H.S versus αa. Since
the values of coska on R.H.s of eq (4) can be in between +1 and -1, hence αa (which is a measure
of energy) are allowed to take only those values for which the total left hand side (L.H.S) value
lies in between -1 and +1. Other values of αa are not allowed. This means that energy E is
restricted to lie within certain ranges of αa which form the allowed energy bands or zones.

3𝜋
Plot of the left hand side of eq(4) as a function of αa for p = 2 . The solid and broken lines on the

abscissa (αa- axis) correspond to allowed and forbidden energy regions of the energy spectrum
respectively.
25
Conclusions from the graph

1. The energy spectrum consists of alternative regions of allowed and vacant bands.
Forbidden band implies that the energy levels that lie in this region are not occupied by
the electrons.
2. The allowed (shaded) bands are narrowest for low values of energy and become broader
as energy increases, the unallowed (forbidden) bands becoming narrower.
3. a) For P=0 (i.e. on the extreme left), the whole energy spectrum is quasi-continuous. That
is all allowed bands are joined together forming an almost continuum.
b) However, the width of a particular allowed band decreases with increase in the value
of P. As P→ ∞, the allowed energy bands compress into simple energy levels and
thus result in a line spectrum.

Plot of P vs E revealing band structure of energy spectrum. The whole energy spectrum gets
divided into allowed and forbidden bands.

c. P versus energy relation

i. Tight binding limit

For P→ ∞, eq (4) will have solution only if sin αa = 0. That implies

𝑛𝜋
αa=±n𝜋 (or) α =± → (5)
𝑎

Where „n‟ is a positive integer

Substituting eq (5) in eq (2)

26
 2𝑚𝐸 𝑛2𝜋2
=
ђ2 𝑎2

𝑛 2 𝜋 2 ђ2 𝑛2𝜋2
Or E = = 8𝑚 𝑎 2 → (6)
2𝑚 𝑎 2

The energy spectrum given by eq(6) is same as that of an electron confined to a

potential well of width „a‟. Hence P→ ∞ is also known as the tight binding limit.

ii. Free electron limit (P→ 0)

In the limit of P→ 0, eq (4) becomes cos αa = cos Ka,
or α= k
E= → (7)
The energy spectrum given by eq (7) is same as that of free electron. That means, all
values of energy are allowed for the electron like in the case of a classical particle.
Hence this limit is called free electron limit.

d. Energy versus wave vector (E-k) relationship: Brillouin zones

Brillouin zones are the boundaries that are marked by the values of wave vector k, in which the
electron can have allowed energy values
It can be seen from the Fig. E is not continuous with respect to k, but it shows discontinuity at k
= . Thus, these discontinuities divide the whole E-k curve into different regions called as
Brillouin zones.

The relation between energy and wave number for a one-dimensional lattice

The limits of the first Brillouin zones are as follows.

1st zone: k = to
2nd zone k= to and to
rd
3 zone k=- to - and to

27
Origin of Energy band formation in solids

In a crystal, the atoms are closely packed into a regular periodic lattice. When atoms comes close
together, they strongly interact with each other and the outer electron orbitals overlap with each
other. Hence, the interactions of large number of atoms from closely spaced energy levels known
as permitted energy band. The permitted energy bands are separated by energy gap. The lower
completely filled band is valance band and upper unfilled band is called conduction band.

In an isolated atom, the electrons are tightly bound and have discrete, sharp energy levels. When
two identical atoms are brought closer, the outermost orbits of these atoms overlap and interact

When the wave functions of the electrons of the different atoms begin to overlap considerably,
the energy levels split into two energy levels.

Splitting of energy levels due to interatomic interaction

If more atoms are bought together, more levels are formed and for a solid of N atoms, each of the
energy levels of an atom splits into N levels of energy

The levels are so close together, that they form an almost continuous band. The width of this
band depends on the degree of overlap of the electrons of adjacent atoms and is largest for the
outermost atomic electrons.

In a solid, many atoms are brought together that the split energy levels form a set of energy
bands of very closely spaced levels with forbidden energy gaps between them. Overlapping of
28
these atoms occurs for smaller equilibrium spacing ro.

With decrease of interatomic spacing overlapping of energy bands take place

Concept of effective mass of electron

When a crystal is subjected to the influence of an electric field, a free electron in the crystal
moves under the combined influence of the applied electric field and that of a potential due to
lattice ions. Because of such effect, the electron responds as if it possesses a mass called
„effective mass‟ which is different from its true mass with which it is accounted if it were to be
under the influence of external filed alone.

Definition: when an electron in a periodic potential of lattice is accelerated by an electric field

or magnetic field, the mass of the electron is called effective mass. It is denoted by m*.

Or

The mass of the electron in the periodic lattice is known as effective mass of electron.

When a free electron of mass „m‟ moves under the influence of an external force F, the equation
of motion is

F= m = ma → (1)
Where „a‟ is acceleration
If the force is due to electric field of intensity E, then
ma = eE
Or a= → (2)

29
But the acceleration a = is not a constant in the periodic lattice of the crystal through the
applied electric field is constant. If can be considered that this variation in acceleration is caused
by thevariation of electron‟s mass when it moves in the crystal lattice.
Acceleration a= → (3)
The electrical force on the electron F=m*a → (4)
In the crystal, the electron is bounded between very small spacing since the lattice constant „a‟ is
approximately 1 A0. Hence the wave nature like a group of waves and is governed by wave
mechanics. Its velocity „V‟ is the group velocity of the electron waves.

From the concept of de-Broglie waves, we are familiar that

p =ЋK
→ (5)
And E= ω
F= =
= → (6)
= → (7)
According to wave theory, gives the group velocity.
Hence, v= = = → (8)
Differentiating eq (8), we get
a= =
=
a= . → (9)

Substituting the value of from eq (6)

a=
a= → (10)

The effective mass m* varies with k as shown in figure 4.20. From the curve, it is clear that m*is
positive between –k0 and +k0 and negative at other values of k up to . It means that effective
mass is negative at the top of the band.
It is in similar form of Newton‟s law of force F = ma or a= . Therefore by comparison, we can
write
m* = → (11)

This is the expression for effective mass of the electron. The effective mass m* of the electron is
30
 a fictitious mass. It differs from its actual mass m of the electron. Depending upon the value of
, m* can be less or more than „m‟. Interestingly it may take on negative values also.

Variation of effective mass of electron with wave number

The variation of effective mass as a function of wave number k is shown in the graph, we
observe the following points:

 Near k = 0, the effective mass approaches m.

 As the value of k increases, the effective mass m* increases, and reaches

its maximum value at the point of inflection on E-k curve.

 Above point of inflection, m* is negative and as k→π/a, it decreases to a

small negative value.

Therefore, near the bottom of the band, the effective mass m* has constant positive value. Beyond
the point of inflection, m* becomes negative. So, effective mass m* may be greater, or smaller or
even negative than the mass m of the electron.

Variation of effective mass of electron with wave number

Classification of materials into conductors, semiconductors and insulators

Based on band theory, solids can be broadly classified into three categories, viz, insulators,
semiconductors and conductors. Their band structures can be as shown in figure

Insulators

1. In case of insulators, the energy gap between conduction band and valance band is very high
and is about 10eV

2. The conduction band is completely vacant and the valance band is completely filled.

31
3. Even at high electric field, no electron will jump from valance band to conduction band
because of its large energy gap. Hence electrical conductivity is zero.

3. The resistivity of insulators is very high.

4. Insulators are bad conductors of electricity.

Example: glass, wood, plastic

Valence and conduction bands of insulator separated by large band gap

Semiconductors

1. In semiconductor the energy gap between valance and conduction band is very small and is
about 0.5eV to 1eV. (0.7 eV for germanium and 1.1 eV for silicon).

2. At 0K, the conduction band is almost empty and the valence band is completely filled. As the
temperature increases, the bonds in the valance band break up and the created electrons move
from valance band to conduction band.

3. The vacancies created in the valance band due to breaking of bonds are termed as hole. Hence
conduction band is partially filled and valance band is partially vacant.

4. This electrons and holes are responsible for electrical conduction in semiconductors.

5. The resistivity varies from 10-14 to 107Ω-m.

6. They have electrical properties between those of insulators and conductors.

Example: Ge, Si

32
 Valence and conduction bands of semiconductor separated by small band gap

Conductors

1. In case of conductors, the conduction band overlaps valance band hence there is no energy gap
between them.

2. The electrons are free to move within the conductor are responsible for electrical conduction.

3. As temperature increases, the electrical conduction decreases, because mobility decreases due
to large number of collisions with ions.

4. They possess very low resistivity and very high conductivity values.

5. Metals like copper, iron etc. are best examples of conductors.

Example: Cu, Al, Fe etc..

Metals having (a) partially filled valence band and (b) overlap of completely filled valence band
33
UNIT-III
Semiconductor Physics

Introduction

Electrical conductivity of semiconductors like Silicon and Germanium lies in between metals &
insulators. They belong to IV-A group. At 0K, Semiconductors behave like Insulators. As
temperature increases the conductivity increases and starts to behave like conductors. Pure
germanium and silicon are called intrinsic semiconductors. By adding (doping) a small quantity
of eithergroup-III or group-V element atoms as impurity into pure Ge or Si, the electrical
conductivity of the materials increases. This impure semiconductor is called extrinsic
semiconductors.

Figure 15(a) Energy band diagram of a semiconductor (b) Fermi level at T=0K & Thermal
excitation of electrons at T>0K

34
Intrinsic Semiconductor

Pure germanium or silicon called an intrinsic semiconductor. Each atom possesses four valence
electrons in outer most orbits. At T = 0K fig.16 (a) a 2-D representation of the crystal of silicon
& band diagram is shown in the figure 16(b).

Figure16: (a) Intrinsic silicon crystal at T =0K, 2-D representation of silicon crystal. (b)Energy
band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor

Explanation: At 0K, all the valence electrons of silicon atoms are in covalent bonds and their
energies constitute a band of energies called valance band (VB). So at 0K, VB is completely
filled & conduction band (CB) is empty.

If we rise temperature (T>0K), some of the electrons which are in covalent bonds break the
bonds (Fig. 17 (a)) become free and move from VB to CB(Fig. 17 (b)). The energy required
should be greater than the energy gap of a semiconductor (E>Eg). The electron vacancy or
deficiency created in VB is called holes. This is shown in the figure 18 below.

35
Figure17 Silicon crystal at temperature above 0K (a) Due to thermal energy breaking ofCovalent bonds take place (b)
Energy band representation

Electron concentration in intrinsic semiconductor in conduction band (n)

Definition: The no. of free electrons per unit volume of the conduction band of a given intrinsic
semiconductor is called electron concentration, represented by „n‟.

Figure 18 (a) Energy band diagram of silicon at T = 0K(b) Energy band diagram of silicon at T > 0K

Derivation: Let the no. of free electrons per unit volume of the semiconductor having energies E
and E + dE in CB is represented by n(E) dE. It is obtained by multiplying the density of energy
states Z (E) d (E). [No. of energy states per unit volume] Fermi – Dirac distribution function for
the Probability of occupation of electrons FC (E)

Therefore n(E) dE = [Z(E) d(E)] [F(E)] → (1)

Where Z(E) d(E) = Density of energy states
F(E) = Probability of occupation of electrons given by Fermi – Dirac function
The total no. of electrons in CB per unit volume between the energies EC to ∞ is given by
integrating equation (1) with limits EC to ∞
∞
n = 𝐸 𝑛 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 → (2)
𝐶
∞
n= 𝐸𝑐
[𝑍
𝐸 𝑑𝐸] × 𝐹 𝐸 →(3)
{Since from equation (1)}
But 𝐹 𝐸 is Fermi – Dirac distribution function;
1
𝐹 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸 𝐹 →(4)
1+𝑒 𝐾 𝐵 𝑇
𝐸−𝐸 𝐹
Here E > EF, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑒 𝐾 𝐵 𝑇 >> 1
Hence „1‟ can be neglected in equation (4)
36
 1
𝐹 𝐸 = 𝐸−𝐸 𝐹
𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
𝐸 𝐹 −𝐸
𝐹 𝐸 = 𝑒 𝐾𝐵 𝑇
→ (5)
Also the density of electrons
𝜋 8𝑚 ∗ 3 1
Z (E) d (E) = 2 [ 𝑕 2𝑒 ]2 (𝐸)2 dE → (6)
Here E > EC .Since EC is the minimum energy state in CB. Hence equation (6) becomes
𝜋 8𝑚 ∗ 3 1
Z (E) d (E) = 2 [ 𝑕 2𝑒 ]2 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 )2 dE → (7)
Substituting equations (5) & (7) in equation (3) we get
𝐸 𝐹 −𝐸
∞ 𝜋 8𝑚 𝑒∗ 3 1
n= [ ]2
𝐸𝐶 2 𝑕 2
(𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 )2 𝑒 𝐾 𝐵 𝑇 dE
𝐸 𝐹 −𝐸
𝜋 8𝑚 𝑒∗ 3 ∞ 1
n=2[ ]2 𝐸 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶 )2 𝑒 𝐾 𝐵 𝑇 dE → (8)
𝑕2 𝐶
Let 𝜀 = 𝐸 − 𝐸𝐶
d𝜀 = 𝑑𝐸 { 𝐸𝐶 is constant} . The limits are 𝜀 = 0 to 𝜀=
Hence equation (9) can be written as
n=

n= → (9)

In equation (9) But = → (10)

Substituting (10) in (9) we get
n=

n=

n=

n=2 → (13)

{Here NC = } Therefore n =

Hole concentration in the valance band of intrinsic semiconductor (p)

Definition: The number of holes per unit volume of the valance band of a given intrinsic
semiconductor is called hole concentration, represented by „p‟.

Derivation: Let the number of holes per unit volume of the semiconductor having energies E, E
+ dE in VB is represented by p(E)dE. It is obtained by multiplying the density of energy states
Z(E) d(E) [No. of energy states per unit volume] and Fermi – Dirac distribution function for the
Probability of occupation of holes F(E).

37
Figure 19(a) Energy band diagram of silicon at T = 0K (b) Energy band diagram of silicon at T > 0K
Therefore p(E) dE = [Z(E) d(E)] [1-F(E)] → (1)
Where Z(E) d(E) = Density of energy states.
1- F(E) = Hole probability given by Fermi – Dirac function
The total no. of holes in VB per unit volume between the energies ∞ to E v is given by integrating
equation (1) with limits ∞ to E v
p=
Ev
p= −∞
Z E dE([1 − F E ]→ (2)
{Since from equation (1)}
But
[1-F(E)] is Fermi Dirac distribution function
1-F(E) = 1

Simplifying; 1-F(E) =

Divide by we get
1-F(E) =

1-F(E) = → (3)

Here EF > E, >> 1

Hence „1‟ can be neglected in equation (3)

38
1-F(E)= → (4)

Also the density of holes

Z(E) d(E) = ( dE → (5)
Here E < E v .Since E v is the maximum energy state in VB. Hence equation (5) becomes
Z(E) d(E) = ( dE → (6)
Substituting equations (4) & (6) in equation (2) we get
p= dE

p= dE →(10)
Let
d { is constant} . The limits are = =0
Hence equation (10) can be written as
p=

p= → (11)

In equation (11) But = → (12)

Substituting (12) in (11) we get
p=

p=

p=

p=2 → (13)
{Here NV = }

p=

Fermi energy level in intrinsic semiconductor

At temperature T K, the electron concentration „n‟ is equal to hole concentration „p‟ in intrinsic
semiconductor.
i.e. n=p
2
On simplifying we get

39
 =

=
Taking logarithms on both sides we get
3
=2 𝑙𝑛[ ] mp*

+ ]
3
= + ln[ ] {At T > 0K}
4

Let T = 0K =
This means EF lies in the middle between ( of the energy gap „E g‟Fig. 20(a).
As the temperature increases the electrons move from VB to CB. Also the Fermi level slightly rises
upwards towards CB Fig. 20(b). Hence = + ].

Figure 20 (a) Fermi level at T = 0K (b) Upward shift of near EC at T> 0k

Intrinsic carrier concentration (ni)

Definition: The no. of free electrons and holes per unit volume of the intrinsic semiconductor is
called intrinsic carrier concentration (n i) remains constant.
i .e. n = p = ni
n p = (ni) (ni)
= (n p) → (1)
= → (2)
Consider equation (1) = (n p)
2 2

=4

4 {Since = Eg}

2
If = , the above equation becomes

2
40
 2

Let 2 = C.

Then

Extrinsic (or) Impure semiconductor

Introduction: The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor can be increased by adding small

rd
amounts of impurity atoms, such as III or Vth group atoms. The conductivity of silicon is
increased by 1000 times on adding 10 parts of boron per million part of silicon. The process of
adding impurities is called doping and the impurity added is called dopant.

N – Type semiconductor

In a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor, when pentavalent an impurity like Phosphorous atom

consisting of five valance electrons is doped, and then concentration of electrons increases than
holes. Hence the given semiconductor formed is called N – type semiconductor. This is shown in
the figure 21(a) below. By adding donor impurities, the free electrons generated or donated, form
an energy level called as “Donor energy level” i.e. ED is shown in the figure 21(b) below.

Figure 21 (a) Representation of n- type silicon at T = 0K (b) Energy band diagram at T = 0K

In the figure (b) EF is Fermi energy level is in between EC & ED at T = 0K.
Hence EF = . The donor level„ ‟ is near to EF consisting of free electrons. But CB is
empty.
Variation of Fermi level EF with respect to temperature in N -type
As temperature increases the electrons in the Donor level moves into CB leaving holes. Also

41
The Fermi level slightly shifts upwards towards CB. If further increase of temperature is done,
the hole concentration also increases with respect to electron concentration. Hence it reaches
again the concentration of n = p i.e. an intrinsic semiconductor. At lasts the Fermi level drops in
the middle of the energy gap (or) Forbidden band gap, indicating a pure semiconductor that is
towards „Ei‟. This happens only for very high temperatures as shown in the figure 22 below.

Fig.22 Variation of Fermi level wrt temperature in n- type semiconductor

Variation of EF with respect to donor concentration

As the donor concentration increases the Fermi level decreases (lowers) as in case of intrinsic
semiconductor „Ei. This is shown in the figure 23.

Figure 23 Variation of Fermi level with temperature for different donor concentrations in an n-
type semiconductor

Carrier concentration in N – type semiconductor & Density of electrons in CB

Let ND is the donor concentration (no. of donor atoms per unit volume). Let it be written as

42
Or written as = exp [

= →(1)
The density of electrons in CB in pure semiconductor is given by
=2 → (2)
At very low temperatures the no. of electrons in CB must be equal to the no. of donor atoms per
unit volume. Hence equating equations (1) & (2) we get
2 =

Taking logarithms on both sides we get

=

{At T>0K}→(3)

Case I: At T= 0K
. That is EF lies between
Case II: At T>0K. As temperature increases the Fermi level slightly shifts upwards towards CB,
hence

Density of electrons in CB in extrinsic semiconductor:

Here consider equation (2). That is

OR

Substitute the value of EF from equation (3) in equation (2), it becomes

=
On simplifying
We know that exp (a + b) = exp (a) × exp (b)
Also exp (log x) = x

43
 =

OR

P- type semiconductor

rd
P – Type semiconductor is formed by doping with trivalent impurity atoms (acceptor) like III
group atoms i.e. Aluminum, Gallium, and Indium etc to a pure semiconductor like Ge or Si. As
the acceptor trivalent atoms has only three valance electrons & Germanium , Silicon has four
valence electrons; holes or vacancy is created for each acceptor dopant atom. Hence holes are
majority and electrons are minority. It is shown in the figure 24 (a) below. Also an acceptor
energy level „EA‟ is formed near VB consisting of holes, as shown in the figure 24(b) below.

Fig.24 (a) Representation of p- type silicon at T = 0K (b) Energy band diagram at T =0K

As temperature increases (T>0K) the electrons in VB which are in covalent bonds break the
bonds become free and move from VB to acceptor energy level E A.

Variation of Fermi level EF with respect to temperature in P- type semiconductor

As temperature increases the Fermi level EF slightly drops towards VB. For further increase of
high temperatures the electron concentration also increases with respect to hole concentration.
Hence a condition is reached such that „n = p‟ i.e. it becomes an intrinsic or pure semiconductor.

44
Hence the Fermi level increases and reaches to intrinsic level Ei as in case of pure
semiconductor. This is shown in the figure 25.

Figure 25 Variation of Fermi level wrt temperature in p- type

Variation of Fermi level with respect to acceptor concentration:

Also as the acceptor concentration increases we find that Fermi level EF reaches (raises) towards
intrinsic level Ei as in case of pure or intrinsic semiconductor. This is shown in the figure 26.

Fig 26 Variation of Fermi level with temperature for different acceptor concentrations in a p-type

Carrier concentration of P- type semiconductor & Density of holes in VB

Let N A is the acceptor concentration (no. of acceptor atoms per unit volume). Let it be written as
= exp [
Or written as
= → (1)
The density of holes in VB in pure semiconductor is given by
=2 → (2)
At very low temperatures the no. of holes in VB must be equal to the no. of acceptor atoms per
45
unit volume. Hence equating equations (1) & (2) we get
2 =

Taking logarithms on both sides we get

=

{At T>0K} → (3)

Case I: At T= 0K
.That is EF lies between
Case II: At T>0K. As temperature increases the Fermi level slightly drops towards VB, hence

Density of electrons in CB in extrinsic semiconductor

Here consider equation (2). That is

OR

Substitute the value of EF from equation (3) in equation (2), it becomes

=
On simplifying
We know that exp (a + b) = exp (a) × exp (b)
Also exp (log x) = x
=

OR

46
Fig.27 Energy band diagrams of (a) Intrinsic semiconductor (b) N- type & (c) P- type
semiconductors

Hall Effect

Definition: If a piece of semiconductor carrying a current „I‟ is placed in a transverse or

perpendicular magnetic field, then an Electric field „EH‟ is generated in perpendicular to both „I‟
and „B‟ (Fig. 28). Hence production of Hall electric field „EH‟ and generation of Hall voltage VH
by applying current „I‟ & „B‟ in perpendicular directions is called Hall Effect.

Determination of Hall coefficient RH, Hall voltage VH& Applications of Hall Effect

Derivation of RH, VH, &EH:

Assume an N – type semiconductor. Let „I‟ be the current passed along X- axis. Let „B‟ the
magnetic field applied along „Z‟ axis. Due to current „I‟, due to the flow of electrons, the force
acting on electrons is in opposite direction to the direction of conventional current.

Due to the magnetic field „B‟ there is a down ward force act on each electron given by
Bev. This makes the electrons deviated in a down ward direction along Z – axis. This causes a
negative charge to accumulate on the bottom face.

Hence FB = Bev
Where „e‟ = charge of electron, v = velocity of electron

47
Fig. 28. A semiconductor applied to current and magnetic field perpendicularly in Hall Effect

A potential difference is formed from top to bottom of the specimen. The potential difference
causes a field EH to flow along negative Y- axis. Due to EH along negative Y- direction a force of
eEH acts in upward direction along positive Y- axis.

Hence FE = e EH

Under equilibrium condition

Upward force due to EH = Downward force due to B.

FB = FE
e EH = Bev
v= → (1)
If J is the current density then J = nev
v= → (2)
Equating (1) & (2) we get =
EH =
EH = ]BJ
Let Hall coefficient RH = for electrons
RH = for holes
Hence EH = RH B J → (4)
RH = → (5)

Where n= electron density, P = hole density, EH = Hall electric field, RH = Hall coefficient

B = magnetic field, J = current density

Experimental determination of RH

Consider equation (5)

RH =
Let VH is the Hall voltage across the sample of thickness„t‟
Generally V = Ed
In Hall effect VH = EH × t
EH = → (6)
If „b‟ is the width of the sample semiconductor, Area „A‟, thickness‟t‟
Area = breadth × thickness
A=b×t
48
We know that current density J=
J= → (7)
Substituting equations (6) & (7) in (5) we get
RH =

Hall coefficient RH = → (8)

Where VH = Hall voltage, b = breadth of a semiconductor, B = magnetic field
I = current due to flow of electron
VH = → (9)

Applications of Hall Effect

1. For determination of type of given semiconductor.
For N-type, Hall coefficient RH = negative; For P-type, Hall coefficient RH = Positive
2. To determine carrier concentration „n‟ and „p‟ ; that is n = p=

3. Determination of mobility of charge carriers (

, Where = electrical conductivity

4. For measurement of magnetic flux density „B‟ & Hall voltage.
5. To determine the sign of charge carriers, whether the conductivity is due to electrons or
holes.

Direct and Indirect band gap semiconductors

Direct band gap semiconductor Indirect band gap semiconductor

 These are impure or Extrinsic or  These are pure or intrinsic or elemental
compound semiconductors Semiconductors
 Examples : InP, GaAs, GaAsP etc  Examples : Ge, Si


 Figure: E-K curve
Figure: E-K curve
 The minimum energy of Conduction band
 The minimum energy of Conduction band
(CB) and maximum energy of valence band
(CB) and maximum energy of valence band
49
 (VB) have the same value of wave vector, (VB) have the different values of wave
i.e. k1 = k2 vector, i.e. k1 k2
 Here an electron from CB to can recombine  Here an electron from CB cannot
with a hole in VB directly by emitting light recombine directly with holes in VB. But
of photon of energy „h ‟. can recombine through traps by emitting
light without emission of photon or light.
 They are used to fabricate LEDs, Laser  They are used to amplify the signals in
Diodes etc. electronic devices like rectifiers,
 Life time (recombination rate) of charge transistors, amplifiers etc.
carriers is less.  Life time of charge carriers is more.
 Emission of light has energy gap is
Eg = eV  . No emission of light. It conducts only
Electricity.

50
IV LASER and FIBER OPTICS

It is a device to produce a highly intense monochromatic narrow beam of light in which

the waves are convergent. Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation. The light emitted from the conventional light source (eg: sodium lamp, candle) is said
to be incoherent. Because the radiation emitted from different atom do not have any definite
phase relationship with each other. Lasers are much important because the light sources having
high monochromaticity, high intensity, high directionality and high coherence.

Laser principle now a days is extended up to - rays hence Gamma ray lasers are called
Grazers. The first two successful lasers developed during 1960 were Ruby laser and He- Ne
lasers. Some lasers emit light is pulses while others emit as a continuous wave.

Stimulated Absorption:

The process of absorbing energy from photons is called absorption of radiation.

Let us consider that the energy level of ground state electrons or lower energy state electrons is
E1 and the next higher energy level or higher energy state is E2.

When ground state electrons (E1) absorbs sufficient energy from photons, they jump into the next
higher energy level or state (E2). When the ground state electrons absorb energy which is equal
to the energy difference between the two energy states (E2 – E1), the electrons jumps from
ground state (E1) to the excited state or higher energy level (E2). The electrons in the higher

51
energy level are called excited electrons.

The light or photons energy applied to excite the electrons can be mathematically written as

𝑕𝜗 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1

Where h = Planck‟s constant

𝜗= Frequency of photon

E1 = Lower energy level electrons or ground state electrons

E2 = Higher energy level electrons or excited state electrons

Absorption occurs only if the energy of photon exactly matches the difference in energy between
the two electron shells or orbits.

Spontaneous Emission

The process by which excited electrons emit photons while falling to the ground level or lower
energy level spontaneously is called spontaneous emission.

When the electrons in the ground state or lower energy state (E1) absorb sufficient energy from
photons, they jump to the excited state or next higher energy state (E2).The electrons in the
excited state do not stay for a long period because the lifetime of electrons in the higher energy
state or excited state is very small, of the order of 10-8 sec. Hence, after a short period, they fall
back to the ground state by releasing energy in the form of photons or light.

52
In spontaneous emission, the electrons changing from one state (higher energy state) to another
state (lower energy state) occurs naturally. So the photon emission also occurs naturally or
spontaneously. The photons emitted due to spontaneous emission do not flow exactly in the
same direction of incident photons. They flow in the random direction.

Stimulated Emission:

The process by which electrons in the excited state are stimulated to emit photons while falling
to the ground state or lower energy state is called stimulated emission.

Unlike the spontaneous emission, in this process, the light energy or photon energy is supplied to
the excited electrons. In stimulated emission, the electrons in the excited state need not wait for
natural spontaneous emission to occur. An alternative method is used to stimulate excited
electron to emit photons and fall back to ground state.

The incident photon stimulates or forces the excited electron to emit a photon and fall into a
lower state or ground state. The energy of a stimulating or incident photon must be equal to the
energy difference between the two electron shells.

In this process, the excited electron releases an additional photon of same energy (same
frequency, same phase, and in the same direction) while falling into the lower energy state. Thus,
two photons of same energy are released while electrons falling into the ground state.

In stimulated emission process, each incident photon generates two photons.

The photons emitted in the stimulated emission process will travel in the same direction of the
incident photon.Many ways exist to produce light, but the stimulated emission is the only method
known to produce coherent light (beam of photons with the same frequency).All the photons in
the stimulated emission have the same frequency and travel in the same direction.

Characteristics of Laser:

The four characteristics of a laser radiation over conventional light sources are
(1) Laser is highly monochromatic
(2) Laser is highly directional
(3) Laser is highly coherent
53
(4) The intensity of laser is very high

1. Highly monochromatic:

0 o
The band width of ordinary light is about 1000A . The band width of laser light is about 10A .

The narrow band width of a laser light is called as high monochromaticity.

Band width: The spread of the wavelength (frequency) about the wavelength of maximum
intensity is band width. Laser light is more monochromatic than that of a conventional light
source. Because of this monochromaticity large energy can be concentrated in to an extremely
small band width. The degree of monochromaticity of light from any source can be defined in
terms of line width (spectral width) of the source. The frequency spread Δν of spectral line is
related to the wavelength spread Δλ as For a white light source Δλ = 300nm whereas for a gas
(2

discharge line Δλ = 0.01nm.

2. High directionality:

In conventional light sources (lamp, sodium lamp and torchlight), photons will travel in
random direction. Therefore, these light sources emit light in all directions.

On the other hand, in laser, all photons will travel in same direction. Therefore, laser
emits light only in one direction. This is called directionality of laser light. The width of a laser
beam is extremely narrow. Hence, a laser beam can travel to long distances without spreading.

If an ordinary light travels a distance of 2 km, it spreads to about 2 km in diameter. On the

other hand, if a laser light travels a distance of 2 km, it spreads to a diameter less than 2 cm.The
directionality of laser beam is given by (or) expressed in divergence.
54
The divergence ∆ = (r2 -r1) /d2-d1Where r2, , r1 are the radius of laser beam spots and d2 , d1
are distances respectively from the laser source. Hence for getting a high directionality there
should be low divergence.

3. Coherence:

Laser has high degree of ordering than other common sources. Due to its coherence only it is
12
possible to create high power (10 watts) in space with laser beam of 1µm diameter. There are
two independent concepts of coherence.

i) Spatial coherence ii) Temporal coherence

i. Spatial coherence: The two light fields at different point in space maintain a constant phase
difference over any time (t) they are said to be spatial coherence or transverse coherence. When
we choose two spatial points P1 and P2 on the cross section of the output beam, if they are in
phase with one another or maintain same phase differences then they are spatially coherent.

In He- Ne gas laser the coherence length ( lc ) is about 600km.It means over the distance the
phase difference is maintained over any time .For sodium light it is about 3cm.

ii. Temporal coherence: The correlation of amplitude and phase between any two points on a
wave train over a period of time is called temporal coherence or longitudinal coherence. If the
two points P1 and P2 which are on the same wave train caries same phase and amplitude then

55
 it is said to be temporal coherence.

-3 -10
For He- Ne laser it is a about 10 second, for sodium it is about 10 second only.

4. High intensity:

Lasers are bright and intense light sources because of coherence and directionality. Intensity of a
wave is the energy per unit time flowing through a unit area. The light from an ordinary source
spreads out uniformly in all directions and form spherical wave fronts around it.

Ex:- If we look a 100W bulb from a distance of 30cm the power entering the eye is 1 / 1000 of
watt. But in case of a laser light, energy is in small region of space and in a small wavelength and
-3
hence is said to be of great intensity. The power range of laser is about 10 W for gas laser and
9
10 W for solid state laser.

Optical Resonator:

The laser medium is surrounded by two parallel mirrors which provides feedback of the light.
One mirror is fully reflective (100 % reflective) whereas another one is partially reflective (<100
% reflective). These two mirrors as a whole is called optical resonator. Optical resonator is also
known as optical cavity or resonating cavity.

These two mirrors are given optical coatings which determine their reflective properties. Optical
coating is a thin layer of material deposited on materials such as mirror or lens. Each mirror is
coated differently. Therefore, each mirror will reflect the light differently. One mirror will
completely reflect the light whereas another one will partially reflect the light.

The completely reflective mirror is called high reflector whereas the partially reflective mirror is
called output coupler. The output coupler will allows some of the light to leave the optical cavity
to produce the laser‟s output beam.

When energy is supplied to the laser medium, the lower energy state electrons in the laser
medium will moves to excited state. After a short period, the electrons in the excited state will
fall back to the ground state by releasing energy in the form of photons or light. This process of
emission of photons is called spontaneous emission. Thus, light is produced in an active medium

56
by a process called spontaneous emission.

The light generated within the laser medium will bounce back and forth between the two mirrors.
This stimulates other electrons to release light while falling to the ground state. Likewise, a large
number of electrons are stimulated to emit light. Thus, optical gain is achieved.This amplified
light escapes through the partially reflecting mirror. The process of stimulating electrons of other
atoms to produce light in the laser medium is called stimulated emission.

The light in the laser medium is reflected many hundreds of times between the mirrors before it
escape through the partially reflecting mirror. The light escaped from the partially reflecting
mirror is produced by the stimulated emission process. Hence, this light will travel to large
distances without spreading in the space.

Metastable state: Metastable state is particular excited state of an atom, nucleus, or other system
that has a longer lifetime than the ordinary excited states and that generally has a shorter lifetime
than the lowest, often stable, energy state, called the ground state. A metastable state may thus be
considered a kind of temporary energy trap or a somewhat stable intermediate stage of a system
where the life time of atom, nucleus or system is in 10-6 s.

Active Medium:

The laser medium is a medium where spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation takes
place.

After receiving sufficient energy from source, the electrons in the lower energy state or ground
state are excited to the higher energy state (in the laser medium) and spontaneous emission will
takes place. In spontaneous emission, each electron emits a single photon while falling to the
ground state.

57
When these emitted photons collide with the electrons in the excited state or meta stable state, it
forces meta stable electrons to fall back to the ground state. As a result, electrons again release
energy in the form of photons. This is called stimulated emission. In stimulated emission, each
electron emits two photons while falling to the ground state. When these emitted photons are
again interacted with the meta stable state electrons then again two photons are emitted by each
electron. Thus, millions of photons are generated by using only a small number of photons. Laser
medium is also known as active medium or gain medium.

Population Inversion:

The number of atoms in higher energy level is more than the number of atoms in lowest energy
level i.e. N2˃N1. The process of making of higher population in higher energy level than the
population in lower energy level is known as population inversion.

Consider a group of electrons with two energy levels E1 and E2.

E1 is the lower energy state and E2 is the higher energy state.

N1 is the number of electrons in the energy state E1.
N2 is the number of electrons in the energy state E2.

The number of electrons per unit volume in

an energy state is the population of that
energy state.

Population inversion cannot be achieved in a two energy level system. Under normal conditions,
the number of electrons (N1) in the lower energy state (E1) is always greater as compared to the
number of electrons (N2) in the higher energy state (E2)N1 > N2

Population inversion is achieved by pumping the atoms from the ground level to the higher
energy level.

58
Pumping Schemes: There are some restrictions are imposed on two level laser system. To
overcome such restrictions three and four level laser systems are introduced.

Three level Laser:

Consider a system consisting of three energy levels E1, E2, E3 with N number of electrons. It can
be simply written as E1 < E2 < E3. That means the energy level of E2lies in between E1 and
E3. The energy level E2 is sometimes referred to as Meta stable state.

The N number of electrons in the system occupies these three energy levels. Let N1 be the
number of electrons in the energy state E1, N2 be the number of electrons in the energy state
E2 and N3 be the number of electrons in the energy state E3.

Under normal conditions, It can be simply written as N1> N2 > N3.Under certain conditions, the
greater population of higher energy state (E2) as compared to the lower energy state (E1) is
achieved. Such an arrangement is called population inversion.

When we supply light energy which is equal to the energy difference of E3and E1, the electrons
in the lower energy state (E1) gains sufficient energy and jumps into the higher energy state (E3).
This process of supplying energy is called pumping.

The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E3 is very small as compared to the lifetime of E2.
Therefore, electrons in the energy level E3 does not stay for long period. After a short period,
they quickly fall to the Meta stable state or energy state E2 and releases radiation less energy
instead of photons. Because of the shorter lifetime, only a small number of electrons accumulate
59
in the energy state E3.The electrons in the Meta stable state E2 will remain there for longer
period. As result, a large number of electrons accumulate in Meta stable state. Thus, the
population of meta stable state will become greater than the population of energy states E3 and
E1. It can be simply written as N2 > N1 > N3.

In a three level energy system, we achieve population inversion between energy levels E1 and E2.

After completion of lifetime of electrons in the Meta stable state, they fall back to the lower
energy state or ground state E1 by releasing energy in the form of photons. This process of
emission of photons is called spontaneous emission.

When this emitted photon interacts with the electron in the Meta stable state E2, it forces that
electron to fall back to the ground state. As a result, two photons are emitted. This process of
emission of photons is called stimulated emission.

When these photons again interacted with the electrons in the Meta stable state, they forces two
Meta stable state electrons to fall back to the ground state. As a result, four photons are emitted.
Likewise, a large number of photons are emitted. Thus, light amplification is achieved by using
population inversion method. The system which uses three energy levels is known as 3-level
laser.

In a 3-level laser, at least half the population of electrons must be excited to the higher energy
state to achieve population inversion. Therefore, the laser medium must be very strongly
pumped. This makes 3-level lasers inefficient to produce photons or light. The three level lasers
are the first type of lasers discovered.

Four level Laser:

Consider a group of electrons with four energy levels E1, E2, E3 and E4.E1 is the lowest energy
state, E2 is the next higher energy, E3 is the next higher energy state after E2, E4 is the next higher
energy state after E3.

The number of electrons in the lower energy state or ground state is given by N1, the number of
electrons in the energy state E2 is given by N2, the number of electrons in the energy state E3 is
given by N3 and the number of electrons in the energy state E4 is given by N4.

60
We assume that E1 < E2 < E3 < E4. The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E4 and energy
state E2 is very less. Therefore, electrons in these states will only stay for very short period.When
we supply light energy which is equal to the energy difference of E4and E1, the electrons in the
lower energy state E1 gains sufficient energy and jumps into the higher energy state E4.

The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E4 is very small. Therefore, after a short period they
fall back into the next lower energy state E3 by releasing non-radiation energy.

The lifetime of electrons in the energy state E3 is very large as compared to E4 and E2. As a
result, a large number of electrons accumulate in the energy level E3. After completion of their

61
lifetime, the electrons in the energy state E3 will fall back into the next lower energy state E2 by
releasing energy in the form of photons.

Like the energy state E4, the lifetime of electrons in the energy state E2 is also very small.
Therefore, the electrons in the energy state E2 will quickly fall into the next lower energy state or
ground state E1 by releasing non-radiation energy. Thus, population inversion is achieved
between energy states E3 and E2.

In a 4-level laser, only a few electrons are excited to achieve population inversion. Therefore, a
4-level laser produces light efficiently than a 3-level laser. In practical, more than four energy
levels may be involved in the laser process.

A system in which population inversion is achieved is called as an active system. The method of
raising the particles from lower energy state to higher energy state is called "Pumping".

There are different methods of pumping the energy to create population inversion. They are

Optical pumping: In this method, light is used to supply energy to the laser medium. An
external light source like xenon flash lamp is used to produce more electrons (a high population)
in the higher energy level of the laser medium.

Electrical discharge: In this method of pumping, electric discharge acts as the pump source or
energy source. A high voltage electric discharge (flow of electrons, electric charge, or electric
current) is passed through the laser medium or gas. This method of pumping is used in gas lasers
such as argon lasers.

Chemical reaction: If an atom or a molecule is produced through some chemical reaction and
remains in an excited state at the time of production, then it can be used for pumping.

Thermal Pumping: In thermal pumping, heat acts as the pump source or energy source. In this
method, population inversion is achieved by supplying heat into the laser medium.

Nd:YAG Laser:

Nd: YAG laser is a neodymium based laser. Nd stands for Neodymium (rare earth
element) and YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminum Garnet ( Y3 Al5 O12 ) . It is a four level solid
state laser.
62
Principle:

The active medium Nd: YAG rod is optically pumped by Krypton flash tubes. The
Neodymium ions (𝑁𝑑 3+) are raised to excited levels. During the transition from metastable state
to ground state, a laser beam of wavelength 1.064μm is emitted.

Construction:

The construction of Nd: YAG laser is as shown in the figure. A small amount of Yttrium ions
(𝑌 3+) is replaced by Neodymium (𝑁𝑑 3+) in the active element of Nd: YAG crystal.

This active element is cut into a cylindrical rod. The ends of the cylindrical rod are highly
polished and they are made optically flat and parallel. This cylindrical rod (laser rod) and a
pumping source (flash tube) are placed inside a highly (reflecting) elliptical reflector cavity.

The optical resonator is formed by using two external reflecting mirrors. One mirror (M1)
is 100% reflecting while the other mirror (M2) is partially reflecting.

Characteristics:

Type: It is a four level solid state laser.

Active medium: The active medium is Nd: YAG laser.

63
 Pumping method: Optical pumping is employed for pumping action.

Pumping source: Xenon or Krypton flash tube is used as pumping source.

Optical resonator: Two ends of Nd: YAG rod is polished with silver (one end is fully silvered
and the other is partially silvered) are used as optical resonator.

Power output: The power output is approximately 70 watt.

Nature of output: The nature of output is pulsed or continuous beam of light.

Wavelength of the output: The wavelength of the output beam is 1.06μm (infra- red).

Working:

Figure 2.18 shows the energy level diagram for Nd: YAG laser. These energy levels are
those of Neodymium (𝑁𝑑 3+) ions.

1. When the krypton flash lamp is switched on, by the absorption of light radiation of
wavelength 0.73μm and 0.8μm, the Neodymium(𝑁𝑑 3+) atoms are raised from ground
level E0 to upper levels E3 and E4 (Pump bands).

2. The Neodymium ions atoms make a transition from these energy levels E2 by non-
radiative transition. E2 is a metastable state.

3. The Neodymium ions are collected in the level E2 and the population inversion is
achieved between E2 and E1.

64
 4. An ion makes a spontaneous transition from E2 to E1, emitting a photon of energy
hυ. This emitted photon will trigger a chain of stimulated photons between E2 and E1.

5. The photons thus generated travel back and forth between two mirrors and grow in
strength. After some time, the photon number multiplies more rapidly.

6. After enough strength is attained (condition for laser being satisfied),an intense laser light
of wavelength 1.06μm is emitted through the partial reflector. It corresponds to the
transition from E2 to E1.

Advantages:

1. It has high energy output.

2. It has very high repetition rate operation

3. It is much easy to achieve population inversion.

Disadvantages:

The electron energy level structure of 𝑁𝑑 3+ in YAG is complicated.

Applications:

1. It finds many applications in range finders and illuminators.

2. It is widely used in engineering applications such as resistor, trimming, scribing, micro

machining operations as well as welding, drilling etc.

3. It finds many medical applications such as endoscopy, urology, neurosurgery, ENT,

gynecology, dermatology, dental surgery and general surgery.

He – Ne laser:

The helium-neon laser consists of three essential components:

 Pump source (high voltage power supply)

 Gain medium (laser glass tube or discharge glass tube)

65
  Resonating cavity

Construction: He - Ne gas laser consists of a gas discharge tube of length 80cm and diameter
of1cm. The tube is made up of quartz and is filled with a mixture of Neon under a pressure of
0.1mm of Hg and Helium under the pressure of 1mm of Hg. The ratio of He-Ne mixture of about
10:1, hence the no of helium atoms are greater than neon atoms. The mixtures is enclosed
between a set of parallel mirrors forming a resonating cavity, one of the mirror is completely
reflecting and the other is partially reflecting in order to amplify the output laser beam.

Working: When an electric discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture electrons are
accelerated down the tube, these accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite
them to higher energy levels since the levels are meta stable energy levels of He. He atoms
spend sufficiently long time and collide with Neon atoms in the ground level E1. Then Neon
atoms are excited to the higher energy levels 2S & 3S and helium atoms are de excited to the
ground energy level.

66
Since 3S & 2S of Ne atom are meta stable states, population inversion takes place at these levels.
The stimulated emission takes place between 3S to 2P gives a laser light of wavelength 632.8 nm
0
(6328 A ) and the stimulated emission between 3S and 3P gives a laser light of wave length
3.39µm. Another stimulated emission between 2S to 2P gives a laser light of wave length
1.15µm. The Neon atoms undergo spontaneous emission from 2P to 1S and 3P to 1S. Finally the
Neon atoms are returned to the ground state from 1S by non-radiative diffusion and collision
process. After arriving at the ground state, once again the Neon atoms are raised to 3S by excited
Helium atoms thus we can get continuous output from He-Ne laser.

Molecular Gas Laser

In a molecular gas laser, laser action is achieved by transitions between vibrational and
rotational levels of molecules. Its construction is simple and the output of this laser is
continuous.

In 𝐶𝑂2 molecular gas laser, transition takes place between the vibrational states of Carbon
dioxide molecules.

67
𝐂𝐎𝟐 Molecular Gas Laser

It was the first molecular gas laser developed by Indian born American scientist
Prof.C.K.N.Pillai.

It is a four level laser and it operates at 10.6 μm in the far IR region. It is a very efficient laser.

Energy States of 𝑪𝑶𝟐 Molecules

A carbon dioxide molecule has a carbon atom at the center with two oxygen atoms
attached, one at both sides. Such a molecule exhibits three independent modes of vibrations.
They are

a) Symmetric stretching mode.

b) Bending mode

c) Asymmetric stretching mode.

a. Symmetric Stretching Mode

In this mode of vibration, carbon atoms are at rest and both oxygen atoms vibrate
simultaneously along the axis of the molecule departing or approaching the fixed carbon atoms.

b. Bending Mode:

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate perpendicular to molecular
axis.

68
c. Asymmetric Stretching Mode:

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate asymmetrically, i.e.,
oxygen atoms move in one direction while carbon atoms in the other direction.

Principle:

The active medium is a gas mixture of 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝑁2 and He. The laser transition takes place between
the vibrational states of 𝐶𝑂2 molecules.

Construction:

It consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the diameter. This discharge tube is filled with
gaseous mixture of 𝐶𝑂2 (active medium), helium and nitrogen with suitable partial pressures.
The terminals of the discharge tubes are connected to a D.C power supply. The ends of the
69
discharge tube are fitted with NaCl Brewster windows so that the laser light generated will be
polarized. Two concave mirrors one fully reflecting and the other partially form an optical
resonator.

Working:

Figure shows energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules.

When an electric discharge occurs in the gas, the electrons collide with nitrogen
molecules and they are raised to excited states. This process is represented by the equation

𝑁2 + e* = 𝑁2∗ + e

𝑁2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state e* = electron with kinetic energy

𝑁2∗ = nitrogen molecule in excited state e= same electron with lesser energy

Now N2 molecules in the excited state collide with 𝐶𝑂2 atoms in ground state and excite
to higher electronic, vibrational and rotational levels.

This process is represented by the equation 𝑁2∗ + 𝐶𝑂2 = 𝐶𝑂2∗ + 𝑁2

𝑁2∗ = Nitrogen molecule in excited state. 𝐶𝑂2 = Carbon dioxide atoms in ground state
𝐶𝑂2∗ = Carbon dioxide atoms in excited state 𝑁2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state.

Since the excited level of nitrogen is very close to the E5 level of 𝐶𝑂2 atom, population in
E5 level increases.

As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the spontaneously emitted photon will trigger
laser action in the tube. There are two types of laser transition possible.
70
 1. Transition E5 to E4 :

This will produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6 μm

2. Transition E5 to E3

This transition will produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6μm. Normally 10.6 μm transition is
more intense than 9.6 μm transition. The power output from this laser is 10 kW.

Characteristics:

1. Type: It is a molecular gas laser.

2. Active medium: A mixture of 𝐶𝑂2 , 𝑁2 and helium or water vapour is used as active
medium
3. Pumping method: Electrical discharge method is used for Pumping action
4. Optical resonator: Two concave mirrors form a resonant cavity
5. Power output: The power output from this laser is about 10 kW.
6. Nature of output: The nature of output may be continuous wave or pulsed wave.
7. Wavelength of output: The wavelength of output is 0.6 μm and 10.6 μm.

Advantages:

1. The construction of 𝐶𝑂2 laser is simple

2. The output of this laser is continuous.
3. It has high efficiency
4. It has very high output power.
5. The output power can be increased by extending the length of the gas tube.
Disadvantages:

1. The contamination of oxygen by carbon monoxide will have some effect on laser action
2. The operating temperature plays an important role in determining the output power of laser.
3. The corrosion may occur at the reflecting plates.
4. Accidental exposure may damage our eyes, since it is invisible (infra-red region) to our
eyes.

71
Applications:

1. High power 𝐶𝑂2 laser finds applications in material processing, welding, drilling, cutting
soldering etc.
2. The low atmospheric attenuation (10.6 μm makes 𝐶𝑂2 laser suitable for open air
communication).
3. It is used for remote sensing.
4. It is used for treatment of liver and lung diseases.
5. It is mostly used in neuro surgery and general surgery.

Applications of Lasers:

Because of these unique properties, lasers are used in various applications.

The most significant applications of lasers include:

Lasers in Medicine

1. Lasers are used for bloodless surgery.

2. Lasers are used to destroy kidney stones.

3. Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.

4. Lasers are used for eye lens curvature corrections.

5. Lasers are used in fiber-optic endoscope to detect ulcers in the intestines.

6. The liver and lung diseases could be treated by using lasers.

7. Lasers are used to study the internal structure of microorganisms and cells.

8. Lasers are used to produce chemical reactions.

9. Lasers are used to create plasma.

10. Lasers are used to remove tumors successfully.

11. Lasers are used to remove the caries or decayed portion of the teeth.

12. Lasers are used in cosmetic treatments such as acne treatment, cellulite and hair removal.

72
Lasers in Communications

1. Laser light is used in optical fiber communications to send information over large
distances with low loss.

2. Laser light is used in underwater communication networks.

3. Lasers are used in space communication, radars and satellites.

Lasers in Industries

1. Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.

2. Lasers are used in electronic industries for trimming the components of Integrated
Circuits (ICs).

3. Lasers are used for heat treatment in the automotive industry.

4. Laser light is used to collect the information about the prefixed prices of various products
in shops and business establishments from the bar code printed on the product.

5. Ultraviolet lasers are used in the semiconductor industries for photolithography.

Photolithography is the method used for manufacturing printed circuit board (PCB) and
microprocessor by using ultraviolet light.

6. Lasers are used to drill aerosol nozzles and control orifices within the required precision.

Lasers in Science and Technology

1. A laser helps in studying the Brownian motion of particles.

2. With the help of a helium-neon laser, it was proved that the velocity of light is same in all
directions.

3. With the help of a laser, it is possible to count the number of atoms in a substance.

4. Lasers are used in computers to retrieve stored information from a Compact Disc (CD).

5. Lasers are used to store large amount of information or data in CD-ROM.

73
 6. Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other contaminants of the atmosphere.

7. Lasers helps in determining the rate of rotation of the earth accurately.

8. Lasers are used in computer printers.

9. Lasers are used for producing three-dimensional pictures in space without the use of lens.

10. Lasers are used for detecting earthquakes and underwater nuclear blasts.

11. A gallium arsenide diode laser can be used to setup an invisible fence to protect an area.

Lasers in Military

1. Laser range finders are used to determine the distance to an object.

2. The ring laser gyroscope is used for sensing and measuring very small angle of rotation
of the moving objects.

3. Lasers can be used as a secretive illuminators for reconnaissance during night with high
precision.

4. Lasers are used to dispose the energy of a warhead by damaging the missile.

5. Laser light is used in LIDAR‟s to accurately measure the distance to an object.

74
FIBER OPTICS

Introduction: In 1870 John Tyndall demonstrated that light follows the curve of astream of
water pouring from a container; it was this simple principle that led to the study and development
of application of the fiber optics. The transmission of information over fibers has much lower
losses than compared to that of cables. The optical fibers are most commonly used in
telecommunication, medicine, mi itary, automotive and in the area of industry. In fibers, the
information is transmitted in the form of light from one end of the fiber to the other end with
minimum losses.

Principle of Optical Fiber

Optical fiber is a cylinder of transparent dielectric medium and designed to guide visible
and infrared light over long distances. Optical fibers work on the principle of total internal
reflection.

Optical fiber is very thin and flexible medium having a cylindrical shape consisting of
three sections

75
 1) The core material
2) The cladding material
3) The outer jacket

The structure of an optical is shown in figure.8.10. The fiber has a core surrounded by a
cladding material whose reflective index is slightly less than that of the core material to satisfy
the condition for total internal reflection. To protect the fiber material and also to give
mechanical support there is a protective cover called outer jacket. In order to avoid damages
there will be some cushion between cladding protective cover.

Fig. 1 Structure of an optical fiber

When a ray of light passes from an optically denser medium into an optically rarer
medium the refracted ray bends away from the normal. When the angle of incidence is increased
angle of refraction also increases and a stage is reached when the refracted ray just grazes the
surface of separation of core and cladding. At this position the angle of refraction is 90 degrees.
This angle of incidence in the denser medium is called the critical angle (θc) of the denser
medium with respect to the rarer medium and is shown in the fig2. If the angle of incidence is
further increased then the totally reflected. This is called total internal reflection. Let the
reflective indices of core and cladding materials be n1 and n2 respectively.

76
Fig.2 Total internal reflection.

When a light ray, travelling from an optically denser medium into an optically rarer
medium is incident at angle greater than the critical angle for the two media. The ray is totally
reflected back into the medium by obeying the loss of reflection. This phenomenon is known as
totally internal reflection.

According to law of refraction,

𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃2

Here 𝜃1 = 𝜃𝑐 𝜃2 = 90

𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑆𝑖𝑛(90)

𝑛2
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛1

𝑛
𝜃𝑐 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−(𝑛 2 ) --------- (1)
1

Equation (1) is the expression for condition for total internal reflection. In case of total
internal reflection, there is absolutely no absorption of light energy at the reflecting surface.
Since the entire incident light energy is returned along the reflected light it is called total internal
reflection. As there is no loss of light energy during reflection, hence optical fibers are designed
to guide light wave over very long distances.

Construction of optical fiber:

The optical fiber mainly consists of the following parts.

1) Core
77
 2) Cladding

3) Silicon coating

4) Buffer jacket

5) Strength material

6) Outer jacket

Core:

 A typical glass fiber consists of a central core of thickness 50 μm surrounded by

cladding.

 Cladding is made up of glass of slightly lower refractive index than core‟s refractive

index, whose over all diameter is 125μm to 200μm. Of course both core and cladding are made
of same glass and to put refractive index of cladding lower than the refractive index of core,
some impurities like Boron, Phosphorous or Germanium are doped.

 Silicon coating is provided between buffer jacket and cladding in order to improve

the quality of transmission of light.

 Buffer jacket over the optical fiber is made of plastic and it protects the fiber from

moisture and abrasion.

 In order to provide necessary toughness and tensile strength, a layer of strength

material is arranged surrounding the buffer jacket.

 Finally the fiber cable is covered by black polyurethane outer jacket. Because of this

arrangement fiber cable will not be damaged during hard pulling ,bending ,stretching

or rolling, though the fiber is of brittle glass.

78
Acceptance Angle and Acceptance Cone

Acceptance angle: Acceptance angle is the maximum angle of launch of light beam at its end
of the fiber and to enable the entire light to propagate through the core. Fig.8.12 shows
longitudinal cross section of the launch of a fiber with a ray entering it. The light is entered from
a medium of refractive index n0 (for air n0=1) into the core of refractive index n1. The ray (OA)
enters with an angle of incidence to the fiber end face i.e. the incident ray makes angle with the
fiber axis which is nothing but the normal to the end face of the core. Let a right ray OA enters
the fiber at an angle to the axis of the fiber. The end at which light enter the fiber is called the
launching pad.

Fig.3 Path of atypical light ray launched into fiber.

Let the refractive index of the core be n1 and the refractive index of cladding be n2. Here n1>n2.
The light ray reflects at an angle and strikes the core cladding interface at angle θ. If the angle θ
is greater than its critical angle θc, the light ray undergoes total internal reflection at the
interface.

According to Snell‟s law

𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑟 → (2)

From the right angled triangle ABC

𝛼𝑟 + 𝜃 = 900
79
 𝛼𝑟 = 90 − 𝜃 → (3)

Substituting (3) in (2), we get

𝑛0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑖 = 𝑛1 𝑆𝑖𝑛(90 − 𝜃)

= 𝑛1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑛1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑖 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 →(4)
𝑛0

When 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑐 then 𝛼𝑖 = 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑛1
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛0
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 →(5)

𝑛
From equation (1)𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐 = 𝑛 2
1

𝑛 𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐 = 1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 θc = 1 − (𝑛 2 )2 = →(6)
1 𝑛1

Substitute equation (6) in equation (5)

𝑛 𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2 𝑛 1 2 −𝑛 2 2
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 =(𝑛 1 ) = →(7)
0 𝑛1 𝑛0

If the medium surrounding fiber is air, then 𝑛0 = 1

𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 →(8)

This maximum angle is called the acceptance angle or the acceptance cone half angle of the
fiber.

The acceptance angle may be defined as the maximum angle that a light ray can have with
the axis of the fiber and propagate through the fiber. Rotating the acceptance angle about the
fiber axis (fig .8.13) describes the acceptance cone of the fiber. Light launched at the fiber end
within this acceptance cone alone will be accepted and propagated to the other end of the fiber
by total internal reflection. Larger acceptance angles make launching easier. Light gathering
capacity of the fiber is expressed in terms of maximum acceptance angle and is termed as
“Numerical Aperture”.

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 Fig.4 Acceptance cone

Numerical Aperture

Numerical Aperture of a fiber is measure of its light gathering power. The numerical
aperture (NA) is defined as the Sin of the maximum acceptance angle.

Numerical aperture (NA) = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 →(9)

= (𝑛1 − 𝑛2 ) (𝑛1 + 𝑛2 )

= ((𝑛1 + 𝑛2 ) 𝑛1 ∆) → (10)

(𝑛 1 −𝑛 2 )
Where ∆= called as fractional differences in refractive indices 𝑛1 and 𝑛2 are the
𝑛1

refractive indices of core and cladding material respectively.

As𝑛1 ≈ 𝑛2 , we can take 𝑛1 + 𝑛2 = 2𝑛1

Then numerical aperture= 2𝑛12 ∆ = 𝑛1 2∆→ (11)

Numerical aperture is a measure of amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber. From
equation (9) it is seen that numerical aperture depends only on the refractive indices of core and
cladding materials and it is independent on the fiber dimensions. Its value ranges from 0.1 to 0.5.
A large NA means that the fiber will accept large amount of light from the source.

Step index fibers and Graded index fiber -transmission of signals in them:

Based on the variation of refractive index of core, optical fibers are divided into 2 types

They are (1) Step index fibers

(2) Graded index fibers

81
 Again based on the mode of propagation, all these fibers are divided into two types.

They are (1) single mode

(2) multimode fibers.

In all optical fibers, the refractive index of cladding material is uniform. Now, we will see the
construction, refractive index of core and cladding with radial distance of fiber, ray propagation
and applications of above optical fibers.

1. Step index fiber: The refractive index is uniform throughout the core of this fiber. As we go
radially in this fiber, the refractive index undergoes a step change at the core-cladding interface.

Based on the mode of propagation of light rays, step index fibers are of 2 types: a) single mode step
index fiber & b) multimode step index fibers. Mode means, the number of paths available for
light propagation of fiber. We describes the different types of fiber below

a) Single mode step index fiber: The core diameter of this fiber is about 2 to 8µm and
outer diameter of cladding is 60 to 70 µm. There is only one path for ray propagation. So, it
is called single mode fiber. The cross sectional view, refractive index profile and ray
propagation are shown in fig.a . In this fiber, the transmission of light is by successive total
internal reflections i.e. it is a reflective type fiber. Nearly 80% of the fibers manufactured
today in the world are single mode fibers. So, they are extensively used.

Fig .Single mode step index fiber ;( a) Cross sectional view and refractive index profile ;( b)
82
 Ray propagation

Multimode step index fiber: The construction of multimode step index fiber is similar to single
mode step index fiber except that its core and cladding diameters are much larger to have
many paths for light propagation. The core diameter of this fiber varies from 50 to 200 µm
and the outer diameter of cladding varies from 100 to 250 µm. Light propagation in this
fiber is by multiple total internal reflections i.e it is a reflective type fiber.

Transmission of signal in step index fiber: Generally the signal is transmitted through the
fiber in digital form i.e. in the form of 1‟s and 0‟s. The propagation of pulses through the
multimode fiber is shown in fig8.13 (i)(b). The pulse which travels along path 1(straight)
will reach first at the other end of fiber. Next the pulse that travels along with path 2(zig-
zag) reaches the other end. Hence, the pulsed signal received at the other end is broadened.
This is known as intermodal dispersion. This imposes limitation on the separation between
pulses and reduces the transmission rate and capacity. To overcome this problem, graded
index fibers are used.

2) Graded index fiber: In this fiber, the refractive index decreases continuously from center
radially to the surface of the core. The refractive index is maximum at the center and
minimum at the surface of core. This fiber can be single mode or multimode fiber. The cross
sectional view, refractive index profile and ray propagation of multimode graded index fiber
are shown in fig8.13.(ii)(a). The diameter of core varies from 50 to 200µm and outer
diameter of cladding varies from 100 to 250 µm.

The refractive index profile is circularly symmetric. As refractive index changes

continuously radially in core, light rays suffer continuous refraction in core. The
propagation of light ray is not due to total internal reflection but by refraction as shown in
fig.8.13 (ii). (b). in graded index fiber, light rays travel at different speed in different paths
of the fiber. Near the surface of the core, the refractive index is lower, so rays near the outer
surface travel faster than the rays travel at the center. Because of this, all the rays arrive at
the receiving end of the fiber approximately at the same time. This fiber is costly. .

Transmission of signal graded index fiber: In multimode graded index fiber, large
number of paths is available for light ray propagation. To discuss about inter modal

83
 dispersion, we consider ray path 1 along the axis of fiber.

Fig.8.13 (ii) Multimode step index fibre (a) Cross sectional view and refractive index profle
(b)Ray propagation

As shown in fig.8.13. (ii)(b) and another ray path 2. Along with the axis of fiber, the refractive
index of core is maximum, so the speed of ray along path 1 is less. Path 2 is sinusoidal and it is
longer, along this path refractive index varies. The ray mostly travels in low refractive region,
so the ray 2 moves slightly faster. Hence, the pulses of signals that travel along path 1 and path
2 reach other end of fiber simultaneously. Thus, the problem of intermodal dispersion can be
reduced to a large extent using graded index fiber.

Differences between step index fiber and graded index fibers:

Step index fiber Graded index fiber

1.The refractive index of core 1.The refractive index of core is non

Is uniform and step or abrupt uniform, the refractive index of core
Change in refractive index decreases Para-
Takes place at the interface of core Felicity from the axis of the fiber to its
and cladding in step index fibers surface.

2. The light rays propagate in zigzag 2. Light rays propagate in the form of skew
manner inside the core. The rays travel in rays or helical rays. They will not cross the
84
 the fiber as meridional rays they cross the fiber axis
fiber axis for every reflection.

Difference between single mode fibers and multi mode fibers:

Single mode fiber Multimode fiber
1. In single mode fiber there is only one 1. In multimode fiber, large number of paths
path for ray propagation is available for light ray propagation.

2. A single mode step index fiber has less 2. Multi mode fibers, large number of
core diameter (< 10 µm) and the paths are available for light ray
difference between the reflective indices propagation.
of core and cladding is very small.

3. In single mode fibers, there is no 3. There is signal distortion and dispersion

dispersion. takes place in multimode fibers.

4. The band width is about 50 MHz for
multimode step index fiber where as it is
more than 1000 MHz km in case of
single mode step index fiber.
5. NA of multimode step index fiber is
more where as in single mode step index
fibers, it is very less.
6. Launching of light into single mode
fibers is difficult.
7. Fabrication cost is very high.
4. The band width of the fiber lies in
between 200 MHz km to 600 MHz km
even though theoretically it has an infinite
bandwidth.
5. NA of graded index fibers is less.
6. Launching of light into multimode fibers
is easy.
7. Fabrication cost is less

V-Number: The V-number or normalized frequency parameter gives the upper limit of the
number of modes that can be transmitted in a multimode optical fiber. It depends on the core
diameter, dc, NA and Wavelength. When a beam of monochromatic rays are launched at the end
of fiber with a angle less than the acceptance angle also may not propagate through the fiber. In
practice a limited no. of modes of propagation are possible. The reason for limited mode
acceptance in fiber is Phase change occurrence when the light ray travels forward. The phase
shift is due to 1.Optical path length 2.Total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface.Each
mode has a definite value of V-number below which the mode is cut off.

85
 𝜋𝑑
𝑉= 𝑛12 − 𝑛22
𝜆0

Where V- V-number,

d- diameter of core,

𝜆0 − wavelength of light,

𝑛1 − Refractive index of core,

𝑛2 − Refractive index of cladding.

𝜋𝑑
V-number in terms of Numerical Aperture 𝑉 = 𝑁𝐴
𝜆0

𝜋𝑑
𝑉= 𝑛1 2 △
𝜆0

𝑉2
The maximum no. of modes supported by a Step Index fiber is given by 𝑁𝑚 = .
2

𝑉2
The maximum no. of modes supported by a Graded Index fiber is given by 𝑁𝑚 = .
4

Attenuations in optical fiber (or losses):

While transmitting the signals through optical fiber some energy is lost due to few reasons.

The major losses in fibers are

1. Distortion losses

2. Transmission losses

3. Bending losses.

1. Distortion losses:-

When a pulse is launched at one end of the fiber and collected at the other end of the
fiber, the shape and size of the pulse should not be changed. Distortion of signals in optical fiber
is an undesired feature. If the out put pulse is not same as the input pulse, then it is said that the
pulse is distorted .If the refractive index of the core is not uniform most of the rays will travel
86
through the medium of lower refractive index region. Due to this the rays which are travel in
fiber will become broadened. Because of this the out put pulses will no longer matches with the
input pulses. The distortion takes place due to the presence of imperfections, impurities and
doping concentrations in fiber crystals.Distortion is large in multi mode than in single mode
fiber.

2. Transmission losses (attenuation):-

The attenuation or transmission losses may be classified into two categories

i ) Absorption losses

ii) Scattering losses

i) Absorption losses:-

Absorption is a characteristic possessed by all materials every material in universe absorb

suitable wavelengths as they incident or passed through the material. Three different mechanisms
contribute to absorption losses in glass fiber. These are Ultraviolet absorption, IR absorption and
Ion resonance absorption. In the same way core material of the fiber absorbs wavelengths as the
optical pulses or wavelengths pass through it.

ii) Scattering losses:-

The core medium of the fiber is made of glass or silica .In the passage of optical signals in the
core medium if crystal defects are encountered, they deviate from the path and total internal
reflection is discontinued, hence such signals will be destroyed by entering into the cladding
however attenuation is minimum in optical fibers compared to other cables.

ii) Bending losses:-

The distortion of the fiber from the ideal strait line configuration may also result in fiber .Let us
consider a way front that travels perpendicular to the direction of propagation. In order to
maintain this, the part of the mode which is on the outside of the bend has to travel faster than
that on the inside. As per the theory each mode extends an infinite distance into the cladding
though the intensity falls exponentially. Since the refractive index of cladding is less than that of
the core (n1>n2), the part of the mode traveling in the cladding will attempt to travel faster. As
87
per Einstein‟s theory of relativity since the part of the mode cannot travel faster the energy
associated with this particular part of the mode is lost by radiation.

Attenuation loss is generally measured in terms of decibels (dB), which is a logarithmic unit.

Loss of optical power = -10 log (Pout/ Pin ) dB

Where Pout is the power emerging out of the fiber.

Pin is the power launched into the fiber.

Application of Fiber optic sensors and detector:

Sensors are devices used to measure or monitor quantities such as displacement pressure,
temperature, flow rate liquid level, chemical composition etc.A smoke detector and pollution
detector can be made from fibers. There are two types of fiber optics sensors.

1. Intrinsic or Active sensors:

Here guided like in the fiber gauge modulated by the variable to be measured and then de
modulated. Thus sensing and simultaneous measurements of taking place in the active
sensors. They are

i. Intensity modulate sensors:

Which are based on the change in absorption or transmission of light, refractive index,
temperature etc.

ii. Phase modulated sensors:

Which involve the interference between signal and reference in the interferometer leading
to a shift in the interference fringes. These will have high sensitivity.

88
 iii. Polarization modulated sensors:
Which involve the change in polarization state of the guided signal by the variable.

2. Extrinsic or Passive sensors:

Here the modulation takes place outside the optical fiber which acts merely as a
convenient transmission channel for the light radiation. It has a sensor head and the sensed
optical signal is transferred to remove point for signal processing. Based on the parameters
different fiber sensors are prepared. For ex: micro bending displacement sensor, laser Doppler
velocity sensor, fiber optic sensor for the measurement of electric field or voltage, faraday
reaction sensor based on the measurement of magnetic field. Fiber optic temperature sensors are
used to measure temperature differences of the order 0.001°C with much low response time.

3. Optical Communications: In recent years optical fibers are being used instead of copper
cables, where light signals replace electrical signals.

4. Medical Field: The fiber optic technology is used in medical diagnostics and medical
procedures. It is used in Endoscopy, Cardiology, Ophthalmology and treatment of Cancer.

5. Military Field: Fiber guided missiles are used in recent wars.

6. Lighting and Decorations:

The use of fiber optics in the area of decorative illumination has also grown over the years. Fiber
optic cables provide an easy, economical and attractive solution to lighting projects. As a result,
they are widely used in lighting decorations and illuminating Christmas trees.

7. Mechanical Inspections:

Fiber optic cables are widely used in the inspection of hard-to-reach places. Some such
applications are on-site inspections for engineers and also inspection of pipes for plumbers.

8. Automotive Industry:

Fiber optic cables play an important role in the lighting and safety features of present day
automobiles. They are widely used in lighting, both in the interior and exterior of vehicles.

89
UNIT-V: Dielectric and magnetic properties

Dielectric materials are non conducting materials. There are no free charge carriers in a
dielectric. When a dielectric material is placed in an electric field then they themselves undergo
appreciable changes because of which they act as stores of electrical charges. When charge
storage is the main function, the materials are called dielectrics.

Dielectrics are insulating materials. When electric field is applied, the dielectrics are
polarized. Depending on the atomic structure, dielectrics are classified into

90
1. Non polar dielectrics

2. Polar dielectrics.

1. Non polar dielectrics: in non polar dielectrics, positive centre of gravity and negative centre of
gravity coincide with each other, hence dipole moment is zero. Example: CO2

2. Polar dielectrics: in polar dielectrics positive centre of gravity does not coincide with negative
centre of gravity, hence net dipole moment is not zero. Polar molecules have permanent dipole
moment. Example: H2O

Electric Dipole: Two equal and opposite charges separated by a distance constitute a electric
dipole as shown in figure.

Electric dipole

Dipole Moment: (  ): The product of charge and distance between two charges is called dipole
moment.
i.e.  =qd.
Units: Coulomb-meter ( or ) Debye

Dielectric Constant: ( r )
The dielectric characteristics of a material are determined by the dielectric constant or relative
permittivity „ r ‟ of that material. Dielectric constant is the ratio between the permittivity of the
medium and the permittivity of free space.
 C
i.e. r   .
0 C0
Units: No Units

Where  is permittivity of the medium, 0 is permittivity of the free space

C is capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric and
C0 is capacitance of a capacitor without dielectric.

Polarizability: ( ' ' )

When the strength of the electric field „E‟ is increased the strength of the induced dipole  also
increases. Thus the induced dipole moment is proportional to the intensity of the electric field.
i.e.    E .
α = µ/E
Where ' ' the constant of proportionality is called Polarizability. It can be defined as induced
91
dipole moment per unit electric field.
Electric Susceptibility:  xe 
The polarization vector „P‟ proportional to the total electric flux density D and is in the same
direction of E.
The polarization vector can be written as
P 0 xe E.
Where the constant xe is the electric susceptibility
 xe  r 1
Displacement vector or Electric displacement:
The electric flux density or electric displacement D at a point in a material is given by
 
D=  E r  
 0 
D= r 0 E

When „E‟ is the electric field strength, 0 is the dielectric constant or permittivity of free space
and r is the relative dielectric constant or relative permittivity of the material
D= 0 E  p
Since D= r 0 E
r 0 E = 0 E  p  P 0 r 1 E

Polarization Vector ( p) :

The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is called polarization vector p . If

 is the average dipole moment per molecule and „N‟ is the number of molecules per unit
volume.
 
The polarization vector ( p) = N  .

Electric Polarization:

The process of producing electric dipoles by an electric field is called polarization in dielectrics.
When an electric field is applied to a crystal or a glass containing positive and negative charges
the positive charges are displaced in the direction of the field, where the negative charges are
displaced in the opposite direction. This displacement produces local dipoles throughout the
solid.

Polarization Processes:

Polarization occurs due to several atomic mechanisms. When the specimen is placed inside a d.c.
electric field, polarization is due to 4 types of processes.

92
 a) Electronic Polarization

b) Ionic Polarization

c) Orientation Polarization

d) Space charge Polarization.

a) Electronic Polarization:

The displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the negative electrons of an atom in
opposite directions under the action of an electric field is called electronic polarization. On
applying the electric field, the electron cloud around the nucleus shift towards the positive end of
the field. Then the nucleus and centre of electron cloud are separated by a certain distance. As a
result, a dipole moment is created in each atom. The number of dipoles generated is proportional
to applied electric field.

 e E
e   e E .
Where  e is the electronic Polarizability. It is independent of temperature.
A simplified classical model of an atom is shown in below fig (a). Here the nucleus of charge Ze
is surrounded by an electron cloud of charge -Ze distributed in a sphere of radius „R‟

Fig: Electric polarization

The charge density „  ‟ is given by (charge per volume )
 Ze

4 3
R
3
−3𝑍𝑒
= 4𝜋𝑅 3

When the system is subjected to an external applied field of intensity E, the nucleus and electron
experience Lorentz forces of magnitude F=ZeE in opposite directions Therefore the nucleus and
electron cloud are pulled apart as shown in fig (a) when they are separated a coulomb force

93
develops between them, which tends to oppose the displacements. When these forces namely
Lorentz force and Coulomb force are equal and opposite, an equilibrium is reached.

Let us assume the displacement be „x‟

Lorentz force = -ZeE

𝐶𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑕𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠𝑥
Coulomb force = Ze X 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑥 2

4
Charge enclosed is   x3 
3
4  3  ze  
=  x3   3 
3  4   R 
 zex 3
= .
R3
ze   zex3 
4 0 x 2  R3 
Hence Coulomb force is =

 z 2e2 x
=
4 0 R3
In the equilibrium position
 z 2e2 x
 zeE  E
4 0 R3
zex
E= .
4 0 R3
4 0 R3
X= E.
ze
Thus the displacements of the electron cloud are proportional to the applied field. Thus the two
electric charges +Ze and –Ze are separated by a distance „x‟ under the action of the applied field
thus constituting induced electric dipoles.

Induced electric dipole moment e  zex

4 0 R3
= ze E
Ze
e  4 0 R3 E
 e   e E .
Where  e  4 0 R3 is called electronic Polarizability. The dipole moment per unit volume is
called polarization.
Pe  N e  N e E.
Where „N‟ is number of atoms/m3.
94
 Pe  N e E

We know the Pe 0 (r 1) E

N e
N e E 0 r 1 E r 1  .
0

Hence  e 
r 1 0
.
N

(b) Ionic Polarization:

The Ionic Polarization is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite directions and
occurs in an ionic solid as shown in figure (b). Suppose an electric field is applied in the +ve X-
direction. The positive ions moved to the right by x1 and the negative ions move to the left by x2.
Assuming that each unit cell has one cation and one anion, the resultant dipole moment per unit
cell due to ionic displacement is given by

  e( x1  x2 ).
If 1 and  2 are restoring force constants of cation and anion and F Newton‟s is the force due to
the applied field.
Due to this force, the two ions are displaced through small displacements x1 and x2
But the restoring force will develop between the ions in the direction to encounter act the
displacements. The corresponding restoring forces developed between the ions are given by

F= 1 x1  2 x2
F
Hence x1 
1
eE
Then x1 
m02
eE
x2 
M 02
Where „M‟ is the mass of the anion
eE  1 1 
 x1  x2  2   
w0  M m 
And   e  x1  x2 
 eE  1 1 
  
e w02  M m 
e2 E  1 1 
  
w02  M m 
We know that the dipole moment per unit electric field is called Polarizability

95
  e2  1 1
i    M  m 
E w02

(c) Orientation polarization:

Orientation polarization occurs in polar dielectrics i.e. in molecules with permanent dipole
moment. In methane molecule, the centre of the –ve and +ve charges coincide, so that there is no
permanent dipole moment. On the other hand, in certain molecules such as CH3Cl, the positive
and negative charges do not coincide.

In this molecule Cl atom pulls the bonding electrons to itself more strongly than hydrogen. In the
absence of an electric field, this molecule carries a dipole moment. When an electric field is
applied on such molecules which possess permanent dipole moment, they tend to align
themselves in the direction of applied field as shown in fig.

Fig: Orientation Polarization

The polarization due to such alignment is called orientation polarization and is dependent on
temperature. When the temperature is increases the thermal energy tends to randomize the
alignment.

Orientation polarization can be represented as Po  N 

2E
=N
3KT
=N  o E
P0 2
o 

NE 3KT
Thus the orientation Polarizability is inversely proportional to temperature of the material.

Space charge polarization:

96
Space charge polarization occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrode or at the
interfaces in a multiphase material.

The ions diffuse over appreciable distances in response to the applied field, giving rise to
redistribution of charges in the dielectric medium.

Internal Fields in Solids (Lorentz Method): or Local field in dielectrics

The total electric field at the atom site is called the internal field or the local field.

Let a dielectric be placed between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor and let there be an
imaginary spherical cavity around the atom „A‟ inside the dielectric as shown in figure. It is also
assumed that the radius of the cavity is large compared to the radius of the atom.

The internal field at the atom site A can be considered to be made up of the following four
components namely E1 , E2 , E3andE4 .

Fig: Calculation of internal field for a cubic structure

FIELD E1:
E1 is the field intensity at A due to the charge density on the plates

D
E1 
0
We know that D  P  0 E
P  0 E p
 E1   E       (1)
0 0
FIELD E2:

97
E2 is the field intensity at A due to the charge density induced on the two surfaces of the
dielectric.
P
E2  ---------(2)
0

FIELD E3:
E3 is the field intensity at A due to other atoms contains in the cavity. We are assuming a cubic
structure, so E3=0 because of symmetry.

FIELD E4:
E4 is the field intensity due to polarization charges on the surface of the cavity and was calculated
by Lorentz as shown in the figure.

Fig: Cavity enlarged

In the above figure, If dA is the surface area of the sphere of radius „r‟ lying between  and
θ + dθ where θ is the angle with reference to the direction of applied force.
Then dA = 2  PQ  QR 
But S in  =PQ/ r PQ = r S in 
QR  rd .
 dA  2 r 2 sin  d .
The charge dq on the surface dA is equal to the normal component of the polarization multiplied
by the surface area.
 dq  dA.P cos 
dq = p( 2 r 2 sin  cos d )
The field due to this charge at A denoted by dE4 in the direction  =0 is
dq 1 cos 
dE4=
4 0 r 2
P cos  2 r 2 sin  cos  d
=
4 0 r 2
p
= cos 2  sin  d
2 0
Thus the total field E4 due to the charges on the surface of the entire cavity is obtained by
integrating

98
 
P
 dE4  2 0 0 cos  sin  d
2

1
P
E4   x  dx 
2

2 0 1
1
P x  3

2 0  3 

P 1 1  P  2  P
=-      
2 0  3 3  2 0  3  3 0
 E  E1  E2  E3  E4 .
Substitute E1 , E2 , E3 & E4 values we get the Local field

This equation is known as Lorentz relation or local field or internal field. And it should
observe that the local field is greater them the applied electric field.

Clausius – Mosotti Equation:

The relation between polarisability and dielectric constant is the Clausius-Mosotti equation.
Consider the elemental dielectrics which have cubic structures since there are no ions and
permanent dipoles in these materials.
i   0  0
Where  i  ionic Polarizability
 0  Orientation Polarizability
Hence polarization

99
  N e 
P 1    N e E
 3 0 
N e E
P=    (1)
N e
1
3 0
N e N e E
1  .
3 0 P
We know that
D  P  0 E
P  D  0 E
P
  0
E
P
0r  0 0 r 1
E
 P  E 0 0 1      (2)
From (1) & (2) Equations.
N e E
 E 0 r 1
N e
1
3 0
N e N e
1 
3 0 0 r 1
 
N e  1 
1 1  
3 0  r 1 
 3 
N e  3 
1 1  
3 0  r 1 
N e  1
i.e.  r
1
3 r 2
r 1
  1  N e
Thus  r 
 r 2  3 0

Where „N‟ is the number of molecules per unit volume. The above relation is known as Clausius
– Mosotti equation.

Ferro– Electricity:

Ferroelectrics are polar dielectric materials and are anisotropic in nature

The dielectric materials which are having spontaneous polarization in the absence of electric

100
field are called ferroelectric materials. And the phenomenon of possessing spontaneous
polarization in the absence of electric field is called ferroelecricity

Eg: - Rochelle salt (NaKc4H4O6, 4H2O), Barium titanate (BaTiO3-) etc.,

Properties:

All ferroelectric materials possess spontaneous polarizations below a certain temperature.

As temperature increases the spontaneous polarization decreases and at a particular temperature,

the spontaneous polarization vanishes. This temperature is known as Curie temperature.

At which temp the ferroelectric materials converts into paraelectric materials that temp is called
Curie temperature.

Above Curie temperature, dielectric constant varies with temperature according to curie-weiss
law

𝐶
𝜀𝑟 =
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑐

All ferroelectric materials exhibit the property piezo-electricity and Pyroelectricity.

Hysteresis:-

When electric field is applied on a ferroelectric material then polarization takes place .This
polarization always lags behind the applied electric field. This phenomenon is known as
hysteresis of a ferroelectric material. The hysteresis loop between polarization and electric field
is as shown in figure

The hysteresis loop area represents the dielectric loss that occurs in dielectric materials.

101
The spontaneous polarization of the ferroelectric material depends upon

(i) Shape of the hysteresis loop

(ii) The thermal and electrical properties of the crystal.

(iii) Temperature

Applications:

Ferro electric materials are an important group not only because of intrinsic ferro
electric property but because of many possess useful electro optical properties.

The ferroelectric materials are used as high permeability materials in

Magnetic amplifiers and dielectric amplifiers

Magnetic information storage devices.

Magnetostrictive transducers.

Used in the construction of memory devices used in computers.

The ferroelectric materials show piezoelectric property, so they are used in produce and
detect sound waves.

They shows piezoelectric property, so they are used to detect infrared radiation

Piezo – Electricity:

The materials which have the property of becoming electrically polarized when mechanical
stress is applied are called piezo- electricity. Piezoelectricity refers to the creation of opposite
kinds of charges at one pair of opposite faces of the piezo electric crystal. Thus it reflects to the
development of e.m.f. through dielectric polarization by the application of mechanical force.

It has an inverse. According to inverse piezo electricity when an electric voltage is applied, the

102
material become strained. The strain is directly proportional to applied p.d. All ferroelectric
crystals exhibit the piezo electricity but all piezo electric materials need not exhibit
ferroelectricity.

Piezo electric materials are very important to the conversion of the mechanical energy into
electrical energy and vice-versa.

Ex:-Quartz, lithium Niobate and BaTiO3

Applications:-

Single crystal of quartz is very widely used for filter, resonator and delay line applications.

Rochelle salt is used as transducer in graphite pick-ups, ear phones, hearing aids,
microphones etc.

The commercial ceramic materials are based on barium titanate, lead zirconate. They are
used for high voltage generation transducers.

Piezo electric semiconductors such as GaS, ZnO are finding applications as amplifiers of
ultrasonic waves.

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

 Introduction:

Magnetic materials play an important role in industrial and scientific research fields. The
magnetism of materials is mainly due to the interactions of uncompensated magnetic
moments of the constituent atoms or molecules.

Many of our modern technological devices rely on the behavior of magnetic materials, such
devices include electric motors, electrical power generators, transformers, radio, television,
telephones, computers, components of audio and video recording and reproduction systems.
These are mainly used in information storage devices.

 Some Important Definitions:

103
 Magnetism:

The attracting property exhibited by the magnet is known as magnetism.

Magnetic dipole:

A magnet consists of north and south poles. Any two opposite poles of a magnet separated by
a finite distance constitute a magnetic dipole.

Magnetic moment:

If m is the magnetic pole strength and 2l is the length of the magnet then

i.e. µm = 2lm ampere-m2

Where m is the pole strength and „2l‟ is the distance between North Pole and South Pole of the
magnet.

( or )

When an electric current (I) flows through a circuit wire of one turn having an area of cross
section A. it is said to have a magnetic moment

i.e. µm = I.A Ampere-meter2

it is a vector quantity.

Magnetic induction (B): or magnetic flux density

It is defined as the number of lines of magnetic lines of forces passing through an unit area of
cross section of material

𝜙
B=𝐴 where 𝛟 magnetic flux
A area of cross section
Units are Weber/m2 or Tesla or Gauss
1 Tesla = 104 Gauss
( or )
It is the force experienced by unit north pole placed at a given point in a magnetic field.
𝐹
B = 𝑚 units Newton/ A.m
Intensity of magnetization (M):
When a material is magnetized, it develops a net magnetic moment then the developed magnetic
104
moment per unit volume is given as intensity of magnetization.
M = Magnetic moment/volume
µm
M= 𝑉
Units:- ampere/m
Magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength (H):
It is defined as the ratio between the magnetic induction and the permeability of the medium in
which the magnetic field exists at any point in a magnetic field is the force acting on unit north
pole placed at that point.
B 𝐹
H= = µm

Units: Ampere/ meter.
Magnetic Permeability:
It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic field induction to the applied magnetic field strength
B
=
H
i.e B =  H
B = µ0H
Where 0 is the permeability of free space
The permeability of free space value is 4 107 henry/m
Instead in vacuum,
if the field is applied in a medium, the magnetization in the solid is given by
B= H
Where  is the permeability of the solid material
B
=
H
Hence the magnetic permeability of any material is the ratio of the magnetic induction in the
sample to the applied magnetic field intensity
Relative permeability (µr):
The ratio of permeability of a material to the permeability of free space.

r 
0
No units.
Magnetic susceptibility: (χm)
The magnetic susceptibility (  ) of a material is the ratio of the intensity of magnetization
produced in the sample to the magnetic field intensity. It has no units.
𝑀
i.e χm= 𝐻
Relation between B, H and M :
We know that B   H
µoµrH
B = µoµrH + µoH - µoH
B= µoH + µoH (µr-1)
B = µoH + µoM
Where the magnetization M is equal to H (r  1)

105
 i.e. B = µo (H+M)
Where 0 is the permeability of free space.
 Relation between  r andχ
Now B =  H
This equation can be written in other way as
B = 0 (M+H)
Where 0 is the permeability of free space.

The relative permeability r 
0
µr = (B/H) / (B/(M+H))
µr = (M+H)/H =1+M/H
µr =1+ χ =
Where  is the magnetic susceptibility. µr is the relative permeability.

 Origin of magnetic moment (or) Magnetism due to electron motion:

In atoms, the permanent magnetic moments can arise due to the following

1. The orbital magnetic moment of the electrons

2. The spin magnetic moment of the electrons
3. The spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.

1. The orbital magnetic moment of the electrons:

When a magnetic moment is obtained through the motion of electrons in various orbits of an
atom, then it is called “orbital magnetic moment”

Bohr magneton:(µB)

The magnitude of spin moment contributed by single electron is known as Bohr magneton.
e
1 Bohr magneton,  B 
2m
Let us consider an electron of charge e which is revolving around the nucleus in the stationary
orbit of radius „r‟ with a liner velocity „v‟ as shown in figure 1. Hence, the current produced by
the electrons.
i=charge of the electron/time
e
i= ------(1)
T
2
Where T is time taken by the electron to make one revolution around the nucleus. i.e. T =

Where  is angular velocity of the electron.

106
 I

electron
But the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity can be written as
ν = rω
ω=ν/r Fig. 1 current loop
2𝜋𝑟
therefore T = 𝜈
Substitute (2) in (1)
i = -e/(2πr/ν) = -eν/2πr
From the definition of dipole moment   iA
Where i is current produced by the orbital motion of the electron and A is area covered by the
orbital.
−𝑒𝜈
Therefore µ = 2𝜋𝑟 (πr2)
µ = -eνr/2
Dividing and multiplying the above equation by the mass of the electron(m)
e(mvr )

2m
ml h
Since, the angular momentum L=mvr =
2
Where ml is the magnetic quantum number. its values are 0,1,2,3….n-1
e  ml h 
  
2m  2 
e
 ml
2m
    B ml
e
Hence  B   9.27 1024 ampere-m2 is called as Bohr magneton.
2m
Spin magnetic moment of the Electron:

Besides the orbital motion of an electron, electron rotates about its own axis. Magnetic moment
associated with spinning of an electron is called spin magnetic moment and the electronic spin
dipole moment is given by

𝑒ђ
M spin of e- =- 2𝑚 𝑚𝑠
Where ms is spin quantum number i.e ms= ±1/2
Nucleus spin magnetic moment:
Nucleus magnetic moment arises due to the spinning of nucleus (protons) and is given by
𝑒ђ
M nucleus = - [2𝑀𝑝 ]

107
 Where Mp is the mass of the proton.

But it is very less compared with e- spin magnetic moment. So it can be neglected.

 Classification of magnetic materials:

The magnetic materials have been classified into 5 types based on the influence of external field
on them. They are

1. Diamagnetic material

2. Para magnetic material

3. Ferromagnetic material

4. Anti Ferro magnetic material

5. Ferri magnetic material

1. Diamagnetic material:

The diamagnetism is the phenomenon by which the induced magnetic moment is always in the
opposite direction to the applied magnetic field. An electron moving around the nucleus results
in magnetic moment, due to different orientations of various orbits of an atom , the net magnetic
moment is zero in diamagnetic materials. Therefore in diamagnetic material posses no permanent
magnetic moment or magnetic moment in each atom is zero.
When an external magnetic field is applied the motion of electrons in their orbits changes
resulting in induced magnetic moment in a direction opposite to the direction of the applied field.

Properties:

 Diamagnetic material possesses no permanent dipole moment.

 Diamagnetic materials repel magnetic lines of force.

 There is an induced magnetism opposite to the applied field.

108
  In the presence of magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force are pulled out from the
material. Hence, magnetic field induction is greater outside the material than inside

i.e. Bout  Bin

 Magnetic susceptibility is independent of applied magnetic field strength and

temperature.

 No spin alignment is present.

 The permeability for diamagnetic substances is less than 1

 The susceptibility for diamagnetic substances is Negative.

 E.g.: wood, H2O, silver, Zn , Bi, organic materials, paper etc…

2. Paramagnetic substances:

Each electron in an orbit has an orbital magnetic moment and spin magnetic moment. When
shells are unfilled there is no net magnetic moment. In the absence of external magnetic field the
net moments of the atoms are arranged in random directions.

These substances which when placed in magnetic field acquired weak magnetism in a direction
parallel to the applied magnetic field are known as paramagnetic substances.

Paramagnetic materials possess permanent dipole moment in each atom. The induced magnetic
moment produced by the external field increases the magnetic induction present in the material.

Properties:

 These posses permanent dipole moment

109
  There is an induced magnetism in the direction of the field.
 Net magnetic moment exists in the direction of the field.
 All spins or magnetic moment are randomly oriented in the absence of magnetic field

 In the presence of magnetic field the magnetic lines of force are attracted towards the
centre of the material and hence the magnetic induction inside the material is greater than
the outside Bin  Bout
 Paramagnetic susceptibility is dependent on temperature.
 Susceptibility is Positive.
 Permeability of paramagnetic substances greater than 1
 Ex Al, Pt, Mn etc….
C
 Susceptibility is inversely proportional to the temperature. i.e.   where C is Curie‟s
T
constant.

O T

3. Ferromagnetic substances:

The substances which when placed in a magnetic field the substances are strongly attracted by
the magnet. Such substances are known as ferromagnetic substances. Ferromagnetic materials
have a strong magnetic moment in the absence of external magnetic field. This is called
spontaneous magnetization. The large magnetization is due to spontaneous magnetization. There
is a special form of interaction called exchange coupling between adjacent atoms, coupling their
110
magnetic moments together in rigid parallelism.

At normal state all the domains are random in order. When this is kept in the external magnetic
field, all the domains are arranged in direction of field.

Properties:

 They are strongly attracted by the magnets

 These posses enormous permanent magnetic moment
 Large net magnetic moment exists in the direction of applied magnetic field.
 All the magnetic moments are orderly oriented in the absence of magnetic field.
 When placed in a magnetic field, it attracts the magnetic lines of forces very strongly i.e.
Bin  Bout

 Susceptibility is always positive and large and it depends upon temperature in a complex
manner. This is shown in below

𝐶
Χ=𝑇−𝜃
χ Ferro Para
region region

O
Tc T
c

T 
 When the temperature of the material is greater than its curie temperature θ or Tc then it
converts into paramagnetic material
 These ferromagnetic materials exhibit hysteresis
 These materials consists of small region which are spontaneously magnetized called
“domains “
 Spin alignment is parallel in manner.

 Ex:-Fe, Ni, Co etc

111
  Depending up on the spin orientation of the electrons, ferromagnetic materials are
classified into two types. They are

(a) Anti ferromagnetic materials

(b) Ferri magnetic materials

4. Anti ferromagnetic materials:

(1) These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal number of opposite spins with same
magnitudes such that the orientation of neighbouring spins is in anti parallel manner are
present

(2) Susceptibility is small and +ve for these materials

(3) The temperature at which anti ferromagnetic materials converts into paramagnetic material is
known as Neel‟s temperature. (θ or TN )
(4) Susceptibility is inversely proportional to the temperature, the variation of susceptibility with
temperature is shown in figure

C

T 
(5) Ex:- FeO, MnO, etc

Neel‟s temperature

O
TN T

5. Ferri magnetic materials:

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1. These are the ferromagnetic materials in which equal number of opposite spins with different
magnitudes are available such that the orientation of neighboring spins is in anti parallel
manner are present. Hence Ferri magnetic materials posses a net magnetic moment.

2. Susceptibility is positive and very large for these materials

3. The magnetization of ferromagnetic materials is intermediate to that of ferromagnetic and
anti ferromagnetic materials
4. Susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature. The variation of susceptibility with
temperature is shown in figure.

C

T 
Where θ or TN are called Neel‟s temperature.

5. Ferrites are the best examples of Ferri magnetic materials

6. Ex:-ZnFe2O4,Nickel ferrite, Manganese ferrite…

Ferri Para
region region
χ

O
TN T

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 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism:

According to Weiss, a virgin specimen of ferromagnetic material consists of a number of

regions or domains which are spontaneously magnetized. In each domain spontaneous
magnetization is due to parallel alignment of all magnetic dipoles. The direction of
spontaneous magnetization varies from domain to domain. The resultant magnetization may
hence be zero or nearly zero. When an external field is applied there are two possible ways of
alignment of a random domain.

i) By motion of domain walls : the volume of the domains that are favorably oriented with
respect to the magnetizing field increases at the cost of those that are unfavorably oriented as
shown in fig. b.

fig. a shows domain arrangement in a virgin specimen when no magnetic field is applied.

ii) By rotation of domains: As shown in fig. c when the applied magnetic field is strong,
rotation of the direction of magnetization occurs in the direction of the field.

Fig (a) Fig. (b) Fig.(c)

 Hysteresis curve:

The hysteresis of ferromagnetic materials represents the phenomenon of lagging of

magnetization behind the applied magnetic field. The loop also refers to the hysteresis loss.

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Fig: Typical Magnetization Curve of the virgin Specimen

(1) When the magnetic field is applied on a ferromagnetic materials. The magnetization
increases rapidly with applied field up to a value and after that it remains constant. This
magnetization is known as saturation of magnetization.
(2) If magnetic field on the material is reduced back to zero magnetization will not travel in
that initial path , creates a new path and it reaches to a point called residual
magnetization. It is also called as retentivity
(3) To reduce residual of magnetization to zero, negative field has to be applied when sufficient
negative field is applied, then the residual magnetization becomes zero and the field is known
as coercive field(HC)
(4) Further if negative magnetic field is applied then it increases that magnetization in negative
direction. This maximum magnetization in negative direction is called negative saturation of
magnetization
(5) If negative field is decreased back to zero the negative saturation of magnetization will not be
travel in the initial path, crates a new path and reaches to a point called negative residual
magnetization. It is also called as retentivity
(6) To decrease the negative residual magnetization to zero some positive fields has to be
applied. The amount of magnetic field required to bring residual magnetization to zero is
known as coercive field(HC)
(7) The positive magnetic field increases the magnetization reaches again to positive saturation.
And it is cyclic process. The hysteresis curve is as shown in the figure.

(8) The area of hysteresis loop refers to the hysteresis loss. If the loop area of a ferromagnetic

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 material is large then more loss occurs during each cycle of hysteresis.

(9) Depending on the hysteresis loss values, the ferromagnetic materials are classified into two
categories they are

(i) Soft magnetic materials.

(ii) Hard magnetic materials.

Soft magnetic materials:

The magnetic materials which can be easily magnetized and demagnetized are known as soft
magnetic materials. The features of the soft magnetic materials are

(i) Hysteresis loop is narrow, hence hysteresis loss small as shown in fig.

(ii) Permeability and susceptibility are large

(iii) Eddy current loss is high due to its high resistivity.

(iv) Coercivity and retentivity are small

(v) Magneto static energy is very small

(vi) it is used in electro –magnetic machineries and transformers

(vii) Ex Ferrites, granites, iron-silicon alloy etc.

Fig: Soft Magnetic Material

Hard magnetic materials:

The magnetic materials which cannot be easily magnetized and demagnetized are known as hard
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magnetic materials. The salient features of hard magnetic materials are

(1) Hysteresis loop is wide, hence hysteresis loss is more as shown in fig
(2) Permeability and susceptibility are small
(3) Eddy current loss is low due to its smaller resistivity. This losses can be minimized by
increasing the resistivity
(4) Coersitivity and retentivity are large
(5) Magnetostatic energy is large
(6) It is used in making permanent magnets, magnetic detectors, microphones etc
(7) Ex: plane carbon steel, cobalt steel, Al-Ni-co alloys, etc

Fig: Hard magnetic Material

Applications of magnetic materials:

Some important applications of magnetic materials are mentioned in the following sub sections.

Magnetic recording and readout:

Magnetic materials can be used for recording information as well as for reading out the recorded
information. The recording head example (a tape recorders recording head) consists of a
laminated electromagnet, fabricated using permanently or a soft ferrite with an air gap. A wire
coil is bound around the magnetic material core. As a magnetic tape or disc is passed around an
electro magnet, the electrical signal fed to the coil generates a magnetic field with in the gap. The
magnetization of this portion of the tape is proportional to the current passing through the coil.
The magnetic material coated on the tape is such that magnetization is retained even after the
removal of the field. The signal thus gets stored in the tape. The moving tape induces an emf in
the wire coil. To read the tape, the induced alternating emf is amplified through a suitable
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amplifier and fed into an output device.

Applications of ferrites:

 They are used in thermal sensing switches used refrigerators, air conditions, microwaves
 In producing ultrasonic waves
 These materials are used in digital data storage devices
 Ferrites can be used in transformer cores for frequencies up to micro waves
 Soft ferrites are used in the magnetic floppy disks, magnetic tapes & memory devices
 They are also used as radio frequency transformer core materials
 Ferrite rods are used in radio receiver to increase sensitivity and selectivity
 They are also used in digital computers and data processing circuits

****THE END****

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