Service Technician

Service Technician
Service Technician
Credits and Copyright
We would like to thank:
Alan Amato, Patty Anderson, Saconna Blair, Marshall Borchert, Walter R. "Duff" Campbell, David
Chavez, Richard Covell, Scott Crysler, Alexis Cuaron, David Cushman, Edwin L. Dickinson, Robert
V.C. Dickinson, John Drahn, Tim Duggan, Ken Eckenroth, Frank Eichenlaub, Dan Eisenhart, Chris Ernst,
Matt Fagan, Kevin Farley, Tom Frederick, Nancy Garner, Jeff Geer, Dana Gilstrap, Ed Griffin, Gregory
K. Hardy, Jim Harris, Doug Hartzell, Perry Havens, Zenita Henderson, Tonya Herndon, Eric Himes, Jerry
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Roger Lique, Skip Litz, Larry Massaglia, Jeanne B. McGlothin, Deborah Morrow, Jim Murray, Deb
Nissen, Mike Osteen, Fran Paez, Jim Parker, Mike Phebus, Louis Phillippe, Janet Prizmic, Les Read,
Brian Reich, Don Runzo, Rick Salvas, Dick Shimp, Roy Shultz, Cathy Smith, Curtis Smith, Michael Smith,
Cliff Stage, David Stone, William Shane Sullivan, John Summers, Steve Timcoe, Mary Lou Topia, Tim
Voorheis, Dale Walter, Joe Whitley, Steve Windle, Wendell Woody, and Kimberly Zink
3M, ACI Communications, Inc., Alpha Technologies, American Polywater Corp., Antec Corp.,
Antec/Electronic System Products Inc., Arris Group, Inc., Arris Interactive, BP Enterprises, BTN
Engineering and Design, C-COR.net, C-COR, a Division of Arris, Cable Leakage Technologies, Cable
Prep/Ben Hughes Communications Products Co., CED magazine, Channel Commercial Corp, City
of Wyandotte,MI, Communications Technology International, Cisco Systems, Inc., Comcast Corp.,
CommScope Inc., ComSonics Inc., Corning Gilbert, Cox Cable, Dovetail Surveys Inc., Eagle
Comtronics Inc., Electroline Equipment Inc., Force Inc., Gilbert Engineering Co. Inc., JDSU, Lindsay
Electronics, Motorola Broadband Communications Sector, National Communications Services, PD-
LD, Philips Broadband Networks Inc., Pico Macom Inc., Production Products Co., Raychem Corp,
Ripley Co./Cablematic, Riser-Bond Instruments, Scientific-Atlanta Inc., Sprint/North Supply,
Suddenlink, TeleWire Supply/Regal Technologies, Sunrise Telecom, Tektronix Inc., Thomas and Betts
Corp., Times Fiber Communications Inc., Time Warner Cable, Trilithic Inc., and Trilogy
Communications
Paul Eisbrener, Annamarie Gilbert, Stephen Jones, James Scherz, Darrell Severns, Donna Urban, and
Aixia Zhang.
© 2017 Jones/NCTI, Inc. Some of the original material copyright © 2003 by Delmar Publishers, a division of International
Thomson Publishing Inc.
Contents at a Glance
LESSON 1: DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OVERVIEW (305-15-4)

LESSON 2: ALTERNATING CURRENT (300-11-8)
LESSON 3: UNDERSTANDING AC WAVEFORM FUNDAMENTALS (300-21-6)
LESSON 4: RESISTIVE AC CIRCUITS (301-11-8)
LESSON 5: INDUCTANCE AND TRANSFORMERS (302-11-5)
LESSON 6: CAPACITANCE (303-11-5)
LESSON 7: EXAMINING HARDLINE COAXIAL CABLE (322-13-3)
LESSON 8: CONNECTORIZING HARDLINE COAXIAL CABLE (322-15-6)
LESSON 9: REACTANCES (304-11-7)
LESSON 10: WORKING WITH HARDLINE RF SPLITTERS (321-13-4)
LESSON 11: RF DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS AND POWER INSERTERS (321-21-5)
LESSON 12: WORKING WITH RF TAPS (321-31-7)
LESSON 13: LINE EXTENDER SETUP AND OPERATIONS (328-33-2)
LESSON 14: DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER OPERATION (325-11-2)
LESSON 15: POWERING CABLE NETWORKS (319-13-3)
LESSON 16: SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND P-N JUNCTIONS (326-10-3)
LESSON 17: DIODES AND DIODE CIRCUITS (326-20-3)
LESSON 18: USING DIGITAL SIGNAL ANALYZERS (186-31-4)
LESSON 19: TDR FUNDAMENTALS AND OPERATION (330-15-2)
LESSON 20: CONTROLLING SIGNAL LEAKAGE (307-33-4)
LESSON 21: UNDERSTANDING FIBER OPTICS AND HFC NETWORKS (805-36-6)
LESSON 22: DEVELOPING PREVENTION PROGRAMS (341-12-4)
Service Technician Page 1
LESSON 1: DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OVERVIEW (305-15-4)

APPLYING ELECTRONICS TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 2
Applying AC Waveform Fundamentals ......................................................................................... 2
Applying Resistance, Capacitance, and Inductance ...................................................................... 4
Grounding and Bonding Cable Plant....................................................................................... 4
Matching Impedances ............................................................................................................... 5
Trapping and Filtering Signals ............................................................................................... 5
Think About it — Review Questions .............................................................................................. 6
COMPARING SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES
Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 7
Identifying Differences Between System Architectures ................................................................ 7
Signal Flow Through a Tree-and-Branch Feeder System ............................................................. 8
Signal Flow Through an HFC Distribution System ...................................................................... 8
Think About it — Review Questions .............................................................................................. 9
EXAMINING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM EQUIPMENT
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 11
Discovering Distribution System Components ............................................................................ 11
Examining Distribution System Coaxial Cable ........................................................................... 11
Identifying Cable Types .......................................................................................................... 12
Quantifying Typical Cable Sizes ............................................................................................ 12
Examining Distribution System Connectors ............................................................................... 13
Explaining Connector Functions ............................................................................................ 13
Describing Pin Connectors ...................................................................................................... 13
Examining Splitters and Directional Couplers ........................................................................... 14
Routing Signals to Various System Locations ....................................................................... 14
Controlling Signal Levels by Device Selection ........................................................................ 15
Examining RF Taps ...................................................................................................................... 15
Explaining Signal Flow Through an RF Tap ........................................................................ 15
Quantifying Tap Ports ............................................................................................................ 16
Understanding Tap Values..................................................................................................... 16
Describing Addressable Taps.................................................................................................. 16
Examining Distribution System Broadband Amplifiers ............................................................. 17
Describing Distribution and Line Extender Amplifiers ......................................................... 17
Explaining Basic Amplifier Components ............................................................................... 18
Examining System Powering ....................................................................................................... 18
Explaining Basic System Powering ........................................................................................ 18
Locating and Housing Power Supplies................................................................................... 19
Describing Standby Power Supply Components .................................................................... 20
Understanding Standby Power Supply Operation ................................................................. 20
Think About it — Review Questions ............................................................................................ 21
MEASURING SYSTEM VITAL SIGNS AND FAULTS
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 23
Page 2 Service Technician
Using Test Equipment ................................................................................................................. 23

Applying Measurements .............................................................................................................. 25
TROUBLESHOOTING SIGNAL PROBLEMS AND OUTAGES
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 27
Troubleshooting Using System Design Maps .............................................................................. 27
Identifying Signal Outage Causes ............................................................................................... 28
Identifying Powering Failures ................................................................................................ 29
Identifying Cut or Damaged Cables ....................................................................................... 29
Identifying Equipment Failures ............................................................................................. 29
Performing Preventive Maintenance ........................................................................................... 29
Checking Physical Plant Integrity .......................................................................................... 30
Monitoring Signal Leakage .................................................................................................... 30
Maintaining Power Supplies .................................................................................................. 30
LESSON 2: ALTERNATING CURRENT (300-11-8)

UNDERSTANDING AC AND AC POWER
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 34
Explaining What AC Is ................................................................................................................ 34
Defining AC Circuits ............................................................................................................... 35
Describing Uses of AC ............................................................................................................. 36
Producing AC Power..................................................................................................................... 37
Creating an AC Power Source ................................................................................................ 37
Understanding AC Generators ............................................................................................... 38
Transmitting AC Power ............................................................................................................... 40
Power Transmission Circuit ................................................................................................... 40
Factoring for Transmission-Line Power Loss......................................................................... 42
Transmitting AC Power Efficiently ........................................................................................ 43
RECOGNIZING AC WAVEFORMS
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 49
Defining a Waveform .................................................................................................................... 49
Understanding Angular Motion ............................................................................................. 49
Creating AC Waveforms .......................................................................................................... 51
Describing AC Waveforms ...................................................................................................... 51
Comparing Different Types of AC Waveforms............................................................................. 52
Describing a Sine Wave .......................................................................................................... 52
Describing a Square Wave ...................................................................................................... 54
Describing a Sawtooth Wave .................................................................................................. 56
Describing a Quasi-Square Wave ........................................................................................... 57
Comparing AC vs. DC Waveforms ............................................................................................... 58
LESSON 3: UNDERSTANDING AC WAVEFORM FUNDAMENTALS (300-21-6)

EXAMINING AC WAVEFORM CHARACTERISTICS
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 64
Identifying the Frequency ............................................................................................................ 64

Explaining the Frequency Cycle ............................................................................................. 64
Explaining Cycles Per Second ................................................................................................ 66
Explaining Units of Measurement .......................................................................................... 68
Identifying the Wavelength.......................................................................................................... 69
Identifying the Period................................................................................................................... 71
Identifying the Phase ................................................................................................................... 72
Describing In-Phase ................................................................................................................ 72
Describing Phase Difference ................................................................................................... 73
Describing Phase Angle .......................................................................................................... 75
Identifying the Amplitude ............................................................................................................ 76
EXPRESSING AC WAVEFORM VALUES
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 81
Expressing a Peak Value .............................................................................................................. 81
Expressing a Peak-to-Peak Value ................................................................................................ 82
Expressing an Instantaneous Value ............................................................................................ 83
Expressing an Average Value ...................................................................................................... 83
Expressing an Effective Value ..................................................................................................... 84
Converting Values ........................................................................................................................ 86
LESSON 4: RESISTIVE AC CIRCUITS (301-11-8)
UNDERSTANDING BASIC RELATIONSHIPS
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 90
Revisiting Ohm's Law .................................................................................................................. 90
Explaining the Power Relationship ............................................................................................. 94
Explaining How Phase Factors In ............................................................................................... 95
UNDERSTANDING EDDY CURRENTS
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 99
Explaining Their Cause................................................................................................................ 99
Describing Their Effect on the Circuit ....................................................................................... 100
Think About it — Review Questions .......................................................................................... 102
UNDERSTANDING THE SKIN EFFECT
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 103
Explaining the Cause for this Phenomenon .............................................................................. 103
Describing Its Effect on the Circuit ........................................................................................... 104
SOLVING SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 109
Calculating a Current Value (Problem 1) .................................................................................. 109
Calculating a Voltage Value (Problem 2) ................................................................................... 110
Calculating the Power Consumed by Load Resistance (Problem 3) .......................................... 110
Calculating the Power Loss in Conductors (Problem 4) ............................................................ 112
Calculating the Power Consumed by Coaxial Cable (Problem 5).............................................. 113

LESSON 5: INDUCTANCE AND TRANSFORMERS (302-11-5)

INDUCTION
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 116
Induction ..................................................................................................................................... 116
Induced EMF .............................................................................................................................. 117
Self-Induced EMF ....................................................................................................................... 118
INDUCTANCE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 121
Definition of Inductance ............................................................................................................. 121
Units of Inductance .................................................................................................................... 122
Mutual Inductance ..................................................................................................................... 123
Cause ..................................................................................................................................... 123
Definition .............................................................................................................................. 124
INDUCTORS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 127
Characteristics of Inductors ....................................................................................................... 127
Number of Turns ................................................................................................................... 127
Spacing Between Turns and Coil Length ............................................................................. 128
Core Cross-Sectional Area .................................................................................................... 129
Core Permeability.................................................................................................................. 129
Inductor Networks...................................................................................................................... 130
Inductors in Series ................................................................................................................ 130
Inductors in Parallel ............................................................................................................. 131
Types of Inductors ...................................................................................................................... 131
Air-Core Inductors ................................................................................................................ 131
Iron-Core Inductors............................................................................................................... 132
Fixed vs. Variable Inductors ................................................................................................. 132
TRANSFORMERS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 135
Theory of Operation.................................................................................................................... 135
Energy Transfer ......................................................................................................................... 136
Description ............................................................................................................................ 136
Ideal Power Transfer ............................................................................................................ 137
Turns Ratio ................................................................................................................................. 138
Voltage vs. Turns Ratio......................................................................................................... 138
Current vs. Turns Ratio ........................................................................................................ 140
Types of Transformers ................................................................................................................ 141
Air-Core Transformers .......................................................................................................... 141
Iron-Core Transformers ........................................................................................................ 143
LESSON 6: CAPACITANCE (303-11-5)

CAPACITANCE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 148
Definition of Capacitance ........................................................................................................... 148
Units of Capacitance .................................................................................................................. 149
CAPACITORS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 151
Theory of Operation.................................................................................................................... 151
Charging and Discharging ................................................................................................... 152
Energy Storage ...................................................................................................................... 153
Capacitive Time Constants ........................................................................................................ 155
Capacitor Networks .................................................................................................................... 156
Capacitors in Series .............................................................................................................. 157
Capacitors in Parallel ........................................................................................................... 157
Types of Capacitors .................................................................................................................... 158
Fixed ...................................................................................................................................... 158
Variable ................................................................................................................................. 162
LESSON 7: EXAMINING HARDLINE COAXIAL CABLE (322-13-3)

LEARNING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HARDLINE CABLE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 168
Examining Coaxial Cable Components...................................................................................... 169
Defining Center Conductor Types ......................................................................................... 170
Understanding the Dielectric's Role ..................................................................................... 170
Understanding the Role of the Aluminum Sheath or Outer Conductor ............................... 171
Using Unjacketed or Plain Coaxial Cable ............................................................................ 172
Using Coaxial Cable with Flooding Compound ................................................................... 172
Using Armored Coaxial Cable .............................................................................................. 172
Using Jacketed Coaxial Cable .............................................................................................. 173
Examining Coaxial Cable Bending Radius ................................................................................ 173
LEARNING ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF HARDLINE CABLE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 177
Examining Cable Attenuation and Frequency .......................................................................... 177
Understanding Center Conductor Attenuation .................................................................... 177
Understanding Dielectric Attenuation.................................................................................. 179
Differentiating Frequency vs. Attenuation............................................................................ 179
Examining Temperature/Attenuation Changes ........................................................................ 181
Calculating Temperature-Induced Attenuation Changes .................................................... 182
Examining Abnormal Cable Attenuation Changes ................................................................... 183
Understanding Moisture-Caused Attenuation ..................................................................... 183
Avoiding Physical Damage Attenuation ............................................................................... 184
Defining Electrical Abnormalities ........................................................................................ 184
Examining DC Loop Resistance ................................................................................................. 184
Examining Cable Impedance ..................................................................................................... 185

Examining Impedance Mismatch .............................................................................................. 187
Defining Return Loss ............................................................................................................ 187
Defining Structural Return Loss .......................................................................................... 188
Understanding Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ..................................................................... 188
LESSON 8: CONNECTORIZING HARDLINE COAXIAL CABLE (322-15-6)

SELECTING PROPER CONNECTORS AND ADAPTERS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 194
Describing Pin Connectors ......................................................................................................... 194
Describing Feed-Thru Connectors ............................................................................................. 195
Describing Straight Splice Connectors ...................................................................................... 196
Describing 90° and 180° Adapters ............................................................................................. 196
Describing Housing-to-Housing Adapters ................................................................................. 197
Describing Extension Adapters .................................................................................................. 198
Describing Splice Blocks and Pin-to-Pin Splices ....................................................................... 198
Describing Cable-to-F Series Adapters ...................................................................................... 199
Describing Pin-to-F Female Adapters........................................................................................ 199
Describing Cable and Housing Terminators.............................................................................. 200
PREPARING TO CONNECTORIZE COAXIAL CABLES
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 203
Observing Safety Practices ........................................................................................................ 203
Identifying Cable Types ............................................................................................................. 204
Straightening and Cutting Cable ............................................................................................... 205
Removing Armored Sheathing ................................................................................................... 205
Preparing T-Series, P-Series, and MC2 Cables .......................................................................... 208
Stripping the Polyethylene Cable Jacket .............................................................................. 208
Removing Flooding Compounds ........................................................................................... 210
Coring Dielectric and Stripping Aluminum Sheath ............................................................ 210
Preparing QR Cables .................................................................................................................. 213
Inspecting Cored and Stripped Cable ........................................................................................ 213
Trimming and Cleaning Cable Center Conductor ..................................................................... 213
Speeding Up Preparation Process .............................................................................................. 215
INSTALLING CONNECTORS AND WEATHERPROOFING
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 217
Installing Pin Connectors at Cable-Equipment Interface ......................................................... 218
Preparing Passive or Active Devices ..................................................................................... 218
Trimming Connector Pin ...................................................................................................... 219
Installing Pin Connector ....................................................................................................... 220
Finishing Connectorization .................................................................................................. 222
Weatherproofing with Shrink Tubing ........................................................................................ 222
Heat Shrink Tubing .............................................................................................................. 223
Cold Shrink Tubing .............................................................................................................. 223
LESSON 9: REACTANCES (304-11-7)

UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 228
Explaining Inductor CEMF ........................................................................................................ 228
Applying Ohm's Law .................................................................................................................. 229
Using Inductive Reactance Networks ........................................................................................ 230
Series Inductive Reactances .................................................................................................. 231
Parallel Inductive Reactances .............................................................................................. 232
UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF CAPACITIVE REACTANCE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 235
Explaining Capacitor Voltage .................................................................................................... 235
Capacitor Charging .............................................................................................................. 235
Capacitor Discharging .......................................................................................................... 236
Defining Capacitive Reactance .................................................................................................. 237
Using Capacitive Reactance Networks ...................................................................................... 240
Series Capacitive Reactances ................................................................................................ 240
Parallel Capacitive Reactances............................................................................................. 241
COMBINING THE EFFECTS FROM INDUCTIVE/CAPACITIVE REACTANCES
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 245
Finding the Point of Resonance ................................................................................................. 245
Series Resonance ................................................................................................................... 246
Parallel Resonance ................................................................................................................ 247
Defining the Bandwidth of a Resonant Circuit ......................................................................... 247
Using Resonant Circuits as Filters ............................................................................................ 248
Low-Pass Filters.................................................................................................................... 249
High-Pass Filters .................................................................................................................. 250
Bandpass Filters ................................................................................................................... 251
Band-Stop Filters.................................................................................................................. 252
LESSON 10: WORKING WITH HARDLINE RF SPLITTERS (321-13-4)

IDENTIFYING SPLITTER TYPES AND COMPONENTS
Introduction to Identifying Splitter Types and Components .................................................... 256
Describing Splitter Housing ....................................................................................................... 256
Describing Splitter Faceplate..................................................................................................... 257
Describing Splitter Gaskets ....................................................................................................... 258
Describing Input/Output Ports .................................................................................................. 258
Describing Seizure Screws ......................................................................................................... 259
EXAMINING SPLITTER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND OPERATION
Introduction to Examining Splitter Electrical Characteristics and Operation ........................ 261
Defining Isolation ....................................................................................................................... 261
Defining Insertion Loss .............................................................................................................. 262
Defining RF Isolation ................................................................................................................. 265

Specifying Bandwidth ................................................................................................................ 266
Understanding Return Loss ....................................................................................................... 266
Passing AC Power ...................................................................................................................... 266
UNDERSTANDING THE THEORY OF SPLITTER OPERATION
Introduction to Understanding the Theory of Splitter Operation............................................. 269
Examining Two-Way Splitters ................................................................................................... 269
Determining Power Levels .................................................................................................... 269
Distributing AC Voltage........................................................................................................ 270
Examining Three-Way Splitters ................................................................................................ 271
Determining Power Loss ....................................................................................................... 271
CONSIDERING APPLICATIONS
Introduction to Considering Applications .................................................................................. 277
Using Two-Way Splitters ........................................................................................................... 277
Using Three-Way Splitters......................................................................................................... 279
LESSON 11: RF DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS AND POWER INSERTERS (321-21-5)
EXAMINING RF DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
Introduction to Examining RF Directional Couplers ................................................................ 284
Reviewing the Operation of Directional Couplers ..................................................................... 285
Directional Coupler Physical Construction ............................................................................... 287
Examining the Directional Coupler Circuit Construction......................................................... 288
Electrical Characteristics ........................................................................................................... 289
Reviewing Logarithms .......................................................................................................... 290
Applying Logarithms to Power Levels .................................................................................. 291
Examining Actual Directional Couplers .................................................................................... 295
Analyzing Directional Coupler Tap Port Loss ...................................................................... 295
Analyzing Directional Coupler Output Port Loss ................................................................. 296
Comparing Directional Coupler Maximum and Typical Performance ................................ 297
Looking at Isolation and Return Loss in a Directional Coupler .......................................... 298
Handling Power Through the Directional Couple ..................................................................... 300
EXAMINING POWER INSERTERS
Introduction to Examining Power Inserters .............................................................................. 303
Power Inserter Mechanical Components ................................................................................... 303
Power Inserter Electrical Characteristics.................................................................................. 304
Power Inserter Theory of Operation .......................................................................................... 306
Power Inserter Application ........................................................................................................ 311
LESSON 12: WORKING WITH RF TAPS (321-31-7)

IDENTIFYING TYPES OF TAPS
Introduction to Identifying Types of Taps ................................................................................. 316
Identifying Feed-Through and Terminating Taps ..................................................................... 316
Describing Feed-Through Taps ............................................................................................ 317

Describing Terminating Taps ............................................................................................... 318
Identifying Special Function Taps ............................................................................................. 318
Using Addressable Taps ....................................................................................................... 318
Using RF/AC Bypass Taps .................................................................................................. 319
IDENTIFYING RF TAP MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
Introduction to Identifying RF Tap Mechanical Components ................................................... 321
Describing the Tap Housing ....................................................................................................... 321
Describing the Tap Faceplate..................................................................................................... 322
EXAMINING RF TAP ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Introduction to Examining RF Tap Electrical Characteristics ................................................. 325
Defining Isolation ....................................................................................................................... 325
Defining Tap-to-Tap Isolation .............................................................................................. 325
Defining Tap-to-Port Isolation.............................................................................................. 326
Defining Tap Loss ....................................................................................................................... 326
Defining Insertion Loss .............................................................................................................. 328
Specifying Bandwidth ................................................................................................................ 328
Understanding Return Loss ....................................................................................................... 329
Passing AC Power ...................................................................................................................... 329
Examining Power-Passing Capabilities ............................................................................... 329
Recognizing Hum Modulation .............................................................................................. 330
UNDERSTANDING THE THEORY OF RF TAP OPERATION
Introduction to Understanding the Theory of RF Tap Operation ............................................. 333
Tracing Signal Distribution in Feed-Through Taps .................................................................. 333
Tracing Signal Distribution in Terminating Taps ..................................................................... 336
Passing AC Voltage .................................................................................................................... 337
CONSIDERING RF TAP SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA
Introduction to Considering RF Tap System Design Criteria ................................................... 339
Selecting Number of Tap Ports .................................................................................................. 339
Selecting Tap Value .................................................................................................................... 342
Calculating Tap Signal Levels ................................................................................................... 342
LESSON 13: LINE EXTENDER SETUP AND OPERATIONS (328-33-2)

RECOGNIZING THE ROLE OF THE LINE EXTENDER
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 352
Considering the Operational Characteristics of Line Extenders .............................................. 352
Examining Line Extender Characteristics ................................................................................ 354
Examining Line Extender Output Levels .................................................................................. 356
Understanding the Performance Characteristics of a Line Extender .................................. 357
Examining the Effects of Cascading Line Extenders ............................................................ 357
Recognizing the Role of the Test Point .................................................................................. 358

Maintaining Consistent Signal Levels ................................................................................. 359
PERFORMING PRELIMINARY CHECKS ON A LINE EXTENDER
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 363
Delivering AC Power to a Line Extender ................................................................................... 363
Identifying Power Directors .................................................................................................. 364
Measuring AC and DC Voltages ................................................................................................ 365
Taking Input AC Voltage Measurements.............................................................................. 366
Measuring the Unregulated DC Voltage............................................................................... 366
Measuring the Regulated DC or B+ Voltage......................................................................... 368
SETTING UP THE FORWARD SECTION OF A LINE EXTENDER
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 371
Discussing Line Extender Alignment ........................................................................................ 371
Defining Slope and Tilt .............................................................................................................. 372
Identifying the Forward Test Points .......................................................................................... 373
Choosing the Forward Reference Carriers ................................................................................ 374
Using a True Tilt Correction Network ....................................................................................... 374
Setting a Sloped Output Using a Signal Level Meter ............................................................... 376
Explaining Basic Line Extender Forward Operation ................................................................ 376
Understanding Output Level Controls ...................................................................................... 378
Examining Automatic and Thermal Controls............................................................................ 380
Setting Up the Forward Amplifier ............................................................................................. 382
Preparing to Rough Balance the Line Extender ................................................................... 382
Selecting the Proper Input Equalizer ................................................................................... 382
Recognizing the Application of a Cable Simulator ............................................................... 383
Adjusting the Output Levels of a Line Extender................................................................... 384
SETTING UP THE RETURN SECTION OF A LINE EXTENDER
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 387
Assessing Return Capabilities of a Line Extender .................................................................... 387
Understanding the Alignment Concept of the Return Path...................................................... 388
Describing the Reverse Alignment Test System ....................................................................... 390
Examining Return Carrier Injection Points .............................................................................. 392
Following the Correct Sequence When Balancing Return Amplifiers ...................................... 393
Aligning the Return Section of a Line Extender ....................................................................... 393
LESSON 14: DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER OPERATION (325-11-2)

UNDERSTANDING TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIERS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 398
Classifying Distribution Amplifiers ........................................................................................... 398
Applying Distribution Amplifiers............................................................................................... 399
EXAMINING THE DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER HOUSING
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 403
Identifying Key Housing Components ....................................................................................... 403

Housing Gaskets ................................................................................................................... 404
Cooling Fins .......................................................................................................................... 404
Describing Opening Procedures ................................................................................................. 405
Describing Closing Procedures ................................................................................................... 405
Identifying Various Access Ports ............................................................................................... 406
Input and Output Ports ........................................................................................................ 406
RF Test Ports ........................................................................................................................ 407
Explaining Port-to-Module Connections .................................................................................... 407
EXPLAINING AC AND DC POWERING OF DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIERS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 411
Providing AC Voltage Distribution ............................................................................................ 411
Protecting the System with Fuses ............................................................................................. 412
Describing Additional Surge Protection .................................................................................... 413
Explaining the DC Power Supply .............................................................................................. 413
WORKING WITH RF PASSIVES AND CONTROLS IN DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIERS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 417
Using Amplifier Passives ........................................................................................................... 417
Attenuator Pads .................................................................................................................... 417
Equalizers ............................................................................................................................. 418
Filters .................................................................................................................................... 419
Identifying RF Controls and Test Points ................................................................................... 419
Slope Control......................................................................................................................... 420
Gain Control ......................................................................................................................... 420
RF Test Points ....................................................................................................................... 421
UNDERSTANDING THE DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER MODULE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 425
Describing the Forward RF Amplifier Section .......................................................................... 425
Forward Amplification Path................................................................................................. 425
Describing the Reverse RF Amplifier Section ........................................................................... 428
Reverse Amplification Path .................................................................................................. 428
CLASSIFYING DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER SPECIFICATIONS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 431
Listing Mechanical Specifications .............................................................................................. 431
Citing Electrical Specifications .................................................................................................. 432
Getting Familiar with RF Specifications ................................................................................... 433
SETTING UP AND TROUBLESHOOTING DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIERS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 437
Setup and Troubleshooting Parameters .................................................................................... 437
Distribution Amplifier Properly Installed ............................................................................ 438
Correct Power Routing and Surge Protection Components Installed as Required .............. 438
AC Voltage Within Tolerance................................................................................................ 438
DC Voltage Within Tolerance ............................................................................................... 439
Forward RF Input and Output Levels Correct ..................................................................... 439
Reverse RF Levels Correct ..................................................................................................... 439
LESSON 15: POWERING CABLE NETWORKS (319-13-3)

EXAMINING FERRORESONANT POWER SUPPLIES
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 442
Describing Nonstandby Ferroresonant Power Supplies ............................................................ 443
Understanding the Input Voltage Section ............................................................................ 443
Understanding the Ferroresonant Transformer Section ...................................................... 444
Understanding the Output Voltage Section.......................................................................... 445
Describing Standby Ferroresonant Power Supplies .................................................................. 446
Recognizing Power Supply AC Waveforms ................................................................................ 448
Recognizing the 115 VAC Input Voltage Waveform ............................................................. 448
Recognizing the 60- or 90-VAC Output Voltage Waveform .................................................. 449
Measuring Power Supply AC Output Voltage ........................................................................... 450
Considering Power Supply Mounting Options .......................................................................... 451
Mounting Power Supply Meters and Disconnects ..................................................................... 452
Performing Nonstandby Power Supply Preventive Maintenance ............................................. 453
Checking Input Electrical Conditions .................................................................................. 453
Checking Output Electrical Conditions ................................................................................ 454
Checking Mechanical Conditions ......................................................................................... 455
Performing Standby Power Supply Preventive Maintenance ................................................... 456
Check Battery Open-Circuit Voltage ..................................................................................... 457
Check Battery Voltage Under Load ...................................................................................... 457
Check Battery Terminals and Connecting Wires.................................................................. 458
Check Output Voltage in Standby Mode .............................................................................. 458
Check Output Current in Standby Mode .............................................................................. 458
UNDERSTANDING AC POWER INSERTION METHODS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 461
Describing the Power Inserter ................................................................................................... 461
Describing Direct Amplifier Powering ....................................................................................... 462
Describing Multiple Amplifier Cable Powering ......................................................................... 463
PERFORMING POWERING CALCULATIONS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 467
Considering System Design Parameters ................................................................................... 467
Identifying Cable Resistances .................................................................................................... 468
Identifying Amplifier Current Requirements ............................................................................ 469
Calculating Amplifier Voltages .................................................................................................. 471
LESSON 16: SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND P-N JUNCTIONS (326-10-3)

EXAMINING SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

Introduction to Examining Semiconductor Material ................................................................. 478
Examining the Semiconductor ................................................................................................... 478
Reviewing Semiconductor Components ................................................................................ 479
Examining Sand and Silicon ............................................................................................... 481
Summary of Semiconductor Material ........................................................................................ 484
EXAMINING N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS: EXTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTORS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 485
Examining Impurities in the Silicon Atom ................................................................................ 485
Examining the P-N Junction...................................................................................................... 486
Examining Diode Characteristics .............................................................................................. 488
Explaining the Function of the Diode ........................................................................................ 491
Describing the Signal Ground .................................................................................................... 492
Summary of N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors ..................................................................... 493
LESSON 17: DIODES AND DIODE CIRCUITS (326-20-3)
EXAMINING RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Introduction to Rectifier Circuits ............................................................................................... 496
Identifying Common Rectifier Circuits ...................................................................................... 496
Examining Voltage Limiters (Clippers) ..................................................................................... 497
Examining Clamping Circuits.................................................................................................... 499
Describing Key Diode Characteristics ....................................................................................... 500
Examining Other Interesting Diodes ......................................................................................... 502
Zener Diodes.......................................................................................................................... 502
Tunnel Diodes ....................................................................................................................... 504
PIN Diodes ............................................................................................................................ 504
Schottky Barrier Diodes ........................................................................................................ 505
Varactor Diodes .................................................................................................................... 507
EXAMINING OPTICAL DIODES
Introduction to Optical Diodes ................................................................................................... 511
Examining Light Emitting Diodes ............................................................................................. 511
Describing Photodiodes .............................................................................................................. 513
Analyzing Opto-Isolators ............................................................................................................ 516
Identifying Laser Diodes ............................................................................................................ 516
Examining the Fabry-Perot Lasers ....................................................................................... 517
Examining the Distributed Feedback Lasers ....................................................................... 520
Reviewing Back-facet Diodes ..................................................................................................... 520
LESSON 18: USING DIGITAL SIGNAL ANALYZERS (186-31-4)

DESCRIBING DIGITAL MEASUREMENTS
Introduction to Describing Digital Measurements .................................................................... 524
Interpreting Modulation Error Ratio ......................................................................................... 524

Interpreting Bit Error Rate ........................................................................................................ 527
Introducing Forward Error Correction ...................................................................................... 527
Interpreting Constellation Displays .......................................................................................... 529
Understanding the Adaptive Equalizer ..................................................................................... 531
OPERATING THE DIGITAL SIGNAL ANALYZER
Introduction to Operating the Digital Signal Analyzer ............................................................. 535
Examining Amplitude Measurements ....................................................................................... 535
Decoding the Digital Signal ....................................................................................................... 537
Understanding Automated Measurements................................................................................ 539
USING CABLE MODEM ANALYZERS
Introduction to Using Cable Modem Analyzers ......................................................................... 541
Provisioning for DOCSIS Operation .......................................................................................... 541
Connecting a Cable Modem Analyzer ........................................................................................ 542
Understanding Modem Provisioning ......................................................................................... 543
Examining Cable Modem Analyzer Measurements .................................................................. 545
Cable Modem Statistics ........................................................................................................ 546
Ping ....................................................................................................................................... 546
Trace Route ........................................................................................................................... 547
Throughput ........................................................................................................................... 548
LESSON 19: TDR FUNDAMENTALS AND OPERATION (330-15-2)
DESCRIBING TYPES OF TDRS
Introduction to Describing Types of TDRs ................................................................................. 552
Identifying Digital TDRs ............................................................................................................ 552
Identifying Waveform TDRs ...................................................................................................... 553
UNDERSTANDING THEORY OF OPERATION
Introduction to Understanding Theory of Operation ................................................................ 555
Identifying TDR Operating Principles ....................................................................................... 555
Understanding Velocity of Propagation (VOP)..................................................................... 556
Understanding Cable Radar Principles ............................................................................... 556
Describing Signal Pulse Width ............................................................................................. 557
Understanding TDR Operation .................................................................................................. 558
DESCRIBING TDR APPLICATIONS
Introduction to Describing TDR Applications ........................................................................... 561
Troubleshooting Cable Faults .................................................................................................... 561
Testing Cable .............................................................................................................................. 562
Testing New Coaxial Cable ................................................................................................... 562
Determining Partial Cable Reel Length ............................................................................... 562
Testing Antenna Cables ........................................................................................................ 563
Testing Communications Cables .......................................................................................... 564
Confirming Unauthorized Connections ..................................................................................... 564

CONSIDERING TDR PRELIMINARIES
Introduction to Considering TDR Preliminaries ....................................................................... 567
Preparing the Cable ................................................................................................................... 567
Connecting the Cable ................................................................................................................. 570
Understanding Safety Precautions ............................................................................................ 571
NOTING TDR MEASUREMENT PRECAUTIONS
Introduction to Noting TDR Measurement Precautions ........................................................... 573
Understanding Decibel Return Loss .......................................................................................... 573
Reviewing Waveform Displays ................................................................................................... 574
Recognizing TDR Waveform Anomalies ............................................................................... 576
Understanding the TDR Blind Spot ..................................................................................... 577
Recognizing Incorrect TDR Settings .......................................................................................... 578
Setting Impedance Incorrectly .............................................................................................. 578
Setting Velocity of Propagation Incorrectly .......................................................................... 579
Selecting Incorrect Pulse Width ............................................................................................ 579
LEARNING TDR MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES
Introduction to Learning TDR Measurement Procedures ......................................................... 583
Practicing Common TDR Measurement Procedures ................................................................. 583
Using Digital TDR Measurement Procedures ........................................................................... 584
Practicing Riser Bond Model 2901C Measurement Procedures ........................................... 584
Using Waveform TDR Measurement Procedures ...................................................................... 585
Practicing Tektronix TV110 CableScout Measurements ...................................................... 586
PINPOINTING FAULT SITE
Introduction to Pinpointing Fault Site ...................................................................................... 591
Using a Cable Locator ................................................................................................................ 592
Using a Measuring Wheel .......................................................................................................... 592
LESSON 20: CONTROLLING SIGNAL LEAKAGE (307-33-4)

IDENTIFYING SPECIFIC SIGNAL LEAKAGE MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction to Identifying Specific Signal Leakage Measurement Considerations ................ 594
Using the Dipole Antenna When Making Measurements ......................................................... 594
Calculating Leakage Levels at Distances Greater than 10 Feet............................................... 596
Effect of Frequency on Leakage Signals .................................................................................... 598
Uncertainties in Leakage Signal Measurement ........................................................................ 598
Documenting and Reporting Signal Leakage ............................................................................ 598
Documenting Signal Leakage ............................................................................................... 599
Document and Report ........................................................................................................... 599
FCC Required Reports .......................................................................................................... 599
ELIMINATING SIGNAL LEAKAGE
Introduction to Eliminating Signal Leakage ............................................................................. 603

Recognizing False Leaks ............................................................................................................ 603
Identifying Over-the-Air Signal Source ................................................................................ 604
Locating the Source in the Aerial Plant..................................................................................... 604
Locating the Source in the Underground Plant......................................................................... 605
Locating the Source in the Drop System ................................................................................... 605
Isolating Signal Leakage Sources .............................................................................................. 605
Manipulating Detector Controls ........................................................................................... 606
Isolating Leakage at the Ground Block and Splitter ............................................................ 606
Isolating Leakage on the Service Drop at the Tap Location ................................................. 607
Isolating Leakage at Individual Drop Outlets ..................................................................... 607
Isolating Leakage at Wall Plates, Jumpers, and Customer Premises Equipment ............... 608
Repairing Signal Leakage .......................................................................................................... 608
PREVENTING SIGNAL LEAKAGE
Introduction to Preventing Signal Leakage ............................................................................... 611
Determining Demand Maintenance Procedures........................................................................ 611
Following Preventive Maintenance Procedures ........................................................................ 611
LESSON 21: UNDERSTANDING FIBER OPTICS AND HFC NETWORKS (805-36-6)
INTRODUCING FIBER OPTICS
Introduction to Fiber Optics ....................................................................................................... 614
Characterizing Light .................................................................................................................. 614
Characterizing Fiber .................................................................................................................. 616
Describing Optoelectronics Equipment...................................................................................... 619
CONSTRUCTING FIBER NETWORKS
Introduction to Constructing Fiber Networks ........................................................................... 625
Handling Fiber ........................................................................................................................... 626
Determining System Design Parameters .................................................................................. 627
Examining Construction Techniques ......................................................................................... 627
Describing Installation Techniques ........................................................................................... 628
Explaining Optical Fiber Splicing .............................................................................................. 629
Explaining Optical Fiber Couplers ............................................................................................ 631
Explaining Optical Fiber Testing............................................................................................... 632
THE EVOLVING HFC NETWORK
Introduction to the Evolving HFC Network .............................................................................. 635
Using Fiber Optics for Network Redundancy ............................................................................ 635
Identifying HFC Architectures .................................................................................................. 636
Describing Fiber-to-the-Home.................................................................................................... 639
OPTIMIZING THE HFC NETWORK
Introduction to Optimizing the HFC Network .......................................................................... 643
Improving the Fiber Upstream Path ......................................................................................... 643
Moving Fiber Farther ................................................................................................................. 644
Describing Wavelength Division Multiplexing .......................................................................... 645

LESSON 22: DEVELOPING PREVENTION PROGRAMS (341-12-4)

ENSURING SAFETY AWARENESS
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 650
Meeting OSHA Requirements .................................................................................................... 650
Developing a Training Program ................................................................................................. 653
Describing Industry Standard Safe Work Practices .................................................................. 654
MONITORING LEAKAGE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 657
Understanding FCC Signal Leakage Regulations ..................................................................... 657
Reporting and Repairing Signal Leaks ...................................................................................... 660
STRESSING PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 665
Scheduling Preventive Maintenance ......................................................................................... 665
Using Calibrated Test Equipment ............................................................................................. 666
Maintaining Vehicles, Ladders, Tools, and Personal Protective Equipment ............................ 667
REDUCING OUTAGES
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 669
Implementing Lightning Protection .......................................................................................... 669
Utilizing Status Monitoring ....................................................................................................... 673
REDUCING THEFT
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 675
Defining Passive Piracy.............................................................................................................. 675
Defining Active Piracy ................................................................................................................ 676
Controlling Cable Piracy ............................................................................................................ 676
Distribution System Overview (305-15-4) Page 1
LESSON 1: Distribution System Overview (305-15-

4)
Modules in this Lesson
 Applying Electronics to Distribution Systems

 Comparing System Architectures
 Examining Distribution System Equipment
 Measuring System Vital Signs and Faults
 Troubleshooting Signal Problems and Outages
MODULE 1
APPLYING ELECTRONICS TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Introduction
Learning basic RF electronic fundamentals is helpful in the daily performance of a broadband cable
technician's job responsibilities. These fundamentals include: (1) the sine wave characteristics of
frequency, wavelength, and amplitude; (2) the opposing elements of resistance, capacitance, and
inductance; and (3) the basics of grounding, impedance matching, and signal traps and filters. The
term distribution system typically refers to the hardline coaxial cable portion of a cable system. In
addition, according to The Internet & Television Association (NCTA), the terms distribution system
and feeder system can be used synonymously. Keeping the distribution system performing optimally
is critical to providing the quality and reliability of service that keeps customers satisfied.
Maintaining this level of performance requires a thorough understanding of the distribution system.
Applying AC Waveform Fundamentals
► Relate waveform fundamentals of frequency, amplitude, and wavelength to

common broadband applications.
The three principle characteristics that define an AC waveform are: (1) frequency (Figure 1A); (2)
wavelength (Figure 1B); and (3) amplitude (Figure 1C). These three characteristics are easily found
in waveforms representing familiar broadband power and signal components. For example, consider
a waveform of the 60 Hz AC power used by broadband system amplifiers in 60 volt or 90 volt
systems. This AC power has a frequency of 60 Hz, which means the waveform goes through 60
complete cycles each second. The wavelength is the distance occupied by one complete cycle or hertz.
Therefore, as the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases. (Although wavelength is rarely
used to define a powering waveform, it is commonly used to define other waveforms.) The amplitude
or "strength" of the AC power is the applied voltage at the peak of a half-cycle.
Applying Electronics to Distribution Systems

Figure 1: Three principle characteristics of an AC waveform.
An RF carrier signal leaving the headend is also an AC waveform that has the familiar elements of
frequency and amplitude. The frequency, in this case, is the channel's assigned placement in the
spectrum, and the amplitude is the channel's level measured (in dBmV) with a signal level meter
(SLM). Another example is an optical laser output wavelength of 1,310 nm (nanometers), which
represents the light signal's wavelength. In this case, the light's waveform is defined using
wavelength instead of frequency, because of the large numbers involved in expressing a light signal's
frequency.

Applying Resistance, Capacitance, and

Inductance
Electrical characteristics, such as resistance, capacitance, and inductance, are involved in many
familiar broadband signal transmission components.
Grounding and Bonding Cable Plant
► Relate electrical characteristics of resistance, capacitance, and inductance to

common broadband applications.
Grounding and bonding practices reflect one of the basic principles of resistance in Ohm's law:
electricity always follows the path of least resistance. An example of this is lightning-induced current
traveling to ground rather than on the drop system and ultimately to consumer electronics (Figure
2A). Consequently, it is required that the size of the bonding (ground) wire has a lower resistance
compared to that of the coaxial drop cable outer conductor. Other factors that affect conductor
resistance are length, temperature, and frequency (Figure 2B).
Figure 2: The application of Ohm's law to grounding practices.

Matching Impedances
The impedance of coaxial cable or a device (connector, passive, etc.) comprises the combined effects of
its resistance, inductance, and capacitance (Figure 3). When all the signal transmission components
have the same impedance, a signal is transmitted with the least amount of power loss or
attenuation. Cable imperfections and loose cable connectors change the characteristic impedance of
that portion of the signal transmission path from the desired 75 ohms. This change in impedance
creates an unwanted loss of signal strength.
Figure 3: Cable impedance comprises resistance (R), inductance (L), and capacitance (C).
Trapping and Filtering Signals
Frequency traps and filters contain resistive and capacitive components (Figure 4) to block or pass
the transmission of certain portions of the signal spectrum. Traps restrict or permit a viewer's access
to specific programming. Bandpass filters pass a particular group of frequencies while rejecting
another group of frequencies that might cause signal interference. A high-pass filter is a type of
bandpass filter that passes all frequencies above a specific frequency (e.g. 50 MHz), and eliminates
common path distortions, impulse noise in the return spectrum, and any other frequencies that fall
below that specific frequency.
Figure 4: Example of resistive and capacitive components in bandpass filters.

Think About it — Review Questions

Check your understanding of this section by answering the following questions:
What are three principle characteristics that define an AC waveform?
Think about your answer and then click SUBMIT.
What is one of the basic principles of resistance reflected in the familiar practices of grounding
and bonding?
What comprises the impedance of a coaxial cable or a device (connector, passive, etc.)?
What is a high-pass filter?
Make sure you can answer the above questions before taking the lesson exam.

MODULE 2
COMPARING SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES
Introduction
The term feeder is used to describe the portion of the cable system that utilizes RF taps for
connection to customer premises. This terminology is standard in tree-and-branch architectures but
it is also used in hybrid/fiber coax (HFC) architectures. Another term more often used for reference
to this portion of the cable system with RF taps in HFC architecture is distribution system, but the
term is also used in tree-and-branch architectures. In fact, the term distribution system usually
includes all coaxial cable in an HFC network. According to NCTA (The Internet & Television
Association) definition, the terms feeder system and distribution system can have the same meaning.
It is important to familiarize yourself with the functions and boundaries of a distribution system,
and identify its differences in a tree-and-branch and HFC system architectures. Further, you must
know the various powering configuration requirements, the forward and return transmission paths,
and the relative positioning of system transmission components.
Identifying Differences Between System

Architectures
The distribution system in a traditional tree-and-branch architecture (all coaxial) and in HFC
architecture are, basically, the same design. In both cases, RF signals are transported on coaxial
cable. The following frequency designations are the ones used in most of North America. In a
traditional tree-and-branch system signal performance restrictions usually limit bandwidths to a 50-
550 MHz forward pass band. By comparison, an HFC network transmits the forward signal up to a
50-1,000 MHz pass band. Additionally, in a tree-and-branch architecture the broadband cable feeder
or distribution system is located between the bridger amplifier in a trunk amplifier station and the
customer drop. In HFC architecture, the distribution or feeder system is located between the RF
amplifier in an optical node and the customer drop. In either architecture, the distribution system
interfaces with the customer drop systems via RF taps. The return signal pass band for both
architectures is the same: 5-42 MHz. One other difference between system architectures is system
power supply placement. HFC networks require that the system power supplies are spliced directly
into the distribution system. This is because fiber-optic cables are not designed to conduct AC power.
In a tree-and-branch architecture, system power supplies are normally located in the trunk system,
not within the feeder system.
Signal Flow Through a Tree-and-Branch Feeder

System
► Define tree-and-branch feeder architecture and identify its boundaries within a

broadband system.
The forward RF output signal from a bridger amplifier is split and routed to as many as four output
ports connected to the same number of separate coaxial feeder cables. The forward RF signal is
transmitted through feeder cable to each customer's RF tap. The forward RF signal destined for a
specific customer premises may either: (1) enter a tap directly at the output of the bridger amplifier;
or (2) pass through feeder cable, splitters, directional couplers, line extender amplifiers, and other
RF taps before reaching a specific customer premises RF tap (Figure 5). The return path of the
feeder (distribution) system is the reverse of the forward path.
Figure 5: A tree-and-branch feeder system from the bridger amplifier output to the drop port of an RF tap.
Signal Flow Through an HFC Distribution

System
► Define HFC distribution architecture and identify its boundaries within a

broadband system.
Comparing System Architectures

HFC architecture uses a similar distribution system to that of a tree-and-branch feeder system to
distribute the forward broadband signal to the drop. However, in an HFC distribution system, the
forward signal is provided by an optical node. This type of distribution system begins at the output of
an RF amplifier, located in the optical node, and ends at the tap port of an RF tap. Some HFC
designs employ a coaxial express cable (i.e., a trunk-sized coaxial cable) for signal and power
transmission between the forward signal output of an optical node and the input of a distribution
amplifier, where distribution cables are connected. This allows a particular optical node to reach
farther out in the distribution system. There are no RF taps installed on an express cable (Figure 6).
The return path of the distribution system is the reverse of the forward path.
Figure 6: An HFC feeder system using an express cable from the output of the optical node to the input of a distribution amplifier
and line extender amplifier.

What are the differing forward-path transmission bandwidths for traditional tree-and-branch
and HFC architectures?
Where does the feeder system forward path start and end in a tree-and-branch design?
Where does the distribution system forward path begin and end in an HFC design?
What is the purpose of a coaxial express cable in an HFC distribution system?


MODULE 3
EXAMINING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM EQUIPMENT
Introduction
Knowing and understanding the role of all the individual transmission components of a broadband
distribution system is essential to effectively maintaining and troubleshooting system operations.
Knowledge of system transmission cabling includes the types and sizes of the cable component and
their required hardline connectors. Tracing signal flow through the distribution system requires
understanding the different passive device components. These components distribute the signal
through the system and provide interfaces to the customer drops. Integral to understanding signal
flow is understanding amplifiers, their powering requirements, and the effects they have on
broadband signals. Finally, because the amplifier components need power to function, a thorough
knowledge of system power supply operation, power supply components, and their standby
capabilities is required. With an understanding of all the involved individual components and their
collective interaction, you will better appreciate the importance of proper maintenance in a
distribution system.
Discovering Distribution System Components

There are three main categories of broadband signal transmission components in the distribution
system: (1) cable/connectors; (2) passive devices; and (3) active devices. All three component
categories have some common characteristics, such as 75-ohm impedance and the ability to
simultaneously conduct AC power and transmit the broadband signal. Additionally, these
components are designed to operate in a full range of environmental conditions. Besides common
characteristics, each component performs a unique set of functions integral to successful broadband
signal transmission.
Examining Distribution System Coaxial Cable

Hardline coaxial cable is the transmission pipeline of a distribution system. Through it, the
broadband signal from the optical node or bridger amplifier is transported to its intended
destination. This particular cable provides broadband signals with a protective barrier against
external interfering signals and corrosive elements. The cable also acts as a transmission path for
the return signals (5-42 MHz) coming from the drop systems.
Identifying Cable Types
► Describe the role of cable and connectors in a distribution system.
As with coaxial drop cable, there are two main types of coaxial distribution cable: (1) underground;
and (2) aerial. Underground cable is manufactured with a protective outer jacket covering the
aluminum sheath and a flooding compound between the jacket and the sheath. The flooding
compound seals the cable against corrosive elements in case the jacket is damaged. Although aerial
cable can be jacketed or unjacketed, it is commonly jacketed when used in the salt-air environments
of coastal areas.
Quantifying Typical Cable Sizes
Coaxial distribution cable is smaller and more flexible than coaxial trunk cable, making it fairly easy
to work with. The typical cable sizes of outside diameters are 0.500" (12.7 mm), 0.540" (13.7 mm),
and 0.625" (15.9 mm). Figure 7A shows the common coaxial cable sizes. Further, the Figure 7B and
the Figure 7C illustrate how the cable attenuation of a broadband signal increases with higher
frequencies and decreases with larger cable size.
Figure 7: Common distribution system coaxial cable sizes and attenuation values at selected frequencies in feet and meters.
(Courtesy of CommScope Inc. and Times Fiber Communications Inc.)
Examining Distribution System Equipment

Examining Distribution System Connectors

Distribution system connectors act as an interface between the ends of coaxial cable spans and the
other transmission components in the system. Serving as an interface, connectors perform several
important functions.
Explaining Connector Functions
Connectors are precision machined hardware pieces that securely attach coaxial cable and various
active and passive devices together in the distribution system. While performing this function, these
connectors maintain the required impedance, as well as RF and weatherproof integrity. Connector
types vary, depending upon the specific function requirements. Connectors are sized to match the
cable diameters, but have a standard thread pattern that permits interconnection between different
connector types and equipment housings.
Describing Pin Connectors
Pin connectors are the most common type of connector for attaching hardline coaxial cable to active
and passive devices. These connectors come in a two- or three-piece style (Figure 8). The two-piece
pin connector (Figure 8A) engages the sheath and center conductor seizing mechanisms
simultaneously when tightening the back nut. The three-piece pin connector (Figure 8B) has
independent seizing mechanisms for both the center conductor and the outer aluminum sheath that
engage by tightening separate center and back nuts.
Figure 8: Two styles of hardline pin connectors.

Examining Splitters and Directional Couplers

Splitters and directional couplers are integral parts of the distribution transmission system. They
are passive devices that route the broadband signals where needed and control signal levels.
Splitters and directional couplers are considered passive devices, because AC or DC power is not
required for their operation.
Routing Signals to Various System Locations
► List and describe the role of passive signal transmission components in a

RF line splitters (Figure 9A) and directional couplers (Figure 9B) divide and route the forward RF
signal transmission throughout the distribution system. In the return path, splitters and directional
couplers actually combine return signals arriving from separate distribution runs.
Figure 9: Examples of a splitter and a directional coupler installed in the distribution system with accompanying design map
equivalents.

Controlling Signal Levels by Device Selection
A line splitter typically comes with two or three output ports. A two-way splitter has equal insertion
losses (approximately 4 dB, depending on frequency) at each of its two output ports. Three-way
splitters are available in two configurations: balanced and unbalanced. A balanced three-way splitter
has approximately 7 dB of insertion loss (again, depending on the frequency) at all three output
ports. The unbalanced three-way splitter has one port with a lower insertion loss (approximately 4
dB) and the remaining two output ports with equal insertion losses of 8 dB. Directional couplers are
available in varying values—8 dB, 10 dB, and 12 dB values are the most common. A directional
coupler's value is selected to unevenly divide the input signal between its two output ports for design
flexibility.
Examining RF Taps
RF (or customer) taps provide an interface between the distribution system and the drop system. RF
tap port design and varying tap values provide a great deal of flexibility for distributing signals.
Explaining Signal Flow Through an RF Tap
An RF tap is essentially a combination of a directional coupler and a splitter. A specified portion of

the forward distribution signal's overall power is routed through the internal tap circuitry (Figure
10A) to the tap (drop) ports on the tap face plate (Figure 10B). AC power passes bidirectionally
through the tap, but is prevented from passing through to the tap ports except by design in power-
distributing taps. Power-distributing taps are used in some telephony applications to direct AC
power from the distribution system onto a drop to power customer premises equipment. This design
provides greater reliability for life-line services such as VoIP. The remaining forward RF signal, and
any required AC power, passes to the output port and into the distribution cable for further
transmission to other RF taps or amplifiers. Return RF signals travel in the reverse direction
through an RF tap and, just like the forward path signals, experience the appropriate amount of
signal loss based on the tap value and the frequency of the signal.
Figure 10: RF signal flow in an eight-way tap.

Quantifying Tap Ports
Taps are available with two, four, and eight ports (referred to as two-way, four-way, and eight-way
taps). The number of tap ports used at any point along a distribution run depends on plant design
specifications and the number of customer premises served (or to be served) from the tap. One
consideration when selecting a tap is its insertion loss (in dB). The more available tap ports, the
higher the insertion loss. Tap insertion loss is the signal loss between the tap's input and output
(distribution) ports. Do not confuse insertion loss with the tap value, which is the signal loss (in dB)
between the tap input (distribution port) and the tap (drop) ports.
Understanding Tap Values
Tap values are indicated on the tap face plate by a sticker or number stamped into the housing.
These typically range from 29 dB down to 8 dB in a four-way tap, and down to 4 dB in two-way taps.
Eight-way taps range from 29 dB down to only a 10 dB or 12 dB value, depending on the
manufacturer.
Describing Addressable Taps
Some tap designs, called addressable taps (Figure 11) or interdiction units, permit control of security
functions by computer commands from the office or headend. These functions can control drop
activation and levels of service to each of the tap (drop) ports. Addressable taps are system-powered
just like RF amplifiers and other active components. Addressable taps may become increasingly
popular in light of Federal Communications Commission (FCC) rulings that restrict incorporating
signal security functions inside set-top boxes.
Figure 11: An addressable tap in an aerial cable plant. (Courtesy of Electroline Equipment Inc.)

Examining Distribution System Broadband

Amplifiers
► Describe different distribution system amplifiers and identify basic amplifier

components.
The distribution system employs RF amplifiers to increase the strength of the broadband RF signals
that have been diminished due to transmission losses, both in the forward and return paths. Typical
types of amplifiers in the distribution system include: (1) distribution amplifiers (see the Figure
12A); and (2) line extender amplifiers (Figure 12B). All of these amplifiers require 60- or 90-volt AC
power to operate. Power supplies located throughout the cable system provide this AC power, which
is conducted bidirectionally along the same coaxial cable center conductor used by the broadband RF
signal.
Figure 12: Two types of distribution system amplifiers.
Describing Distribution and Line Extender Amplifiers
Distribution amplifiers (minibridgers) and line extender (LE) amplifiers are very similar.
Distribution amplifiers are usually found in HFC architectures and line extender amplifiers can be
found in tree-and-branch or HFC architectures. The distinction is a line extender typically has a
single output port and a distribution amplifier or minibridger has multiple output ports (typically
three ports: a through-port and two auxiliary output ports).

Explaining Basic Amplifier Components
Both aerial and underground distribution system amplifiers are enclosed within a durable,
weatherproof housing when deployed. Each housing consists of two halves that are bolted together
and hinged along one edge for ease of access. Collectively, the housing and all internal modules
comprise an amplifier station (Figure 13A). Although amplifier station designs vary, they all contain
a number of important components, as shown in the Figure 13A and the Figure 13B: (1) input and
output diplex filters that separate and combine the forward and return paths within the amplifier;
(2) forward and return plug-in pads and equalizers for controlling the input signal levels; (3) an RF
amplifier module; (4) an integrated or stand-alone DC power supply with DC current fusing; and
(5)  AC power direction control.
Figure 13: Common distribution system amplifier components.
Examining System Powering

All active devices in a broadband cable system require electrical power to operate. These devices
include optical nodes, all-system amplifiers, and in some system designs, addressable and power
distributing taps. This operating power is provided by 60- or 90-volt AC power supplies, strategically
located throughout the broadband cable system. These power supplies derive their power under
normal conditions from a standard 115-volt AC utility power source.
Explaining Basic System Powering
► Explain basic system powering theory, identify power supply components and
basic operation, and describe underground and aerial installations.

The 60- or 90-volt AC power is conducted along a short section of coaxial cable to a power inserter
that is spliced into the cable. The power inserter is a passive device that combines the AC power with
the transmitted RF signal. Unlike the RF signal, AC power conducts in both forward and return
directions as it leaves the power inserter. Forward path RF signals travel only in one direction, and
return RF signals travel in the opposite direction. Both forward and return RF signals are blocked
from the power supply.
At individual amplifier stations installed in the distribution system, the 60- or 90-volt AC is
converted to 24-volt DC by an internal power supply or a power pack. Each system power supply has
its own area of control or power realm. Cable resistance, combined amplifier load requirements,
individual amplifier voltage minimums, and limits on total AC current define the range of each of
these power realms.
Locating and Housing Power Supplies
As with amplifier stations, broadband system power supplies are installed in aerial and underground
plants (Figure 14). Typically, a power supply providing AC power to an aerial plant is housed within
a sturdy metal cabinet mounted to a utility pole (Figure 14A). An underground plant's power supply
uses a similar metal cabinet, but the cabinet is usually anchored to a ground-level concrete pad
(Figure 14B).
Figure 14: Power supplies installed in aerial and underground plants. (Courtesy of Alpha Technologies)

Describing Standby Power Supply Components
Because of increased reliability requirements, as Internet and telephone services demand, most
broadband power supplies incorporate an auxiliary or backup power source. These are called standby
power supplies (Figure 15). The typical standby power supply has three main components: (1) a
ferroresonant transformer that supplies the output voltage; (2) a set of batteries acting as a backup
power source; and (3) an AC inverter that converts the DC battery backup power to a 60 or 90 VAC
output. Systems carrying high-speed data that are adversely affected by the slight interruptions in
power that occur in a standby power supply use an uninterruptible power supply (UPS). A UPS
provides power directly from batteries that are continuously recharging so that when utility power
does fail there is no interruption of output power.
Figure 15: Standby power supply containing ferroresonant transformer, AC inverter, and backup power source batteries. (Courtesy
of Alpha Technologies)
Understanding Standby Power Supply Operation
Under normal operation with 115 VAC input utility power, a system power supply provides a 60 or
90 VAC output (Figure 16A). During this time, the backup battery potential is maintained with a
charging voltage. When the input utility power fails, the standby power provided by the backup
batteries is switched to the AC inverter (Figure 16B). From the battery-supplied DC power, the AC
inverter supplies the required 60 or 90 VAC output power. The standby power lasts from one to three
hours, depending on the amount of current drawn by a particular power realm and the condition of
the batteries. Shortly after the 115 VAC utility power is restored and stabilized, the power supply
switches back to its normal operating mode. After which, the power supply's ferroresonant
transformer once again provides 60 or 90 VAC to the system and begins recharging the standby
batteries.

Figure 16: Operating modes of a broadband system standby power supply.

How is underground cable manufactured?
How do frequency and cable size affect the attenuation of a broadband signal?
What is the role of splitters and directional couplers in the forward and return paths?
How is AC power transmitted in an RF tap?
What is the distinction between a line extender amplifier and a distribution amplifier?
What are five important components of an amplifier station?

What factors define the extent of a power realm?
What are the three main components of a typical standby power supply?

MODULE 4
MEASURING SYSTEM VITAL SIGNS AND FAULTS
Introduction
To evaluate the performance of and troubleshoot the faults within a cable system, a technician must
monitor and adjust system powering and transmission vital signs. The technician accomplishes these
tasks using RF and power measurement equipment. Performing these measurements is essential for
maintaining a properly functioning distribution system.
Using Test Equipment

Broadband signals are periodically measured to verify proper system performance. Simply looking
for a clear picture on the TV set as an indication of proper performance is not enough, especially with
today's digital TV signals. A digital TV signal can display an excellent picture, even though
significant signal degradation is present. Distribution system performance is measured by using
various pieces of test equipment (Figure 17).
Figure 17: Various pieces of test equipment for making measurements to verify distribution system performance. (Courtesy of
ComSonics Inc., Riser-Bond Instruments, and Trilithic Inc.)
► Identify test equipment used to verify proper system performance of the

Using a Signal Level Meter – A signal level meter (SLM), see the Figure 17A, is the primary test
measurement device. It measures individual analog video and audio, and digital carrier levels.
Using a Digital Multimeter – A digital multimeter (DMM), see the Figure 17B, generically known
as a volt-ohm meter (VOM), measures AC and DC voltages, resistance for continuity checks, and
current.
Using a Time Domain Reflectometer – A time domain reflectometer (TDR), see Figure 17C,
measures the presence of and distance to cable faults. The TDR sends out a test signal and measures
any reflections caused by impedance mismatches in the cable that are characteristic of cable faults.
Using a Signal Leakage Detector – A signal leakage detector (Figure 17D) is an RF receiver with
an installed input antenna that measures broadband cable signals leaking (egressing) from the
system within FCC-assigned aeronautical frequency bands.
Using a Combination SLM/Leakage Detector – This combination device (Figure 17E)

incorporates the features of an SLM and a signal leakage detector.
Measuring System Vital Signs and Faults

Applying Measurements
There are many applications where measurement devices are used in the distribution system. The
various applications include: (1) balancing amplifier (bridger, distribution, and line extender) output
levels (SLM); (2) verifying system and amplifier power supply operation (DMM); (3) identifying cut or
damaged cable spans (TDR); (4) identifying sources of ingress (signal leakage detector, SLM); and
(5)    monitoring and measuring signal leakage (egress) for system CLI reporting (combination
SLM/leakage detector). Some of these system performance checks often involve using a combination
of measurement devices.

What does a signal level meter (SLM) measure?
What does a digital multimeter (DMM) measure?
What does a time domain reflectometer (TDR) measure?
What does a signal leakage detector measure?
What does a combination SLM/leakage detector measure?
What are measurement applications for using SLMs, DMMs, TDRs, leakage detectors, and
combination leakage detectors?


MODULE 5
TROUBLESHOOTING SIGNAL PROBLEMS AND

OUTAGES
Introduction
Outages and major signal impairments within a broadband system are obviously undesirable events.
For customers within an area affected by these problems, the services they are paying for can be
severely degraded or even nonexistent. Performing regular preventive maintenance on the system
can greatly reduce the frequency and duration of these events. When problems do occur, it is vitally
important that technicians troubleshoot these signal outages and impairments quickly and
effectively.
Troubleshooting Using System Design Maps
► Explain the value of troubleshooting outages using design maps, and identify
distribution system map symbols.
The proper troubleshooting technique is basically the same whether you are troubleshooting an
outage in the drop or in the distribution system. Begin at a location common to all known outage
sites, divide the area of unknown signal status in half, verify the signal condition, and repeat (if
necessary) until the source of the problem is found. However, there is a significant difference
between problems in a drop and the distribution in the number of customers affected and distances
between signal status checks. Because of the increased distances involved when troubleshooting
outages in the distribution system, it is important to first gather as much information as possible
about the extent of the affected area. Next, using this gathered information, analyze the appropriate
system design map(s) for the device common to those customers so far affected before traveling to
make additional signal status checks.
System design maps are created using distinct symbols for each of the components. Figure 18A
illustrates common SCTE- and NCTA-recommended map symbols for the distribution system. Figure
18B shows how the symbols are used in a portion of a system design map.
Figure 18: Commonly used distribution system design map symbols. (Courtesy of BTN Engineering and Design)
Identifying Signal Outage Causes

As shown in the Figure 19, signal outage causes can be divided into three basic categories: (1)
powering failures; (2) cut or damaged cables; and (3) RF equipment failures. Often, a particular
signal outage is caused by a combination of two or all three categories.
Figure 19: Typical causes of signal outages in the distribution system.
Troubleshooting Signal Problems and Outages

Identifying Powering Failures
► Identify the different categories of signal outage causes, and describe

preventive maintenance programs designed to reduce outage occurrences.
Powering failures are common causes of signal outages and some of the easiest outages to correct
once the source is located. Powering failures include: (1) a utility power failure; (2) a tripped utility
breaker; (3) spent standby battery power; (4) a blown distribution leg fuse; (5) a blown amplifier DC
power supply fuse; and (6) a cable center conductor suck-out.
Identifying Cut or Damaged Cables
In an underground distribution system, cut or damaged cables are probably the most common cause
of outage encountered (especially during daylight hours). This is because in many parts of the
country, the trend in new residential and commercial areas is to place coaxial cable and the other
utilities underground. All the associated digging activity creates many opportunities for cutting into
underground cables. This outage category includes: (1) cables cut by underground digging equipment
(a backhoe, a trencher, a post-hole digger, a shovel, etc.); (2) aerial cable damaged by lightning or
downed power lines; and (3) downed aerial cable due to traffic accidents or severe weather.
Identifying Equipment Failures
Equipment failures generally occur less frequently than the other outage categories. This outage
category includes: (1) amplifier module failure; and (2) damaged passive transmission components
(line splitters, directional couplers, or taps). Typically, to restore service, the failed equipment is
replaced.
Performing Preventive Maintenance

Preventing outages, before they occur and adversely affect customers, is the most desirable
maintenance scenario. This is accomplished by establishing and faithfully performing effective
preventive maintenance. Distribution system preventive maintenance programs include: (1)
regularly checking the physical plant integrity; (2) monitoring signal leakage; and (3) maintaining
standby power supplies (Figure 20).

Figure 20: Preventive maintenance programs for the distribution system.
Checking Physical Plant Integrity
Much of this part of preventive maintenance simply involves being observant and performing some
minor tasks while engaged in regularly scheduled activities. These tasks include: (1) checking and
tightening loose connectors, housing enclosures, and tap face plates; (2) lubricating pedestal and
power supply padlocks periodically during normal access; and (3) securing and documenting any
broken lashing wire to prevent further deterioration.
Monitoring Signal Leakage
Signal leakage (egress) monitoring is an extremely effective preventive maintenance program, and is
required by the FCC. Eliminating a discovered signal leak averts a potential outage or trouble call.
Repairing a leak also fixes an ingress problem before customers are aware of it, which greatly
increases customer confidence and loyalty.
Maintaining Power Supplies
Broadband cable systems operate 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Because of this, and the fact
that utility power outages do occur, full confidence in the system's standby powering capability and
power supply performance is essential. Perform power supply maintenance regularly. Performance
checks should include: (1) AC input voltage; (2) AC output voltage; (3) output current (amperage)
draw; (4) individual battery voltages; (5) charging (float) voltages; and (6) standby switching
capability. It is important to observe all safety practices and to wear appropriate personal protective
equipment while performing these power supply checks.


What is the proper troubleshooting technique?
How can a distribution system design map aid the troubleshooting process, after gathering as
much information as possible about the extent of the affected area?
What are six sources of outages caused by powering failures?
What are three groups of outage causes associated with cut or damaged cables?
How often are outages caused by equipment failures?
What tasks are involved in maintaining physical plant integrity within the distribution system?
What does eliminating a discovered signal leak accomplish?
What are six performance checks involved in maintaining power supplies?

Alternating Current (300-11-8) Page 33
LESSON 2: Alternating Current (300-11-8)
 Understanding AC and AC Power

 Recognizing AC Waveforms
MODULE 1
UNDERSTANDING AC AND AC POWER
Introduction
Currently, more than 90% of all electric power used in the United States is generated by AC power
source. This figure is less for the rest of the world, but it is still around 90%. This means that AC, or
alternating current, is a household word in much of the world. However, the majority of its users
really do not understand this commodity. What is AC? How is it produced? How does it get from the
production plant to the user?
To begin, electricity, at least the dynamic type, is defined as the movement of electrons in or on a
conductor, or through a gas or space. Figure 21 illustrates the movement of electrons or direct
current flow from the negative battery terminal through the conductor and resistor to the positive
battery terminal.
Figure 21: Current flows from the battery through the resistor and back to the battery in a clockwise direction as long as the battery
remains connected to the resistor in this manner.
Explaining What AC Is
What happens to the electric current when the potential difference between the ends of the
conductor changes polarity? When the polarity changes, the electrons in the conductor begin to move
in the opposite direction (Figure 22). This also changes the direction of the current flow. As long as
the potential difference keeps the same polarity, the current continues to flow in the new direction.
Understanding AC and AC Power

Figure 22: Turning the battery around causes the polarity of the potential difference across the resistor to change and the current
flows in the opposite direction from that of the preceding Figure.
If the polarity continually changes back and forth, the direction of current flow will also. When this
happens, the electric current is called alternating current, or AC. Alternating current changes
directions (or alternates) in the conductor each time the potential difference applied to the ends of
the conductor changes (or alternates) its polarity.
Defining AC Circuits
► Define alternating current (AC) and describe AC uses and circuits.
A conductor must have a potential difference applied to its ends for electric current to flow. In other
words, the partial circle formed by the conductor must be completed by applying a potential
difference to its ends. When this occurs, the circle, or circuit, is completed and current flows through
the conductor. Current flowing in this circuit is alternating current if the potential difference
completing the circuit continually changes its polarity. This type of potential difference is called an
AC power source. A circuit is called an AC circuit if it has an AC power source that causes AC to flow
in the circuit (Figure 23).
Figure 23: When an AC power source is connected to a circuit, the direction of current flow alternates each time the polarity of the
AC power source changes, making the circuit an AC circuit and the current an alternating current, or AC.

Describing Uses of AC
Alternating current provides power for houselights, televisions, radios, and kitchen appliances in
many homes around the world. Cities and towns use AC power to run the machines in factories and
to light the stores and streets at night. It is not the moving electrons in a circuit that actually run
the machines or light the streets. It is the effect on the machines and the lights caused by these
moving electrons, or current, that makes them work. For example, in a light bulb, the current passes
through a very thin piece of metal called a filament (Figure 24). As the current flows through the
filament the metal begins to heat up, an effect of the current. As it heats up, it glows and produces
light, another effect of the current. The filament continues to glow as long as current is flowing
through it. It doesn't matter which direction the current is flowing, since the effects of the current
flowing through the thin metal filament is the same in both directions. The light bulb glows, even
though the current flows through it first in one direction, then in the opposite direction. The bulb
stops glowing only when the circuit between it and the AC power source is broken, or when the AC
power source is stopped or turned off.
Figure 24: The current flowing through the filament in either direction produces heat, which causes the filament to glow very
brightly.
There are also very important uses for AC in electrical (Figure 25) and radio (Figure 26)
communications. Because AC varies in value or magnitude as it changes from one direction to the
other, it can be used to reproduce and send sound as electrical communications over wires. In radio
communications, it is the ability of an AC circuit to radiate electrical energy that is very important.

Figure 25: Electrical communications.
Figure 26: Radio communications.
Producing AC Power
Exactly how an AC power source is created, and by what method an AC generator produces AC
voltage are both important to know topics when analyzing AC power.
Creating an AC Power Source
An AC circuit is any circuit with an AC power source and AC flowing through the conductors. Thus,
an AC power source provides a potential difference, or voltage, that changes in polarity from one
instant to the next. That is, at one instant, one terminal of the power source is positive while the
other is negative. At the next instant, the first terminal becomes negative while the second one
becomes positive (Figure 27). This polarity reversal continues as long as the AC power source is
operating. As described earlier, each time the polarity of the terminals reverses, the direction of
current flow alternates. Thus, AC power sources can be called alternators, even though they are
more commonly known as AC generators.

Figure 27: An AC power source is a potential difference that changes polarity continuously, causing the current generated by the
power source to continuously change directions.
Understanding AC Generators
► Explain how an AC generator produces voltage.
An AC generator produces AC voltage to the ends of generator through magnetism and mechanical
motion. The basic principle on which AC generators operate involves three facts about magnetism.
The first fact concerns the existence of magnetic lines of force, or flux lines, running longitudinally
from the north pole to the south pole of a magnet (Figure 28A). The second concerns the creation of
current flow in a conductor as it moves through, or cuts, the flux lines (Figure 28B). Finally, the
third fact concerns the left-hand rule, which states that when the index finger points in the direction
of the magnetic field and the thumb points in the direction that the conductor moves, or rotates, the
middle finger points in the direction that the electromotive force (emf) causes the current to flow
(Figure 28C).
Figure 28: The left-hand rule states that when the flux lines of a permanent magnet, as show in A, are cut by a wire moving through
them, a current is produced in the wire, as in B, and flows in a direction perpendicular to the flux lines and to the direction that the
wire moves, as shown in C.

Therefore, a very simple AC generator consists of a single loop of wire rotated between the north and
south poles of a permanent magnet (Figure 29). As the loop rotates, it cuts the magnetic lines of force
that exist between the poles, causing the application of emf to the free electrons in the conductor.
This applied emf acts on the free electrons in the conductor in the same way that a potential
difference or voltage does when applied to the ends of the conductor. In both cases, an electric
current is produced in the conductor. This current, caused by the emf, appears as an AC voltage
across the gap between the ends of the loop. As long as the loop continues to rotate through the flux
lines, AC voltage remains between the ends of the loop.
Figure 29: A simple AC generator consisting of a wire loop and a permanent magnet will produce an AC voltage between the ends of
the loop when it is rotated through the flux lines of the magnet.
This AC voltage is applied by slip rings and brushes. The slip rings are smooth circular bands of
conducting material connected to the loop, one to each end, as shown in Figure 30. As the loop
rotates, the slip rings also rotate. The brushes are also made of conducting material and sit on the
outside of the slip rings, one on each ring. As the rings turn, the brushes slide over the smooth
surface of the rings, but still maintain physical contact with the rings. Therefore, the AC voltage that
appeared between the ends of the rotating loop now appears between the two brushes. Since the
brushes do not move, they can be connected directly to the ends of a circuit so that the AC voltage is
transferred to the circuit from the generator.
Figure 30: Blocks of conducting material called brushes connect the circuit to the AC generator by making constant contact with
rotating metal bands called slip rings connected to the ends of the rotating loop.

That it is an AC voltage produced by the generator is seen from the left-hand rule mentioned earlier.
As one side of the loop cuts the flux lines in an upward direction, the other side cuts them in a
downward direction and a current is produced that flows toward one slip ring and brush and away
from the other. But, the first side of the loop has turned until it cuts the flux lines in a downward
direction, while the other side cuts it in an upward direction. A current is produced that flows in the
opposite direction, towards the other slip ring and brush. Thus, the direction that the current flows
alternates each time the sides of the loop cuts the flux lines. And each time the current alternates in
direction, the voltage alternates in polarity. Therefore, the AC generator produces AC, which results
in an AC voltage between developed between the brushes.
In reality, a simple AC generator like the one described here does not provide very much AC voltage.
Therefore, a more useful AC generator uses an armature, which is a rotating device, containing
many loops instead of just one, and connected to the slip rings and brushes, to develop larger
amounts of AC voltage.
Although the loops, or armature, in an AC generator can be turned by hand, there must be a way of
turning the armature that frees the hands for other work, such as operating the machinery and
guiding the tools that use the electricity developed by the generator. The most common ways of doing
this today involve either using flowing water, burning coal to produce steam, or using a nuclear
reactor to produce steam. These methods mechanically turn the armature of the AC generator, which
results in AC power production.
Transmitting AC Power
If every home, business, or factory used an AC generator to produce its own electricity all of the time,
transmitting electric power would be unnecessary. But this would require each business or home to
find some way to develop the mechanical energy needed to turn the armature in its AC generator.
Therefore, at present, it is both more cost-effective and more feasible to have a power transmission
circuit, in which the power is produced at one place and distributed in some way to those who need
it. A power transmission circuit has the same elements as an AC circuit, but on a much larger scale.
Power Transmission Circuit
In an AC circuit, there is an AC power source, a load, and the conductors that carry the current to
the load, where the power is turned into some useful form like heat or light. In a power transmission
circuit, the power production plan is the AC power source. The user's home, business, or factory is
one part of a huge load, and the power transmission lines, whether above or below the ground, are
the conductors in this gigantic circuit (Figure 31).

Figure 31: In a power transmission circuit, the power production plant is the AC power source; the power transmission lines are the
circuit conductors; and the city and industrial users are the circuit load.
Ideally, all of the electric power produced by the power plant is used only by the users. In reality,
some of the power produced by the power plant gets consumed inside the power plant, and some of
the power gets consumed in the transmission lines between the plant and the users. Any power
consumed by anything or in any place, other than by the users' equipment, is wasted. It is necessary
to minimize the amount of electric power wasted to provide the users with all the power they need.
One way to do this is to make the power plants themselves more efficient so that they use less of the
power that they produce. However, until this can be done easily, the best way to minimize the
amount of power wasted is to reduce the amount of power used by the power transmission lines
between the power plant and the users.
Wires, or conductors, tend to resist the flow of electric current through them. This resistance affects
the current by reducing the total amount of current for conversion to power when it reaches the load
at the other end of the wire. Also, the current that doesn't reach the other end generates heat all
along the length of the conductor. This heat represents the amount of wasted power mentioned
earlier. In a small circuit, such as shown in Figure 32, this represents only a tiny loss of power,
because the resistance of the short wires in the circuit is so small.

Figure 32: In a small AC circuit the power produced by the source, Ps= EI, is split between the internal source resistance, PRs = RsI2,
the resistance of the conductors, PC= RCI2, and the load resistance, PL= RLI2. PRs and PC represent power lost as heat in the circuit.
Therefore, PS= EI = PRs+ PC+ PL.
But when dealing with the gigantic circuit conductors represented by the power transmission lines,
one part of which could be several hundred miles long, the total resistance of the power lines is large
enough to cause a potentially large amount of the power transmitted to the users to be wasted as
heat in the power lines. Using large diameter wires for the transmission lines would help some. The
resistance of large wires is less per 1,000 feet than for thinner wires, because the larger wires have
more free electrons available, which makes the current flow easier. However, large diameter wire
costs much more than the thinner wires.
Another way to reduce resistance is to use a wire made from a material like silver, which has the
lowest resistance per 1,000 feet of any material. Silver wire conducts the current better than copper,
which is currently used in most power lines. However, this does not reduce the total resistance by
enough to offset the much higher cost of using silver wire. So what can be done to reduce the
transmission-line power loss?
Factoring for Transmission-Line Power Loss
► Describe the factors that contribute to transmission line power loss.

The resistance of the wires is one of the major causes of wasted power in power transmission lines, or
transmission-line power loss. But there is another cause of wasted power: the amount of current
transmitted along the wires or power lines. The amount of power wasted as a result of conversion to
heat, or heat loss, is directly proportional to the amount of resistance present and to the square of
the amount of current flowing through the resistance, or P = I 2R. In this Ohm's Law equation, P
represents the power wasted (as heat expressed in watts), I represents the amount of current flowing
through the conductor (expressed in amps), and R represents the total resistance of the conductor
(expressed in ohms). The equation shows that reducing either the resistance of the wire or the
current in the wire reduces the amount of power wasted due to heat loss. The ways of reducing the
resistance of the wire were already examined and determined to not be very cost-effective. Thus, the
only other way is to reduce the current in the wire. This is actually more helpful in reducing the heat
loss than lowering the resistance. This is due to the current-resistance relationship in the heat loss
equation. Remember that heat loss is directly proportional to the amount of current squared and to
the amount of resistance. Therefore, if the resistance is cut in half, so is the power. But, if the
current is cut in half, then the power wasted as heat is cut to one-fourth of the original amount of
heat loss.
Therefore, an effective way to reduce the amount of current transmitted on the power transmission
lines is needed. AC makes it possible to carry a very small amount of current on the transmission
lines, resulting in a large amount of current available at the end of the transmission lines for the
users.
Transmitting AC Power Efficiently
Remembering the Ohm's Law voltage-current relationship for power explains how a small amount of
current is carried on the power lines, and yet a large amount of current is available for the users at
the distant end of the power lines. The amount of power produced is equal to the current passing
through the internal resistance of the source, multiplied by the voltage developed across the internal
resistance of the source, or P = EI. Here, P is the power expressed in watts, E is the voltage
expressed in volts, and I is the current expressed in amps. From this relationship, it is seen that the
same amount of power can be developed by a variety of different voltage and current combinations
(Figure 33). For example, 100 watts of power can be developed using a voltage-current combination
of 100 volts and 1 amp or 100 amps and 1 volt. Also, 10 volts and 10 amps can be used, as can
1000  volts and 0.1 amp, or even 2,000 volts and 0.05 amps.

Figure 33: Table showing the same power can be obtained through various current/voltage combinations.
► Explain how changing the voltage-current relationship affects the efficiency of

AC power transmission.
Therefore, one million watts of power, or one megawatt, can be sent over very low power
transmission lines with very low transmission power loss. This is done by using a combination of a
very high voltage and a very low current, such as 100,000 volts and 10 amps, or 250,000 volts and 4
amps. Keep in mind that the higher the voltage, the lower the current needed to develop the same
amount of power. Also, the lower the current, the lower the amount of power wasted as heat loss.
► Describe the role of transformers in delivering usable power to homes and

businesses in a power transmission circuit.
Using a transformer, AC power developed from one voltage-current combination can be converted to
a different voltage-current combination. In the case of the power transmission illustrated in Figure
34, a transformer located at or near the user's location can be used to convert the high voltage, low
current combination carried on the transmission lines for low power loss to a low voltage, high
current combination desired by the user to heat and light his home or business and to run his
factories.

Figure 34: An AC power transmission system can reduce heat loss by conducting low current, I S, and high voltage, E, along the
power lines, and the user can have high current, IL, and low voltage, EL, provided by a transformer which reduces the voltage
transmitted, E, to a lower voltage, EL, and increases the current from IS to IL. Therefore, PS= EIS= RSIS2+ RCIS2+ RLIL2, where IL is much
greater than IS.

When does alternating current change direction in the conductor?
Define an AC power source.
What term is used more commonly than "alternator" to describe an AC power source?
What does an AC generator produce using magnetism and mechanical motion?

Define "flux lines."
What is the left-hand rule?
Where does the AC voltage appear in an AC generator consisting of a loop of wire rotated between
the poles of a magnet?
What is a slip ring in an AC generator consisting of a loop of wire rotated between the poles of a
magnet?
List three mechanical forces used to turn the armature of AC generators in large-scale AC power
production.
Why are large diameter wires and silver wires not commonly used to reduce resistance in power
transmission circuits?
How is power loss due to conversion to heat proportional to the current and resistance in a
transmission line?
What is the decrease in the amount of power wasted as heat when the current is cut in half in a
transmission line?
How many amps combined with 1,000 volts equal the power produced by 10 amps combined with
100 volts?

What is converted by a transformer in an AC power transmission system?
What happens to a high voltage, low current combination carried on transmission lines when it
reaches a transformer located near a power user's home?

MODULE 2
RECOGNIZING AC WAVEFORMS
Introduction
What does AC look like? How is AC different from DC, or direct current? To answer the first
question, the characteristics and several types of AC waveforms are discussed. The answer to the
second question comes from a brief comparison of AC and DC waveforms. Often, when discussing AC
power or AC voltage, or when dealing with the effects a particular load has on the AC power applied
to a circuit, or when determining the effects of adding the outputs from two or more AC power
sources, it is necessary to have a visual representation of the AC power signal as it passes through
the circuit. That is, it is helpful to look at the AC power waveform at different points within the
overall circuit.
Defining a Waveform
This topic covers the angular motion of a waveform, how AC waveforms are created, and the
characteristics of a waveform.
Understanding Angular Motion
Before discussing AC waveforms, it is helpful to understand the concept of angular motion, since the
AC voltage is produced as a result of the rotation, or angular movement, of the armature of the AC
generator within a magnetic field (Figure 35).
Figure 35: The output voltage, V, changes from V1 to V2 as the loop rotates from position P1 to position P2. Therefore, being able to
determine the position of the loop will make it possible to know the expected output voltage at each position. These positions are
expressed in terms of angular motion.
Since the rotation and angular motion are both movement in a circle, changes in the amount of
output voltage from the generator can be compared with the position of the armature in the
generator by determining the amount of angular movement that has occurred for each change in the
output voltage. Angular motion is expressed in degrees. This unit of angular motion is determined by
splitting the circumference of a circle into 360 equal parts called arcs and then drawing a line, called
a radius, from each end of one of these arcs to the center of the circle. The distance between these
two lines, or radii, equals one degree. Therefore, since the circumference of the circle is divided into
360 arcs, there are 360 degrees in a complete circle (Figure 36). This also means that there are 360
degrees in one complete rotation, or the complete turn of a loop in an AC generator.
Figure 36: Angular motion is movement in a circle, and since a circle can be divided into 360 equal parts with each part being called
a degree, then angular motion can be expressed in degrees.
Next, by comparing the number of degrees the armature has rotated with the output voltage from
the AC generator, a table can be set up showing the amount of voltage produced by each degree of
rotation, or angular movement, that the armature makes.
Recognizing AC Waveforms
Creating AC Waveforms
To visually represent the comparison of the AC output voltage versus the angular position of the
generator armature, make a graph of the information contained in the table Figure 37. This graph
consists of a vertical axis labeled in units that represent the generator output voltage and a
horizontal axis labeled in units that represent the degrees of rotation of the armature in the
generator. Plotting the information from the table on this graph and connecting the dots on the
graph with a continuous line forms the picture, or waveform, shown in Figure 37. This picture, or
waveform, shows the variations in output voltage with respect to changes in the angular position of
the armature. This is basically how an AC waveform is created.
Figure 37: By making a table of the output voltage for different amounts of angular movement of the generator loop and then
plotting the output voltages versus the angular position in degrees, a visual picture of the relationship can be created called a
waveform.
In the same manner, an AC waveform may be created to show the relationship between a current or
voltage and elapsed time. This is the most common information presented by an AC waveform. The
only difference in the construction of this waveform is in the labeling of the horizontal axis in units of
time instead of degrees of rotation.
Describing AC Waveforms
► List the characteristics of a true AC waveform.
Basically, an AC waveform is a continuous plot of the magnitude of a current or voltage with respect
to some quantity, usually time. Usually, the voltage or current is displayed on the vertical axis, with
time displayed on the horizontal axis, as illustrated in Figure 38. The distance between any point on
the waveform and the horizontal axis corresponds to the magnitude of the voltage or current with
respect to that instant of time. Any part of the waveform above the horizontal axis usually
corresponds to a positive polarity for the voltage or current. Any part of the waveform below the
horizontal axis usually corresponds to a negative polarity for the voltage or current. Therefore, any
change in the polarity of an AC waveform indicates that it has changed directions.
Figure 38: The current or voltage magnitude increases from 0 to T1, decreases from T1 to T2, reverses direction and increases from
T2 to T3, then once again decreases from T3 to T4. The current or voltage changes directions or polarity each time the curve crosses
the time axis.
The most distinctive feature of AC waveforms is their symmetry. This is because the positive and
negative parts of the waveform (that is, those parts of the waveform above and below the horizontal
axis, respectively) have the same shape and size. The positive and negative parts of the waveform
are identical, except that one is above the horizontal axis and the other is below it. Thus, AC
waveforms are symmetrical about the horizontal axis, and any waveform that does not have this
symmetry is not a true AC waveform. There are many waveforms that are symmetrical, but only the
four most common types are described here.
Comparing Different Types of AC Waveforms

Four common AC waveforms are the sine wave, the square wave, the sawtooth wave, and the quasi-
square wave.
Describing a Sine Wave
The sine wave is probably the most common AC waveform. It is most often associated with the
output voltage of an AC generator during one complete rotation of the generator's armature (Figure
39). This AC voltage waveform is called a sine wave, because the voltage developed at any point
during the rotation of the armature is proportional to the sine of the angle between the flux lines and
the armature's direction of rotation.
Figure 39: As the loop rotates from 0° to 360°, the magnitude of the output voltage is directly proportional to the sine of the angle
between the direction of movement of the conductor and the plane of the flux lines. This angle also equals the number of degrees
the loop has rotated from its reference position.
Since the voltage is caused by AC flowing in the loops of the armature, the current can also be
represented by a sine wave. Although these two waveforms are slightly different with respect to each
other, they are both sine waves.
► Describe the sine wave created by the voltage output of an AC generator.
A sine wave includes 360 degrees, since it corresponds to the output voltage generated during one
complete rotation, or cycle, of the generator armature, and since the armature passes through 360
degrees during one complete rotation. Therefore, as the armature rotates through the flux lines, it
creates a sine wave output. The wave output voltage waveform in Figure 40 represents the complete
rotation of the generator armature in Figure 39.
Figure 40: The sine wave includes 360° because it is created as the loop of the armature makes one complete rotation, or 360° of
angular motion. For each degree of rotation, the voltage will change.
The position of the armature when it is not cutting any flux lines is used as a zero degree reference
point. At this point, the magnitude of the output voltage is zero. Then, as the armature rotates and
cuts some of the flux lines, the magnitude of the voltage sine wave increases in a positive direction.
As the armature rotates about 90 degrees, the magnitude of the voltage waveform continues to
increase until it reaches maximum positive value. As the armature rotates towards 180 degrees, it
moves from cutting many flux lines at 90 degrees to not cutting any flux lines at 180 degrees, and
the voltage decreases until it reaches zero again. At this point, the armature rotates from 180
degrees towards 270 degrees, and the voltage continues to decrease until it reaches a maximum
negative value. Here, the sine waveform changes polarities, which means it changes directions. Now,
as the armature continues to rotate towards 360 degrees, or 0 degrees again, the voltage increases,
or becomes less negative, until it reaches zero one more time. Then the waveform begins again as the
armature starts to make another rotation, or cycle. This is how a sine wave is generated.
Describing a Square Wave
The square wave is another common AC waveform. As its name implies, it looks like two squares
that are identical in size, but with one above the horizontal axis and the other one located below the
horizontal axis (Figure 41). Thus, the square wave is symmetrical about the horizontal axis, which is
necessary for consideration as an AC waveform.
Figure 41: The square wave is also an AC waveform because it is symmetrical about the horizontal, or zero voltage, axis. That
means that both halves of the waveform have the same shape and same size with one half above and the other half below the
horizontal axis.
► State the main differences among the sine wave, square wave, sawtooth wave,
and quasi-square wave AC waveforms.
The square wave differs from the sine wave because the voltage or current does not continuously
vary in magnitude between some maximum positive and negative values (Figure 42). Instead, the
voltage or current of the square wave seems to increase instantly, seen as a vertical straight line,
from zero to its maximum positive value, where it stays for some period of time, which is seen as a
straight, horizontal line. Next, it seems to decrease instantly past zero, seen as a second vertical line,
to some maximum negative value where it again stays for a period of time, another straight
horizontal line. Finally, it seems to increase instantly again to zero, seen as yet a third vertical line.
In reality, the voltage or current does not change instantly between zero and its maximum values.
However, the change is so rapid that for all practical purposes, it may be considered instantaneous.
Figure 42: The square wave and sine waves are different in that the square wave changes levels instantly while the sine wave
changes levels gradually, and the square wave keeps a constant level between 0 and T2 and between T2 and T4 while the sine wave
never has a constant level, i.e. it varies continuously.
Keep in mind that a change from a positive value to a negative value is a change in polarity, and
represents a change in direction. The creation of a square wave can easily be explained through the
use of a simple circuit consisting of a switch, a load resistor, and two DC power supplies, or batteries.
With the circuit set up as shown in Figure 43, the voltage measured across the load resistor between
points D and E is +3 volts when the switch is set to point A of the circuit, because the current from E,
flows through RL. But, when the switch is moved to point C, the voltage measured between points D
and E is –3 volts, because the current flowing through RL now comes from E2.
Figure 43: This simple circuit generates a square wave. When the switch connects points A and B, a +3 volts, measured from to D to
E, develops across the load resistor, RL until the switch moves to point C, when a –3 volts, measured from D to E, develops across
RL.
If the switch is moved back and forth between points A and C at two-second intervals for eight
seconds, and then at point C, the waveform of the voltage measured between points D and E will
look like Figure 44, which shows that the voltage between D and E completed two whole cycles, or
two complete square waves.
Figure 44: A square wave has completed one cycle each time it has alternately passed through a maximum positive and a maximum
negative value.
Describing a Sawtooth Wave
The sawtooth wave (Figure 45) resembles one of the teeth on a wood saw. For classification as a
sawtooth wave, the voltage or current must begin at zero and increase linearly. That is, it must
increase by equal amounts in equal time intervals, up to some maximum positive values. Then it
must decrease instantly past zero, which indicates a change of direction, to some maximum negative
value. Finally, from this maximum negative value it must increase linearly back up to zero.
Figure 45: A sawtooth wave increases linearly from zero to a maximum positive value and then decreases and changes direction
instantaneously to a maximum negative value, while a square wave increases and decreases instantaneously, and a sine wave
increases and decreases nonlinearly.
Describing a Quasi-Square Wave
CATV power supplies produce a quasi-square wave. This type of AC waveform has a slightly rounded
shape at its maximum and minimum peak values (Figure 46). The voltage rises quickly from zero
and then tapers off to a constant peak value. The voltage then decreases quickly past zero to the
negative peak value. The voltage again tapers off to the maximum peak value when it once again
quickly approaches and passes zero as the second cycle starts. This type of waveform allows for
extended time at the maximum peak values while still having a non-instantaneous rise and fall
time.
Figure 46: A quasi-square wave has a nonlinear increase and decrease with an extended maximum positive and negative peak
value.
Figure 47 compares instantaneous, nonlinear, and linear AC waveforms.
Figure 47: A comparison of instantaneous, nonlinear, and linear waveform sections.
To better understand what is meant by a linear increase in voltage or current, a comparison of

instantaneous and nonlinear increases is helpful. Briefly, an instantaneous increase involves an
increase from one value to another so rapid that it cannot be followed. This is represented by a
vertical straight line on a waveform. A non-linear increase involves unequal increases in voltage or
current in equal intervals of time, such as 0 to 3 volts in 2 seconds, followed by 3 to 7 volts in the
next 2 seconds, and 7 to 12 volts in the next 2 seconds. Thus, a nonlinear increase is represented on a
waveform by a line curving upward, whereas a nonlinear decrease is seen as a line curving
downward. A linear increase, on the other hand, involves equal increases in voltage or current in
equal time intervals, such as 0 to 3 volts in 2 seconds, followed by 3 to 6 volts in the next 2 seconds,
and 6 to 9 volts in the next 2 seconds. Thus, a linear increase is represented on a waveform by a
straight line sloping upward, while a linear decrease is represented by a straight line sloping
downward.
Comparing AC vs. DC Waveforms
► Distinguish between AC and DC waveforms.
The primary difference between AC and DC waveforms is very simple to remember. Whereas the
magnitude and polarity of an AC waveform changes, the magnitude and polarity of a DC waveform
does not change. Therefore, the waveform for a DC voltage is a straight horizontal line, while the
waveform for an AC voltage is a line that is positive, or above the horizontal axis part of the time,
and negative, or below the horizontal axis for an equal amount of the time (Figure 48).
Figure 48: The magnitude and polarity of a DC waveform never change, whereas both the polarity and magnitude of a waveform
must change for it to be considered an AC waveform.
Another way of stating this difference is that a DC waveform is not symmetrical about the horizontal
axis, whereas an AC waveform must be symmetrical about the horizontal axis.
► Describe fluctuating DC.
Fluctuating DC is an exception to part of the rules concerning DC. Although fluctuating DC does not
change direction like AC does, it does change in magnitude. Therefore, it is a direct current that
fluctuates, hence the name fluctuating DC. The waveforms for fluctuating DC are often identical to
AC waveforms (Figure 49), except they never change polarity or drop below the horizontal axis.
Figure 49: The waveform for fluctuating DC never crosses the horizontal axis, like the AC waveform does. Some fluctuating DC
waveforms are identical to AC waveforms that are shifted above the horizontal axis, while others are only partially like AC
waveforms.
Therefore, the entire waveform is always above the horizontal axis, which corresponds to a voltage or
current magnitude of zero. Because some fluctuating DC waveforms are very similar to AC
waveforms in shape, they are often considered as a combination of AC and DC. Actually, this
happens quite often in electric circuits where a DC voltage is combined with an AC voltage. The
result is an AC waveform, completely above the horizontal axis, one that is symmetrical about some
positive DC level instead of the horizontal axis (Figure 50). In this combined waveform, the AC
variation is called the AC component, while the DC level that the AC component is symmetrical
about is called the DC reference level. That is, the AC component varies around the DC reference
level, in the same way that regular AC varies around the horizontal axis, or zero level.
Figure 50: Fluctuating DC waveforms that resemble AC waveforms can be considered as a combined AC and DC waveform with the
center of the AC waveform being shifted above the horizontal axis by some specific level of voltage or current.
Finally, if the need arises, the AC component of fluctuating DC can be removed by using
transformers and capacitors.

Define an AC waveform.
What is usually displayed on the vertical and horizontal axes of an AC waveform graph?
What is represented by the distance between any point on an AC waveform and the horizontal
axis?
What part of an AC waveform corresponds to a negative polarity for the voltage or current?
How are true AC waveforms symmetrical?
Name four common true AC waveforms.
What is probably the most common AC waveform?
Describe the three types of voltage or current increases in a sine wave, square wave, and sawtooth
wave AC waveforms.
What is the primary difference between AC and DC waveforms?
Does a fluctuating DC waveform change in polarity and/or in magnitude?
Understanding AC Waveform Fundamentals (300-21-6) Page 63
LESSON 3: Understanding AC Waveform

Fundamentals (300-21-6)
 Examining AC Waveform Characteristics

 Expressing AC Waveform Values
MODULE 1
EXAMINING AC WAVEFORM CHARACTERISTICS
Introduction
An AC, or alternating current waveform is symmetrical around its horizontal axis. As a result of this
symmetry (Figure 51), AC waveforms are described in terms of five basic characteristics: (1)
frequency; (2) wavelength; (3) period; (4) phase; and (5) amplitude.
Figure 51: Characteristics of AC waveforms.
Identifying the Frequency

A characteristic of an AC waveform is frequency. This topic covers the frequency cycle, including
cycles per second, and units of measurement for a frequency.
Explaining the Frequency Cycle
Each loop in the armature of an AC generator goes through 360° of angular motion as it makes one
complete rotation. Since angular motion and rotation are both circular movements, both are cyclic by
nature. When the armature makes one complete rotation, it not only goes through 360° of angular
movement, it also completes one cycle of its normal movement, as shown in Figure 52. Thus, one
cycle is equal to one complete rotation of the armature loop, or 360° of angular motion.
Examining AC Waveform Characteristics

Figure 52: When the loop rotates from P1 around to P1 again, it has completed one cycle of rotation, or 360° of angular motion.
For each degree of change in the position of the armature, there is a corresponding change in the
generator output voltage. If the armature completes one cycle, or 360° of angular motion, the
generator output passes through a complete set or cycle of voltages. Each time the armature
completes a cycle of rotation (Figure 53A), the generator output goes through the same cycle of
voltages again (Figure 53B). Thus, this voltage cycle corresponds to one cycle of rotation, or 360° of
angular movement for the armature. The waveform developed by plotting this cycle of voltages on a
graph represents one cycle of the generator output voltage.
Figure 53: Each complete 360° rotation of the armature results in the completion of a 360° cycle in the output-voltage waveform.
Therefore, since one cycle of the output voltage waveform corresponds to one cycle of armature
rotation, and since one cycle of armature rotation equals 360° of angular motion, one cycle of the
output voltage waveform also corresponds to 360° of angular motion. Also, since the output-voltage
waveform of the AC generator has the shape of a sine wave, and since one complete sine wave
corresponds to 360° of angular motion, one cycle of the output‑ voltage waveform has the shape of a
complete sine wave. When the plotted voltage increases from zero to some maximum positive
voltage, then decreases to zero and goes on decreasing to some maximum negative voltage, and then
increases back to zero, one cycle of the waveform, and thus, one sine wave, is completed. Therefore,
every complete sine wave of the voltage waveform marks the completion of another positive half
cycle and another negative half cycle. Thus, the armature has completed another full 360° of
rotation. Therefore, a cycle can be defined as one complete rotation of the armature, one complete
sine wave, two alternations (one positive and one negative) of any AC waveform, or 360° of angular
motion (Figure 54).

Figure 54: One complete voltage sine wave represents 360° of angular motion, two alternations of an AC waveform, one cycle of an
AC waveform, and one complete 360° rotation of the armature.
Explaining Cycles Per Second
Often, there is a need to know how many times the armature completes a rotation, or revolution, in a
certain time period. Knowing this makes it possible to determine how frequently the output voltage
of the generator achieves a positive and negative alternation during that same time period. Do this
by counting the number of times the armature makes a complete rotation in a specific amount of
time. This is very difficult to do if the armature is rotating at a high speed. But since a cycle
represents one rotation of the armature, and also one complete sine wave in the output-voltage
waveform, counting the number of complete sine waves, or cycles, that occur in the voltage waveform
in a specific amount of time also provides this information. For example (Figure 55), if the armature
rotates 60 times or completes 60 cycles in one hour, the output-voltage waveform shows 60 complete
sine waves, or 60 cycles, occurring within one hour of time on the horizontal, or time, axis. The
armature would therefore complete one cycle of rotation every minute. One cycle of the output-
voltage waveform also would occur every minute on the horizontal, or time, axis. One cycle every
minute represents the rate or speed at which the armature rotates, as well as how often the output-
voltage achieves a maximum positive value, i.e., once a minute. This is a very slow rotation speed for
the armature and does not produce a very steady output voltage.

Figure 55: A rate of rotation of 60 cycles per hour means that one cycle, and thus one positive and one negative alternation of the
sine wave, occurs every minute.
Usually, a generator armature rotates much faster than one cycle per minute. Most AC generators
used in the United States for producing electric power rotate at a rate of 3,600 times every minute.
These rates most often are expressed in terms of the number of cycles completed each second, or
cycles per second (cps). Use the formula in Figure 56A and the calculations in Figure 56B to show
that 3,600 cycles per minute is the same as 60 CPS, which is the U.S. standard for AC power. Use
the calculations in Figure 56C to show that the 3,000 cycles per minute rate for power in Europe and
South America is the same as 50 CPS.
Figure 56: Calculating the cycles per second for AC power.
► Explain how frequency cycle, cycles per second, and hertz describe an AC
waveform.

Frequency is the term for speaking of the number of cycles that an armature turns or that occur in
an AC waveform per second. Thus, the frequency at which the armature of a generator rotates is
stated as a specific number of CPS, such as a frequency of 60 CPS. The more CPS, the higher the
frequency or speed of rotation of the armature.
Frequency also is the term for expressing the number of cycles of the output-voltage waveform
occurring in one second of time as displayed on the horizontal axis. For AC power generated in the
United States, the standard frequency of the voltage waveform is 60 CPS, i.e., the same as the speed
of rotation of the generator armature. Since the voltage output of the AC generator is represented by
an AC voltage waveform, the term frequency expresses the number of cycles completed in one second
for any AC waveform, whether it is voltage or current waveform. Therefore, any AC waveform can be
described in terms of its frequency.
Explaining Units of Measurement
The term frequency is used when speaking of electric power production to refer to the speed at which
generators work or to describe the voltage, current, and power waveforms. It takes on a greater
significance in the electronics field to refer to signals used for radio communications. In
communications, the frequencies used are much higher than those associated with electrical power
production. This is because higher frequencies are much easier to change into electromagnetic
energy (radio waves) for transmission over great distances. The frequencies used for communications
range from as low as 15 CPS to as high as 300,000,000,000 CPS. These higher frequencies are
cumbersome to write and to use in performing the calculations required for electronics and
communications applications. Therefore, a system of units using metric prefixes was developed to
make these high frequencies more manageable. The three main metric prefixes used in
communications are kilo, mega, and giga. Kilo means 1,000, mega means 1,000,000, and giga means
1,000,000,000. By attaching these prefixes to the word "cycle," the higher frequencies can be
expressed easily. Thus, one kilocycle per second means 1,000 CPS, one megacycle per second means
1,000,000 CPS, and one gigacycle per second means 1,000,000,000 CPS.
Frequency was expressed in units of CPS until the 1960s, when the hertz (Hz) unit of frequency was
chosen to replace cps. One hertz is the same as one CPS, and the prefixes kilo, mega, and giga are
attached to the term hertz to describe larger values. So, instead of a thousand, million, or billion
CPS, (Figure 57) today, we use kilohertz (kHz), megahertz (MHz), and gigahertz (GHz) to describe
frequencies in communications.
Figure 57: Metric prefixes are combined with the hertz unit for frequency to make calculations involving very high frequencies less
cumbersome.

Identifying the Wavelength

Wavelength is the second characteristic of AC waveforms. It is not used much in reference to
electrical power. However, it is very significant in the field of communications because it is another
way of expressing frequency and, therefore, another way of describing the waveforms. Basically,
wavelength concerns the physical distance the current moves along a conductor during one cycle of
the waveform, i.e., during the time it takes for completion of one cycle of the waveform. In the field of
communications, it also refers to the physical distance a radio wave travels in the air. Therefore,
wavelength is defined as the distance that one impulse of current travels during the time it takes to
complete one cycle of the AC voltage waveform. In other words, one wavelength is the physical
length of one cycle of the voltage waveform. How is this determined?
► Define and calculate the wavelength of an AC waveform.
First, realize that how far anything moves in a designated amount of time depends on how fast it
moves. In the case of an electric current, the speed, or velocity, is the same as the speed of light,
which is about 186,000 miles (299,274 km) per second. Second, this speed does not significantly
change at any point in the travel of the current along the conductor. Thus, only the time it takes to
complete one cycle of the waveform is variable. This time is dependent on the frequency of the
current or voltage.
For example, as illustrated in Figure 58, a 60 Hz current waveform has 60 complete cycles occurring
in one second. Thus, one cycle occurs in 1/60 of a second. Since the current travels 186,000 miles
(299,274 km) during one second, one cycle of this 60 Hz current only travels 1/60 of that distance, or
3,100 miles (4,988 km). Therefore, the length of one cycle of this 60 Hz current waveform is 3,100
miles (4,988 km), and the wavelength of the 60 Hz current also is 3,100 miles (4,988 km).
Figure 58: The wavelength is the physical length of one cycle of an AC voltage waveform, or the distance current travels during the
duration of one cycle of the AC voltage.

Notice that the frequency of the current is important in determining the wavelength. If the current
has a frequency of 50 Hz instead of 60 Hz, the current travels 1/50 of the total 186,000 miles
(299,274 km) during one cycle of the current, or 3,720 miles (5,985 km), and the wavelength is 3,720
miles (5,985 km).
Therefore, wavelength is indirectly, or inversely, proportional to frequency. When the frequency of

the current or voltage increases, the wavelength of one cycle of that waveform decreases (Figure 59).
When the frequency decreases, the wavelength increases. This relationship is expressed by the
equation: wavelength = the speed of light/frequency of the current.
Figure 59: A chart showing that wavelength decreases as frequency increases.
This equation can be shortened by using symbols. Wavelength is represented by the Greek letter λ
(lambda). The speed of light is represented by the letter c, while the frequency of the current is
designated by the lowercase letter f. Stated in symbols, the equation is λ = c/f, as shown in Figure
60A. Thus, if c is expressed in miles per second, then λ is expressed in miles. If c is expressed in feet
per second, then λ is expressed in feet. Today, however, the most common unit for c is meters per
second, so that c is equal to approximately 300,000,000 meters per second. Thus, λ is expressed in
meters. Therefore, using metric units, the wavelength equation is: wavelength in meters = speed of
light in meters per second/frequency in hertz. The calculations in Figure 60 show that the
wavelength of one cycle of a 60 Hz current is 5,000,000 m (Figure 60B) or 3,100 miles (Figure 60C).
Figure 60: Calculating the wavelength of one cycle of a 60 Hz current.

Keep in mind that one hertz is the same as one cycle per second. Therefore, the wavelength, λ, in
Figure 60B actually is 300,000,000 meters per second/60 cycles per second, or 5,000,000 meters per
cycle, and each cycle is 5,000,000 meters long.
It is easy to see from the equation λ = c/f that the wavelength of an alternating current or voltage is
dependent on its frequency. Therefore, if the frequency is known, the wavelength can be calculated,
and if the wavelength is known, the frequency can be determined.
Identifying the Period

The third characteristic of an AC waveform is its period. It is similar to the second characteristic,
wavelength, in two ways. First, it also has more significance in the field of communications than it
has in electric power production. Second, it also is dependent on the frequency of the current or
voltage.
► Define and calculate the period of an AC waveform.
Remember that one wavelength is the distance the current travels in the time it takes to complete
one cycle of the current. The amount of time that it takes for completion of one cycle of the current
(or any alternating quantity) is called its period. For example, if it takes one second for completion of
one cycle of the current, the period is one second. Note also that in this example, the frequency of the
current is 1 Hz, or 1 cycle per second.
Figure 61 shows an AC waveform with a period of 0.1 seconds. That is, it takes 1/10 of a second to
complete one cycle of the current. The frequency of this waveform is 10 Hz because 10 cycles can be
completed in one second.
Figure 61: The period of an AC waveform is the time required to complete one cycle of the waveform.

From this comparison between period and frequency, their specific relationship can be developed
(Figure 62A). Note that when the period of the current decreases from 1 second to 0.1 seconds, the
frequency of the current increases from 1 Hz to 10 Hz. This is an inverse relationship because the
period is inversely proportional to frequency. It can be expressed by the following equation: Period =
1 cycle ÷ frequency in cycles per second. This equation can be shortened by using symbols. Using the
symbol f for frequency and the symbol T for period, the equation for determining the period of an
alternating quantity can be written as T = 1 ÷ f as shown in Figure 62B. Example #2 shows that if
the frequency f is 60 Hz, the period T is 1/60 of a second, or 0.0167 seconds.
Figure 62: Calculating the time period of 3 Hz and 60 Hz.
Identifying the Phase

Phase, the fourth characteristic of AC waveforms, is significant in both electric power production and
communications because it primarily compares two AC waveforms with respect to time.
Describing In-Phase
The voltage output of an AC generator varies in magnitude like a sine wave as the armature rotates.
As previously stated, one complete sine wave of an alternating waveform is considered one cycle of
that waveform. Therefore, if two AC generators are started, they each generate an output voltage
that varies as a sine wave. If the armature of the two generators rotate at the same speed, they have
the same frequency. If the armatures contain the same number of loops and rotate in similar
magnetic fields, the magnitude of their output voltages is the same. But, their output voltages
achieve their maximum magnitude at the same time only if the generators are started at the same
time and operated at the same frequency, with their armatures rotating at the same speed. When
their outputs achieve maximum magnitude at the same time, the outputs of the generators are in
step, or in-phase.

► Use AC waveform graphs to describe waveforms being in-phase and out-of-

phase and to explain phase difference and phase angle.
When the output-voltage waveforms are in-phase, the waveforms reach the maximum and minimum
points of their positive and negative alternations at the same time, and the waveforms have their
zero crossings with respect to the horizontal (time) axis at the same time. In other words, they both
begin at zero, achieve their most positive voltage, decrease to and cross the horizontal axis (zero
voltage), achieve their most negative voltage, and then increase back to zero voltage again at the
same time. This does not mean that two waveforms must have the same magnitude all of the time to
be in-phase. If identical generators have the same frequency and start at the same time, the
waveforms have identical magnitude at all times and are in-phase. If the generators are not
identical, but have the same frequency and start at the same time, the waveforms have the same
magnitude only when they cross zero voltage at the same time, but the waveforms still are in-phase,
as illustrated in Figure 63.
Figure 63: Two voltage waveforms in-phase, with same frequency, but with different magnitudes.
Describing Phase Difference
If the two generators are identical and have the same frequency, but are started at different times,
their voltage outputs reach the same maximum and minimum magnitudes, but at different times.
This means the outputs are out-of‑ phase with each other. Therefore, a phase difference exists
between the generator outputs. The amount of phase difference that exists between the two
generator outputs depends on the amount of time that elapsed before the second generator was
started. Usually, this elapsed time is measured in degrees of armature rotation or fractions of a
cycle, and is displayed on a voltage or current waveform with the time axis marked in degrees. Phase
difference, then, is the amount of time in degrees that separates two waveforms. For example, if the
second generator is started after the first generator completes one‑ half of a rotation, or one-half of a
cycle, the first generator leads the second generator by one-half cycle.

The most common way of detecting and identifying the phase difference between two generators
involves a comparison of their output-voltage waveforms. Comparing the two waveforms reveals the
existence of phase difference, the amount of phase difference, and which generator was started first.
Figure 64 is a graph of the two output-voltage waveforms from two generators. The vertical axis is
labeled in voltage units and the horizontal, or time, axis is labeled in degrees.
Figure 64: Two voltage waveforms with same magnitudes and frequency, but 90° out-of-phase.
The phase difference between the two output voltages in Figure 64 is determined by noting the
difference, in degrees, between the zero crossings of each waveform. The second generator started
one-fourth of a cycle after the first generator, delaying the output-voltage waveform of the second
generator on the graph by one-fourth cycle, or 90°. Thus, the output waveform of the first generator
begins at zero and has its next zero crossing 180° later, whereas the output waveform of the second
generator begins at 90° on the horizontal axis and has its next zero crossing 180° later, at 270°. As
shown in Figure 64, the output waveforms are two sine waves separated by 90° at all corresponding
points. Their starting points, zero crossings, most positive points, most negative points, and stopping
points are all 90° apart on the horizontal axis. Therefore, the output of the first generator is 90°
ahead of the output of the second generator. In other words, the output of the first generator leads
the output of the second generator by 90°, or the output of the second generator lags the output of
the first generator by 90°.
The output voltages of two generators are compared for phase difference. Currents also can be
compared in this way. In fact, if the output voltages of two generators differ in phase, the same
phase difference also exists between the currents produced in their armature loops. In addition to
determining the phase difference between voltage waveforms and between current waveforms, the
phase difference between a current waveform and a voltage waveform can be determined. Figure
65A shows the current and voltage waveforms for the first generator are in-phase. The same is true
for the second generator. However, in this example, there is a 45° phase difference between the
voltage waveform of the first generator and the current waveform of the second generator, and vice
versa (Figure 65B).

Figure 65: Voltage and current waveforms from in-phase and out-of-phase generators.
Describing Phase Angle
Until now, the discussion has dealt with the comparison of two waveforms. Two waveforms are
either in-phase or out-of-phase. If the two are out-of-phase, a phase difference exists between the two
waveforms. Although this is the most common usage of the term "phase," there is another. It
involves the designation of any position on an AC waveform at any instant of time as being some
number of degrees past a given reference point. In most cases, the 0° point on the horizontal axis is
considered the reference point. Then, any point on the AC waveform can be identified by stating its
position with respect to the horizontal axis, in degrees. The difference between this point and the 0°
reference point is called the phase angle for that point on the waveform. On the waveform in Figure
66, for example, point P1 has a 135° phase angle and point P2 has a 45° phase angle.

Figure 66: P1 and P2 are phase angles that represent the time, in degrees, for the waveform to change from the 0° reference point, R,
to these points on the waveform.
In other words, the phase angle is the amount of time in degrees that it takes for the waveform to
change from the 0° reference point to any other point on the waveform. For example, the five main
points of interest on one cycle of a sine waveform are the starting point, the maximum point of the
positive half-cycle, the zero crossing between half-cycles, the maximum point of the negative half-
cycle, and the stopping point. Each of these points can be designated by a specific phase angle:
starting point at 0°, most positive point at 90°, zero crossing at 180°, most negative point at 270°,
and stopping point at 360°.
Identifying the Amplitude

The fifth and probably the most familiar characteristic of an AC waveform is its amplitude.
► Define the amplitude of an AC waveform.
The amplitude of any AC waveform is the maximum level of a half-cycle of that waveform. Since the
maximum level of the positive and the negative half-cycles are the same distance from the horizontal
axis for an AC waveform (Figure 67), the amplitude of an AC waveform is defined as the most
positive or most negative level a half cycle of the waveform achieves.

Figure 67: The amplitude of an AC waveform is the most positive or most negative level that the waveform achieves.
The units for the amplitude of a waveform are designated by the units of the vertical axis of the
graph. If the vertical axis represents current, the amplitude is designated in amperes. If it
represents voltage, the amplitude is designated in volts. Thus, the amplitude of an AC voltage or
current waveform is the maximum voltage or current level of that waveform, whether it is positive or
negative.

Define the term cycle.
How is a rate of 4,500 cycles per minute expressed in cycles per second?
Define frequency.
What are the three main metric prefixes associated with frequency, and what do they represent?
What unit of frequency replaced cps in the 1960s?

Define wavelength.
What type of relationship exists between wavelength and frequency?
What is the wavelength in miles and in meters of one cycle of an AC waveform whose frequency is
1,000 Hz?
Define the term period.
What type of relationship exists between period and frequency?
What is the period of one cycle of a waveform with a frequency of 1,000 Hz?
When are the outputs of two AC generators in-phase?
Define phase difference.
How are the terms "lead" and "lag" used to describe two out-of-phase waveforms?

What is the phase angle of a point on a waveform?
Define amplitude.

MODULE 2
EXPRESSING AC WAVEFORM VALUES
Introduction
The amplitude of an AC waveform is defined as the most positive or most negative "level" the AC
waveform achieves. Level and "value" are terms used to designate the magnitude of a single point on
a waveform. Therefore, amplitude can be restated as the most positive or most negative "value" that
the AC waveform achieves.
The amplitude is only one of the magnitude levels, or values, that are important with respect to AC
waveforms. Other magnitude values of AC waveforms that are frequently used in electrical power
production and communications include: the peak value, the peak‑to-peak value, the instantaneous
value, the average value, and the effective, or root mean square (RMS), value. Once the meanings of
these values are understood, it is important to know how to convert from one value to another,
especially within the realm of communications where these different values often are used together.
Expressing a Peak Value
► Determine the peak value of an AC waveform.
The peak value is the most common magnitude value for an AC waveform. It is the vertical distance
between the most positive or most negative level on an AC waveform and the horizontal axis. Thus,
the peak value is another name for the amplitude of the waveform. Figure 68 shows there are two
peak values for an AC waveform: (1) the positive peak, which occurs during the positive half-cycle;
and (2) the negative peak, which occurs during the negative half-cycle of the waveform. The example
of an AC waveform in Figure 68 shows the negative peak value (–10 volts) is the negative of the
positive number that is the positive peak value (+10 volts). This relationship between peak values is
true of any AC waveform because all AC waveforms are symmetrical about the horizontal axis.
Figure 68: Peak value and amplitude are terms that describe the vertical distance between the most positive or most negative level
on the waveform and the horizontal axis.
Expressing a Peak-to-Peak Value
► Calculate the peak-to-peak value of an AC waveform.
Another AC waveform magnitude value used frequently in the field of communications is the peak-
to-peak value. It is important because measuring the peak-to-peak value is much easier than
measuring the peak value when using electronic test equipment such as oscilloscopes and spectrum
analyzers. The peak-to-peak value is the vertical distance between the most positive and most
negative peak values of an AC waveform (Figure 69). The peak-to-peak value is equal to twice the
peak value of the AC waveform. The peak value is equal to the peak-to-peak value divided by two.
Figure 69: The peak-to-peak value is the vertical distance between the positive peak and the negative peak values of the waveform.
For example, if the peak-to-peak value of a voltage sine wave is +5 volts, the peak value of the
waveform is one-half of the peak-to-peak value, or +2.5 volts. Therefore, one peak is at +2.5 volts and
the other peak is at –2.5 volts, or one peak is 2.5 volts above the horizontal axis and the other is 2.5
volts below the horizontal axis.
Expressing AC Waveform Values

Expressing an Instantaneous Value
► Define the instantaneous value of a point on an AC waveform.
The instantaneous value is primarily used in the communications field in circuit analysis. The
instantaneous value is the value of a single point on the AC waveform at a specific moment, or
instant, of time. Therefore, the instantaneous value may range from the most positive value on the
waveform (i.e., the positive peak value), to the most negative value on the waveform (i.e. the
negative peak value).
For example, the measurements of output voltage from an AC generator that plot the AC voltage
waveform are all instantaneous values of that output voltage because each measurement is taken at
a specific instant in time (Figure 70). Note that each waveform contains an infinite number of
instantaneous values, separated by infinitely small amounts of time, resulting in a waveform that is
a continuous, smooth line.
Figure 70: Each point on the waveform represents an instantaneous value which occurs at a specific instant in time.
Expressing an Average Value
► Define and calculate the average value of an AC waveform.
The average value of a sine wave is 0.636 times the peak value of the waveform. For example, if the
peak value of a sine wave is +3 volts, the average value is 0.636 times +3 volts, or 1.908 volts. If the
peak value is not known, but the peak-to-peak value is, the average value is equal to 0.636 times
one-half of the peak-to-peak value. For the example shown in Figure 71, the average value is: 0.636
(+6 volts/2) = 0.636 × 3 volts = 1.908 volts. This formula is valid only for true sine waves.

Figure 71: The average value of a positive or negative alternation is equal to 0.636 times the peak value of the waveform.
It is important to remember that the average value is determined for only one half-cycle of an AC
waveform. This is due to the symmetry of AC waveforms. Since both half-cycles are identical, their
average values are the same, except that the average value for one of the half‑ cycles is negative
because it is below the horizontal axis. Therefore, the average value of a complete cycle of any AC
waveform is the sum of the two averages, or zero (Figure 72).
Figure 72: The average value of an AC waveform is determined over one alternation only because the average value of a complete
cycle of any AC waveform is zero.
Expressing an Effective Value
► Define and calculate the effective value of an AC waveform.

The effective value of an AC waveform signifies the relationship between the AC waveform and an
equivalent DC waveform. The effective value of AC is that value which causes the same effect (such
as heat in a resistor) caused by an equal amount of DC. The effective value is less than the peak
value but more than the average value for a sine wave AC waveform.
The effective value is determined by a method that involves taking the square root of the mean, or
average value, of the squares of the instantaneous values of the waveform during one half-cycle of
the waveform. Therefore, the effective value often is called the root mean square (RMS) value
because of the way it is determined. This is a very lengthy calculation to perform that involves
squaring each instantaneous value taken for one half-cycle of the waveform, summing these squared
values, dividing this sum by the total number of instantaneous values to get the mean value, and
then taking the square root of this average value. However, when the process is worked out for a sine
wave, the effective value is equal to 0.707 times the peak value of the waveform. This formula is
valid only for a true sine wave.
For example, if the peak value of an AC sine wave is +10 amps, the effective value is 0.707 times +10
amps, or +7.07 amps. As another example, Figure 73 illustrates that an AC waveform with a peak
value of 14.14 amps is needed to equal 10 amps of DC.
Figure 73: The effective value is 10 amperes for an AC waveform with a peak value of 14.14 amperes.
In most cases, unless stated otherwise, the effective value is implied when working with AC voltages
and currents. For example, the standard house voltage of 120 volts actually has an effective value of
120 volts, which means that its peak value is much higher, at about 170 volts. Because of this
extensive use of effective values of voltage and current, the majority of AC voltmeters and AC
ammeters that measure AC voltage and current are designed to display the effective values on the
meter. Take precautions, however, since some meters are set up to display the peak-to-peak value as
well.

Converting Values
Each of the values already discussed can be determined for a sine wave, voltage, or current, if one of
the values is already known. For example, if the peak value of the sine wave is known, the others can
be calculated using the following relationships:
Peak-to-peak value = 2 × peak value
Average value = 0.636 × peak value
Effective value = 0.707 × peak value
If the peak value is unknown and one of the other values is known, the relationships can be turned
around to calculate the peak value as follows:
Peak value = peak-to-peak value/2
Peak value = 1.57 × average value, or average value/0.636
Peak value = 1.414 × effective value, or effective value/0.707
To convert directly from the average value to the effective value, or vice versa, use the following
relationships:
Average value = 0.9 × effective value
Effective value = 1.11 × average value
To convert from the average or the effective values to the peak-to-peak value, convert one value to
the peak value and simply double the peak value. Figure 74 lists the peak, peak-to-peak, average,
and effective conversion relationships.

Figure 74: The peak, peak-to-peak, average, and effective conversion relationships.
Cable TV and broadband network power supply voltages are measured at the effective or RMS value.
Cable TV video carrier signal levels are measured at the peak level.

What is the peak value of an AC waveform?
What is the peak-to-peak value of an AC waveform?
What is the instantaneous value of an AC waveform?
What is the equation for calculating the average value of any sine wave?

What is the average value of one complete cycle of a sine wave whose peak voltage value is +5
volts?
What is the effective value of AC?
What is the equation for calculating the effective value of a sine wave?
Convert the following values to peak-to-peak values:

A. A peak voltage value, Epk = 5.5 volts
B. An average voltage value, Eav = 15.9 volts
C. An effective current value, IEFF = 1.061 amperes
D. An RMS current value, IRMS = 2.123 amperes

Resistive AC Circuits (301-11-8) Page 89
LESSON 4: Resistive AC Circuits (301-11-8)
 Understanding Basic Relationships

 Understanding Eddy Currents
 Understanding the Skin Effect
 Solving Sample Problems
MODULE 1
UNDERSTANDING BASIC RELATIONSHIPS
Introduction
Knowing how to describe AC waveforms and analyze AC circuits requires an understanding of how
the voltage, current, and loads in the circuit relate to one another, and to the power consumed in the
circuit. This understanding begins with the simplest AC circuit and load: the resistive AC circuit.
The application of basic Ohm's Law, power, and phase relationships will be used to analyze resistive
AC circuits.
Ideally, a resistive AC circuit contains only resistance. The resistance of an AC circuit consists of the
load resistance, the source resistance, and the line resistance (Figure 75). Therefore, the total
resistance of any AC circuit includes the resistance that the load presents to the rest of the circuit,
the internal resistance of the AC source, and the resistance of the conductors connecting the AC
source to the load. The principals of Ohm's Law voltage, current, resistance, and power relationships,
as well as phase relationships in AC resistive circuits, will also be covered.
Figure 75: The simplest AC circuit contains only resistance. If RLis much, much greater than RC+ RS, then RCand RSmay be neglected
when analyzing the resistive AC circuit.
Revisiting Ohm's Law
► Describe a resistive AC circuit, and distinguish it from a resistive DC circuit.
Understanding Basic Relationships

No real-world AC circuit can contain only resistance. Other properties, such as inductance and
capacitance, are always present in AC circuits. However, when the magnitude of these properties is
negligible, or very small, with respect to the amount of resistance present in the circuit, the circuit is
considered completely resistive (Figure 76). When an AC circuit is completely resistive, it can be
analyzed or studied in terms of Ohm's Law and power, which are the basic relationships for DC
circuits. Because AC voltage and current are not constant in magnitude, such as DC voltage and
current, but continuously changing, the phase relationships for current, voltage, and power present
in each part of the circuit must also be considered. Eddy currents and skin effect are the two
exceptions to these relationships that make resistive AC circuits different from resistive DC circuits
by causing the circuit conductors to offer more resistance to the flow of AC than they do to the flow of
DC.
Figure 76: This completely resistive AC circuit contains inductance, L, and capacitance, C, as well as resistance, R, but the values of
L and C are so small compared to the resistance, R, in the circuit, that they have almost no effect on the circuit.
► Explain how resistive AC circuits are both similar to and different from resistive DC
circuits in the Ohm's Law relationships for current, voltage, and resistance.
In electronic circuits, there is a relationship between the voltage applied to the circuit, the resistance
of the circuit, the current going through the circuit, and the power consumed by the circuit. While
AC circuits have similar Ohm's Law and power relationships to DC circuits, there is a phase
relationship that is unique to AC circuits. These relationships not only exist in AC circuitry, but also
in broadband coaxial cable networks. Because the resistance of conductors used in DC circuits is
identical to that of the conductors when used in AC circuits, aside from two exceptions, the Ohm's
Law and power and relationships also apply to resistive AC circuits.

When an AC voltage is applied to the ends of a circuit containing only resistance, a current flows
through the circuit, and the current changes directions through the resistance in the circuit each
time the voltage changes its polarity. Thus, the AC voltage applied across the circuit resistance
generates an alternating current in the circuit. Use the "R = 1 ohm" line in Figure 77 to examine the
relationship between the magnitude of the AC voltage and the magnitude of the current at any given
instant of time. As the magnitude of the voltage increases, so does the magnitude of the current, as
long as the magnitude of the resistance stays the same. But, if the magnitude of the resistance
increases and the magnitude of the voltage remains the same, the magnitude of the current flowing
through the resistor decreases. An example of this is the change from Point A (2 amps) to Point B (1
amp) when the resistance increases from 1 ohm to 2 ohms in Figure 77. Thus, the magnitude of the
current is directly proportional to the magnitude of the voltage, but indirectly, or inversely,
proportional to the magnitude of the resistance in the circuits. Therefore, Ohm's Law also applies to
AC circuits that contain only resistance (i.e., AC circuits in which the resistance of the circuit is the
predominant property).
Figure 77: Ohm's Law applied to resistive AC circuits shows the same direct relationship between the magnitudes of the voltage and
current, and the same inverse relationship between current and resistance, as with resistive DC circuits.
In an AC circuit, Ohm's Law is expressed in terms of the instantaneous values of the voltage and
current because in the AC circuits they are continuously changing, whereas in the DC circuit the
values are constant at all times. Usually, these relationships are expressed with different symbols, to
avoid confusion. The Ohm's Law relationship for current, voltage, and resistance in resistive DC
circuits is always expressed by I = E ⁄ R, where E is measured in volts, I in amperes, and R in ohms.
Because the instantaneous values of AC voltage and current represent the voltage and current seen
at a specific instant of time in the AC circuit, Ohm's Law is usually expressed by i(t) = e(t) ⁄ R, where
i(t) represents the value of the current in amps at the specific moment in time (t), and e(t) represents
the value of the AC voltage in volts at the same moment of time (t), as developed across the
resistance (R) measured in ohms. (Figure 78). At times the (t) is lifted off and only the lower case i
and e are used to express the same equation as i = e ⁄ R. This way, the difference in the two
relationships is readily seen, even though they both are expressions of Ohm's Law, one with capital
letters for DC circuits, and the other in lower case letters for AC circuits.

Figure 78: There is a directly proportional relationship between the magnitudes of the voltage and current in a resistive AC circuit,
but these magnitudes change as time changes.
However, except when analyzing unknown circuits using the laws of calculus, this relationship for
Ohm's Law using the instantaneous values of voltage and current in AC circuits is seldom used.
Instead, the AC values of voltage and current used most often are the effective values E EFF and IEFF.
Since the effective values of AC voltage and current are the AC equivalent of the corresponding DC
value, the same symbols of E and I can be used in the Ohm's Law expression. Thus, E and I
represent the voltage and current in a DC circuit, and E and I also represent the effective values of
voltage and current in an AC circuit (Figure 79). Unless specified otherwise, I = E ⁄ R for an AC
circuit is assumed to mean IEFF = EEFF ⁄ R.
Figure 79: The effective values of current and voltage in an AC circuit are equal to the same values of current and voltage in a DC
circuit. Therefore, E and I are used for the DC values and as shortened symbols for E EFFand IEFFin AC circuits.
Since Ohm's Law for AC circuits can be expressed in instantaneous and effective values, it can also
be expressed in terms of peak and average values when needed. Thus, when using peak values of the
AC voltage and current, Ohm's Law is expressed as I P = EP⁄ R. And when using average values, it is
seen as Iav = Eav ⁄R. Like most other relationships, these expressions of Ohm's Law can be rearranged
to show the interrelationship between the individual parts, as shown in Figure 80.

Figure 80: Ohm's Law as applied to AC circuits shows the relationship between the magnitudes of the current, voltage, and
resistance.
Explaining the Power Relationship
► Describe the basic power relationships for resistive AC circuits.
Ohm's Law and its variations used with resistive DC circuits are applicable to resistive AC circuits.
There is a relationship between the AC power produced at the power production plant and the
voltage-current combination used in transferring the power to the customers. This relationship is
expressed as P = EI. Unless otherwise stated, the effective values are assumed for the power,
voltage, and current in this equation for resistive AC circuits. Thus, the effective power present at
the end of the transmission line is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the
effective current flowing through the transmission line and the magnitude of the effective voltage
applied to the ends of the transmission lines, that is, across the total resistance in the length of the
line and the customer's loads. Since a power transmission system represents a giant AC circuit, this
is also true of other AC circuits.
Thus, P = EI represents the relationship between the effective value of voltage, current, and power in
an AC circuit, as well as the relationship between voltage, current and power in a DC circuit. And,
just like Ohm's Law, this power relationship can be expressed in terms of the other AC values, as
seen in Figure 81, as well as in terms of the resistance of the circuit.
Figure 81: Comparing the DC voltage, current, and power relationships to AC power relationships for effective, instantaneous, peak,
and average voltage and current values.

Thus, using Ohm's Law variations, I = E⁄R and E = IR, the power in the circuit can be expressed in
terms of the voltage and resistance of the circuit, or the current and resistance of the circuit, in the
same ways expressed for DC circuits. These power relationships are P = E 2⁄ R and P = I2R. Unless
some other specific value is stated, AC power is stated in terms of its effective value, just as the AC
voltage and current are, and may be called effective power, P EFF, or the power, P. The other AC
values can also be used in these equations, as seen in Figure 82. In AC circuit analysis, when the
instantaneous values are being used many times, the (t) is understood when the lower case letters (p,
e, i) are used.
Figure 82: Comparing power, voltage, current, and resistance relationships for effective, instantaneous, peak, and average voltage
and current values.
Explaining How Phase Factors In
► Explain the phase relationships of voltage, current, and power in resistive AC

circuits.
In AC circuits, it is not only the basic Ohm's Law and power relationships in the circuit that are
important, but also the phase relationships between the voltage, current, and power. Basically, a
phase difference exists between the waveforms that are out-of-phase, but no phase difference exists
between the waveforms that are in-phase. In-phase means that the zero-crossings and the positive
and negative peaks of the voltage and current waveforms occurred at the same instants, respectively.
In a resistive AC circuit, the voltage and current are directly proportional to one another; that is,
when the voltage increases, so does the current. Therefore, when there is no voltage applied to the
circuit, there is no current flowing in the circuit. Thus, when the voltage is zero, so is the current.
Therefore, the voltage and current waveforms for resistive AC circuits have their zero crossings at
the same time, and since the resistance in the circuit is constant, their positive and negative peaks
occur simultaneously. This means that the voltage and current present in an AC circuit are always
in-phase with each other, as illustrated in Figure 83. This fact is true of the voltage-current phase
relationship in each individual part of the circuit, as well as for the complete circuit.

Figure 83: In a resistive AC circuit the current, i, and the voltage, e, of the circuit are always in-phase. This is also true for the
voltage and current for each individual part of the circuit. Note that the current, i, flows through each resistor and is in-phase with
the voltage across each resistor.
However, the phase relationship between the power in a resistive AC circuit and the voltage and
current in that circuit is only somewhat similar. Voltage, current, and power in resistive AC circuits
are all in-phase. Thus, all three are zero at the same times, and all three achieve their peak
instantaneous values at the same times as shown in Figure 84. However, the power in the circuit
does not achieve a negative peak value. This is because the circuit power results from the product of
the instantaneous values of the circuit voltage and current. Thus, during the negative half-cycle of
the voltage and current, the power is equal to the product of two negative values. Therefore, the
power in a resistive AC circuit always has a positive value and the AC power waveform has two
positive half-cycles and two positive peaks, instead of one positive and one negative half-cycle and
peak.
Figure 84: In a resistive AC circuit the voltage, current, and power are all in-phase, but the power waveform has no negative
alternation, since both e and i are negative during the second half-cycle and their product is positive.


What two properties of an AC circuit must be negligible compared to the resistance of the circuit
for the circuit to be considered completely resistive?
What is the mathematical equation that expresses Ohm's Law for a resistive AC circuit at any
instant of time?
What effective values are assumed in the Ohm's Law equation I = E⁄R for a resistive AC circuit?
Which of the three values are assumed to be effective values, unless specified otherwise, in the
power equation P = EI for AC resistive circuits?
What is the phase relationship between voltage and current in a resistive AC circuit?
What is the phase relationship between voltage, current, and power in a resistive AC circuit?
What is the main difference between the waveforms of voltage, current, and power in a resistive
AC circuit?

MODULE 2
UNDERSTANDING EDDY CURRENTS
Introduction
One premise behind understanding eddy currents is that a conductor offers greater resistance to AC
than to DC. Eddy currents are one cause of this greater resistance; another cause is skin effects. It is
important to understand the cause and effect of eddy currents in order to better understand
unwanted power loss and other problems that exist in conductors, inductors, and transformers in
electrical circuits.
Explaining Their Cause

A magnetic field is created around a conductor when current flows through the conductor. When DC
flows through the conductor, the magnetic field generated remains constant until the direct current
stops flowing. When AC flows through the conductor, a varying magnetic field is generated. The
strength of this magnetic field changes as the magnitude of the alternating current changes. Figure
85 shows that when the current is zero, the magnetic field strength is zero. As the AC increases to its
peak value, so does the magnetic field strength. Then, as the current decreases to zero and changes
directions, the magnetic field collapses and begins to rebuild towards its maximum field strength.
This changing magnetic field induces electromotive forces or voltages inside the conductor. These
voltages create small random currents or eddy currents that flow through the conductor.
Figure 85: Alternating current flowing through a conductor creates a varying magnetic field around the conductor, which induces
voltages in the conductor core, which in turn generate random currents in the conductor called eddy currents.
Describing Their Effect on the Circuit
► Describe the cause and effect of eddy current loss and how it is dependent on
frequency in AC circuits.
These eddy currents dissipate some of the total power present in the circuit as heat. Thus, they cause
a loss of power in the circuit, which is called eddy current loss. This power loss is essentially the
same as the power loss caused by increasing the resistance of the conductor over its DC or ohmic
resistance. The conductor's resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional areas of the conductor. Including eddy currents, the total
power in a resistive AC circuit equals: P = I2(RS + RC + RL) + Iec2(RC), where: I represents the current
flowing through the circuit; RS represents the sum of the source internal resistance; R C represents
the ohmic resistance of the conductors; RL represents the load resistance; and Iec represents the total
of the eddy currents developed in the conductors. The part of the equation represented by I ec2(RC) is
called the eddy current power loss, which becomes apparent only when comparing the power losses
between identical AC and DC circuits, as illustrated in Figure 86. The resistive AC circuit power
equation is not completely accurate, since eddy-current loss cannot be so easily separated from skin
effect.
Figure 86: The power distribution in a resistive AC circuit is different than the power distribution in an equivalent DC circuit because
of the apparent increase in the ohmic resistance, RC, caused by the eddy currents. Here Iec2R represents the power loss due to eddy
currents.
Understanding Eddy Currents

Since the voltage within the conductors are created by the changing magnetic field around the
conductor, the more often the magnetic field collapses and rebuilds, the greater the amount of eddy
currents developed in the conductor. Further, since the changing magnetic field is caused by the
half-cycle in the current as it flows through the conductor, the more half-cycles that occur in the
current, the more often the magnetic field varies from zero to its maximum value. Finally, since the
number of current half-cycles that occur is directly related to the frequency of the current, the
variations in the magnetic field are directly related to the frequency of the current in the conductor,
and so are the voltages created by these variations in the magnetic field. Therefore, the amount of
eddy currents appearing in a conductor is directly related or directly proportional to the frequency of
the current in the conductor, as shown in Figure 87.
Figure 87: As the frequency of the current increases, the number of eddy currents created in the conductors increases, and thus the
eddy current loss also increases.
A very high frequency current creates a much greater amount of eddy currents in the conductor than
a low frequency current. Thus, the power loss due to eddy currents in a high frequency current is
much greater than the power loss from eddy currents created by low frequency current. Eddy current
losses are only significant, with respect to the power losses in the conductor caused by the DC or
ohmic resistance, when the frequency of the current is very high, as shown in Figure 88. Therefore,
eddy current losses are usually neglected in AC circuit analysis and power calculations, unless they
are specifically mentioned.

Figure 88: Eddy current losses do not become significant with respect to the power loss due to the ohmic resistance of the
conductors until the frequency of the current is very high.

How are eddy currents created?
What is the effect of eddy currents on the power consumed in the circuit?
What apparent effect do eddy currents have on the power consumed in conductors in AC circuits?
What is the relationship between eddy currents loss and the frequency of the current in an AC
circuit?

MODULE 3
UNDERSTANDING THE SKIN EFFECT
Introduction
In addition to eddy currents, the skin effect is another reason a conductor offers more resistance to
AC than to DC. Alternating current flows through the conductor differently than direct current.
Different frequencies cause the conductor to react differently. This principle is critical when
operating multiple frequencies over the same conductor, such as power supply frequencies of 60 Hz
and carrier frequencies of 750 MHz. It is important to understand the principle of skin effect in order
to recognize its effects on coaxial cable.
Explaining the Cause for this Phenomenon
► Describe the cause of the skin effect on conductors in AC circuits.
Skin effect is the concentration of the flowing current near the surface of an AC conductor, compared
to the even distribution of current throughout the DC conductor, as shown in Figure 89.
Figure 89: The AC voltages induced in the core of the conductor by the varying magnetic field around the conductor tend to
concentrate free electrons in the conductor near the surface. Thus, more current flows where the maximum number of free
electrons are.
This skin effect is caused by the same AC voltages in the conductor that cause eddy currents. These
voltages repel the electrons moving through the conductor as current flows toward the outer surface
of the conductor. This causes more electrons to move near the surface than are moving near the
center of the conductor. Thus, the electrons are concentrated near the surface and most of the
current flows near the surface, with much less current flowing near the center.
Describing Its Effect on the Circuit

This concentration of the current near the surface of the conductor has the same effect on the
resistance of the conductor as reducing the cross-sectional area of the conductor. Current flows easier
through a large-diameter than a small-diameter wire, because a larger cross-sectional area has less
resistance. In other words, the resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional areas of the conductor. The skin effect increases the resistance of the conductor when AC
flows through it, similar to the effect of physically reducing the conductor's cross-sectional area, as
illustrated in Figure 90. This increase in resistance from the skin effect appears as an additional loss
of power in the AC circuit when compared to the power losses in an identical DC circuit.
Figure 90: Skin effect in an AC conductor reduces the cross-sectional area of the conductor that is used for current fl ow. This has
the effect of increasing the resistance and the power loss in the conductor, similar to the effect of physically reducing the
conductor's cross-sectional area.
Skin-effect losses are frequency dependent, just like eddy current losses. As the frequency of the
current in the conductor increases, more voltages are created in the core of the conductor by the
changing magnetic field. The greater these voltages are in the conductor, the more concentrated the
electrons become near the surface of the conductor. This increased electron concentration means
increased concentration of the current flow near the surface, which reduces the apparent cross-
sectional area even more. The increased reduction of the apparent cross-sectional area increases the
resistance to current flow, which causes greater skin-effect losses. Skin-effect losses are a significant
problem at very high frequency currents and are negligible with low frequency currents, as shown in
Figure 91. So, like eddy current losses, skin-effect losses are not usually considered in AC circuit
analysis and calculations, unless specifically mentioned.
Understanding the Skin Effect

Figure 91: Like eddy current loss, power losses due to the skin effect increase with frequency of the current. Like eddy current
losses, the losses due to the skin effect are not significant compared to the conductor's DC or ohmic resistance losses until the
frequency is very high.
► Explain how the skin effect changes conductor resistance, and how skin-effect
losses are reduced.
At present, the only practical way of determining the presence of eddy current loss and skin-effect
loss is by comparing the power losses in an AC circuit with those in an identical, or equivalent, DC
circuit. Assuming the ohmic resistance of the conductors, the source resistance, and the load
resistance are approximately equal in both circuits, any prominent difference in the power losses
between the two circuits would be the sum of the eddy-current and skin-effect losses (Figure 92).
Figure 92: Comparing power loss between identical DC and AC circuits to determine amount of Peddy current and Pskin effect losses.

It is difficult to determine how much of this total difference is due to the eddy currents and how
much is due to skin effect. In actual practice, there is little that can be done to completely eliminate
their presence at high frequencies. Eddy current losses can be reduced in iron-core transformers by
using sections of laminated iron as the core instead of solid core. Skin-effect losses are reduced by
using multiple-strand conductors instead of a single, large diameter conductor. This reduces skin-
effect loss because the combined surface area of the strand in a multiple-strand conductor is greater
than the surface area of the single conductor, even though the two conductors have approximately
the same overall diameter. Multiple-strand conductors are often used as power cables to minimize
power loss between the power sources and the circuit loads (Figure 93).
Figure 93: Using a multiple-strand conductor increases the total surface area of the conductor, and, since skin effect occurs in each
strand, the total effective cross-sectional area is greater than for a single strand alone.

How is skin effect similar to eddy currents?
What is skin effect?
What causes skin effect?
What effect does skin effect have on the power consumed in the conductor?

What is done to reduce skin-effect losses in AC power conductors?

MODULE 4
SOLVING SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Introduction
To solidify the concepts and their interrelationship to AC circuits, the following problems are
presented and calculated to demonstrate how these concepts work together.
Calculating a Current Value (Problem 1)

What is the value of the current, I, flowing through the circuit in Figure 94?
Figure 94: Use this AC resistive circuit for sample problems 1-2.
► Calculate current and voltage values in resistive AC circuits.
To solve this, use the basic equation for Ohm's Law, I = E/R, and substitute the known values of
voltage and resistance into the equation. The effective voltage is seen as 10 volts (the effective value
is assumed, since the figure does not specify it as average, peak, or instantaneous). Since the current
for the circuit is asked for, and only the source voltage is known, the resistance, R, in the equation
must represent the total resistance of the circuit, which is RS + RC + RL. As shown in Figure 95 since
R = RS + RC + RL = 2 ohms + 3 ohms + 45 ohms = 50 ohms, and E = 10 volts, then I = E/R = 10
volts/50 ohms = 0.2 amperes. Thus, the current flowing through the circuit shown in Figure 94 is 0.2
amperes.
Figure 95: Calculating circuit current (I).
Calculating a Voltage Value (Problem 2)

What is the voltage developed across the load resistance, RL, in AC Resistive Circuit for Sample
Problems 1-2?
AC Resistive Circuit for Sample Problems 1-2 shows that the circuit current, I, flows through each of
the separate resistances (RS, RC, and RL). Therefore, using Ohm's Law and solving for E, the voltage
across RL become EL = IRL.
From problem 1, I is equal to 0.2 amperes, and from the circuit, RL is equal to 45 ohms. Therefore,
substituting these values into the equation for EL as shown in Figure 96:
Figure 96: Calculating voltage across RL.
Thus, the voltage developed across RL in the circuit is equal to 9.0 volts.
Calculating the Power Consumed by Load

Resistance (Problem 3)
How much power is consumed by the load resistance, RL, in the figureFigure 97?
Solving Sample Problems

Figure 97: Use this AC resistive circuit for sample problems 3-4.
► Calculate the power consumed by a load resistance or another resistance in a

resistive AC circuit.
One method to calculate the power consumed by RL involves using the basic power equation P = EI
and substituting the appropriate values for the voltage EL, that is developed across RL, and the
current IL, that flows through RL, for E and I in the basic power equation. A second method requires
using the power equation and substituting Ohm's Law into it, to solve for the voltage or the current.
To use the basic power equation P = EI, realize that E is equal to the voltage, E L, across RL, or 9
volts, and I is equal to the current IL, flowing through RL, which is the same as the circuit current, I,
or 0.2 amperes. Next, substitute these values into the equation PL = ELIL, as shown in Figure 98:
Figure 98: Calculating power consumed by RL.
Thus, the power consumed by only the load resistor part of the circuit is 1.8 watts.
Using the second method requires solving Ohm's Law for E or I and substituting that value for the
appropriate quantity in the power equation P = EI. Then Ohm's Law gives I L = EL/RL. Substituting
EL/RL for IL in the power equation gives PL = EL (EL/RL) = EL2/RL, which is one of the alternate power
equations presented here. Substitute the values of the voltage and resistance from Figure 97, as
shown in Figure 99:

Figure 99: Calculating and comparing power consumed by RL.
Thus, either power relationship can be used to solve the problem, depending on which factors
concerning the circuit are known.
Calculating the Power Loss in Conductors

(Problem 4)
What is the power loss in the conductors in AC Resistive Circuit for Sample Problems 3-4? (Eddy
current and skin-effect losses are considered equal to zero.)
When the eddy current loss and the skin-effect loss are equal to zero, the loss in the conductor is the
result of the ohmic resistance, RC, of the conductors. Then, since the current, IC, through the
conductors is known and the resistance, RC, of the conductors is known, the power lost in the
conductors as heat can be calculated using the alternate power equation P = I 2R. Since the power
consumed in the conductors is sought, P becomes PC. Next, since the current through the conductors,
IC, is the same as the circuit current, I, the equation becomes PC = I2(RC). Substitute the appropriate
value from AC Resistive Circuit for Sample Problems 3-4 and the answer from problem 1, as shown
in Figure 100:
Figure 100: Calculating power consumed by RC.
Thus, 0.12 watts of power are consumed in the form of heat in the resistance of the conductors
between the source and the load.

Calculating the Power Consumed by Coaxial

Cable (Problem 5)
What is the power consumed by the coaxial cable loop resistance in the Figure 101?
Figure 101: Use this circuit for sample problem 5.
► Calculate the power consumed by coaxial cable loop resistance in an AC

circuit employing coaxial cable.
The power consumed by the RC loop resistance is calculated by using the power formula P = I2RC
with the appropriate values for I and RC. Substitute 7.0 amps for I and 0.55 Ω for RC, as shown in
Figure 102:
Figure 102: Calculating power consumed by RC loop resistance.

What is the value of the current when: (1) the effective voltage is 20 volts; (2) the resistance of the
source is 4 ohms; (3) the resistance of the conductors is 2 ohms; and (4) the resistance of the load is
10 ohms?

What is the power consumed by the load resistance when: (1) the voltage across the load resistance
is 7 volts; and (2) the load resistance is 35 ohms?
What is the power loss in the conductors when: (1) the circuit current is 0.8 amperes; (2) the
resistance of the conductors is 3 ohms; and (3) eddy current loss and skin-effect loss are considered
equal to zero?
What is the power consumed by coaxial cable loop resistance when: (1) the current of the coaxial
cable circuit is 8 amperes; and (2) the loop resistance of the coaxial cable is 1.07 ohms?

Inductance and Transformers (302-11-5) Page 115
LESSON 5: Inductance and Transformers (302-11-

5)
 Induction
 Inductance
 Inductors
 Transformers
MODULE 1
INDUCTION
Introduction
Inductors are used in broadband cable signal processors, modulators, amplifiers, filters, power
inserters, RF taps, and directional couplers. Broadband cable system AC powering and RF signal
distribution depend upon the electronic principle of induction. Understanding induction is necessary
for understanding the role of inductance in the operation of inductors and transformers, and to
efficiently troubleshoot broadband cable system network failures. Induction is best defined by
describing its relationship to induced emf, self-induced emf, and cemf.
Induction
► Define induction.
Induction, otherwise known as electromagnetic induction, is the production of an electromotive force,

or emf, in a conductor by changes in the magnetic field surrounding the conductor. A conductor with
no current flowing through it has no magnetic field surrounding it. This is because each free electron
inside the conductor has its own magnetic field and its own random movement, or drift. Since all the
free electrons are moving in a random fashion, the total magnetic field around the conductor is the
sum of all the random magnetic fields associated with these free electrons. Further, since the
random fields cancel out one another, as shown in Figure 103, the total magnetic field around the
conductor is equal to zero. If, however, the conductor itself is moved through a magnetic field, the
situation changes.
Induction
Figure 103: A conductor without current flowing through it, with a total magnetic field strength of zero.
Induced EMF
As a conductor is passed through a magnetic field (Figure 104A), the magnetic field around each free
electron interacts with the flux lines of the large magnetic field as the conductor cuts through them,
and a force is exerted on each electron. This force is called the electromotive force, or emf. All of these
small forces add together as the large magnetic field forces these electrons to align their fields with
itself and move in the same direction. This then represents a larger emf or voltage induced in the
conductor. After the conductor passes through the magnetic field, the free electrons drift randomly
again (Figure 104B).
Figure 104: A large magnetic field inducing emf, or voltage, in a conductor by causing free electrons to align their magnetic fields
and move in the same direction.
Induction
Self-Induced EMF
The situation that arises when a current flows through a conductor is very different from that which
occurs when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. In the latter case, an emf, or voltage, is
induced in the conductor as the conductor cuts through the flux lines of the magnetic field. As a
result of this emf, or voltage, a current flows through the conductor when a load is attached to the
ends of the conductor.
When a conductor is not surrounded by a magnetic field, at the instant the DC voltage is applied to
the conductor, direct current flows as the free electrons drifting randomly in the conductor move in
the same direction, as shown in Figure 105. This results in individual magnetic fields of the electrons
combining almost instantly to create one large magnetic field extending outside of and surrounding
the conductor.
Figure 105: Conductor electron magnetic fields combining almost instantly to create one large magnetic field when DC voltage is
applied to the conductor.
A conductor carrying a direct current caused by an applied DC voltage has an emf induced in it only
while the current is changing. This is so even though the change is instantaneous, and not while the
current is constant, or zero. This emf is very large at the instant the DC voltage is applied. It is zero
while the current is constant, but is very large again when the DC voltage is removed. This same emf
is zero again while there is no voltage applied to the conductor. Self-induced emf created by changes
in the magnetic field around the conductor or inductor is called counter electromotive force (cemf). It
is also known as back emf. It is called counter emf because: (1) it creates a current that opposes, or
counters changes in, the current flowing through a straight conductor, or through an inductor; and
(2) because it is always opposite in polarity to the source voltage of the circuit (that is, it is always
counter to the source voltage that causes the current that induces it).

Induction
Define induction.
Why does a conductor with no flowing current have no magnetic field around it?
What happens as a conductor is passed through a magnetic field?
What happens to the individual magnetic fields of the electrons in a conductor when a DC voltage
is applied?
Induction
MODULE 2
INDUCTANCE
Introduction
Both inductors and transformers operate on the principle of inductance. It is useful to understand
general concepts about inductance by defining inductance, describing units of inductance, and
explaining mutual inductance.
Definition of Inductance
► Define inductance.
In DC circuits, the time it takes for the direct current to reach its maximum value or amplitude once
the DC voltage is applied to the circuit is almost insignificant. However, it is not simultaneous. Some
time does elapse, even though it is hardly noticeable. This delay between the application of the
source voltage and when the current reaches its maximum amplitude is similar to the delay between
the application of force to a boulder and the actual movement of that boulder. This delay is due to
inertia. When standing still, the boulder has a certain amount of inertia to overcome by the applied
force before the boulder can move. In an electrical circuit, this delaying force is called electrical
inertia.
► Use the henry to describe an amount of inductance.
In a DC circuit, the effect of electrical inertia is very small, since the delay between the application of
the DC voltage to the circuit and the time that the direct current reaches its maximum amplitude is
very small (Figure 106A). It is only present when the voltage is applied or removed. However, in an
AC circuit, this electrical inertia can be quite significant and is present all the time, since the
alternating current is continually changing in amplitude and direction (Figure 106B). This electrical
inertia or resistance to change is called inductance. Inductance is the property of an electrical circuit
or conductor that tends to resist changes in the current flowing through the circuit or conductor.
Figure 106: Time delays caused by electrical inertia (inductance) in DC and AC circuits.
All conductors have inductance, but only coiled conductors exhibit a large amount of inductance.
These coiled conductors are used most often in AC circuits to deliberately introduce inductance into
the circuit. These coiled conductors are electronic devices called inductors, coils, or chokes. They are
designated in an AC circuit by a coil symbol (Figure 107). The inductance of an inductor is
represented by the capital letter L.
Figure 107: An inductor is represented by a coil symbol in an AC circuit.
Units of Inductance
The unit of inductance is named after Joseph Henry. It is called the henry, and is designated by the
small letter h. A henry is the amount of inductance a conductor or an inductor has if the current
flowing through it changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second and generates a cemf of 1 volt. Thus, a 1
henry inductor produces a cemf of 1 volt when the current flowing through it changes at a rate of 1
ampere per second.
Inductance
Since the henry is quite a large amount of inductance, inductance in AC circuits is usually expressed
as a smaller value, fractions of a henry, such as one-one thousandth, or 1⁄1,000 of a henry, and one-
one millionth, or 1⁄1,000,000 of a henry. Expressed in this way, these values are both difficult to
work with. Therefore, by combining the term henry with the metric prefix for the fractions 1⁄1,000
and 1⁄1,000,000, two terms are developed that are easier to handle: the millihenry, and the
microhenry. The millihenry equals 1⁄1,000 of a henry, while the microhenry equals 1⁄1,000,000 of a
henry. In actual calculations, these terms can be abbreviated for even greater ease of handling. The
abbreviation for millihenry is mh, while the abbreviation for microhenry is μh. Thus, the most
common values of the inductance are the millihenry, mh, and the microhenry, μh.
Mutual Inductance
A transformer uses mutual inductance to accomplish its function of transferring energy from one
circuit to another. The design and use of transformers and the design and production of inductive
circuits require knowing the definition and cause of mutual inductance.
Cause
► Explain mutual inductance.
When a non-current-carrying inductor is placed close enough to an inductor with current flowing
through it, the magnetic field caused by the current flowing through the first inductor interacts with,
or encircles, the turns of the non-current-carrying inductor. This interaction between the magnetic
field and the turns of the second inductor causes induction of a voltage in the second inductor as the
flux density of the magnetic field varies. This generation of a voltage in one inductor by the changing
magnetic field around another inductor is called mutual induction (Figure 108). The amount of
mutual induction that takes place between two inductors is called mutual inductance.
Figure 108: An example of mutual induction, with the current flowing through inductor L1 inducing a voltage in inductor L2.
Inductance
Definition
Self-inductance is caused by the rate of change of the current flowing through an inductor. Mutual
inductance is caused by the rate of change of the current flowing through an adjacent inductor. Thus,
mutual inductance is defined as the property possessed by two inductors so positioned that the
changing magnetic field lines around one of the inductors encircle, or link, the turns of the other
inductor and induce an emf, or voltage, in that inductor.
A mutual inductance of one henry is possessed by two inductors in separate circuits if they are
positioned such that their magnetic fields interact enough for a rate of change of current equal to one
ampere per second in the primary inductor to induce a voltage in the secondary inductor equal to one
volt. When this process occurs between the two inductors, electrical energy is transferred from the
primary inductor. When the two circuits are combined using inductors in close proximity to each
other for the express purpose of energy transfer, the two inductors together represent a device called
a transformer (Figure 109).
Figure 109: An example of a transformer with two inductors positioned close together for the purpose of transferring energy from
one circuit to another.

What is inductance?
Why is the effect of electrical inertia very small in a DC circuit?
Inductance
Why can the effect of electrical inertia be quite significant and present all the time in an AC
circuit?
What are two other names for inductor?
What is the circuit symbol for an inductor?
What is the letter symbol for the inductance of an inductor?
What is a henry (h)?
What are two commonly used values for inductance?
What is mutual inductance?
What is a transformer?
Inductance
MODULE 3
INDUCTORS
Introduction
Inductors are used in low frequency applications. Their application depends upon the frequency
used, the type of inductor, and where the inductors are installed. Understanding inductors and their
operation aids in understanding broadband cable system network design, activation, operation,
troubleshooting, and repair. Important too, are the characteristics of inductors, inductor networks,
and types of inductors.
Characteristics of Inductors
There are several characteristics of an inductor that determine the amount of inductance. These
characteristics contribute to or limit the induction of an emf in the inductor. As explained earlier,
inductance is a measure of how much emf is induced in an inductor for a given change in the current
through the inductor.
The characteristics determining the amount of inductance an inductor has are: (1) the number of
turns in the inductor winding; (2) the spacing between the turns or the actual length of the inductor;
(3) the cross-sectional area of the core; and (4) the permeability of the core. The first three factors
affect both air-core and iron-core inductors, while the last one affects only the iron-core inductors.
Number of Turns
Increasing the number of turns of the winding around the core of the inductor increases the
inductance, because it increases the flux density of the magnetic field produced by the current
flowing through the inductor (Figure 110). The more turns in the inductor, the more flux lines from
adjacent turns that overlap and increase the flux density around each turn.
Figure 110: Three conductor types with different number of loops in the conductor and corresponding levels of flux density.
Spacing Between Turns and Coil Length
► Explain how the number of turns, the spacing between turns, the core's cross-
sectional area, and permeability affect an inductor's amount of inductance.
The spacing between the turns and the length of the coil are considered together since they affect
each other. If a specific number of turns of the conductor are wrapped closely together around a core
(Figure 111A), the inductance is greater than if the same number of turns are spread out over a core
(Figure 111B). Remember that the more turns wrapped around the core, the greater the flux density,
because the flux lines from the turns overlap each other. This is also true for turns spread close
together. The closer the turns are to each other, the greater the overlapping of the flux lines between
the loops and, thus, the greater the flux density around each loop. The greater the flux density, the
greater the rate of change of the flux density while the current changes through the turns. The
greater the rate of change of flux density, the larger the self-induced emf. The larger the self-induced
emf, the greater the inductance of the inductor. Increasing the spacing between the turns decreases
the interaction between the loop's flux lines.
Figure 111: The amount of inductance of an inductor is directly related to the spacing between the loops.
Inductors
Since the turns are made around some type of core, whether magnetic material, insulating material,
or air, varying the spacing between the turns of the winding directly affects the length of the coil, or
inductor. For a given number of turns it also inversely affects the size of the inductance. The length
of the coil, or inductor, expresses the amount of spacing between the turns, if the number of turns is
held constant. Thus, the amount of inductance produced by an inductor is inversely proportional to
the length of the inductor, or coil.
Changing the shape of the inductor coils can adversely affect the response of the broadband cable
system. When inspecting or working with active or passive devices, take care to not change the
spacing of the coils on any inductors.
Core Cross-Sectional Area
The inductance of an inductor is directly proportional to the cross-sectional area of the core of the
inductor. If an air-core is used, the cross-sectional area of the space inside the coil is used. If an
insulating core or a magnetic core is used, the cross-sectional area of the core material is used. The
greater the cross-sectional area of the core, the greater the number of flux lines produced by the
current flowing through the coiled windings of the inductor, and the greater the inductance.
Core Permeability
Most inductors are made with a solid core instead of an air-core. The core is usually made of some
magnetic material, like iron, steel, or nickel. These metals can support a magnetic field, and the
permeability of the metal is a number that expresses this ability. In other words, the permeability of
a material indicates how well the material supports the lines of force, or flux lines, of a magnetic
field. Core materials with high permeability, like iron, steel, and nickel, tend to concentrate together
the flux lines of the magnetic field created by current flowing through the inductor (Figure 112A).
Low permeability cores, such as air, do not concentrate the flux lines together (Figure 112B). The
amount of inductance in an inductor is directly proportional to the permeability of the inductor core.
Figure 112: The concentration of flux lines or flux density is directly proportional to the permeability of the core material.
Inductors
Inductor Networks
In many AC circuits, the inductance is not neatly packaged into one inductor. Usually, the total
inductance of the circuit comes from many smaller inductors connected together in a manner that
prevents the windings of each inductor from interacting with the magnetic flux lines around any
other inductor. Knowing how to calculate the total inductance of an AC circuit with inductors in
series and in parallel is important in understanding the operation of inductors and transformers in
broadband networks.
Inductors in Series
► Calculate the total inductance of inductors connected in series and in parallel.
If the inductors in an AC circuit are connected in series, the total inductance of the circuit is
determined in the same way the total resistance of a number of resistors in series is determined
(Figure 113A). This means the total inductance of a circuit containing several inductors in series is
equal to the sum of all the individual inductances. Expressed mathematically, this is LTotal = L1 + L2
+ L3 + . . . + Ln, where Ln is the last inductor in the series (Figure 113B).
Figure 113: Calculating the total inductance of a network of inductors in series by adding together the individual inductances.
Inductors
Inductors in Parallel
There are times when the total inductance of an inductive AC circuit results from several inductors
connected in parallel. In this situation, the total inductance is determined in the same way that the
total resistance is determined when resistors are connected in parallel, as shown in Figure 114A.
Thus, the total inductance can be found using the reciprocal method. Figure 114B shows that,
according to the reciprocal method, the total inductance for a circuit containing inductors in parallel
is: LTotal = 1/(1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3 + ... + 1/Ln).
Figure 114: Calculating the total inductance of a network of inductors in parallel using the reciprocal method.
Types of Inductors
Inductors can be classified by the type of core material and by whether the inductor is fixed or
variable.
Air-Core Inductors
Inductors are usually made by winding the conductor around a core of either magnetic or insulating
material. When the conductor is a thick wire, a solid core may not be necessary, since the thick wire
can support itself when coiled. This type of inductor is called an air-core inductor (Figure 115). If the
conductor is wound around a core made of insulating material, the inductor is called an insulating-
core inductor. This is similar to an air-core inductor, because the insulating core is only for
supporting the coiled conductor, since it has no magnetic properties. Insulating-core inductors are
also called air-core inductors.
Inductors
Figure 115: Air-core inductors in a line extender amplifier AC power distribution board. (Courtesy of C-COR.net)
Iron-Core Inductors
A magnetic core increases the inductance of the inductor. These inductors are called iron-core
inductors (Figure 116), since the core is usually made of soft, powdered iron, although some are made
of hard steel. The primary point is that the core material is magnet ic. The magnet ic core adds the
flux lines from its own magnetic field to those created by the current flowing through the windings,
or loops, of the inductor. This strengthens the flux density of the inductor, which causes the
inducement of a greater emf in the inductor.
Figure 116: Iron-core inductors in a power inserter. (Courtesy of Philips Broadband Networks)
Fixed vs. Variable Inductors
► Describe the differences between fixed and variable inductors.
Inductors
Fixed inductors are those whose inductance values are unchangeable (Figure 117A). Variable
inductors can have a range of inductances, depending on the position of the iron core within the
windings of the inductor (Figure 117B). Pulling the core out of the windings reduces the inductance,
because fewer of the inductor windings have their flux lines concentrated by the focusing effect of the
magnetic iron core. Pushing the iron core into the windings increases the inductance.
Figure 117: Examples of a fixed inductor and variable inductors. (Courtesy of C-COR.net and Philips Broadband Networks)

What are the characteristics that determine the amount of inductance for an inductor?
How does increasing the number of turns of the winding around the core of the inductor affect the
inductance?
What is the relationship between the amount of inductance and the length of the inductor, or coil,
if the number of turns is held constant?
What is the relationship between the amount of inductance and the cross-sectional area of the
inductor?
Inductors
What is the relationship between the amount of inductance and the permeability of the inductor
core?
What is the total inductance of a circuit containing several inductors connected in series?
What is the formula for calculating the total inductance of two inductors connected in parallel,
with individual inductance values of L1 and L2?
What are the two types of inductors as classified by the type of core material?
Why are insulating-core inductors also called air-core inductors?
How and why does pulling the iron core out of the windings affect the inductance of a variable
iron-core inductor?
Inductors
MODULE 4
TRANSFORMERS
Introduction
Transformers are used in both RF and AC voltage applications. Transformer operation is based upon
the principles of inductors and mutual induction. It is important to understand the operation of
transformers to understand broadband cable system AC powering, RF and optical node powering,
and signal processing. Particularly useful is theory of operation, energy transfer, turns ratio, and
identifying types of transformers.
Theory of Operation
A transformer transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by mutual induction. A
transformer consists of two windings and a medium between the two windings. In some cases, the
windings have their own core materials. while in other cases, both windings may share a common
core. In either case, each winding physically represents an inductor, and the two windings are not
connected together into one continuous winding.
Transformers have a primary winding and one or more secondary windings. The primary winding is
connected to an electrical power or RF source and transfers electrical energy in the form of voltage to
the secondary windings. This energy transfer occurs as the result of mutual inductance. When the
secondary winding has a secondary coil load (Figure 118), the voltage induced in the secondary
winding acts like a voltage source and a current flows in the secondary circuit. As the secondary coil
current increases, so does the primary coil current. And, when the secondary coil current decreases,
the primary coil current decreases. Therefore, in an out-of-phase transformer, that is, one whose
coils are wound in opposite directions, the amount of current flowing in the primary coil is directly
proportional to the amount of current flowing in the secondary coil.
Figure 118: A schematic diagram showing how a transformer transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another by mutual
induction.
Energy Transfer
This topic covers the process of transferring energy in a transformer, including an ideal power
transfer.
Description
► Explain the process of transferring energy with a transformer.
The transfer of energy in a transformer is the result of mutual induction, which occurs between the
primary and secondary coils of the transformer. Because of mutual induction, a secondary coil
voltage is induced in the secondary coil. This, in turn, causes a secondary coil current to flow through
the load attached to the secondary coil (Figure 119). This current develops a voltage across the load
equal to the secondary coil voltage, minus the value of the secondary coil cemf. Next, since the power
present in a circuit is equal to the product of the voltage and current in the circuit, the transfer of
electrical energy between the primary and secondary coils of the transformer in the form of voltage
and current actually represents a transfer of power from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit.
Transformers
Figure 119: A transformer transferring power delivered to the primary by the source to the secondary by mutual induction.
Ideal Power Transfer
In an ideal transformer, since all the power drawn from the source by the primary circuit is
transferred to the secondary circuit, the power must be equal in both the primary and secondary
circuit. The power delivered by the source (that is, the power in the primary circuit) can be expressed
as Pp = Ep Ip, where Pp is the power in the primary circuit, Ep is the primary circuit voltage, and Ip is
the primary circuit current (Figure 120).
Figure 120: The power relationship between the primary and secondary circuits of an ideal transformer.
Therefore, in an ideal transformer, if the primary and secondary coil voltages are equal, the primary
and secondary coil currents must be equal also. This is true because the secondary coil current
directly controls the level of the primary coil current. Thus, when the voltages are equal, any change
in the secondary coil current caused by changing the size of the resistive load attached to the
secondary coil causes an equal change in the primary coil current.
Transformers
Turns Ratio
For an ideal transformer whose power transfer is affected only by changes in the load connected to
the secondary coil, the primary and secondary coil voltages must remain equal at all times. Thus, the
primary and secondary coils must have the same number of turns in their coils (Figure 121). In an
ideal transformer, Np = Ns, where Np is the number of turns in the primary coil, and Ns is the
number of turns in the secondary coil. Usually, this relationship is expressed as a ratio between the
number of turns in the primary coil and the number of turns in the secondary coil, or N p/Ns. This
ratio, Np/Ns, is called the turns ratio of the transformer. At times the turns ratio is also expressed as
Np:Ns.
Figure 121: The turns ratio in an ideal transformer.
The turns ratio is significant in determining the relationships between primary and secondary coil
voltages when a practical transformer supplies power at different voltage and current combinations.
In these cases, the turns ratio is always something other than 1:1. This is because a 1:1 turns ratio
means that the voltage and current in the primary coil are the same as the voltage and current in
the secondary coil. Depending on the type of change desired in the secondary coil, practical
transformers providing changes in the voltage relationship between the primary and secondary
circuits are called either step-up or step-down transformers.
Voltage vs. Turns Ratio
In an ideal transformer, the turns ratio is 1:1, and N p/Ns = 1, meaning that the primary and
secondary coils have the same number of turns. Therefore, if all other factors about the coils are
identical, the primary and secondary coil voltages are equal. Expressed mathematically, the
relationship between the primary and secondary coil voltages and the turns ratio is shown in Figure
122.
Figure 122: The relationship between the primary and secondary voltages and the turns ratio in a transformer.
Transformers
► Properly use the turns ratio of a transformer to determine voltage and current on
the secondary coil.
For a 1:1 turns ratio, the voltage ratio, Ep/Es, is 1:1, and the voltages are equal. However, if the
secondary coil has two times as many turns in it as the primary coil does (Figure 123A), the turns
ratio becomes 1:2, or Np/Ns = 1⁄2. Thus, the secondary coil voltage is two times the primary coil
voltage. This is shown mathematically in Figure 123B by solving the equation Ep/Es = Np/Ns for Es.
The formula from Figure 122 can be changed so that Es/Ep = NsNp. To solve for Es: (1) multiply both
sides by Ns; (2) insert the values for the number of turns into the formula; (3) reduce the formula to
minimum values; (4) insert the Ep voltage value into the formula; (5) multiply the values to solve for
the secondary coil voltage value. Thus, if the primary coil voltage is 50 volts, the secondary coil
voltage is 100 volts. Therefore, this transformer increases, or steps up the voltage of the primary coil
as it transfers the power to the secondary coil.
Figure 123: The turns ratio and voltage ratio relationship in a step-up transformer.
If the secondary coil has fewer turns than the primary coil, the secondary coil voltage will be smaller
than the primary coil voltage. For example, if the primary coil has two times the number of loops
that the secondary coil has, the turns ratio is 2:1, or N p/Ns = 2 (Figure 124A). To calculate the
secondary coil voltage Es as shown in Figure 124B: (1) use the formula shown in Figure 124B; (2)
enter the number of turns into the formula; (3) reduce the formula to minimum values; (4) enter the
Ep voltage value; and (5) solve for secondary voltage value E s. Thus, the secondary coil voltage is
equal to one-half of the primary coil voltage. If the primary coil voltage is 12 volts, the secondary coil
voltage is 6 volts. Thus, the transformer reduces, or steps down, the voltage as it transfers power to
the secondary coil.
Transformers
Figure 124: The turns ratio and voltage ratio in a step-down transformer.
From these examples it is seen that a turns ratio greater than one results in a secondary coil voltage
less than the primary coil voltage. Conversely, a turns ratio less than one results in a secondary coil
voltage greater than the primary coil voltage.
Current vs. Turns Ratio
In an ideal transformer, the power in the primary and secondary coils are always equal. Thus,
changing the turns ratio, Np/Ns, not only affects the voltage relationship between the primary and
secondary coils, it also affects the relationship between the primary and secondary coil currents. For
the primary and secondary coil powers to remain equal, that is, E pIp = EsIs, the currents must change
inversely with changes in the voltages. In other words, if the primary coil voltage increases, the
primary coil current must decrease, to keep the same power as before. The same is true of the
secondary coil voltage and current. Thus, the relationship between the primary and secondary coil
currents and the turns ratio must be the opposite of the voltage and the turns ratio. That is, while
Ep/Es = Np/Ns for the voltage relationship, Is/Ip = Np/Ns for the current relationship. So, the primary
coil current times the number of turns in its coil is equal to the secondary coil current times the
number of turns in its coil, or IpNp = IsNs. Thus, the same turns ratio produces the opposite effect on
the current ratio, Ip/Is, than it does on the voltage ratio, Ep/Es. That is, Ip/Is = Ns/Np while Ep/Es =
Np/Ns. So, for a 2:1 turns ratio, the secondary coil voltage is half the size of the primary coil voltage,
while the secondary coil current is twice the size of the primary coil current. Therefore, a turns ratio
greater than one results in a secondary coil current greater than the primary coil current. Further, a
turns ratio less than one results in a secondary coil current less than the primary coil current, which
is the exact opposite of the effect on the secondary coil voltage. Therefore, a transformer that steps
down the voltage steps up the current as it transfers power from the primary coil to the secondary
coil.
Transformers
Types of Transformers
► Identify different types of transformers and explain their function.
There are two types of transformers, air-core and iron-core. Included in these two types are the
center-tapped transformer variations. Each has its own design applications. While the symbol of the
air‑ core transformer is two inductors having parallel axes, variations of the this symbol include
iron-core and center-tapped transformers (Figure 125) which are utilized in broadband cable system
AC powering and RF applications.
Figure 125: Transformer symbols used in broadband cable system networks.
Air-Core Transformers
An air-core transformer gets its name from the material used as the core of the transformer, the
material between the coils of the transformer. The majority of the flux lines pass through this
material. Thus, in an air-core transformer, the flux lines of the magnetic fields set up around the
primary and secondary coils all pass through air. In some cases the wire is strong enough to support
the shape of a coil by itself, and therefore has air as its coil. In other cases, the core material is some
type of insulating material that does not conduct electricity and does not affect the magnetic fields
around them (Figure 126). The transformers with an insulator for a core are also called air-core
transformers.
Transformers
Figure 126: Two types of air-core transformers.
Because of its low coefficient of coupling, the air-core transformer is most often used in places where
a non-conducting core is an asset, such as in radio-frequency electronic applications, rather than in
power distribution. This is because at high frequencies, conducting-type core materials have
increased internal losses, whereas air or insulating core materials do not. Thus, air-core
transformers can be used at radio frequencies. However, other materials, which do conduct
electricity, are usually not used. Figure 127 illustrates a center-tapped air-core transformer used in a
filter network of a Scientific-Atlanta 6350 Television Modulator Broadband Audio Modulator
Module.
Figure 127: A schematic diagram of a filter network containing air-core transformers. (Courtesy of Scientific-Atlanta, Inc.)
Transformers
Iron-Core Transformers
Iron-core transformers are the closest to an ideal transformer because the high permeability of the
core material results in greater energy transfer. The cores of these transformers can take different
shapes and be made of materials other than solid iron. Iron-core transformers can be separate bar-
type, single bar-type, bar-type coils interwound, core-type solid or laminated, or shell-type solid or
laminated (Figure 128). Both the shape and the material of the core affect the coefficient of coupling
and the efficiency of the transformer. Silicone steel is often used, because it has a very high
permeability value, and because it can be layered in laminated stripes. In other words, it can be
layered in strips of laminated steel stacked to make up the core. This type of construction helps
reduce some of the internal power losses. Ferrite, another type of core material, is a powdered iron
type of material fused into a solid core. It has a relatively high permeability, even though it is not a
good electrical conductor. Ferrite is quite brittle and so is used only in applications where shock
damage is not very likely.
Figure 128: Examples of bar-type, core-type, and shell-type iron-core transformers.
Most iron-core transformers are found in electric power distribution systems. Also, the frequency of
the current and voltage is low enough that internal losses of power are not very large. This makes
the iron‑ core transformer act very much like an ideal transformer. Figure 129A shows a typical
iron-core transformer used in line extender amplifier power supplies. The step-down ferroresonant
iron-core transformer in Figure 129B reduces the step-down voltage from 120 VAC to 60 VAC. Some
iron-core transformers are used in other than electric power applications. Because of its low
electrical conductivity, the ferrite solid-core transformer is not as severely affected by internal power
losses at high frequencies as the other iron-core transformers. Figure 129C is a schematic diagram of
an iron-core transformer that splits the RF signal into two paths in a Scientific-Atlanta 6350
Television Modulator Vestigial Filter Module.
Transformers
Figure 129: Broadband cable system applications for iron-core transformers. (Courtesy of Antec and Scientific-Atlanta)

What are the most basic parts of a transformer?
How are the primary and secondary coils wound in an out-of-phase transformer?
What is the relationship of the primary coil current to the secondary coil current in an out-of-
phase transformer?
If the primary and secondary coil voltages are equal in an ideal transformer, what is the
relationship of the primary and secondary coil currents?
What is turns ratio?
Transformers
In what two ways is turns ratio expressed?
How does the secondary coil voltage compare to the primary coil voltage in a step-up transformer,
in which the secondary coil has more turns than the primary coil?
What is an air-core transformer?
Where are air-core transformers typically used?
What is an iron-core transformer?
Where are iron-core transformers typically used?
Transformers
Capacitance (303-11-5) Page 147
LESSON 6: Capacitance (303-11-5)
 Capacitance
 Capacitors
MODULE 1
CAPACITANCE
Introduction
Broadband cable system signal distribution, AC powering, and filtering devices all depend upon
capacitance to accomplish their designed functions. Understanding capacitance is foundational for
understanding RF line passive operation, diplex filters, and amplifier power supplies. First, it is
useful to understand capacitance, through its definition and the units of capacitance.
Definition of Capacitance
► Define capacitance.
Capacitance is the relationship between changing voltage and capacitive time constants and the
factors controlling the amount of capacitance. Capacitance is further defined as the property of a
system of conductors and insulators allowing storage of an electric charge and opposition to any
change in that charge when a difference of potential exists between the conductors.
The term capacitance is being referred to here as the capacitance of a capacitor, because a capacitor
is designed to deliberately insert capacitance into a circuit. A capacitor is an electronic device
opposing changes in the voltage in a circuit by storing electrical energy in the form of an electric field
between two metal capacitor plates. The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the
electric charge transferred from one plate to the other, to the potential difference between the plates
caused by the applied voltage. A simpler definition of the capacitance of a capacitor is the measure of
a capacitor's ability to store energy in the form of an electrical charge.
Capacitance can exist between two wires or between one wire and the chassis, situated close to each
other in a circuit and separated by an air dielectric (Figure 130A) or a foamed polyethylene dielectric
(Figure 130B), if there is a difference in potential between the two wires. This is known as
distributed, or stray, capacitance, and is a primary concern in circuit design and fabrication.
Capacitance
Figure 130: Different dielectric materials causing distributed capacitance.
Units of Capacitance
► Define the unit of measure for capacitance.
Capacitance can be expressed in units called farads, in honor of the scientist Michael Faraday. The
capacitance of a capacitor is the ratio of the charge transferred between the capacitor plates to the
potential difference between the plates. One farad is the amount of capacitance that enables a
capacitor to attain a charge of one coulomb when a potential difference of one volt is applied to the
plates. This is expressed mathematically as: C = Q / V, where C represents the capacitance in farads;
Q equals the quantity of electrical charge stored in the capacitor expressed in coulombs; and V
equals the voltage applied to the capacitor plates expressed in volts. One coulomb of charge is equal
to the presence or absence of 6.25 × 1018 electrons. The capacitance is equal to 1 farad when a
positive or negative charge of 1 coulomb exists on one plate of the capacitor due to the application of
1 volt of emf to the capacitor plates.
Since 1 farad of capacitance is too large for most circuit applications, capacitors with much smaller
capacitances are normally used. These smaller capacitances are usually stated in fractional units.
These units are microfarads and micro-microfarads or picofarads. One farad is equal to 1 million
(106) microfarads and is equal to 1 trillion (1012) micro-microfarads or picofarads. The microfarad is
usually abbreviated by using the symbol, μF, which equals 1/1,000,000 farads or 10 -6 farads. One
picofarad, pF, equals 1/1,000,000,000,000 farads or 10-12 farads (Figure 131).
Capacitance
Figure 131: Units of capacitance chart.

What is the definition of capacitance?
What is the capacitance of a capacitor?
What is distributed capacitance?
What is a farad?
How many microfarads equal one farad?
How many picofarads equal one farad?
Capacitance
MODULE 2
CAPACITORS
Introduction
A capacitor is a device that opposes or affects changes in the circuit voltage. This device is called a
capacitor because it has the capacity to oppose a change in the circuit voltage by storing energy in
the form of an electrical field. That is, it stores energy from the power source and then releases this
energy back to the circuit in the form of electric current. Thus, whereas a resistor opposes all current
flow and an inductor opposes any change in current flow, a capacitor opposes changes in voltage.
While an inductor stores energy in the form of a magnetic field around the inductor (Figure 132A), a
capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field between its positive and negative plates
(Figure 132B). It is important to understand the theory of operation, time constants, networks, and
different types of capacitors.
Figure 132: A comparison of how energy is stored by an inductor and a capacitor.
Theory of Operation
► Explain capacitor theory of operation.

A capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator (dielectric). Common insulating
materials are air, paper, glass, plastic, and mica. A capacitor stores energy in the electric field
between the plates (Figure 133). This is readily seen by recalling the basic electrostatic principle,
that electrostatic lines of force exist between charged bodies. While like charges have lines of force
that cause them to repel each other, unlike charges have lines of force that cause them to attract
each other.
Figure 133: A capacitor consists of two metal plates separated by an insulating material.
Charging and Discharging
► Describe capacitor charging and discharging.
If a DC voltage source is connected to the two plates of a capacitor so that the negative terminal of
the source is connected to one plate and the positive terminal is connected to the other plate,
electrons from the plate connected to the positive terminal of the source are drawn to the positive
terminal of the source. Electrons from the negative terminal of the source are forced towards the
plate connected to the negative terminal of the source. This gives the plate connected to the positive
terminal of the source a positive charge and the plate connected to the negative terminal of the
source a negative charge. Thus, both plates are charged (Figure 134).
Figure 134: The movement of electrons when a voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor.
Capacitors
When the plates of the charged capacitor are connected together by a conductor (Figure 135), the
electrons from the negative plate are forced towards the positive plate by the force of the electric field
between the plates, until the number of electrons on both plates are equal. Thus, the positive plate
becomes less positive and the negative plate becomes less negative until the charge on both plates is
zero (that is, the plates are neutral). When this occurs, the electric field between the plates no longer
exists and the capacitor is discharged.
Figure 135: The movement of electrons in a capacitor when applied voltage is removed and a path is provided between the capacitor
plates.
Energy Storage
► Explain how a capacitor stores energy.
When the capacitor plates have no charges on them, no electric field exists between the plates. Thus,
the atoms of the insulating material between the plates have electrons travelling around nuclei in
circular paths. This condition corresponds to an unstretched coiled spring (Figure 136A). Then, when
the capacitor plates are charged by an emf from a voltage source applied to the plates, the electrons
orbiting the nuclei of the insulating material between the plates are repelled towards the positively
charged plate by the negatively charged plate, while at the same time being attracted by the
positively charged plate. When the current stops flowing, the capacitor is fully charged and acts like
an open circuit to the source. This condition is represented by the tension of the spring equaling the
force stretching it. When this occurs, the spring will not stretch any farther (Figure 136B).
Capacitors
Figure 136: Comparing a spring and capacitor at rest and with stored energy.
Finally, when the spring is released, the tension of the spring exerts the same amount of force in
returning the spring to its unstretched state as the amount of force applied in stretching the spring
in the first place. Thus, the spring develops a tension within itself equal in magnitude, but opposite
in direction to the force that stretched it. This condition represents the release of tension in the
electron orbits of the insulating material when the charge on the capacitor plates is removed, that is,
when the capacitor is discharged. When the capacitor is discharged by shorting the plates together
(Figure 137), the tension in the orbits forces the electrons back into their normal circular orbits.
Figure 137: Comparing energy released by spring recoil and a discharged capacitor.
Capacitors
A capacitor in a DC circuit accepts an increase in its charge until the energy in the electrical field
between its plates is equal to the amount of energy in the source charging it. At this point, the
capacitor is fully charged and blocks further direct current flow in the circuit. However, in an AC
circuit, the capacitor does not block the current flow, because the current is always changing
directions and, therefore, the AC source is constantly charging the capacitor in different directions.
Thus, the capacitor in an AC circuit is continuously storing (charging) and releasing (discharging)
energy in the circuit.
Capacitive Time Constants

As long as the voltage applied to a capacitor is changing, the capacitor opposes the change by
developing a charge, such that the emf between the plates of the capacitor is equal but opposite to
the changing voltage at all times. Therefore, if the applied voltage is increasing, the capacitance in
the capacitor opposes this increase by charging to an equal and opposite potential between the
plates. If the applied voltage decreases, the capacitance opposes this decrease by discharging its
energy and allowing the potential between its plates to drop to a level equal and opposite to the new
applied voltage level.
► Explain capacitive time constants.
The amount of time it takes a capacitor in a circuit to reach its maximum charge and, therefore, to
develop the maximum voltage between its plates, is directly dependent on the amount of circuit
resistance and the capacitance of the capacitor. This is because the larger the capacitance, the larger
the charging current required for the capacitor to achieve maximum charge for a given rate of
change of the applied voltage. However, the circuit resistance limits the size of the charging current
for a given circuit. Therefore, the larger the circuit resistance, the smaller the charging current and
the longer it takes the capacitor to reach maximum charge and, thus, to develop maximum voltage
across its plates.
This relationship is shown mathematically as t = RC, where t is one time constant, or the time
required for the capacitor to charge to 63% of its fully-charged voltage; R is the circuit resistance;
and C is the capacitance. Thus, the voltage across the capacitor plates reaches its maximum value in
much the same way the current through an inductor does, that is, exponentially. Just as it takes 5
time constants for the inductor current to increase from zero to its maximum value, it also takes 5
times constants for the capacitor voltage to reach its maximum value (Figure 138). That is, it takes a
period of time equal to 5 time constants, or 5 (RC), for the capacitor to charge to within 1% of being
fully charged.
Capacitors
Figure 138: Illustration of the exponential voltage charging slope of a capacitor.
Once the capacitor begins to discharge, it opposes the reduction in the circuit voltage. This also
occurs exponentially, so that the time required for the capacitor to discharge all of its stored voltage
is also equal to 5 time constants (Figure 139). Therefore, the time required for the capacitor to either
fully charge or fully discharge is directly related to the size of the circuit resistance and the
capacitance of the capacitor.
Figure 139: Illustration of the exponential voltage discharging slope of a capacitor.
Capacitor Networks
Often, individual capacitors are connected together into a network, to achieve a specific amount of
total capacitance in the circuit. Knowing how to calculate the capacitance is important in
understanding the capacitance of diplex filters and amplifier power supplies in broadband cable
systems.
Capacitors
Capacitors in Series
► Calculate the total capacitance of capacitors connected in series and in

parallel.
When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance represents a single capacitor with a
separation between the plates equal to the sum of the individual plate separations. The formula is
Ctotal = 1 / (1/C1 + 1/C2 + ... + 1/CN), where CN represents the last capacitor in the series network. The
total capacitance in series is similar to resistances in parallel. The total capacitance of capacitors in
series is always smaller than the smallest capacitor value. For example, the total capacitance of the
three capacitors in series in the circuit in Figure 140A is 0.078 μF (78 × 10-9 or 78 picofarads [pF]),
which is less than the circuit's smallest individual capacitor value of 0.01 μF (C 3). To calculate the
total capacitance of the circuit in Figure 140, use the formula in Figure 140B and follow the
calculations in Figure 140C: (1) enter the capacitive values 1 μF, 0.5 μF, and 0.01 μF into the
formula; (2) calculate the reciprocal values for 1 μF, 0.5 μF, and 0.01 μF and enter these values into
the formula; (3) add the three reciprocal values to obtain the denominator; (4) and take the reciprocal
of the denominator to find the total capacitance of the circuit.
Figure 140: Calculating the total capacitance of three capacitors in series.
Capacitors in Parallel
The total capacitance of a network of capacitors connected in parallel can be calculated by simply
adding their values together, that is, Ctotal = C1 + C2 + ... + Cn. This is because capacitors in parallel
act like one large capacitor whose plate area is equal to the sum of the plate areas of the individual
capacitors. Figure 141A illustrates three capacitors in parallel. Use the formula in Figure 141B and
follow the calculations in Figure 141C to calculate the total capacitance.
Capacitors
Figure 141: Calculating total capacitance of three capacitors in parallel.
Types of Capacitors
► List the different types of capacitors.
Capacitors can be divided into two basic categories, or types: (1) fixed; and (2) variable. Within each
category of capacitor, different names may be used to specify which type of fixed or variable capacitor
is used.
Fixed
► Describe a fixed capacitor.
A capacitor with only one value of capacitance is called a fixed capacitor. The capacitance values are
usually determined by the way fixed capacitors are made and the type of insulating material used in
their construction. The greater the energy storage capacity, the larger the applied emf, or voltage,
that the capacitor can oppose changes in or handle without breaking down. This breakdown results
in current flow between the plates through the insulating material. The maximum voltage a given
capacitor can handle is called the working voltage of that capacitor.
Capacitors
There are many kinds of fixed capacitors. The most common are the ones employing paper, mica,
ceramics, oil and electrolytes as the insulating materials. Paper capacitors use several sheets of
waxed paper as the insulating material to separate thin sheets of tin foil, which act as the plates of
the capacitor. The paper and tin foil are rolled together around some type of non-conducting form
(Figure 142), usually bakelite. Once the paper and foil are rolled together, they are wrapped with a
cardboard cover, coated with plastic, or placed inside an aluminum can. Next, metal leads are
connected to the sections of tin foil and a cap is placed over the ends of the capacitor. Paper
capacitors are most often used in low frequency (1-2 MHz) circuits where the maximum breakdown
voltage is from 200 volts to 1,600 volts. Also, paper capacitors can be used without concern for the
polarity of the voltage applied by the source. But, many times, the lead connected to the outermost
foil strip is marked so it can be connected to the lowest potential or ground and thus act as a metal
shield to alternating current.
Figure 142: An illustration of a paper capacitor.
Another type of capacitor that resembles the paper capacitor is the plastic-film capacitor. This type
of capacitor is used in RF circuits (300 MHz to 1 GHz) and the maximum breakdown voltage is in the
range of 200-1,600 V. Figure 143 illustrates plastic-film capacitors in a power inserter.
Figure 143: Plastic film capacitors in a power inserter circuit board. (Courtesy of Philips Broadband Networks, Inc.)
Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors seem to defy the statement made earlier about the ability of small, simply
constructed capacitors to handle only low working voltages. Ceramic capacitors are extremely small
and have low capacitance values, but can withstand working voltages up to 30,000 volts.
A ceramic capacitor is usually made by coating a hollow ceramic tube on the inside and outside with
silver (Figure 144A). Next, connect separate leads to the silver coating inside and the silver coating
outside and coat the capacitor with a liquid form of baked enamel. This is to prevent the very high
voltages handled on the outside coating from coming in contact with other components in the circuit.
Another type of ceramic capacitor is the ceramic disc (Figure 144B). This capacitor has 2 disc-shaped
plates and a disc-shaped ceramic dielectric. It is used in RF circuits up to 300 MHz. Figure 144C
illustrates a ceramic capacitor used in a DC power supply board of a line extender amplifier.
Figure 144: Examples of ceramic capacitors. (Courtesy of Scientific-Atlanta, Inc.)
Capacitors
The electrolytic capacitor has a capacitance value much larger than the values for the other types of
fixed capacitors, at times on the order of 100 times greater. Electrolytic capacitor construction
involves two aluminum sheets separated by a layer of gauze or paper impregnated with a jelly, or
paste-like electrolyte, rolled together and sealed in a metal container (Figure 145). During the initial
construction, a DC voltage is applied to the two sheets of aluminum. The current flowing between
the two sheets through the electrolyte causes the aluminum sheet connected to the positive terminal
of the DC source to become coated with a thin oxide film. This film acts as the insulating material
between the aluminum plate and the jelly-like electrolyte. The aluminum sheet with the oxide film
becomes the positive plate, while the gauze or paper impregnated with the jelly-like electrolyte
becomes the negative capacitor plate. The second aluminum sheet merely acts as a connection
between the impregnated gauze or paper and external leads. Thus, the capacitor is now polarized
and can only be connected to a circuit with the negative terminal connected to the ground side of the
circuit and the positive terminal connected to the B+ voltage side of the circuit.
Figure 145: Electrolytic capacitor components.
Electrolytic capacitors are commonly used in power supply filters due to their large capacitance size.
Figure 146 contains a 200-volt 680-μF capacitor in a DC power supply board of a Scientific-Atlanta
line extender amplifier.
Capacitors
Figure 146: Electrolytic capacitors in a DC power supply of a line extender amplifier. (Courtesy of Scientific-Atlanta, Inc.)
Variable
► Describe a variable capacitor.
Capacitors whose capacitance values can be changed easily and continuously are called variable
capacitors.
One type of variable capacitor uses mica or air as the insulating material between two metal plates.
In this capacitor, the capacitance values are varied by changing the physical distance, or separation,
between the two plates by tightening or loosening a non-conducting screw connecting the two plates
together. These types of variable capacitors are frequently referred to as a trimmer, or padder
capacitor. The schematic diagram in Figure 147 shows variable air capacitors used in a television
modulator output converter module used in a broadband cable system headend.
Figure 147: Air-type variable capacitor used in a television modulator output converter module. (Courtesy of Scientific-Atlanta, Inc.)

Capacitors
What does a capacitor do to circuit voltage?
What is a capacitor?
Contrast what is opposed in a circuit by a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor.
What is the difference between the way energy is stored in a capacitor versus an inductor?
What does a simple capacitor consist of?
How is a capacitor charged?
How is a capacitor discharged?
When does a capacitor in a DC circuit block current flow?
Why does a capacitor in an AC circuit not block current flow?
What is the time constant of a capacitor?
Capacitors
Does a capacitor charge at a linear rate or at an exponential rate?
How many time constants does it take for the capacitor voltage to charge to within 1% of being
fully charged?
What is the formula for calculating the total capacitance of two capacitors connected in series,
with individual capacitance values of C1 and C2?
How does the total capacitance of capacitors in series compare to the smallest capacitor value in
that series?
What is the formula for calculating the total capacitance of two capacitors connected in parallel,
with individual capacitance values of C1 and C2?
What are the two basic categories or types of capacitors?
What is a fixed capacitor?
What insulating materials are used in the most common kinds of fixed capacitors?
What level of working voltage can be withstood by ceramic capacitors?
Capacitors
Which type of fixed capacitor usually has larger capacitance values than other fixed capacitors?
What type of capacitor is referred to as a trimmer, or padder capacitor?
Capacitors
Examining Hardline Coaxial Cable (322-13-3) Page 167
LESSON 7: Examining Hardline Coaxial Cable (322-

13-3)
 Learning Mechanical Properties of Hardline Cable

 Learning Electrical Properties of Hardline Cable
MODULE 1
LEARNING MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF HARDLINE

CABLE
Introduction
► Identify and compare the advantages of types of center conductors,

dielectrics, and outer conductors in hardline coaxial cable.
The mechanical properties of hardline coaxial cable include its physical construction and its
individual components. Figure 148A illustrates the components of a jacketed/armored coaxial trunk
cable, an unjacketed coaxial trunk cable (Figure 148B), and a messengered trunk cable (Figure
148C). Take time to explore the coaxial cable center conductor, dielectric, outer conductor, armor,
flooding compound, jacket, and bending radius.
Learning Mechanical Properties of Hardline Cable

Figure 148: Components of three types of hardline coaxial trunk cable. (Courtesy of Times Fiber Communications Inc. and
CommScope Inc.)
Examining Coaxial Cable Components

Manufacturers produce hardline coaxial cable in a variety of configurations. These different cable
types allow the broadband cable system to design the cable plant and purchase a coaxial cable that
suits the aerial and/or underground environment. Each cable type has its advantages in a given
application. To understand a coaxial cable's electrical properties you need knowledge of its
components.

Defining Center Conductor Types
Manufacturers use two types of center conductor materials in coaxial cable: solid copper and copper-
clad aluminum (CCA). A solid copper center conductor is stronger, more durable, and has a lower DC
resistance than a CCA center conductor. However, the CCA center conductor is lighter, has almost
equal attenuation at high frequencies, has reduced mechanically induced periodic impedance
variations during production, and costs less than solid copper center conductors. Figure 149 lists the
differences between the properties of solid copper vs. CCA center conductors. The center conductor
typically bonds to the dielectric with a polymer adhesive coating or a center conductor treatment.
This coating or treatment inhibits moisture migration and corrosion.
Figure 149: Comparison of various specifications of solid copper and copper-clad aluminum center conductors. (Courtesy of Times
Fiber Communications Inc.)
Understanding the Dielectric's Role
The dielectric supports the center conductor inside the aluminum sheath while providing an
insulating material between the two conductors. This dielectric material is typically a foamed
polyethylene produced by gas injection (Figure 150A). However, some cables use a disc-supported
(fused disc) air dielectric inner sleeve (Figure 150B). Manufacturers may treat the cable with a
dielectric adhesive between the dielectric and outer conductor (aluminum sheath) to inhibit water
migration and connector pullout. This also improves cable handling and strength in cold weather.

Figure 150: Typical foamed polyethylene coaxial cable and a disc-supported air dielectric inner sleeve coaxial cable. (Courtesy of
Times Fiber Communications Inc. and Trilogy Communications Inc.)
Understanding the Role of the Aluminum Sheath or Outer Conductor
Trunk and feeder cables have a solid aluminum outer sheath or conductor. (Hence, the term
hardline.) This contains the broadband cable frequencies to prevent egress of cable signals and
ingress of unwanted over-the-air signals. The outer conductor also provides structural support,
return for AC voltage, and a constant characteristic impedance over the entire length of the cable
(Figure 151).
Figure 151: Unjacketed coaxial cable.

Using Unjacketed or Plain Coaxial Cable
Broadband cable companies typically use unjacketed hardline coaxial cable for aerial construction in
non-corrosive environments (Unjacketed Coaxial Cable). An unjacketed or plain coaxial cable: (1) has
an aluminum jacket that reflects sunlight, reducing attenuation during the summer because of
cooler operating temperatures; (2) has a lower cable weight, resulting in lower stress on the strand
during windy and/or ice-loading conditions; (3) permits easier detection of damage to the aluminum
sheath; (4) enables faster cable preparation; (5) has improved grounding through lashing wire/strand
contact; and (6) is more economical to use.
Using Coaxial Cable with Flooding Compound
► Identify and state the purpose of types of armor, flooding compounds, and
jackets in hardline coaxial cable.
Cable companies install hardline cable with flooding compound in both underground and aerial
plant. The typical underground flooding compound, low molecular weight polyisobutylene, is a
sticky, cold-flowing, self-healing material (Figure 152A). Aerial cable installation may require a non-
dripping asphaltic flooding compound (Figure 152B). Flooding compound provides an additional
layer of corrosion protection between the jacket and aluminum sheath in the event of jacket damage
and water exposure.
Figure 152: Flooding compound in underground and aerial hardline coaxial cable.
Using Armored Coaxial Cable
Cable companies use armored coaxial cable in direct burial applications to minimize the damage
caused by rocky soil and rodent chews. The armor is either a flooded steel tape and jacket over a
standard jacketed cable (Figure 153A) or a jacket and flooded corrugated chrome-plated steel armor
over a flooded jacketed cable (Figure 153B).

Figure 153: Two types of flooded armored coaxial cable. (Courtesy of CommScope Inc. and Times Fiber Communications Inc.)
Using Jacketed Coaxial Cable
Jacketed coaxial cable is used in urban and coastal regions where highly corrosive conditions or
heavy abrasion may exist. The jacketed cable may contain a flooding compound (cold-flowing or non-
dripping). The coaxial cable's outer jacket is typically a black, medium density polyethylene material.
When compared to unjacketed cable, a jacketed hardline coaxial cable has: (1) additional corrosion
protection; (2) more cable support; (3) improved handling characteristics; (4) a greater life
expectancy; (5) reduced surface friction during cable pulls; (6) the ability to be marked for
identification; and (7) some degree of electrical insulation in case of downed primary or secondary
electrical power lines.
Examining Coaxial Cable Bending Radius
► Learn and comply with recommended minimum bending radii for hardline
coaxial cable.
Each hardline coaxial cable has a manufacturer's recommended set minimum bending radius that
you should adhere to in order to avoid damaging (kinking) the cable or changing the cable's optimum
electrical characteristics. Damaging the cable can result in picture quality degradation (cable
reflections) at the customer's TV set. Good engineering practice involves not violating the minimum
bending radius when making cable expansion loops or when splicing the cable in pedestals, vaults, or
on the strand. Also observe the minimum bending radius when pulling new cable during rebuilds.
Figure 154 lists the recommended minimum bending radii for five different coaxial cable sizes
manufactured by three different companies.

Figure 154: The recommended minimum bending radii of five different coaxial cable sizes manufactured by three different
companies. (Courtesy of CommScope Inc., Times Fiber Communications Inc., and Trilogy Communications Inc.)
The chart in Figure 155 lists the specifications of the mechanical properties of some hardline trunk
and feeder cables. Note the specifications cover five different sizes and three brands of trunk and
feeder coaxial cables.
Figure 155: Specifications of mechanical properties covering five different sizes and three different brands of hardline coaxial trunk
and feeder cable. (Courtesy of CommScope Inc., Times Fiber Communications Inc., and Trilogy Communications Inc.)

Name two types of center conductor materials used in coaxial cable.
What are the advantages of a solid copper center conductor?

What are the advantages of a copper-clad aluminum (CAA) center conductor?
Why do trunk and feeder cables have a seamless, solid aluminum outer conductor?
What type of flooding compounds are used in underground and aerial coaxial cables?
What do the coaxial cable flooding compounds provide?
When is armored coaxial cable used?
What must be followed to avoid damaging the coaxial cable or changing its optimum electrical
characteristics?

MODULE 2
LEARNING ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF HARDLINE

CABLE
Introduction
The electrical properties of a coaxial cable include the cable attenuation, DC loop resistance,
impedance, and return loss characteristics. You need to understand these properties to troubleshoot,
repair, and maintain the broadband cable trunk and feeder systems. Study the relationship between
the cable attenuation and frequency and cable attenuation and operating temperature. Also, ensure
you understand the concepts of the coaxial cable's DC loop resistance, impedance, return loss, and
structural return loss.
Examining Cable Attenuation and Frequency
► Compare the attenuation of different size center conductors, different dielectric

materials, and at different frequencies.
Cable attenuation is the electrical property of coaxial cable that gradually reduces the amplitude of
transmitted signals. It is a function of the cable's: (1) center conductor material resistance and size;
(2) dielectric losses; (3) RF signal frequency; and (4) temperature of the cable.
Understanding Center Conductor Attenuation
The center conductor causes two-thirds of the total cable attenuation. The RF signal current travels
on the center conductor in coaxial cable and is directly affected by the resistance of the center
conductor material. Therefore, it is desirable to use a low resistance center conductor to minimize
loss. Copper is the best conductor available at a reasonable cost. It was used for coaxial cable center
conductors extensively in the past. Aluminum has more resistance than copper, but costs much less.
So, to achieve the best performance, the coaxial cable center conductors commonly use aluminum in
combination with copper.
Placing a thin layer of copper on the outer surface of the aluminum center conductor reduces the
attenuation at broadband cable signal frequencies (5-42 MHz and 54-860 MHz) to the same rate as
that of a solid copper center conductor. Since the RF signal current travels only on the outer portion
of the center conductor (skin effect), the thin layer of copper on the outside of an aluminum center
conductor provides a low-resistance path for the broadband signal. Low frequency (60 Hz) AC
voltages travel through the entire conductor. Figure 156 illustrates the propagation of the RF signals
and AC power on a copper-clad aluminum (CCA) center conductor.
Figure 156: RF signal and AC power propagation on a copper-clad aluminum center conductor.
The size of the center conductor also affects the attenuation. Because the cross-sectional surface area
is greater in a larger conductor, it provides a lower resistance path. Figure 157 illustrates the
relationship between the size of the center conductor and the amount of attenuation.
Figure 157: Various sizes of center conductors and their corresponding attenuation. (Courtesy of CommScope Inc.)
Learning Electrical Properties of Hardline Cable

Understanding Dielectric Attenuation
Some RF signal power is lost in the dielectric of the cable. The power loss in the dielectric is a
complicated function of frequency, temperature, and applied voltage. Since the molecular structure
of the dielectric material greatly affects this loss, manufacturers use a variety of materials (solid
polypropylene, foamed polyethylene, or plastic discs separated by air) to minimize it. Each type of
dielectric material has a specific velocity of propagation. The velocity of propagation is the rate
(expressed as a percentage) that RF signals travel through the coaxial cable vs. the speed that RF
signals travel in free space. As the velocity of propagation increases, the cable attenuation decreases.
A disc-supported air dielectric has a higher velocity of propagation (93%) than a gas-injected foamed
polyethylene dielectric (87%). Figure 158 compares the velocity of propagation and its corresponding
attenuation of a gas-injected foam dielectric and a disc-supported air dielectric coaxial cable.
Figure 158: Comparison of attenuation and velocity of propagation of a gas-injected foam dielectric and a disc-supported air
dielectric coaxial cable. (Courtesy of Times Fiber Communications Inc. and Trilogy Communications Inc.)
Differentiating Frequency vs. Attenuation
Cable attenuation is not the same at all frequencies. Attenuation increases with increases in
frequency (increasing the frequency four times results in an approximate doubling of the cable
attenuation). A cable attenuation multiplier allows calculation of attenuation rates for frequencies
other than the given frequency (Figure 159A). To calculate the approximate increase in attenuation
in a 0.750 MC2 coaxial cable when the frequency increases from 300 MHz to 600 MHz: (1) divide the
upper frequency by the lower frequency to obtain the quotient (Figure 159B); (2) take the square root
of the quotient to obtain the multiplier (Figure 159C); and (3) multiply the attenuation rate at 300
MHz (0.79 dB/100 ft.) by the multiplier to obtain the attenuation rate at 600 MHz (Figure 159D).

Figure 159: Formula using the cable attenuation multiplier to determine the increased attenuation at 600 MHz. (Courtesy of Trilogy
Communications Inc.)
Cable manufacturers typically supply attenuation reference charts for use by broadband cable
technicians and design departments. These charts provide the nominal and/or maximum attenuation
rates for all types of coaxial cable used by the broadband cable system for different frequencies.
Figure 160A lists the nominal and maximum attenuation rates for Times Fiber's T10 trunk and
feeder cables at various frequencies. Figure 160B lists the maximum attenuation rates for Trilogy's
MC2 trunk and feeder cables.
Figure 160: Two attenuation charts showing type and size of cable, frequency, and corresponding nominal and/or maximum
attenuation rates. (Courtesy of Times Fiber Communications Inc. and Trilogy Communications Inc.)
Comparing the cable attenuation rate between two frequencies of the same size coaxial cable helps
when troubleshooting coaxial cable problems. Do this by using the manufacturer's attenuation
reference charts, as shown in Figure 160A and Figure 160B, or use a cable loss ratio chart (Figure
161A). Determine the cable loss ratios by dividing the highest frequency's attenuation rate by the
lowest frequency's attenuation rate (Figure 161B).

Figure 161: Cable loss ratio chart for 0.750 PIII coaxial cable and calculating the cable loss ratio. (Courtesy of CommScope Inc. and
Motorola Broadband Communications)
As shown in the calculation and cable loss chart, a length of 0.750 CommScope PIII coaxial cable has
3.351 times more loss at 550 MHz than at 55 MHz. Note that the cable loss ratio varies when a
different size and type of coaxial cable is used.
You may know the attenuation rate of a cable for 350 MHz, but you need to find the attenuation rate
for 550 MHz. Come down to the 350 MHz entry in the left-hand column in Figure 161A. Follow along
that row to the right over to the 550 MHz column and note the value of 1.278. Multiply the known
attenuation rate for 350 MHz by this loss ratio figure to obtain the attenuation rate for 550 MHz.
Examining Temperature/Attenuation Changes
► Calculate the change in cable attenuation caused by a change in cable

temperature.

A change in the cable operating temperature causes a change in cable attenuation. The coaxial cable
attenuation typically varies between 0.1% and 0.12% per degree Fahrenheit (˚F) change. This is
approximately equal to a 1% change in cable attenuation for every 10°F change in cable
temperature. As the cable temperature decreases, cable attenuation also decreases, while the signal
level increases. As the cable temperature increases, cable attenuation increases and the signal level
conversely decreases. Figure 162 illustrates the relationship between cable temperature, cable
attenuation, and signal level. These temperature-induced attenuation changes in signal levels on the
coaxial cable are typically controlled by automatic gain control/ automatic slope control (AGC/ASC)
modules in the trunk amplifiers.
Figure 162: Relationship between coaxial cable operating temperature, cable attenuation, and signal level.
Calculating Temperature-Induced Attenuation Changes
Calculate the change in attenuation caused by changes in temperature by using the formula in
Figure 163A. This formula uses a 0.1% change in attenuation for every 1°F change in temperature.
To determine the attenuation of 2,200 feet of T10 0.875 coaxial cable at 600 MHz and –10°F: (1)
determine the change in temperature by subtracting 68° from the new cable temperature (Figure
163B); (2) multiply the change in temperature by (0.001) to obtain the cable attenuation percentage
change (Figure 163C); (3) add 1 to the cable attenuation percentage change to obtain the cable
attenuation multiplier (Figure 163D); (4) multiply the 68°F cable attenuation rate of T10 0.875 cable
at 600 MHz/100 feet times the cable attenuation multiplier to obtain the corrected cable attenuation
loss (Figure 163E); and (5) multiply the corrected cable loss times the length of cable in 100 foot
units to obtain the total cable loss at –10°F (Figure 163F). The total loss of 2,200 feet of 0.875 coaxial
cable at 68°F is 23.98 dB, while the same cable at –10°F is 22.11 dB. This results in a 1.87 dB
decrease in the loss of a 600 MHz signal level traveling between amplifier stations.

Figure 163: Determining the change in attenuation caused by temperature change and how it affects total cable loss. (Courtesy of
Motorola Broadband Communications and C-COR)
Note that the temperatures referred to in the previous example are cable temperatures, not the
ambient or air temperature. The cable temperature may measure 10°F to 20°F higher than the
outside air temperature in an aerial plant due to the effect of the sun's radiation and/or the black
plastic jacket that may be around the cable. An underground plant may not have as radical a
temperature difference.
Examining Abnormal Cable Attenuation

Changes
Several factors may affect changes in cable attenuation. It is important to understand these factors
when troubleshooting the cable system.
Understanding Moisture-Caused Attenuation
► Prevent abnormal cable attenuation due to moisture in the cable and physical
damage to the cable.
Moisture accumulation within the cable increases the coaxial cable attenuation. Small amounts of
moisture vapor penetrating into the dielectric material seriously increases this attenuation. Water
migration along the center conductor and dielectric is minimized by: (1) using a coaxial cable that
has its dielectric bonded to the center conductor; (2) using a flooded coaxial cable; (3) using heat
shrink tubing at the cable connections; and (4) installing coaxial cable and connectors according to
manufacturer recommended procedures.

Avoiding Physical Damage Attenuation
Any periodic defect in the cable causes a pronounced increase in attenuation at a frequency
determined by the wavelength of the periodicity together with the particular coaxial cable's velocity
of propagation. This is especially the case with regularly spaced, repeating abnormalities because
their overall effect is cumulative. Such a frequency-sensitive defect is commonly referred to as a
frequency suckout, because the cable tends to suck out or reduce the signal levels at a particular
frequency. Cable manufacturers take great care to ensure the electrical properties and quality of the
cable. However, you need to take considerable care during cable installation not to damage the cable
by flattening, denting, kinking, or using an incorrect bend radius.
Defining Electrical Abnormalities
Trunk and feeder cable can also possess mechanical imperfections (kinks, dents, holes, etc.) that
cause random differences in attenuation at different frequencies. Such imperfections, known as
impedance discontinuities, also cause a portion of the RF signal to reflect, which can cause ghosting
and smearing of the TV picture.
Examining DC Loop Resistance
► Calculate coaxial cable DC loop resistance.
Cable attenuation (expressed as a rate of dB/100 feet) affects the amplitude of RF signals, and DC
loop resistance (expressed as ohms/1,000 feet) affects the amplitude of the 60 Hz AC power on the
trunk cable. The DC loop resistance affects the amount of AC voltage on the cable. The lower the
coaxial cable's DC loop resistance, the less voltage is consumed by the cable, and more AC voltage is
sustained and applied to the input of the amplifiers.
The 60 Hz AC power travels throughout the cross-sectional area of the center (inner) conductor and
on the aluminum sheath (outer conductor) of the coaxial cable. The center conductor and aluminum
sheath each have a specific DC resistance. The DC loop resistance (R L) of a coaxial cable is the sum
of the center conductor resistance (Rcc) and the aluminum sheath resistance (R s), as shown in Figure
164A. It is rated in ohms per 1,000 feet at 68°F. The DC loop resistance decreases as the cable size
increases. This is due to larger diameters of the center conductor and aluminum sheath. Figure 164B
lists DC loop resistances for several different sizes and types of coaxial cable.

Figure 164: DC loop resistance formula and chart of DC loop resistances for several different sizes and types of coaxial cable.
(Courtesy of CommScope Inc., Times Fiber Communications Inc., and Trilogy Communications Inc.)
Examining Cable Impedance
► Explain why coaxial cable impedance has been standardized at 75 ohms for
the broadband cable industry.
The standard impedance for coaxial cables used in the broadband cable industry is 75 Ω. This
characteristic impedance is determined by the coaxial cable's inductance, capacitance, dielectric
constant of the material between the center and outer conductors, the size of the center conductor,
and the inside diameter and thickness of the outer conductor/aluminum sheath. Figure 165
illustrates the size relationship of the components in a 75 Ω 0.875 T10 coaxial cable.

Figure 165: The size relationship of components in a 0.875 T10 coaxial cable. (Courtesy of Times Fiber Communications Inc.)
The optimum impedance value is different for breakdown voltage, power-carrying capacity, and
minimum attenuation. Optimum impedance for power-carrying capacity is 30 Ω, 60 Ω for voltage
breakdown and 77 Ω for minimum attenuation. Cables with 77 Ω impedance can carry only one-half
the power that 30 Ω cables carry. This is acceptable in broadband cables where power levels are low
(less than 0.10 watt for 78 channels at 48 dBmV). The impedance for the broadband cable industry
has been standardized at 75 Ω for providing minimal attenuation, but adequate breakdown voltage
and power carrying capacity. Figure 166 illustrates the relative values of attenuation, breakdown
voltage, and power-carrying capacity for different values of impedance for coaxial cables having the
same dielectric material as well as the same center and outer conductor diameters.
Figure 166: Optimum impedance values for minimum attenuation, breakdown voltage, and power-carrying capacity.

Examining Impedance Mismatch

Always maintain the 75 Ω ±2 Ω characteristic impedance of the coaxial cable system to prevent
picture distortions, such as reflections and smearing. Two ways of quantifying the effects of an
impedance mismatch are on a transmitted signal return loss and voltage standing wave ratio
(VSWR). Most broadband transmission equipment uses return loss as a specification rather than
VSWR, but it is instructive to compare the two values to the reflection percentage. Always match the
impedance at any connection point to ensure maximum signal transfer.
Defining Return Loss
► Use the dB return loss value to evaluate a coaxial cable's ability to effectively
transfer signals.
Return loss is the difference in dB between the signal power applied to a terminated cable and the
reflected signal power. In other words, this is a ratio of incident power to reflected power. The larger
the ratio value in dB, the smaller the amount of reflected signal voltage. The chart in Figure 167
specifies the relationship between the dB return loss value and the VSWR and percentage reflection.
Figure 167: The return loss/VSWR chart. (Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc.)

Defining Structural Return Loss
Structural return loss occurs when the coaxial cable's physical structure changes. This can happen
when the coaxial cable is manufactured, improperly prepared and connectorized, or improperly
handled and consequently kinked or flattened. These damages decrease the return loss beyond
acceptable values. Coaxial cable with a poor or low value of structural return loss can cause signal
voltage reflections and result in cable-caused ghosts. Manufacturers produce hardline coaxial cable
with a typical structural return loss from 28 dB to 32 dB.
Understanding Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
► Use the VSWR value to evaluate a coaxial cable's ability to effectively transfer
signals.
When an impedance mismatch exists, all of the signal is not transferred or absorbed. The part of the
signal that is not absorbed reflects back along the coaxial cable. This reflection of signals adds to
(Figure 168A) or subtracts from (Figure 168B) the incident (original) signal, causing regularly spaced
voltage peaks and valleys. The VSWR is the ratio of the maximum value to the minimum value of
alternating RMS (root-mean-square) voltage of the RF signal on the cable. Both the incident and the
reflected wave are moving but they always cross each other at exactly the same points. Since the
points of addition and cancellation on the center conductor are always the same, the resultant wave
pattern is stationary (standing waves) as shown in Figure 168C.

Figure 168: The reflected wave adding to and subtracting from the incident wave causing standing waves.
Because the VSWR is the ratio between maximum and minimum voltages of the RF signal, the best
possible condition is when Emax and Emin are equal. When Emax ÷ Emin = 1, no standing waves occur
(Figure 169A). When Emax ÷ Emin is greater than 1 (Figure 169B), the voltage difference indicates the
possibility of standing waves resulting from an impedance mismatch. VSWR is often written as a
ratio 1.5:1. The lower the VSWR, the better the cable. Coaxial cable should have a VSWR greater
than 1.1:1.
Figure 169: Calculating the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) when voltages are equal and when they are not equal.


What is cable attenuation?
How much of cable attenuation does the center conductor cause?
Define the velocity of propagation.
What happens to the coaxial cable's attenuation when the velocity of propagation increases?
How will increasing the frequency four times affect the coaxial cable's attenuation?
How much does the cable attenuation change with each 10°F change in cable temperature?
What is the relationship between cable temperature, cable attenuation, and signal level when the
temperature increases?
What controls temperature-induced attenuation?
What is the total cable loss at –40°F of a 2,200-foot 0.750-inch cable having a typical cable loss of
1.48 dB at 750 MHz at 68°F?

What is the DC loop resistance (RL) of a coaxial cable?
What is structural return loss?
What is the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)?

Connectorizing Hardline Coaxial Cable (322-15-6) Page 193
LESSON 8: Connectorizing Hardline Coaxial Cable

(322-15-6)
 Selecting Proper Connectors and Adapters

 Preparing to Connectorize Coaxial Cables
 Installing Connectors and Weatherproofing
MODULE 1
SELECTING PROPER CONNECTORS AND ADAPTERS
Introduction
Today's hardline coaxial cable 75 Ω connectors are much improved from the early days of cable TV.
Higher quality materials, improved manufacturing processes, extended performance (to 1 GHz and
beyond) and better integral radiation sleeves (to combat RF signal ingress/egress) have increased
reliability. However, selecting the correct connector for the particular cable and application is still
absolutely necessary.
Connector manufacturers provide cross-references of their products to specific cables. Once the cable
is identified, select the appropriate connector for the specific application.
Adapters come in many shapes and sizes to cover a variety of applications. Most adapters help
facilitate connections between: (1) two cables; (2) two pieces of equipment; or (3) cable and
equipment. Many are designed to simplify the connection process in confined areas (e.g., in pedestals
and underground enclosures). Proper adapter selection is dependent on knowing the applications of
the common ones.
Describing Pin Connectors
► Identify and select the appropriate connector for a specific application.
A pin connector is the most common type of connector for attaching hardline coaxial cable to active
and passive broadband communications equipment (e.g., amplifiers, directional couplers, power
inserters, splitters and taps). Pin connectors are available in two- and three-piece configurations
(Figure 170). The pin is inserted into the equipment's seizure mechanism. This provides a more
secure and uniform interface, compared to inserting the cable's center conductor directly into the
equipment.
Selecting Proper Connectors and Adapters

Figure 170: Examples of pin connectors. (Courtesy of Amphenol and Thomas and Betts Corp.)
In the two-piece connector (Figure 171A), both the center conductor and aluminum sheath are
gripped by tightening the back nut. With the three-piece connector (Figure 171B), the center
conductor is gripped first by tightening the center nut to the front nut. Next, the aluminum sheath is
gripped by tightening the back nut to the center nut.
Figure 171: Cutaways of typical pin connectors. (Courtesy of Production Products and Corning Gilbert)
Describing Feed-Thru Connectors

A feed-thru connector is the simplest mechanical means of connecting a coaxial cable to a piece of
equipment (usually taps) (Figure 172). The coaxial cable is fed through the connector housing to
insert the cable's center conductor directly into the equipment's seizure mechanism. Feed-thru
connectors are not recommended for use in systems operating above 550 MHz and are generally
replaced by pin connectors as systems upgrade their bandwidth.

Figure 172: Examples of feed-thru connectors. (Courtesy of Thomas and Betts Corp. and Corning Gilbert)
Describing Straight Splice Connectors

A straight splice connector attaches two sections of the same type of coaxial cable together (Figure
173A). Straight splice connectors are available in three‑ and five-piece (Figure 173B) designs with
the same gripping features of two- and three-piece pin connectors, respectively.
Figure 173: Examples of straight splice connectors. (Courtesy of Amphenol, Corning Gilbert, and Production Products)
Describing 90° and 180° Adapters
► Identify and select the appropriate adapter for a specific application.

These adapters are designed to change the direction of the interface in confined areas. The most
common applications for 90° (or right-angle) adapters are in pedestals to: (1) eliminate tight cable
bends and allow placing equipment in a smaller enclosure; (2) backfeed cables without the need for
large loops; and (3) extend distances and facilitate equipment interconnections with other adapters.
The 180° adapters primarily are used: (1) on large trunk housings to provide distance away from the
equipment they are interfaced with; and (2) in applications where several pieces of equipment are
assembled at one location. They are commonly used with housing-to-housing adapters to provide an
interface between equipment in pedestals or underground enclosures. Both 90° and 180° adapters
employ a seizure mechanism to hold the cable center conductor or connector pin (Figure 174).
Figure 174: Examples of 90° and 180° adapters. (Courtesy of Production Products)
Describing Housing-to-Housing Adapters

A housing-to-housing adapter eliminates the need for jumper cables to connect two pieces of
equipment together (e.g., an amplifier to a directional coupler or tap). These adapters are available
in two basic types: (1) rotational (both locking and non-locking), allowing for easier equipment
positioning (Figure 175); and (2) non--rotational. These adapters are commonly used in aerial,
underground, and multiple dwelling unit (MDU) applications.
Figure 175: Examples of housing-to-housing adapters. (Courtesy of Amphenol and Thomas and Betts Corp.)

Describing Extension Adapters

An extension adapter is typically used: (1) where old equipment is replaced by new equipment with a
smaller footprint or when re-preparation of the cable is required; (2) in pedestal applications to
extend the cable reach and avoid additional splicing; and (3) with other adapters to extend distances.
Extension adapters come in a variety of lengths. They are available as a separate piece or
factory-assembled with other adapters (e.g., 90°, 180° and housing-----to-housing adapters) and pin
connectors (Figure 176).
Figure 176: Examples of extension adapters. (Courtesy of Corning Gilbert and Production Products)
Describing Splice Blocks and Pin-to-Pin Splices

Splice blocks and pin-to-pin splices are universal adapters (Figure 177) used between two connectors
(feed-thru or pin-type) to: (1) achieve in-line splices; (2) join together two different sizes of cables; or
(3) make right-angle or 180° turns. They are designed for splicing in confined areas in both pedestals
and underground enclosures. When combined with other adapters, they: (1) function as interfaces
between equipment; (2) eliminate cable bends; and (3) extend distances. Splice blocks employ a
seizure mechanism to hold the center conductor or connector pin.
Figure 177: Examples of a splice block and a pin-to-pin splice adapter. (Courtesy of Amphenol)

Describing Cable-to-F Series Adapters

Cable-to-F series adapters are installed directly on the cable to convert a trunk/feeder cable to an "F"
series female or male interface. They come in both two- and three-piece versions. There is also a
female adapter threaded for permanent bulkhead mounting (referred to as a BAFF). Additionally,
separate adapter receptacles are available to convert any pin-type connector to either a BAFF or "F"
series male connector. Female adapters (Figure 178A) are used: (1) for temporary field repairs using
drop cable; (2) to make an end-of-line test point; and (3) in headends as bulkhead connectors. Male
adapters (Figure 178B) are used to feed MDUs via a drop cable and in headend applications. here.
Figure 178: Examples of cable-to-F series adapters and adapter receptacles. (Courtesy of Thomas and Betts Corp. and Corning
Gilbert)
Describing Pin-to-F Female Adapters

A pin-to-F female adapter is used for adapting a standard 5⁄8"-24 threaded port on a piece of
equipment to a 3⁄8"-32 threaded female F-connector (Figure 179). These adapters are used for
permanent or temporary jumper installation for outages or equipment hookup. Some have power
blocking capabilities.

Figure 179: Examples of pin-to-F female adapters. (Courtesy of Amphenol and Corning Gilbert)
Describing Cable and Housing Terminators

Cable and housing terminators are 75-ohm devices designed to terminate RF signals. Cable
terminators are connected directly to the cable to terminate the end of a cable run. They are
available in two- and three-piece (Figure 180A) versions. Housing terminators (Figure 180B) are pin-
type devices designed to terminate unused ports on equipment.
Figure 180: Examples of cable and housing terminators. (Courtesy of Thomas and Betts Corp. and Production Products)

What applications require the use of pin connectors?
How do the two types of pin connectors differ?

At what bandwidth are feed-thru connectors not recommended?
What are straight splice connectors designed to do?
What are 90° or 180° adapters used for?
What do housing-to-housing adapters eliminate when connecting two pieces of equipment

together?
What are the three typical applications for extension adapters?
What are the two types of universal adapters used between two pin connectors?
What is used to convert a trunk/feeder cable to an "F" series interface and for what purposes?
Which adapters are used for permanent or temporary jumper installation on equipment?
Where are cable and housing terminators used?

MODULE 2
PREPARING TO CONNECTORIZE COAXIAL CABLES
Introduction
Properly preparing the hardline coaxial cable is critical to the longevity of any connectorization
interface. Knowing how to prepare hardline coaxial cable is important, because an improperly
prepared cable at one connectorization interface can degrade the signal for many customers. This
section covers the recommended procedures and practices involved in preparing non-activated
coaxial trunk and feeder cables for splicing and pin-type connector installation.
Observing Safety Practices

Always wear leather work gloves and ANSI‑ approved safety glasses when performing any of the
cable preparation procedures in this lesson. In addition, always wear protective footwear and an
approved hard hat when working with aerially installed coaxial cable and anytime there is a danger
of foot or head injury from falling objects or an electrical shock hazard.
Foot Protection Requirement: When working with hardline

coaxial cable, always wear footwear that complies with
OSHA Standard 1910.136 and ANSI Z41.1-1991 to minimize
the possibility of foot injury.
Eye Protection Requirement: When working with hardline

coaxial cable, always wear safety glasses that comply with
OSHA Standard 1910.133(a)(1) and ANSI Z87.1-1989 to
minimize the possibility of eye injury.
Head Protection Requirement: When working with aerially

installed coaxial cable and anytime there is a danger from
falling objects or electrical shock, always wear a hard hat
that complies with OSHA Standards 1910.135 and
1910.268(i)(1) and ANSI Z89.1-1986 to minimize the
possibility of head injury.
Identifying Cable Types

The commonly used coaxial trunk and feeder cables can be put into three main groups with regard to
preparation method. The first group consists of: (1) foam dielectric with standard outer conductor
(i.e., T‑ Series, T-10 and TX10 coaxial cables from Times Fiber — and the P-Series, PIII coaxial
cables from CommScope); (2) foam dielectric with a special thin outer conductor (i.e., Quantum
Reach (QR) coaxial cables from CommScope; and (3) air dielectric (i.e., MC 2 coaxial cables from
Trilogy. The cables are grouped into these categories because foam and air dielectric cables have
certain differences in the way they are prepared for connectorization. The QR cables, though foam
dielectric, require specialized tools that allow the connector to seize the outer jacket of the cable,
providing an environmental seal. The various types of coaxial cables can also be grouped into two
different loss-performance categories: (1) standard-loss and (2) low-loss. Standard-loss cables include
T10 and PIII types and make up approximately 85% of hardline cabling deployed today. Low-loss
cables include the TX10, QR, and MC2 types. A special-use cable with flexible outer conductor is
becoming common and is used mostly in vertical multiple dwelling unit (MDU) applications. Always
examine all manufacturers' instructions to familiarize yourself with the specific cables, tools and
connectors, and to ensure compatibility.
Preparing to Connectorize Coaxial Cables

Straightening and Cutting Cable
► Select and use the correct tools to perform cable preparation and
connectorization.
When straightening and cutting the cable, visually inspect the cable for damage that could hamper
connectorization. Next, straighten any bends in the cable in the vicinity you plan to install the
connector. Then, cut the cable, following the procedure in Figure 181. Remember that many cable
cutters aren't designed to cut cable larger than 0.750" outer diameter (OD). Use a saw to cut any size
cable. If any minor distortion occurs, use a lineman's pliers to reshape the end.
Figure 181: Cutting hardline coaxial cable using a cable cutter. (Courtesy of Ripley, Sprint/North Supply, and Times Fiber
Communications)
Removing Armored Sheathing
► Remove armor sheathing on any type of cable.

Armored coaxial trunk and feeder cables are used in situations without conduit where extra
protection is needed, such as in underground plant in rocky soil and gopher-infested areas, and in
urban systems where the broadband cable may be close to steam pipes. If the cable is armored, there
are two methods to remove the steel tape armored sheathing and the outermost polyethylene jacket:
(1) using a tubing cutter, knife, and pliers; or (2) using a special armor removal tool. Be careful when
removing the armoring, because the cut edges can be very sharp.
Begin by determining the stripping length required by the connector manufacturer's instructions
(typically four inches). Follow the procedure in Figure 182 if you are using a tubing cutter and knife.
Figure 182: Removing the outer jacket and armored sheathing on armored cable using a tubing cutter, knife, and pliers. (Courtesy of
Sprint/North Supply and Trilogy Communications)
Specialized armor removal tools such as the CablePrep ART resemble jacket stripping tools and are
used in the same manner. Figure 183 shows how to remove the outer jacket and the armored
sheathing on armored coaxial cable using a CablePrep ART specialized armor removal tool.

Figure 183: Removing the outer jacket and armored sheathing on armored cable using an armor removal tool. (Courtesy of
CablePrep/Ben Hughes Communications Products, CommScope, and Sprint/North Supply)
With most armored coaxial cables, the inner jacket is covered with a flooding compound after the
outer jacket and the armor sheathing are removed. If a jacket stripping tool is used for removing the
inner jacket, immediately wipe off the flooding compound using an approved environmentally
friendly solvent before removing the inner jacket, as shown in Figure 184. Removing the flooding
compound improves the performance of the jacket stripping tool. It is not necessary to remove the
flooding compound if a knife is used to remove the inner jacket.
Figure 184: Cleaning off the flooding compound on the armored cable. (Courtesy of American Polywater, CommScope, and
Sprint/North Supply)

Hazardous Substance Caution: When working with solvent,

always comply with OSHA Standard 1910.1200. Read all
warning/ caution labels and/or Material Safety Data Sheets.
Obtain training in the prevention of and response to
accidental contact with hazardous material.
Preparing T-Series, P-Series, and MC2 Cables

The T-Series, P-Series, and MC2 hardline coaxial cables have similar preparation procedures for: (1)
stripping the cable jacket; (2) removing any flooding compound; (3) stripping the aluminum sheath;
and (4) coring the dielectric. However, if you plan to use any of the newer preparation tools, check
the manufacturer's instructions. This will ensure the tools are the right ones for the cable and
connectors you'll be working with. Most tools and cables are not interchangeable. For example,
coring tools designed for MC2 cable will not work on foam dielectric cables, and tools made for 0.500"
cable will not work on 0.750" cable.
Stripping the Polyethylene Cable Jacket
► Remove the polyethylene cable jacket on any type of cable.
If the cable is jacketed, remove the jacket from the end of the cable to expose the aluminum sheath.
Non-armored cable may have a polyethylene jacket covering the aluminum sheath, and armored
cable will have an inner polyethylene jacket after the outer jacket, armored sheathing, and flooding
compound are removed. Remove the jacket from the end of the cable for a distance of about four
inches, depending on the connector used. Refer to the connector manufacturer's instructions for the
exact length, and mark that length on the jacket. Remove the jacket with either a jacket stripping
tool or a knife.
To use a jacket stripping tool, first remove any cut debris from the tool. Make sure the blade is sharp
and properly adjusted according to the manufacturer's instructions. Then, follow the steps in Figure
185 to remove the jacket with a jacket stripping tool.

Figure 185: Stripping the polyethylene jacket on jacketed cable using a jacket stripping tool. (Courtesy of Ripley, Sprint/North
Supply, and Times Fiber Communications)
To use a knife to remove the polyethylene cable jacket, make sure the blade is sharp and then follow
the procedure in Figure 186. If the jacket won't peel easily, as is the case in cold temperatures, make
several cuts from the score mark to the cable end and remove the jacket in sections.
Figure 186: Stripping the polyethylene jacket on jacketed cable using a knife. (Courtesy of Sprint/North Supply and Times Fiber
Communications)

After removing the jacket on cable flooded with a clear viscous compound, some manufacturers
recommend tightening a hose clamp on the jacket. Attach the clamp about one-half inch back from
the stripped jacket end, to prevent the jacket from slipping back and the flooding compound from
migrating out. Do this before removing the flooding compound. Typically, the clamp is covered by the
shrink tubing that completes a connectorization procedure.
Removing Flooding Compounds
► Remove the flooding compound on any type of cable.
If the cable has a flooding compound (which is typical of underground and some aerial cables),
remove the flooding compound immediately after removing the cable jacket. Use an approved
environmentally friendly solvent, as shown in Figure 187. If not removed immediately, the flooding
compound hardens, is difficult to remove, and hinders assembly/disassembly of the cable to the
connector. Also remember to clean any tools used on flooded cables with solvent.
Figure 187: Cleaning off the flooding compound on jacketed cable. (Courtesy of American Polywater, Sprint/North Supply, and
Times Fiber Communications)
After removing the flooding compound, properly store or dispose of the cloth/towelette according to
company policy and state and local regulations. Finally, if applicable, close the solvent cap tightly.
Coring Dielectric and Stripping Aluminum Sheath
► Core the dielectric and strip the aluminum sheath on any type of cable.

There are two methods to core the dielectric and strip the aluminum sheath. One method requires a
combination coring and stripping tool that cores the dielectric while simultaneously stripping and
beveling the aluminum sheath. The second method requires a single-purpose coring tool and knife to
remove the dielectric and a tubing cutter to cut the aluminum sheath. Your tools must be compatible
with the cables and connectors you're using, with sharp and properly adjusted stripping and coring
blades. To help minimize clogging and blade wear, spray light machine oil (e.g., WD-40) on the
blades as often as directed by the tool's instructions.
Some combination coring and stripping tools have an optional stop that automatically sets the
coring/stripping depth for the proper center conductor length. If your tool does not have an automatic
stop, follow the procedure in Figure 188. Never use a metal object to make marks on the aluminum
sheath. Exercise caution with the aluminum sheath as it's ejected from the tool; the edges are sharp.
If the center conductor is too short when you measure it at the end of the procedure, clean out any
dielectric and aluminum trimmings from the cable and the tool. Then continue coring to the correct
depth.
Figure 188: Coring the dielectric and stripping the aluminum sheath using a combination coring/stripping tool. (Courtesy of Corning
Gilbert, Ripley, Sprint/North Supply, and Times Fiber Communications)

To use a tool that has an optional stop: (1) slide it over the cable end (Figure 188, Step 1); and (2)
rotate it clockwise with a slight forward pressure, as shown in Figure 188, Step 4 (don't press or tilt
from side‑ to-side), until it bottoms out and turns freely for several rotations. Next, remove the tool
and check the center conductor length against the notch on the connector body (Figure 188, Step 6).
With a single-purpose coring tool, remove the appropriate length of aluminum sheath and dielectric
to expose the center conductor before coring the cable, as shown in Figure 189.
Figure 189: Stripping the aluminum sheath and coring the dielectric using a tubing cutter, pliers, knife, and single-purpose coring
tool. (Courtesy of Corning Gilbert, Ripley, Sprint/North Supply, and Times Fiber Communications)

Preparing QR Cables
Even though they have a foam dielectric, always prepare QR cables with special tools only, and not
with knives or tubing cutters. All QR tools correctly prepare the cable for all QR connectors,
regardless of brand. The procedure for preparing QR cables is the reverse of other cables. The QR
cable is first cored and the aluminum sheath is stripped before the polyethylene jacket is removed to
the proper length.
QR cables require a combination coring and stripping tool that automatically cores and strips the
cable to the proper depth and center conductor length. The procedure is the same as described in the
previous section for other combination coring and stripping tools with an automatic stop. (See Using
a Combination Coring/Stripping Tool, Steps 1, 4 and 6.)
The jacket stripping tools for QR cables remove the required length of jacket automatically. The
procedure is the same as previously presented for other jacket stripping tools, except you don't need
to mark the stripping length on the jacket and the tool is slipped over a cable end that is already
cored. If the cable has a flooding compound, remove it immediately after the jacket is stripped.
Inspecting Cored and Stripped Cable

Inspect the cable for any sharp edges or burrs on the aluminum sheath that, if found, must be
removed with a small file. On foam dielectric cables, clean out any dielectric inside the cored area.
With MC2 cables, a small amount of dielectric is left on the inner wall of the aluminum sheath.
If it is difficult to remove the cable from the coring or coring/stripping tool's guide sleeve, the
aluminum sheath may have been expanded, flared, or severely scored by a dull and/or misaligned
coring blade. Also, a misaligned coring blade cores out more dielectric on one side and less on the
opposite side, and possibly scores the inner wall of the aluminum sheath. Inspect the cable carefully.
If any of these conditions exist, proper assembly of the cable to the connector may be difficult or even
impossible. The coring blade may need lubrication, sharpening, alignment, or replacement, and it
may be necessary to repeat the procedure.
Trimming and Cleaning Cable Center

Conductor
► Prepare the center conductor on any type of cable.

With all foam and dielectric cables, prepare the tip of the center conductor with a pyramid-shaped
cut, (Figure 190), to prevent it from getting hung up when installing the connector. After preparing
the tip, MC2 air dielectric cables are ready for connectorization.
Figure 190: Preparing the cable center conductor tip. (Courtesy of Sprint/North Supply and Times Fiber Communications)
With foam dielectric cables, always also remove all the dielectric and adhesive residue from the
center conductor. Use either a special center conductor cleaner, as shown in Figure 191, or a small
plastic scraper block. Never use anything made of metal to scrape the center conductor. When using
a plastic scraper block, always support the opposite side of the center conductor with a gloved thumb
or finger while pulling the block lengthwise across the surface of the center conductor. The cable is
then ready for connectorization.
Figure 191: Cleaning the cable center conductor on foam dielectric cables with a center conductor cleaner. (Courtesy of Ripley,
Sprint/North Supply, and Times Fiber Communications)

Speeding Up Preparation Process

Options are available for most coring and coring/stripping tools that can make the preparation
process faster and easier. These include ratcheting handles and power tool adapters. When using a
power tool (e.g., a variable speed cordless drill), operate it at the low speed only, without exerting
excessive force or tilting. Avoid overdriving the tool, which could cause flaring of the aluminum
sheath. If you plan to use a drill, check the coring/stripping tool's instructions—larger size bits may
require a 1/2-inch drill.

What personal protective gear should you use when preparing cable for connectorization?
What tools can be used to safely cut cable?
What can be used to reshape a cable end after cutting?
Why should the flooding compound be removed immediately from a cable?
What is an easy way to check for the proper center conductor length?
What may happen to the cable if you use a coring/stripping tool with a dull or misaligned blade?
How should the tip of the cable center conductor be cut and why?

What should be used to clean the foam dielectric and adhesive residue from the cable center
conductor?

MODULE 3
INSTALLING CONNECTORS AND WEATHERPROOFING
Introduction
After a cable has been prepared for connectorization, it can be connected to an active or passive
device through the use of connectors or adapters. The point where hardline coaxial cable is connected
to a system device is called a cable-equipment interface. Knowing how to properly connectorize cable-
equipment interfaces is important because just one incorrectly installed hardline coaxial cable
connector can degrade or eliminate signal transmission to many customers. This section covers the
proper procedures to install pin connectors for connecting prepared hardline coaxial cable to active or
passive devices. Procedures to weatherproof the cable-equipment interface by installing shrink
tubing also are examined.
Although gloves aren't necessary to perform the procedures in this section, always wear safety
glasses. In addition, always wear protective footwear and an approved hard hat when working with
aerial coaxial cable and anytime there is a danger of foot or head injury from falling objects or an
electrical shock hazard.
Foot Protection Requirement: When working with hardline

coaxial cable, always wear footwear that complies with
OSHA Standard 1910.136 and ANSI Z41.1-1991 to minimize
the possibility of foot injury.
Eye Protection Requirement: When working with hardline

coaxial cable, always wear safety glasses that comply with
OSHA Standard 1910.133(a)(1) and ANSI Z87.1-1989 to
minimize the possibility of eye injury.
Head Protection Requirement: When working with aerially

installed coaxial cable and anytime there is a danger from
falling objects or electrical shock, always wear a hard hat
that complies with OSHA Standards 1910.135 and
1910.268(i)(1) and ANSI Z89.1-1986 to minimize the
possibility of head injury.
Installing Pin Connectors at Cable-Equipment

Interface
The following steps outline the preparation and process for installing pin connectors.
Preparing Passive or Active Devices
► Connectorize any cable to actives and passives using pin connectors.
Before installing a connector, prepare RF taps, directional couplers, line splitters, and other passive
devices by: (1) removing the seizure screw port plugs; (2) removing the input/output port plugs; and
(3) backing off the seizure mechanisms at each port that will be connected to hardline coaxial cable,
as shown in Figure 192.
Installing Connectors and Weatherproofing

Figure 192: Preparing an RF tap for installing a pin connector. (Courtesy of Scientific-Atlanta)
To prepare line extender amplifiers, trunk amplifiers, and other active devices, first remove the port
plugs. If necessary, loosen retaining screws to remove modules or circuit boards to expose seizure
mechanisms, and finally back off the seizure screws at each port that will be connected to hardline
coaxial cable, as shown in Figure 193.
Figure 193: Preparing a line extender amplifier for installing a pin connector. (Courtesy of Sprint/North Supply)
Remember to not tighten any seizure screws until the pin connector and coaxial cable are completely
attached to the passive or active device.
Trimming Connector Pin
The pin on the front nut of a pin connector must be trimmed to fit a particular active or passive
device. Figure 194 shows how to measure, trim, and check the pin for connecting to a passive device
that has a trim gauge on the outside of the device housing.

Figure 194: An example of measuring, trimming, and checking connector pin for connection with a passive device that has a trim
gauge. (Courtesy of Corning Gilbert, Scientific-Atlanta, and Sprint/North Supply)
For active and passive devices with no trim gauge, measure the desired pin length by laying the pin
connector on the edge of the opened housing at the desired port and seizure point, as shown in
Figure 195. Trim the pin so that it will extend 1⁄8" to 1⁄4" beyond the seizure device when installed.
Figure 195: An example of measuring connector pin length at one port of a line extender amplifier. (Courtesy of Corning Gilbert and
Sprint/North Supply)
Installing Pin Connector
After the connector pin has been properly trimmed, the coaxial cable can be connectorized and
connected to the desired equipment. Follow the procedures in Figure 196 to mount hardline coaxial
cable to an amplifier housing using a three-piece pin connector. If a torque wrench is used instead of
an adjustable wrench, be sure to follow the torque wrench and connector manufacturers'
instructions. Also remember to not apply lubricant to the pin connector threads (they are factory
lubricated).

Figure 196: Installing a three-piece pin connector to an amplifier housing and to hardline coaxial cable. (Courtesy of Corning Gilbert
and Times Fiber Communications)
Connecting hardline coaxial cable to an amplifier housing using a two-piece pin connector is similar
to the procedures using a three-piece connector. The main difference is that the two-piece pin
connector has no center nut, so the prepared coaxial cable must be inserted and held into the front
nut until the two pieces of the connector are tightened together. To properly install a two-piece pin
connector, insert the trimmed connector pin into the appropriate port and fully tighten the front nut
by hand. Use a wrench to tighten the front nut another 1/8 to 1/4 turn. Remove the back nut from
the front nut and slide it over the prepared cable. Insert the cable into the front nut until it bottoms
out. Hold the cable with one hand to prevent it from sliding back while the other hand tightens the
back nut to the front nut. While holding the front nut with one wrench, tighten the back nut with a
second wrench until the back nut is seated against the shoulder of the front nut.

Finishing Connectorization
After the connector is installed, tighten the equipment seizure screw that seizes the connector pin
inside the equipment port (Figure 197). Never tighten the seizure screw onto the connector pin until
after the connector is fully installed and tightened to the device housing. Replace any unused port
plug(s), replace the circuit board or end modules (if applicable), and close and tighten the equipment
cover per the manufacturer's instructions. The connectorization is now complete except for the
application of shrink tubing (if used).
Figure 197: Tightening seizure screw after the connector is fully installed. (Courtesy of Corning Gilbert)
Weatherproofing with Shrink Tubing
► Weatherproof the connector.
Shrink tubing is routinely recommended for underground construction and within

pedestals/enclosures to help weatherproof the installation. It is also used in aerial installations. The
general rule is that shrink tubing must be long enough to cover the entire connector and overlap the
cable (or the cable jacket, if there is one) by at least two‑ inches after shrinking. With straight splice
connectors, the shrink tubing should extend at least four inches beyond each end of the connector.
There are two basic types of shrink tubing: (1) heat shrink; and (2) cold shrink. Ensure that the
tubing used is the correct diameter for the cable and the installed connector.

Heat Shrink Tubing
Heat shrink tubing is the type of shrink tubing used most often to weatherproof connector and splice
installations. Although it can be ordered in a variety of lengths, you may have to trim the tubing to
fit a particular installation. Always make a straight and clean cut, because jagged edges might split
the tubing when it is heated. As the name implies, this tubing must be heated to make it shrink. Do
this with a propane/butane torch (using the proper flow adjustment and tip for a soft or yellow bushy
flame) or an electric blower. As shown in Figure 198, keep the heat source at least one inch away
from the tubing and don't hold the heat source in one place too long. Most heat shrink tubing have
stripes, spots, or other markings that change color or disappear when the tubing is heated and
shrunk sufficiently. Tubing containing a pre-installed adhesive may need extra heat to melt and flow
the adhesive for proper application. After heating, always immediately turn off your torch or blower.
If you're using a torch, store it properly.
Figure 198: Weatherproofing the installation with heat shrink tubing. (Equipment courtesy of Raychem and Times Fiber
Communications)
Cold Shrink Tubing
Cold shrink tubing is commonly used in underground enclosures where there may be explosive
gases.
Mechanical shrink tubing, such as 3M's "Pull 'N' Shrink" tubing shown in Figure 199, is a tubular
EPDM rubber sleeve that is factory-expanded and assembled onto a removable hollow core. To use,
slide the correct size tubing over the prepared cable, ensuring that the core's "tail" is oriented away
from the equipment that the connector is attached to. Position the tubing over the installed
connector and hold it in place with one hand. Grasp the tail with the other hand and carefully
pull/unwind the core in a counterclockwise direction. As the core unwinds, reposition the tubing
toward the equipment port as necessary while holding it firmly in place until the tubing has
collapsed over the cable.

Figure 199: 3M's "Pull 'N' Shrink" mechanical shrink tubing. (Courtesy of 3M)

What is the purpose of a trim gauge on the exterior of a passive device housing?
How far should an installed connector pin extend beyond the seizure device in an active device?
When should shrink tubing be slid over the coaxial cable during a pin connector installation?
When should the seizure screw be tightened against the connector pin?
How far beyond a pin connector should the shrink tubing extend over the coaxial cable?
What are the two basic types of shrink tubing?
Why should heat shrink tubing end cuts be straight and clean?

What type of flame should your torch have for heat shrink tubing?

Reactances (304-11-7) Page 227
LESSON 9: Reactances (304-11-7)
 Understanding the Effects of Inductive Reactance

 Understanding the Effects of Capacitive Reactance
 Combining the Effects from Inductive/Capacitive Reactances
MODULE 1
UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF INDUCTIVE

REACTANCE
Introduction
Inductive reactance affects the flow of AC and RF signals in broadband cable systems. Inductive
reactance is used in filters and other devices to control the distribution of AC and RF signals.
Inductive reactance is the result of an AC voltage applied to an inductor. There is a relationship
between the frequency of the applied voltage, the size of the inductor, and the amount of inductive
reactance. Knowledge of the operating principles of inductive reactance is necessary for properly
selecting and maintaining active and passive devices in the RF portion of a broadband cable system.
It is further useful to be able to explain inductor cemf, apply Ohm's Law, and utilize inductive
reactance networks.
Explaining Inductor CEMF
► Explain how cemf opposes current flow in DC and AC circuits.
Counter electromotive force (cemf) or self-induced emf, such as in an inductor, causes a current to
flow in opposition to the current produced by the AC source. This opposition to a change in the flow
of current from the AC source is called inductive reactance. When the cemf decreases, the opposition
current it creates also decreases. This allows the AC source current to flow through the circuit. Thus,
in an inductive AC circuit, the cemf determines the amount of current flowing through the circuit
from the AC source. In an inductive DC circuit, the cemf determines the amount of current flow only
while the current is rising to its maximum value and while the current is decreasing to zero. At all
other times, the DC resistance determines the amount of current flow in the circuit. This DC
resistance that opposes the current flow in an inductive DC circuit is measured in ohms. However, in
an inductive AC circuit, the cemf is continually opposing changes in the current from the AC source.
Each time the AC current flow alternates direction, the cemf causes a current to flow in the opposing
direction, as illustrated in Figure 200. The cemf acts just like a resistor, limiting current flow in the
circuit. Cemf is measured in volts, while DC resistance is measured in ohms (Ω). Thus, cemf cannot
be used with Ohm's law to calculate how much current flows through the circuit at a given point in
time.
Understanding the Effects of Inductive Reactance

Figure 200: An AC circuit with cemf current always opposing the current from the AC voltage source.
Applying Ohm's Law
► Explain how inductive reactance is mathematically expressed using Ohm's law.
Even though cemf is not expressed in ohms, its effect is expressed in ohms. The effects of cemf are
called inductive reactance, and are measured in ohms. This effect is abbreviated X L. Thus, Ohm's law
is used in calculating the current flowing through the circuit. The inductive reactance replaces the
resistance in the Ohm's law relationships. Thus, Ohm's law for an inductive AC circuit states that
the magnitude of the current, I, flowing through an inductive AC circuit is directly proportional to
the AC source voltage, E, applied to the circuit, and is inversely proportional to the inductive
reactance, XL, of the circuit. Stated mathematically: I = E ⁄ XL, where I is the effective current in
amperes; E is the effective voltage of the AC source in volts; and X L is the inductive reactance in
ohms (Figure 201).
Figure 201: Ohm's law formulas for resistive DC circuits and for inductive AC circuits.

The rate of change of the current in an AC circuit is controlled by the speed with which the AC
voltage source completes its angular motion. This speed is called the angular velocity of the AC
source. Angular velocity is defined as the rate of change of an angle of rotation and is measured in
radians per second. One cycle of a sine wave is equal to 360 degrees of circular, or angular, motion.
One complete 360 degrees of angular motion is equal to 2π radians. Thus, one cycle of a sine wave
also equals 2π radians. Therefore, angular velocity is equal to 2π radians times the frequency of the
source-voltage sine waveform, or 2πƒ radians per second. The Greek lowercase letter omega, ω, is the
symbol for the angular velocity of the voltage or current in an AC circuit. The angular velocity is
expressed mathematically as ω = 2πƒ radians per second, or 2 times π times the frequency of the AC
source (2 × 3.14 × frequency in hertz).
The cemf and the inductive reactance in an AC circuit are directly proportional to the rate of change
of the current, which is governed by the angular velocity of the AC source. Therefore, the inductive
reactance of an inductive AC circuit is directly proportional to the angular velocity, ω, of the source,
which is equal to 2πƒ radians per second. Also, the cemf induced in an inductive AC circuit is directly
proportional to the amount of inductance in the circuit. Thus, the inductive reactance of the circuit is
also directly proportional to the inductance, L, of the circuit. Therefore, the inductive reactance
should equal the angular velocity of the source voltage times the inductance of the circuit. Expressed
mathematically, this is XL = ωL, or XL = 2πƒL, where: (a) XL is the inductive reactance in ohms; (b)
2π is the number of radians (6.28) in one cycle of the sine waveform; (c) ƒ is the frequency of the
applied AC source voltage in hertz; and (d) L is the value of the inductance in the circuit in henrys.
This expression shows that the change in frequency and inductance is directly proportional to the
change in inductive reactance and inversely proportional to the change in current, as shown in
Figure 202.
Figure 202: A table showing how changes in frequency and inductance are related to changes in inductive reactance and current in
an inductive AC circuit.
Using Inductive Reactance Networks

Many circuits require connecting inductors of similar or varying values in a series or parallel
network to obtain the required value of total inductance and inductive reactance. Understanding the
effect of these inductive network combinations on the total inductive reactance requires calculating
the total XL for each series or parallel network.

Series Inductive Reactances
► Calculate the total inductive reactance of inductors in series using individual

inductive reactances and using the total inductance of an AC circuit.
Calculating the total inductive reactance in series networks is similar to calculating total resistances
or total inductances in series networks. The total inductive reactance is equal to the sum of the
individual inductive reactances. To calculate the total XL for the circuit shown in Figure 203A, add
the individual reactances to obtain the total XL, as shown in Figure 203B and Figure 203C.
Figure 203: Calculating the total inductive reactance of inductors in series using individual inductive reactances.
To calculate the total XL another way, use the total inductance of the circuit. Use the formulas in
Figure 204B and follow the calculations in Figure 204C to determine the total XL for the circuit
shown in Figure 204A: (1) add the individual inductances together to obtain the total inductance; (2)
multiply 2π times the frequency to obtain the resultant; and (3) multiply the resultant times the
total inductance to obtain the total inductive reactance.
Figure 204: Calculating the total inductive reactance of inductors in series using the total inductance.

Reminder: 1 mh = 1 × 10-3 h
Parallel Inductive Reactances
► Calculate the total inductive reactance of inductors in parallel using individual

inductive reactances and using the total inductance of an AC circuit.
Calculating the total inductive reactance for parallel inductive networks is similar to calculating the
total resistance or total inductance in parallel networks. These calculations use the "Reciprocal
Method." Use the formula in Figure 205B and follow the calculations in Figure 205C to calculate the
total inductive reactance for the parallel inductive AC circuit in Figure 205A: (1) calculate the
reciprocals of the individual inductive reactances; (2) add the reciprocals to obtain a denominator;
and (3) take the reciprocal of the denominator to obtain the total inductive reactance of the circuit.
The total inductive reactance is always smaller than the lowest individual XL value.
Figure 205: Calculating the total inductive reactance of inductors in parallel using individual inductive reactances.
Another method for determining the total inductive reactance uses the "Inductive Reactance
Formula" and the total inductance for the inductors in parallel. Use the formulas in Figure 206B and
follow the calculations in Figure 206C to calculate the total XL for the circuit shown in Figure 206A:
(1) calculate the reciprocal of the inductance values for each inductor; (2) add the reciprocals to
obtain a denominator; (3) take the reciprocal of the denominator to obtain the total inductance; (4)
enter the total inductance value into the XL formula; and (5) multiply 2π times the frequency times
the total inductance to obtain the total inductive reactance.

Figure 206: Calculating the total inductive reactance of inductors in parallel using the total inductance.

What is inductive reactance?
When does cemf determine or limit the current flow in an inductive DC circuit?
When does cemf determine or limit the current flow in an inductive AC circuit?
What is the mathematical expression of Ohm's law for an inductive AC circuit?
What does the Greek lower case letter stand for?

Are , ƒ, and L directly or indirectly proportional to XL?
What is the formula that uses individual inductances to calculate the total inductance of a circuit
containing inductors in series?
What is the formula that uses individual inductive reactances to calculate the total inductive
reactance of a circuit containing inductors in parallel?
What is the total XL of four inductors in series when: (1) XL1 = 20 Ω; (2) XL2 = 40 Ω; (3) XL3 = 10 Ω,
and (4) XL4 = 80 Ω?
What is the total XL of four inductors in parallel when: (1) XL1 = 20 Ω; (2) XL2 = 40 Ω; (3) XL3 = 10
Ω, and (4) XL4 = 80 Ω?

MODULE 2
UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECTS OF CAPACITIVE

REACTANCE
Introduction
Capacitive reactance is a result of applying an AC voltage to a capacitive circuit. This reactance is
critical in passing RF signals in broadband cable systems. Electronic devices used in signal
amplification, signal distribution, and AC/DC powering depend upon capacitive reactance. It is
important and useful to understand capacitor voltage, AC opposition in capacitors, the definition of
capacitive reactance, capacitors in series, and capacitors in parallel.
Explaining Capacitor Voltage

A capacitive AC circuit consists of a source, a specific amount of circuit resistance, and a capacitor
with a specific amount of capacitance. In capacitive AC circuits, the source is an alternating source
with a constantly changing voltage at its output. While the circuit resistance may include elements
of DC resistance, eddy currents, and skin effect, the capacitor has the greatest effect on the
capacitive AC circuit. Thus, the total circuit resistance in a capacitive AC circuit is considered only
the AC resistance of the capacitor, whose value is dependent upon the frequency of the output
voltage from the AC source.
Capacitor Charging
► Describe capacitor charging and discharging in capacitive DC and AC circuits.
Perhaps the most significant difference between a capacitive AC circuit and a capacitive DC circuit is
in their reaction to charging current. As the current decreases, the voltage drop across the resistor
decreases and the voltage across the capacitor increases (Figure 207A). A capacitor in a DC circuit
blocks the flow of current once it is fully charged, thus acting like an open circuit, as shown in the
graph in Figure 207B. However, this is not the case when the same capacitor has a sinusoidal
voltage, that is, an AC source, applied to its terminals.
Figure 207: A circuit diagram and graph showing that the circuit current stops when the capacitor is charged in a capacitive DC
circuit.
When a capacitor has an AC source connected to its terminals, it charges in much the same manner
as a capacitor in a DC circuit. However, the voltage across the capacitor follows a sinusoidal pattern
instead of an exponential pattern as in a DC circuit. Also, instead of blocking the flow of current
when the voltage across the capacitor equals the applied voltage, the capacitor in an AC circuit
allows current to keep flowing, but in the opposite direction. This represents the discharge current.
This occurs because, in an AC circuit, both the applied voltage and the charging current continually
change values and periodically change polarity. Once the source voltage reaches its maximum value,
the capacitor is considered fully charged (Figure 208).
Figure 208: A circuit diagram and graph showing that capacitor charging decreases current flow and increases capacitor voltage in
a capacitive AC circuit.
Capacitor Discharging
At this point the source current, that is, the charging current, reverses directions and flows back
through the source. This occurs because the source voltage starts to decrease after reaching its
maximum value. And, since the capacitor opposes changes in the voltage, it begins to discharge, with
the discharge current flowing through the source. This attempts to keep the circuit voltage from
changing. When the discharge current reaches its maximum value, the applied voltage is zero and
the capacitor voltage is also zero, as shown in the graph in Figure 209. Thus, the capacitor is fully
discharged. Now the source begins to increase its output in the other direction and the capacitor
begins to charge again, but in the opposite direction as before. This is because the discharge current
has reached its maximum value and is now the charging current again and thus charges the
capacitor.
Understanding the Effects of Capacitive Reactance

Figure 209: Capacitor discharging causes the current to increase and the capacitor voltage to decrease.
The capacitor voltage continually opposes changes in the applied voltage. The capacitor voltage is
always equal to, but 180° out-of-phase with, the applied voltage in a purely capacitive AC circuit. In
other words, when the AC source voltage is increasing, the capacitor charges, but when the source
voltage decreases, the capacitor discharges. When the source changes polarity and increases in the
other direction, the capacitor charges again. This cycle of charge and discharge is continuous in an
AC circuit, because the source voltage and current continually change. Even though current does not
flow through the capacitor, the direction of current flow in the circuit acts as if it does. Therefore, a
capacitor appears to pass AC, but blocks DC (Figure 210).
Figure 210: Continuous charging and discharging in an AC capacitive circuit.
Defining Capacitive Reactance
► Define capacitive reactance.

Capacitive reactance can be defined as the opposition to current flow in an AC circuit caused by a
capacitor. Therefore, capacitive reactance, like resistance and inductive reactance, is measured in
ohms. Capacitive reactance is considered the cause of the decrease in current flow in an AC circuit
when a capacitor is placed in the circuit. Using the concept of capacitive reactance enables
calculation of the current flowing in the circuit by using another modified form of Ohm's Law. In a
completely capacitive AC circuit, the circuit resistance is considered negligible. This leaves only the
AC source and the capacitor as components in the circuit. If the amount of the applied voltage is
known, all that is needed to determine the amount of alternating current flowing in the circuit is the
amount of opposition to the alternating current flow in the circuit caused by the capacitor. If the
resistance value of a resistor, R, is replaced by the capacitive reactance, XC, of a capacitor, the
current is determined easily using Ohm's Law, where I = E/XC (Figure 211).
Figure 211: Determining I of circuit using Ohm's Law when XC replaces R.
The amount of current flowing in a capacitive AC circuit is directly proportional to the frequency of
the AC source and the capacitance of the capacitor, the capacitive reactance. Thus, the opposition to
current flow must be inversely proportional to the frequency of the source and the capacitance of the
capacitor, that is, to the size of the capacitor. So, when the frequency increases, the capacitive
reactance, or opposition to current flow, decreases, and the current in the circuit increases. Also,
when the capacitance increases, the capacitive reactance decreases, while the current flow increases.
This relationship is expressed as: XC = 1⁄2πƒC, where XC is the capacitive reactance, 2π is equal to
6.28, ƒ is the frequency and C is the capacitance value. The capacitive reactance for any circuit may
be calculated given the frequency of the applied voltage and the size of the capacitance. Use the
formula in Figure 212B and follow the calculations in Figure 212C to calculate the XC of the high-
frequency circuit in Figure 212A: (1) multiply 2 times π times the frequency times the capacitance to
obtain a denominator; and (2) calculate the reciprocal of the denominator to determine the capacitive
reactance.

Figure 212: Calculating XC for a capacitive AC circuit when ƒ = 55.25 MHz.
Reminder: 1 µF = 1 × 10-6 F
Figure 213 shows that if the frequency for the circuit is decreased to 60 Hz, the capacitive reactance
increases. Use the formula in Figure 213B and follow the calculations in Figure 213C to calculate the
capacitive reactance of the low-frequency circuit in Figure 213A: (1) multiply 2 times π times the
frequency times the capacitance to obtain a denominator; and (2) calculate the reciprocal of the
denominator to determine the capacitive reactance.
Figure 213: Calculating XC for a capacitive AC circuit when ƒ = 60 Hz.

Using Capacitive Reactance Networks

While a single capacitor may provide the necessary capacitive reactance in a particular circuit,
series or parallel networks of capacitors may be required to produce a desired capacitive reactance in
other circuits. These capacitive reactance networks produce total capacitive reactances that are
calculated in the same way as resistances in series and parallel resistive circuits. Understanding the
total effect on capacitive reactance when placing capacitors in series or parallel networks requires
calculating the total XC for each network.
Series Capacitive Reactances
Calculating the total capacitive reactance in series networks is similar to calculating total
resistances in resistive DC series networks (Figure 214A). The total capacitive reactance is equal to
the sum of the individual capacitive reactances. To calculate the total XC for the circuit shown in
Figure 214A, use the formula in Figure 214B and follow the calculations in Figure 214C.
Figure 214: Calculating the total capacitive reactance of capacitors in series using individual capacitive reactances.
► Calculate total capacitive reactance in series and parallel capacitor networks.

Another way to calculate the total XC is to first find the total capacitance of the circuit and then
calculate the total capacitive reactance. This requires using the reciprocal method for the total
capacitance, and then using the capacitive reactance formula. Use the formula in Figure 215B and
follow the calculations in Figure 215C to calculate the total XC for the circuit shown in Figure 215A:
(1) enter the capacitive values for each individual capacitor into the total capacitance formula; (2)
take the reciprocal of each capacitor to obtain each individual resultant; (3) add the individual
resultants to obtain a denominator; (4) take the reciprocal of the denominator to obtain the total
capacitance; (5) enter the total capacitance and frequency values into the XC formula; (6) multiply 2π
times the frequency times the total capacitance to obtain the denominator; and (7) take the
reciprocal of the denominator to obtain the total capacitive reactance.
Figure 215: Calculating the total capacitive reactance of capacitors in series using the total capacitance.
Parallel Capacitive Reactances
Calculating the total capacitive reactance for parallel inductive networks is similar to calculating the
total resistance in parallel networks. The reciprocal method determines the total capacitive
reactance. Use the formula in Figure 216B and follow the calculations in Figure 216C to calculate
the total capacitive reactance for the circuit shown in Figure 216A: (1) enter the individual capacitive
reactance values into the reciprocal formula; (2) take the reciprocal of each of the individual
reactances to obtain individual resultants; (3) add the individual resultants to obtain a denominator;
and (4) take the reciprocal of the denominator to obtain the total capacitive reactance.

Figure 216: Calculating the total capacitive reactance of capacitors in parallel using individual capacitive reactances.
Another method of determining the total capacitive reactance requires calculating the total
capacitance followed by calculating the total capacitive reactance using the total capacitance. The
individual capacitance for three capacitors in parallel and the frequency used in a circuit are given in
Figure 217A. To calculate the total XC for the circuit shown in Figure 217A, use the formulas in
Figure 217B and follow the calculations in Figure 217C: (1) enter the capacitance values for each
individual capacitor into the formula; (2) add the individual capacitances to obtain the total
capacitance; (3) enter the total capacitance and frequency into the total capacitive reactance formula;
(4) multiply 2π times the frequency times the total capacitance to obtain the denominator; and (5)
take the reciprocal of the denominator to obtain the total capacitive reactance.
Figure 217: Calculating the total capacitive reactance of capacitors in parallel using the total capacitance.
Capacitive reactance is important to cable broadband system amplifiers, diplex filters, power
inserters, and taps. The reactances in these devices may be used for passing the RF television
signals (50 MHz to 750 MHz) while blocking the 60 Hz AC voltage. For example, the 0.001 µF
capacitor used in the power inserter shown in the schematic diagram in Figure 218 has a capacitive
reactance of 0.21 Ω at 750 MHz and 2.65 MΩ at 60 Hz.

Figure 218: A schematic diagram of the faceplate-mounted electronic components in a Magnavox 9-LPI power inserter. (Courtesy of
Philips Broadband Networks)

List three elements of a capacitive AC circuit.
How does a fully charged capacitor affect current flow in a capacitive DC circuit?
How does a fully charged capacitor affect current flow in a capacitive AC circuit?

What is the voltage level and phase relationship between the capacitor voltage and the applied
voltage in a purely capacitive AC circuit?
What is capacitive reactance?
How is capacitive reactance related to the operating frequency of the AC source and to the amount
of the capacitor capacitance?
What formula is used to calculate the capacitive reactance in a circuit?
What is the formula that uses individual capacitive reactances to calculate the total capacitive
resistance of a circuit with capacitors in series?
What is the formula that uses individual capacitive reactances to calculate the total capacitive
reactance of a circuit with two capacitors in parallel?
What is the formula that uses individual capacitances to calculate total capacitance of a circuit
with three capacitors in parallel?
What is the formula that uses total capacitance to calculate the total capacitive reactance of a
circuit with capacitors in parallel?

MODULE 3
COMBINING THE EFFECTS FROM

INDUCTIVE/CAPACITIVE REACTANCES
Introduction
While individual inductive and capacitive reactances are important to RF signals, combined
reactances are utilized in active and passive devices in the headend, outside aerial and underground
plant, the customer drop, and in terminal devices. Individual inductive and capacitive reactances are
combined to create devices to split high and low frequencies, separate AC power from RF signals,
and to selectively process individual frequencies. To understand RF signal flow and AC powering for
the different active and passive devices installed in the RF portion of the broadband cable system, it
is important to understand the operating principles of inductive and capacitive reactances.
Knowledge of the operation and effects of inductive and capacitive reactances in frequency
resonance, bandwidth, and filters is valuable.
Finding the Point of Resonance
► Define and calculate the resonant frequency in series and parallel resonant
circuits.
Combining an inductor and capacitor into the same circuit and applying a variety of frequencies to
the circuit produces a variety of inductive and capacitive reactance values. At one specific frequency
the inductive reactance, XL, equals the capacitive reactance, XC. This frequency is called the
frequency of resonance (ƒr) or the resonant frequency. The resonant frequency is determined by
taking the reciprocal of 6.28 times the square root of the inductance times the capacitance (Figure
219A), where ƒr is the frequency in Hz, the inductance (L) is in henrys, and the capacitance (C) is in
farads. Use the formula in Figure 219A to calculate the resonant frequency of a circuit in which the
inductance is 5.0 µH and the capacitance in 2.0 pF, as shown in Figure 219B: (1) insert the
inductance and capacitance values into the formula; (2) multiply the inductance times the
capacitance to obtain a resultant; (3) take the square root of the resultant to obtain the multiplier;
(4) multiply 6.28 times the multiplier to obtain the denominator; and (5) take the reciprocal of the
denominator to obtain the resonant frequency.
Figure 219: Calculating the resonant frequency.
Reminder: 1 pF = 1 × 10-12 F
There are two types of resonant circuits used in RF devices: series resonance and parallel resonance.
The resonant frequency calculation applies to either the series or parallel resonant circuits.
Series Resonance
A series resonant circuit has the inductor in line with the capacitor. There is typically a resistor in
series with these two devices (Figure 220). The series resonant circuit has minimum impedance that
causes maximum current flow in a circuit. The resistor limits current.
Figure 220: A series resonant circuit.
Combining the Effects from Inductive/Capacitive Reactances

Parallel Resonance
A parallel resonant circuit has the inductor in parallel with the capacitor (Figure 221A). This type of
circuit is called a tank circuit, because the configuration causes the capacitor to charge and discharge
through the inductor, causing an oscillation. If a resistor is placed in the circuit (Figure 221B), most
of the current flow is through the resistor. The parallel resonant circuit acts like an open circuit and
has maximum impedance, which causes minimum current flow in a circuit. The resistor forms a
complete circuit for the resonant frequency current to flow around the tank circuit.
Figure 221: Example of parallel resonant circuits.
Defining the Bandwidth of a Resonant Circuit
► Describe the bandwidth of a resonant circuit.
The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is the band of frequencies between the 70.7% points of the
voltage curve for parallel resonant circuits (Figure 222A) or the current curve for series resonant
circuits (Figure 222B). The bandwidth or range of frequencies is given in Hz. The high and low
points of this range of frequencies are also known as the half-power points, because they are 3 dB
down from the peak of the curve, as shown in Figure 222C.

Figure 222: The bandwidths of resonant circuits.
The bandwidth determines the selectivity of the resonant circuit. The selectivity is how well the
circuit selects a single frequency or a group of frequencies from the entire range of frequencies
applied to the circuit. Figure 223 gives some examples of bandwidths used in broadband cable
system networks.
Figure 223: Examples of bandwidths used in broadband cable system networks.
Using Resonant Circuits as Filters

Both the series and parallel resonant circuits are important in RF signal distribution because they
are frequency selective. This frequency selection allows use of these circuits as filters. Broadband
cable system networks use these filters in amplifier input and output diplex filters (Figure 224A),
line equalizers (Figure 224B), positive and negative traps (Figure 224C), and individual television
channel filters in processors and modulators (Figure 224D). The four types of filters used in active
and passive devices are low-pass, high-pass, bandpass, and band-stop filters. While a single
capacitor and a single inductor produce a resonant circuit, several inductors and capacitors are
needed to accomplish the necessary filtering requirements, as shown in the diplex filter components
in Figure 224E.

Figure 224: Examples of resonant-circuit filters used in broadband cable systems. (Courtesy of Motorola Broadband
Communications, C-COR.net, Pico Macom, and Eagle Comtronics)
Low-Pass Filters
A low-pass filter is used when upper frequencies are not required in the circuit. Figure 225 depicts a
low-pass filter and how it reacts with the high (50-750 MHz) and low (5-42 MHz) frequencies. An
input and output diplex filter in an amplifier works on this principle. An amplifier has a wide range
of the frequencies present at its input and output ports. The low-pass filter within the diplex filter in
the amplifier removes any high forward RF frequencies not designed to pass to the return amplifier.
Figure 225: A low-pass filter.

High-Pass Filters
A high-pass filter is used when lower frequencies are not required in the circuit. Figure 226 depicts a
high-pass filter and its reaction to the high and low frequencies. Again, an input and output diplex
filter in an amplifier works on this principle. A high-pass filter removes any return low frequencies
not designed to pass through the diplex filter to the forward amplifier.
Figure 226: A high-pass filter.
Coaxial cable carries all transmitted RF frequencies (for example, 5-42 MHz return RF signals and
50‑ 750 MHz forward RF signals) and AC voltage to power active devices. A diplex filtering network
in an amplifier is required to separate and distribute the forward and return frequencies and the 60
Hz, 60 volts AC. Figure 227 is a block diagram of a Texscan PAL line extender filter circuit board
assembly, showing how the input and output diplex filters direct the RF signals and AC signal flow
through the line extender amplifier.

Figure 227: Schematic diagram showing RF signal and AC signal voltage direction in a Texscan PAL line extender 30 MHz filter
circuit board assembly. (Courtesy of Texscan Communication Products Division)
Bandpass Filters
A bandpass filter removes all of the frequencies on either side of a desired frequency or frequencies.
Bandpass filters are used in broadband cable system processors, modulators, diplex filters, and
testing procedures. Figure 228 is an example of Trilithic bandpass filters used in broadband cable
system testing procedures. These Trilithic tunable bandpass filters have four separate tunable filters
ranging from 55 MHz to 880 MHz
Figure 228: Examples of four tunable bandpass filters. (Courtesy of Trilithic)

Band-Stop Filters
► Explain the functions of low‑ pass, high-pass, band-stop, and bandpass filters in
broadband cable system devices.
A band-stop filter passes most of the frequencies while selectively removing a small portion of the
bandwidth. Figure 229 illustrates a band-stop network in a positive trap and how it reacts with
different frequencies. Both positive and negative traps are examples of band-stop filters. While a
negative trap removes the entire 6 MHz channel, a positive trap removes an interfering signal
within a 6 MHz channel.
Figure 229: An illustration of how an interfering carrier is removed by a band-stop network in a positive trap.

What are the functions of devices created by combining individual inductive and capacitive
reactances?
Define the resonant frequency of a circuit containing inductive and capacitive reactances.

What is the formula for calculating the resonant frequency of a resonant circuit?
What are the two types of resonant circuits used in RF devices?
How does a series resonant circuit act like a short?
How does a parallel resonant circuit act like an open circuit?
What is the bandwidth of a resonant circuit?
Why are the high and low points of a resonant circuit bandwidth also known as the half-power
points?
What does bandwidth determine in a resonant circuit?
What is the selectivity of a resonant circuit?
What are the four types of filters used in active and passive devices?
When is a low-pass filter used?

What does a diplex filtering network separate and distribute in an amplifier?
What is the function of a bandpass filter?
What is the purpose of a band-stop filter?

Working with Hardline RF Splitters (321-13-4) Page 255
LESSON 10: Working with Hardline RF Splitters

(321-13-4)
 Identifying Splitter Types and Components

 Examining Splitter Electrical Characteristics and Operation
 Understanding the Theory of Splitter Operation
 Considering Applications
MODULE 1
IDENTIFYING SPLITTER TYPES AND COMPONENTS
Introduction to Identifying Splitter Types and

Components
► List the major types of hardline RF splitters.
To effectively distribute RF signals from a single source to multiple user sites, passive RF devices are
introduced at appropriate locations within a broadband cable system. Hardline radio frequency (RF)
passive devices: (1) split the broadband signals on the trunk and feeder cable with splitters and
directional couplers; (2) tap off a small portion of the signal for a customer with a tap; (3) manipulate
signal frequency response with a line equalizer; or (4) insert AC power to a trunk/bridger amplifier
or other active devices with a power inserter. A passive device does not require AC power to operate.
Each time a hardline RF passive is installed on coaxial cable, the passive device affects the voltage
and power levels of the broadband signals. To maintain the broadband signal distribution system
and to repair or replace any defective passive device, it is essential to know the operating
characteristics of the hardline RF passive devices and their effects on the signal.
► List the mechanical components of two-way and three-way hardline RF splitters.
The mechanical components of a hardline RF splitter include the housing, faceplate, gaskets, input
and output ports, and seizure screws. Understanding these mechanical components is necessary for
installing and maintaining splitters in the trunk and feeder system.
Describing Splitter Housing

The splitter housing is designed to minimize corrosion. Some housings have a standard polymer
coating, and others are made of uncoated or coated die-cast aluminum.
The splitter housing has a mounting tap with a bolt and strand clamp on the back for securing the
splitter. Figure 230A shows a splitter mounted on an aerial strand using the mounting tap, strand
clamp, and an optional bracket. Figure 230B shows a splitter with an optional bracket for mounting
in a pedestal.
Identifying Splitter Types and Components

Figure 230: Examples of RF line splitter mounting options.
Describing Splitter Faceplate

Some models of hardline RF splitters have a keyed faceplate to ensure correct installation (Figure
231A). The male and female interconnect pins provide a mechanical connection for aligning the
housing and faceplate and an electrical connection for RF/AC signal flow. Typically, a manufacturer's
splitter and directional coupler faceplates are interchangeable for ease o f replacement. The faceplate
is attached to the housing by four bolts. These bolts have either a 5⁄16-inch or 7⁄16-inch head and
require 30-40 inch pounds (in-lb) of torque for proper tightening. The recommended bolt-tightening
sequence alternates between opposite sides (Figure 231B).
Figure 231: Example of a keyed faceplate and a torquing sequence. (Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc.)

Describing Splitter Gaskets

There are two gaskets installed in two-way and three-way RF line splitters to protect them from
environmental contamination and RF signal ingress/egress. A silicone rubber environmental gasket
provides a hermetic seal that keeps moisture, water, dirt, salt spray, and pollutants from entering
the housing. An aluminum-screen RFI gasket prevents undesired ingress and egress of RF signals.
Verify these gaskets are in place before installing the faceplate to the housing to ensure the splitter's
mechanical and RF integrity (Figure 232).
Figure 232: Environmental and RFI gaskets for an RF line splitter. (Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc.)
Describing Input/Output Ports

A hardline RF splitter has two ports at right angles for each input or output cable (Figure 233). This
allows cable access to the splitter in either of two right-angled directions for ease of installation in
both aerial and underground situations. Ports are sealed with a rubber gasket and a metal port plug.
Figure 233: Environmental and RFI gaskets for an RF line splitter. (Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc.)

Describing Seizure Screws

A seizure screw (Figure 234) makes a mechanical and an electrical connection between the splitter
and the coaxial cable's connector pin. Rotating the seizure screw mechanism allows cable access
through either available input or output port. Access the seizure screw head through the unused port
of each set of input or output ports. Install a metal plug on the port revealing the seizure screw head.
Tighten seizure screws with either a small, thin-bladed screwdriver or a 3⁄16-inch nutdriver. Avoid
stripping the screw or damaging the pin connector by not overtightening the seizure screw. A
damaged pin connector could lose its electrical connection.
Figure 234: A hardline RF splitter seizure screw. (Courtesy of Cisco Systems, Inc.

List three uses of hardline RF passive devices.
What are the basic hardline RF passive devices?
What is the splitter housing designed to minimize?

Why do some models of splitters have a keyed faceplate?
Why do splitters have silicone rubber and aluminum-screen gaskets?
Why do splitters have two ports at right angles for each input and output cable?
What is the purpose of the seizure screw?

MODULE 2
EXAMINING SPLITTER ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS

AND OPERATION
Introduction to Examining Splitter Electrical

Characteristics and Operation
The hardline RF splitter has certain electrical characteristics for passing both RF signals and AC
voltage. The splitter's electrical characteristics define its RF and AC voltage operating parameters.
Hardline RF splitter electrical characteristics consist of internal isolation, insertion loss, radio
frequency isolation, bandwidth, return loss, and AC voltage.
Defining Isolation
► Define isolation and insertion loss for hardline RF splitters.
A splitter's internal isolation is the port-to-port attenuation between two output ports at a specific
frequency, with the input port terminated. If an RF signal is present on one output port, the signal
level on the other output port is reduced by the isolation value (attenuation) between the splitter's
output ports. Minimum internal isolation values range from 18 dB to 30 dB between 5 MHz and
1,000 MHz for the averages of some common manufacturers, as shown in Table 1. Refer to the
manufacturers documentation for your specific make and model of splitter.
Minimal Internal Isolation Values Frequency

Manufactrer 5 30 50 400 450 550 600 750 800 1,000 MHz
Averages 21 24 24 24 24 24 23 21 19 19 dB
Table 1: Common averages of minimum internal isolation values

Figure 235 illustrates how internal isolation reduces the resultant interfering signal level in a
two‑ way RF line splitter with a 0 dBmV interfering over-the-air signal at 74.5 MHz. Since the
internal isolation value at 74.5 MHz (near 50 MHz) is 24 dB and, if the interfering RF signal level is
0 dBmV at 74.5 MHz on output port No. 1, the interfering RF signal level is reduced by 24 dB on
output port No. 2. The 24-dB isolation attenuation causes the resultant interfering over-the-air
signal to have 256 times less power on output port No. 2.
Figure 235: The resultant interfering over-the-air signal level on a typical two-way RF line splitter with 24 dB isolation at 74.5 MHz.
To calculate the resultant interfering RF signal level on output port No. 2, as shown in Figure 236,
subtract the internal isolation value (24 dB) from the interfering RF signal level on output port No. 1
(0 dBmV). This results in a –24 dBmV interfering over-the-air signal level at 74.5 MHz on output
port No. 2.
Figure 236: Calculating the resultant interfering over-the-air signal level on output port No. 2 with interference on output port No. 1.
Defining Insertion Loss

Splitter insertion loss is the attenuation between the input port and an output port of the splitter.
Table 2 lists average maximum insertion loss values for two-way, three-way balanced, and three-way
unbalanced hardline RF splitters at specific frequencies. Note that the splitter's insertion loss
usually increases with an increase in frequency (50-1,000 MHz), depending on manufacturer
specifications.
Examining Splitter Electrical Characteristics and Operation

Maximum average insertion loss values: two-way hardline RF splitters

Frequency (MHz) 5 50 450 550 750 1000
Loss (dB) 4.0 3.8 4.2 4.4 4.7 5.4
Maximum average insertion loss values: three-way balanced hardline RF splitters
Frequency (MHz) 5 50 450 550 750 1000
Loss (dB) 6.2 5.7 6.2 6.5 7.3 8.4
Maximum average insertion loss values: three-way unbalanced hardline RF splitters, high loss
Frequency (MHz) 5 50 450 550 750 1000
Loss (dB) 3.9 3.8 4.1 4.3 4.8 5.5
Maximum average insertion loss values: three-way unbalanced hardline RF splitters, low loss
Frequency (MHz) 5 50 450 550 750 1000
Loss (dB) 7.2 6.4 7.2 7.7 8.1 9.1
Table 2: Average maximum insertion loss values for common brands of two-way and three‑ way splitters.
Figure 237A illustrates output port RF signal levels at 50 MHz, while Figure 237B shows output
port RF signal levels at 750 MHz.

Figure 237: Two-way hardline RF splitter output port signal levels.
To calculate the RF signal level at each output port at the lowest forward carrier frequency, as
shown inFigure 238 A, subtract the splitter insertion loss 3.8 dB for the lowest forward carrier
frequency (50 MHz, in this example) from the input signal level (21.0 dBmV) at the same frequency
to obtain the output signal level (17.2 dBmV) at that same frequency. To calculate the output signal
level of each output port at the highest forward carrier frequency, as shown in Figure 238B, subtract
the splitter insertion loss (4.7 dB) for the highest forward carrier frequency (750 MHz, in this
example) from the input signal level (21.0  dBmV) at the same frequency to obtain the output signal
level (16.3 dBmV) at that same frequency. Therefore, there is a difference of 0.9 dBmV between the
two calculated output signal levels (17.2 dBmV – 16.3 dBmV) at each output port depending on the
frequency. This difference affects the design, activation, and operating characteristics of a broadband
system.

Figure 238: Calculating output port signal levels in a two-way hardline RF splitter.
Generally, this difference in insertion loss between the highest and lowest used video carrier
frequencies is greater for three-way splitter low output ports than for two-way splitter output ports.
Table 3 shows the high loss and low loss averages for three-way splitters. For the a typical three-way
balanced splitter, the insertion loss is 5.7 dB at 50 MHz and 7.3 dB at 750 MHz, for a difference of
1.6 dB. For the high output port on a typical three-way unbalanced splitter, the insertion loss is 3.8
dB at 50 MHz and 4.8 dB at 750 MHz, for a difference of 1.0 dB. For the low output port on a typical
three-way splitter, the insertion loss is 6.4 dB at 50 MHz and 8.1 dB at 750 MHz, for a difference of
1.7 dB.
Maximum average insertion loss values: three-way unbalanced hardline RF splitters, high loss
Frequency (MHz) 5 50 450 550 750 1000
Loss (dB) 3.9 3.8 4.1 4.3 4.8 5.5
Maximum average insertion loss values: three-way unbalanced hardline RF splitters, low loss
Frequency (MHz) 5 50 450 550 750 1000
Loss (dB) 7.2 6.4 7.2 7.7 8.1 9.1
Table 3: Average maximum insertion loss values for common brands of three‑ way splitters.
Defining RF Isolation
► Define RF isolation, bandwidth, and return loss for hardline RF splitters.

Another kind of isolation is "RF isolation." This is different from the internal isolation between
output ports discussed earlier. Radio frequency isolation specifies the extent of shielding in the RF
line splitter to prevent RF egress or ingress. This rating is at least 100 dB for common brands of RF
line splitters. Therefore, any signal leakage from the splitter is at least 100 dB less than the
splitter's input signal level.
Specifying Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a hardline RF splitter is the range of frequencies passed by the splitter. While 5-550
MHz. and 5-600 MHz were commonly used splitters, newer technologies and system architectures
has resulted in most manufacturers having an upper limit of 1000 MHz today.
Understanding Return Loss

Return loss is the amount of signal reflected by a hardline RF splitter. Too much return loss causes
ghosting or loss of power. Return loss is frequency-dependent, and therefore varies with frequency.
Table 4 lists average return loss values at different frequencies for two-way and three-way splitters.
Return Loss Values

Frequency (MHz) 5 50 750 1000
Average (dB) 16.8 18.3 18.8 17
Table 4: Return loss values at different frequencies.
Passing AC Power
► Describe the AC characteristics of hardline RF splitters.
The AC characteristics of a hardline RF splitter determine the maximum amount of current the
splitter can pass and how much hum is introduced to the RF signal. The current-handling or power-
passing capability is measured in amperes. Most hardline RF splitters can carry a maximum of 10 or
15 amperes. Hum is specified in dB and is measured with a full operating load. This amount of hum
may be constant throughout a given bandwidth or generally decline with an increase in frequency,
depending on manufacturer specifications, usually it is better than 60 dB and rarely drops below 50
dB.


Define internal isolation for a hardline RF splitter.
Define insertion loss for a hardline RF splitter.
What usually causes hardline RF splitter insertion loss to increase?
Define radio frequency isolation for a hardline RF splitter.
Define bandwidth for a hardline RF splitter.
What is return loss in a hardline RF splitter?
What is determined by the AC characteristics of a hardline RF splitter?

MODULE 3
UNDERSTANDING THE THEORY OF SPLITTER

OPERATION
Introduction to Understanding the Theory of

Splitter Operation
RF power levels and AC voltage distribution are the main topics in the theory of operation of two-
way and three-way RF line splitters. As splitters divide the RF signal, the signal power is reduced.
This power reduction varies with frequency according to the splitter's insertion loss characteristics.
Splitters also selectively distribute AC voltage as the RF signal passes from the input to the output
ports. An understanding of these splitter-related effects is essential in maintaining and
troubleshooting the trunk and feeder systems.
Examining Two-Way Splitters
► Calculate the power and voltage loss in two-way hardline RF splitters.
A hardline RF two-way splitter divides the RF input signal into two equal output signals, with a
reduction in signal power and signal voltage. In two-way splitters, each output port signal power
level is slightly less than 50% of the input signal power.
Determining Power Levels
Figure 239A illustrates the resulting output port signal power levels at 50Mhz MHz in a typical two-
way RF line splitter. Figure 239B shows the resulting output port signal power levels at 550 MHz. A
signal level in dBmV can be converted to a power level in watts using the formula in Figure 239C.
The table in Figure 239D also can be used to determine that 13.33 µW is equal to the 30 dBmV input
signal level.
Figure 239: Output power levels from a hardline two-way RF splitter at the lowest and highest carrier frequencies and dBmV
conversions.
Distributing AC Voltage
Most two-way hardline RF splitters can be set up to block power on the input port or direct 60/90
volts AC (VAC) to either or both output ports for powering trunk/bridger, mini bridger, or line
extender amplifiers. Common brands of two-way splitters can pass 10 or more amperes. The system
design determines which output ports require AC power passing. Most line splitters use fuses or bus
bars to direct power to the desired output ports. Some line splitters use jumper wires to direct the
AC power to the desired output port(s).
Understanding the Theory of Splitter Operation

Examining Three-Way Splitters
► Calculate the power and voltage loss in three-way hardline RF splitters.
Hardline three-way RF splitters are available as either unbalanced or balanced. An unbalanced

splitter has two "low-level" output ports with more signal loss and one "high-level" output port with
less signal loss (sometimes referred to as the hot leg). A balanced splitter has three output ports all
with the same signal loss. The calculation of three-way splitter signal power level is more
complicated than a two-way splitter, while the AC voltage distribution is accomplished in the same
way as a two-way splitter.
Determining Power Loss
The power loss in a three-way balanced splitter is more than a two-way splitter, the power being
divided into three outputs instead of two. Figure 240A illustrates output port power levels in a
typical three-way balanced splitter at 50 MHz, and Figure 240B shows output port power levels at
550 MHz. As shown in Figure 240C and Figure 240D, the output port signal levels of 24.3 dBmV at
50 MHz and 23.5 dBmV at 550 MHz are derived by subtracting the splitter loss at 50 MHz (5.7 dB)
and 550 MHz (6.5 dB) from the input signal level (30 dBmV). Figure 240A concludes that the output
port signal power of a typical splitter is 27% of the input power at 50 MHz. Figure 240B concludes
that the output port signal power is 22% of the input power at 550 MHz.


Figure 240: Output port signal power levels and the percentage of the input power in a three-way balanced RF line splitter at the
lowest and highest carrier frequencies.
A three-way unbalanced hardline RF splitter divides the signal twice. The high output port receives
the signal after the first division, while the two low output ports receive the signal after the second
division (Figure 241). This design results in the high output port (hot leg) having less signal loss
than the two low output ports.
Figure 241: The two RF signal divisions in a three-way unbalanced RF line splitter.
Figure 242A illustrates the signal power levels on the two low output ports and one high output port
in a typical unbalanced three-way splitter at 50 MHz. Output port RF signal levels at 50 MHz are
calculated for the low output ports in Figure 242B and for the high output port in Figure 242C.
Figure 242D illustrates the signal power levels in the same splitter at 550 MHz. Output port RF
signal levels at 550 MHz are calculated for the low output ports in Figure 242E and for the high
output port in Figure 242F.

Figure 242: Output port signal power levels and the percentage of the input power in a three-way unbalanced RF line splitter at the
lowest and highest carrier frequencies.
The low output port signal power level in a typical splitter is 23% of the input power at 50 MHz and
17% of the input power at 550 MHz. The high output port signal power level is 42% of the input
power at 50 MHz and 37% of the input power at 550 MHz.


How do the output port signal power levels compare to input signal power levels in a two-way RF
line splitter?
What devices can be powered by the 60/90 VAC on either or both output ports of a two-way RF
line splitter?
Describe the two types of three-way hardline RF splitters.

MODULE 4
CONSIDERING APPLICATIONS
Introduction to Considering Applications

Performing system maintenance and troubleshooting tasks often requires determining expected
levels by combining splitter-caused signal losses with coaxial cable losses and other factors. This
includes calculating a splitter's output port signal levels at the lowest and highest forward carrier
frequencies using coaxial cable losses and/or tilted amplifier output signal levels and splitter
insertion losses.
Using Two-Way Splitters
► Calculate the combination of coaxial cable loss and two-way splitter insertion
loss on a portion of broadband plant.
Calculating expected levels is simple but can be a bit involved. For many two-way and three-way
hardline RF splitters installed in a system, the input signal level is not flat between the lowest and
highest forward frequencies because of amplifier output tilt and/or coaxial cable loss. When
calculating RF signal levels, remember that both splitter insertion loss and coaxial cable loss vary
with frequency, so factor low and high frequencies separately.
Figure 243A illustrates the combination of coaxial cable loss and splitter loss in RF signal level over
a portion of plant at 50 MHz. Figure 243B shows losses over the same combination at 550 MHz.
These examples show how these losses vary with frequency. From the amplifier output to the splitter
output, there is a combined total signal loss of 5.78 dB at 50 MHz (Figure 243C) compared with
10.88 dB at 550 MHz (Figure 243D).
Figure 243: Coaxial cable loss and two-way RF line splitter insertion loss on a portion of broadband cable plant.
Figure 244A derives the coaxial cable portion of total losses using manufacturer's specifications for
dB loss per 100 feet (0.33 dB loss/100 feet at 50 MHz and 1.08 dB loss/100 feet at 550 MHz). Figure
244B subtracts the calculated coaxial cable loss from the tilted amplifier output levels to derive
splitter input signal levels. Figure 244C derives splitter output signal levels subtracting known
splitter insertion loss values from splitter input levels.
Considering Applications
Figure 244: Calculating RF signal level losses on a portion of plant at the lowest and highest carrier frequencies.
Using Three-Way Splitters
► Calculate output signal levels in a three-way hardline RF splitter with tilted input
signal levels.
The high output port (hot leg) of a three-way unbalanced hardline RF splitter supplies signal to a
trunk or feeder line requiring a higher signal level. This distributes the available signal more
effectively and can minimize the number of amplifiers in cascade.
High and low output port signal levels in a typical three-way unbalanced splitter with tilted signal
input levels are illustrated at 50 MHz in Figure 245A and at 550 MHz in Figure 245D. The 7.0
dBmV difference in signal level at the amplifier output (39.0 dBmV at 550 MHz – 32.0 dBmV at 50
MHz) is reduced to 6.5 dBmV at the splitter high leg output (34.7 dBmV at 550 MHz – 28.2 dBmV at
50 MHz) and to 5.7 dBmV at the splitter low output port (31.3 dBmV at 550 MHz – 25.6 dBmV at 50
MHz). RF signal levels at 50 MHz are calculated for the high output port (hot leg) in Figure 245B
and for the low output ports in Figure 245C. RF signal levels at 550 MHz are derived for the high
output port in Figure 245E and for the low output ports in Figure 245F.
Figure 245: Output port signal levels in a three-way unbalanced splitter receiving amplifier tilted output.

Why are the input signal levels not flat between the lowest and highest forward frequencies in
many installed RF line splitters?
Which output port of a three-way unbalanced hardline RF splitter supplies signal to a trunk or
feeder line requiring a higher signal level?
RF Directional Couplers and Power Inserters (321-21-5) Page 283
LESSON 11: RF Directional Couplers and Power

Inserters (321-21-5)
 Examining RF Directional Couplers

 Examining Power Inserters
MODULE 1
EXAMINING RF DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
Introduction to Examining RF Directional

Couplers
► Describe the use of directional couplers.
Directional couplers are used in distribution plants when some signal must be removed from the
main direction of travel of the cable plant, to be sent down a side path. For instance, a main trunk
may run down Main Street, and some of the signal is necessary to be routed to Cumberland Road to
serve 15 homes there (Figure 246). At the intersection of Main Street and Cumberland Road, a
directional coupler is installed to take a suitable amount of the signal from the main run (down Main
Street) to serve the Cumberland Road homes. What is a “suitable amount” of the signal? Signal must
be provided so that TVs and cable modems in each home get “enough” signal level. Too little signal
level results in picture break-ups or no picture at all in digital TV and data, and “snow” in analog TV
signals. Too much signal level and the resulting distortion can block a digital signal and causes
“streaky” pictures in analog. Accordingly, during system design, the designers know how much
signal level is needed at each home, allowing them to “back up” and set the signal levels in the
system, inserting amplifiers where needed to increase signal level. Directional couplers are also used
in the fiber optic portion of the plant for similar applications. While this lesson concentrates on RF
directional couplers, you will see references to fiber optic directional couplers.
Examining RF Directional Couplers

Figure 246: A broadband cable system design map showing directional couplers on the main trunk and feeder cable. (Courtesy of
Time Warner Cable)
Reviewing the Operation of Directional

Couplers
► Describe how directional couplers operate.
RF directional couplers are built using multiple RF transformers, with the windings on suitable
ferrite coil forms, which allow selected amounts of the signal to be removed. Directional couplers can
be obtained in various values, defined as the approximate reduction in signal level to the tap port.
Not all values are possible; they are limited to the values that result from various turns ratios in the
RF transformers.

Figure 247A illustrates a tap function, and Figure 247B, the SCTE symbols for it, which are used in
system design documents. The directional coupler has three terminals: the IN terminal (or port) is
where power from the plant comes in and the OUT port is where most of the power comes out, to
goes further down the main line. The TAP port is where the signal is taken off (in the example, to go
down Cumberland Road). Note that the signal level entering the tap is the widest line, representing
the most signal level. The tap signal is the narrowest line, because the least amount of the signal
goes that way. The output signal is lower than is the input signal, from the conservation of energy
principle:
Energy may be neither created nor destroyed; it may only be changed in form.
Figure 247: Directional coupler block diagram and SCTE symbols.
There is no way to add to the energy at the tap because there is no energy source (such as a power
supply feeding an amplifier), so the power out is equal to the power in minus the power that gets
routed to the tap. There is one other source of power loss in the directional coupler, and that is the
inevitable losses in the circuitry. The directional coupler consists of wire-wound transformers, and
there is some loss in the wire, as well as in the ferrite material comprising the RF transformer cores.

Directional Coupler Physical Construction
► Describe the physical characteristics of a directional coupler.
Figure 248 illustrates the signal flow lines from Figure 247 overlaid on a picture of an actual
directional coupler, seen from the faceplate side. The faceplate carries the transformers and other
parts making up the directional coupler circuitry, and an interconnect to the center conductor of the
coax. The directional coupler housing includes a seizure screw that is tightened on the center
conductor inside the housing. The seizure screw access ports are plugged with a bolt to maintain the
hermetic seal when not being worked on. Seizure screw access ports and the ports that the coaxial
cable enters and leaves are one in the same; it depends on which have bolts to seal them and which
have coaxial cable installed in them. In the picture, plastic plugs fill three of the ports because the
directional coupler is shipped from the manufacturer and bolts are not necessary to seal the three
holes occupied by coaxial cable.
Figure 248: Physical directional coupler viewed from faceplate side. (Courtesy of Arris)
Enough ports are provided so that the faceplate can be rotated in any direction during installation.
This allows the housing to be used in any orientation, regardless of the direction of signal flow. For
example, in overhead plant, the faceplate should always face the street so it can be accessed more
easily if the faceplates need to be changed.

Examining the Directional Coupler Circuit

Construction
► Describe the circuit construction of a directional coupler.
Figure 249 shows the internal workings of a typical directional coupler. The RF transformers and
associated parts in the center implement the tap function as previously described. The remaining
components provide for power passing; i.e., they allow the 60 or 90 VAC power used to power the
distribution electronics to pass through the directional coupler.
Figure 249: Printed wiring board in tap.

This side of the printed wiring board is normally hidden from view when the board is installed in the
faceplate; the opposite side is the one normally seen. It includes clips that plug into the remainder of
the housing, to which the center conductor of the coaxial cable is connected. By configuring the
directional coupler this way, the faceplate can simply be changed out if a different value is required.
The power-passing RF chokes are inductors used to separate the RF and power in the directional
coupler. The resistors on the chokes are used to improve the electrical characteristics of the chokes.
It is also necessary to keep power away from the very small transformers in the directional coupler,
and DC (or low frequency) blocking capacitors does this, partially hidden under the chokes.
Electrical Characteristics
► Describe the electrical characteristics of a directional coupler.
Figure 250 takes the electrical block diagram of Figure 2 and overlays on it key RF characteristics of
the directional coupler. There are four common electrical characteristics as defined in the figure, and
two of the characteristics have been presented, however, they have not been formally named:
 Output loss: The loss the signal experiences as it goes from the input to the output of the
directional coupler. Two elements contribute to this loss, the signal power sent to the tap port
is not available to go to the output port, and the inevitable loss in the transformers and other
parts of the directional coupler.
 Tap Loss: The reduction in the input power desired to go to the tap port of the directional
coupler. This is also the tap value, and is specified by the system designer. Upstream signals
sent from customers on the tap pass through the tap and are attenuated by the same amount
as is the downstream signal routed to the tap from the headend. (Signal traveling in the
direction of the isolation line is undesirable.)
 Isolation: A measure of the amount of signal entering the tap port that reaches the output
port. No signal should get through this path, as it may contribute to noise interfering with
users downstream. However, some signal invariably gets through this “sneak path,” and must
be accounted for in the design of the plant.
 Return Loss: Applies individually at each port, though frequently only one number is listed in
the specifications, and this number is the worst-case measurement at any port. Return loss is a
measure of how much signal entering a port is “turned around” and sent in the direction it just
came from. It is also a measure of the impedance match of the tap to a transmission line. If you
fill a bucket partially with water and then drop a pebble into the water, you will see waves
ripple out from where the pebble landed, toward the edge of the bucket. When a wave strikes
the edge of the bucket, it will bounce back in the water. The same thing happens at the
directional coupler (or at any other piece of equipment the signal encounters). It is undesirable,
because the reflection can cause interference with the desired signal.

Figure 250: Electrical characteristics of directional couplers.
Reviewing Logarithms
It is important to put numbers on these specifications, but to lay the background quick review of
logarithms is helpful. The logarithm (log) is a mathematical function that converts multiplication to
addition, and division to subtraction. This makes it very convenient to keep track of signal levels,
gains, and losses when they are expressed in logs. However, there are some common gross misusages
of the terms, which will be identified accordingly. There are multiple ways to express logs, and only
the most common ways in which we use 10 as the base of the logs, called common logarithms, are
presented.
Exponentiation is the process of raising a number to a power. Say the number two is raised to the
first power (21), the result is that number, two. When it is raised to the second power, it is the
number itself times itself (22=2*2=4). (Note that this follows programming convention by using the
asterisk [*] for the multiplication sign, not X as is typically taught in school.) When it is raised to
the third power, it is the number itself times itself times itself (23=2*2*2=8), and so on. This is the
basis of logs, and logs are the basis of expressing ratios in terms of decibels.
The log of a number is the number which, when 10 is raised to that power, is that number.
Expressed it mathematically it is:
( )

The symbol means that this is a definition, in this case of a log. What means is that if 10 is raised
to the log of a number, x, then the result is x. There are ways of calculating the log of a number that
involve much higher mathematics than is necessary for this discussion. ‘They can be looked up in
tables, or more commonly, a scientific calculator can be used to find them by entering the number (x)
in calculator and then pressing the log button. (A scientific calculator or smartphone application is
required because simple four or five function calculators don’t have this function). Table 5 shows a
sampling of logs that you can use to practice calculating using a scientific calculator. Some of these
calculations are obvious: any number, including 10, raised to the 0 power is 1; 10 ra
ised to 1 is 10; 10 squared is 10 times 10, which is 100 Note that the log of 2 is 0.301 and that the log
of 20 is 1.301. 2 times 10 is 20, and from the table, we see that the sum of the logs of those two
numbers (0.301+1=1.301) is the same as the log of the product (2*10=20), as previously stated.
x log(x)
1 0
2 0.301
10 1
20 1.301
100 2
Table 5: Sample logs.
Applying Logarithms to Power Levels
To make the numbers easier to work with, and to properly relate them to certain physical properties,
signal levels are normally expressed in 10 times the log of the signal level ratio and this number is
called the decibel, deci meaning 10, abbreviated as dB. Normally, when abbreviating units, a letter
is capitalized under either of two conditions:
1. When it stands for a proper name. (In dB, the B is for Bell Telephone System which pioneered
the use of the quantity decibel.)
2. When it stands for a power of 103 (1,000) or 106 (1,000,000) and using the lower case could
cause confusion with a like quantity expressed in a power of 10 -3 (1/1,000). For example, 15
MHz is written for 15 megahertz, or 15 mHz for 15 milli-hertz (0.015 Hz). (The H in this case
stands for Heinrich Hertz, in which the unit of frequency is named.)
In comparing two powers, one twice the other, their ratio is written as:
10log(2)=3.01 dB, usually rounded to 3 dB
This is the fundamental use of the decibel in RF work, to compare two power levels. There are a
couple of extremely important (and misused) concepts in that last sentence:
 When working with decibels, it is always the ratio of two like quantities, be they watts, volts,
amps, etc. The logarithmic operation only applies to a pure number, not a number with units
attached. Since almost all our measurements have units attached, it makes sense to divide one
number by another, which cancels the units before the log is taken.

 Decibels are used to compare power levels. The two powers do not have to be measured in the
same impedance because power is power, regardless of the impedance in which it is measured.
For example, in measuring the power of a signal in a cable TV 75 Ω system, but the spectrum
analyzer has 50 Ω input impedance, 75/50 Ω transformer can be used to match the two
impedances and, ignoring any loss in the transformer an accurate power measurement is made
using the 50 Ω spectrum analyzer. But in cable TV, we mostly use a 75 Ω, and because the
units work out conveniently, signal level are expressed in millivolts. So how do we handle this
when working with dB?
This equation comes from Ohm’s law. The squared term in the voltage requires that we slightly
modify the way we use logs. Remember that 102 is equivalent to multiplying by 2. Thus, when
working in voltages, we multiply the log by 20 rather than by 10 address the square of the voltage.
Note that for constant power, the voltage will change with impedance (R), so only two power levels
are compared in terms of voltage if both measurements are made at the same impedance.
Wait just a minute! Wasn’t the statement made to always, without exception, use decibels to
compare two numbers? That still holds true but sometimes it is forgotten in the process of using
decibels. In cable TV, signal levels are expressed in decibels with respect to 1 mV, hence the term
dBmV, where mV is one millivolt. A voltage level of 1 mV is equal to 0 dBmV (
) Since log1=0, it is not proper to state a signal level is 0 dB, or a signal level is 0 dBs, and
neither is ever, under any circumstances, correct.
Tabulating Decibels
Table 6 illustrates ways to express signal level. Note that in a row, all the expressions are
equivalent; that is, taking the row for 0 dBmV, this is equivalent to saying 0 dBmV is 1.00 mV RMS,
or -48.75 dBm, or 0.000013 mW. For the first two columns involving voltage, this is only valid in a 75
Ω system. The last two columns are power measurements, and they are independent of the
impedance in which they are measured. (The reason there are zeros in some of the first power
columns is that the power level is so low that the power doesn’t register in the number of decimal
places presented. The next several numbers in that column are because the power is so low that the
spreadsheet rounded them off to one significant point.)

mV mV
dBmV Power dBmV Power
(RMS) dBm (RMS) dBm
(75Ω) (mW) (75Ω) (mW)
(75Ω) (75Ω)
-20 0.10 -68.75 0.000000 16 6.31 -32.75 0.000531
-19 0.11 -67.75 0.000000 17 7.08 -31.75 0.000668
-18 0.13 -66.75 0.000000 18 7.94 -30.75 0.000841
-17 0.14 -65.75 0.000000 19 8.91 -29.75 0.001059
-16 0.16 -64.75 0.000000 20 10.00 -28.75 0.001333
-15 0.18 -63.75 0.000000 21 11.22 -27.75 0.001679
-14 0.20 -62.75 0.000001 22 12.59 -26.75 0.002113
-13 0.22 -61.75 0.000001 23 14.13 -25.75 0.002660
-12 0.25 -60.75 0.000001 24 15.85 -24.75 0.003349
-11 0.28 -59.75 0.000001 25 17.78 -23.75 0.004216
-10 0.32 -58.75 0.000001 26 19.95 -22.75 0.005308
-9 0.35 -57.75 0.000002 27 22.39 -21.75 0.006682
-8 0.40 -56.75 0.000002 28 25.12 -20.75 0.008413
-7 0.45 -55.75 0.000003 29 28.18 -19.75 0.010591
-6 0.50 -54.75 0.000003 30 31.62 -18.75 0.013333
-5 0.56 -53.75 0.000004 31 35.48 -17.75 0.016786
-4 0.63 -52.75 0.000005 32 39.81 -16.75 0.021132
-3 0.71 -51.75 0.000007 33 44.67 -15.75 0.026603
-2 0.79 -50.75 0.000008 34 50.12 -14.75 0.033492
-1 0.89 -49.75 0.000011 35 56.23 -13.75 0.042164
0 1.00 -48.75 0.000013 36 63.10 -12.75 0.053081
1 1.12 -47.75 0.000017 37 70.79 -11.75 0.066825
2 1.26 -46.75 0.000021 38 79.43 -10.75 0.084128
3 1.41 -45.75 0.000027 39 89.13 -9.75 0.105910
4 1.58 -44.75 0.000033 40 100.00 -8.75 0.133333
5 1.78 -43.75 0.000042 41 112.20 -7.75 0.167857
6 2.00 -42.75 0.000053 42 125.89 -6.75 0.211319
7 2.24 -41.75 0.000067 43 141.25 -5.75 0.266035
8 2.51 -40.75 0.000084 44 158.49 -4.75 0.334918
9 2.82 -39.75 0.000106 45 177.83 -3.75 0.421637
10 3.16 -38.75 0.000133 46 199.53 -2.75 0.530810
11 3.55 -37.75 0.000168 47 223.87 -1.75 0.668250
12 3.98 -36.75 0.000211 48 251.19 -0.75 0.841276
13 4.47 -35.75 0.000266 49 281.84 0.25 1.059104
14 5.01 -34.75 0.000335 50 316.23 1.25 1.333333
15 5.62 -33.75 0.000422
Table 6: Ways to express signal levels.

Formulas for dBmV
Using a table will likely give you the information you need, however, it is important to have the
formulas to work with other signal levels. Also, studying the formulas leads to greater
understanding of what is happening.
1. To convert from mV to dBmV:

2. To convert from dBmV to mV:
3. To convert from dBmV in 75Ω to dBm:
4. To convert from mW to dBm:
5. To convert from dBm to mW: mW=
The exponent 10something is a way of writing the antilog, or inverse log function. It is typically printed
on a calculator button as 10x, or as Log-1. Note that, in relation to 1 and 4 above, the ratio of voltages
or powers involved is intentionally written out. This is to remind you that you are always working
with a ratio when working with logs. When expressing a level, it is never proper to say “10 dB” or “10
dBs.”
When is it proper to talk about “10 dB” (or some other number of dB)? It is proper when you are
comparing the output level to the input level (or vice versa), or comparing any other two signal levels
(measured in the same units). So, it is proper to say that a directional coupler has a loss to the tap
port of 8 dB, because you are comparing two levels – the tap output to the input. It is implied that
you are measuring two levels and taking the ratio, then expressing that in dB. You could do it that
way, but using an instrument that measures level in dBmV directly, you can simply take the
difference between the input and output levels in dBmV, and you know the loss.
For example, using a 7-dB directional coupler, the data sheet shows the tap loss at 450 MHz is
typically 7.3 dB and the output insertion loss is 2.2 dB. If a +30 dBmV signal is supplied at the input
of the directional coupler, then the level at the tap port is 30-7.3=22.3 dBmV. The signal at the
output is 30-2.2=27.8 dBmV.
Another important thing to note is when to use a minus in front of the reading. A lot of folks do this
wrong, too. When there is a loss, such as the loss between the input and the tap on an 8-dB
directional coupler, the loss is +8 dB (normally, the “+” is not included but is shown here to
emphasize the number is positive). Since a loss is being measured, the word loss carries the minus
sign. On the other hand, if gains (in amplifiers) and losses (in directional couplers and other devices)
are being added up, then you are working with gain, and when you come to a loss, you record it as a
negative gain, -8 dB in this case

Examining Actual Directional Couplers
► Review performance of some actual directional couplers.
It is very instructive to look at the real losses at each port as a function of frequency. Using
published data for the Arris SSP series we will compare the performance of different directional
couplers.
Analyzing Directional Coupler Tap Port Loss
The first parameter of interest is the tap loss, shown versus frequency, for three different value taps
(Figure 251). The loss of the 16 dB tap is the highest, so it is at the top of the graph, the 12 dB tap is
in the middle, and the 7 dB tap on the bottom. As is typical, there is a slight loss increase at each
end of the frequency band. At the low end, the RF chokes may be marginal, or the transformers in
the directional coupler itself may be marginal which happens over time. At the high end of the band,
the ferrite transformers may introduce more loss, and the wire used to wind them may develop more
loss due to the skin effect, in which current at progressively higher frequencies travels through a
progressively thinner cross-section near the surface of the wire.
Figure 251: Typical directional coupler tap loss specification graph. (Courtesy of Arris
Note that, for most of the frequency range, the loss versus frequency is quite flat. For this reason,
directional coupler (and splitter) loss is often referred to as flat loss. This is opposed to the highly
frequency-dependent loss of the coaxial cable itself, which is not flat over frequency. Cable loss might
be referred to as tilt loss.

Analyzing Directional Coupler Output Port Loss
Figure 252 shows the output loss for the directional couplers. The SSP-7N has the lowest tap loss;
that is, the maximum signal output is from this tap port. The inevitable consequence of getting more
signal out of the tap port is that there is less signal available for the output port, so the output loss
in Figure 7 is the highest of the three directional couplers.
Figure 252: Typical directional coupler output loss specification graph. (Courtesy of Arris)
Notice that the output losses of the 12 dB and 16 dB taps are close to each other. From a
conservation of energy standpoint, the output loss of the 12 dB directional coupler should be 0.326
dB, whereas it is actually about 1 dB. The output loss of a 16 dB tap (really 15.5 dB loss) should be
0.11 dB, yet it is just under 1 dB. There are a couple of reasons for this discrepancy, which occurs in
all directional couplers from all manufacturers, and they both come down to losses: nothing is 100%
efficient, not even a directional coupler. In looking at the 12 dB and 16 dB directional couplers, the
output loss is dominated by losses in the directional coupler itself, not due to the loss of the signal
that is sent out the tap port. For the 7 dB directional coupler, the situation is that so much of the
power is taken for the tap that the loss in the circuit is not dominant. In situations tap loss and
output loss, make sure to figure out the root cause of a low signal level and fix it at the source rather
than using an easy fix. For example, if a signal level down a side street fed by a 12 dB directional
coupler tap leg is lower than it should be, the easy to fix might be to change the 12 dB faceplate for a
7 dB faceplate. But don’t forget that you will be reducing the signal going down the main path by
about 1 dB. Do this a few times and you will be in trouble with the main path.

Comparing Directional Coupler Maximum and Typical Performance
Manufacturers often publish two sets of specifications, typical performance and worst case maximum
values. As an example, Figure 253 compares the typical and the maximum tap loss of the 7 dB
directional coupler. Note that the typical performance is about 0.6 dB better than the maximum loss.
Why two sets of numbers, and which set do we use? The reason is that there are going to be normal
production variations in performance. In this case of directional couplers, some of the many things
that will affect the exact numbers include but are not limited to:
 The detailed composition of the ferrite material used in the transformers

 The detailed composition of the ferrite material used in the RF chokes
 The purity and thickness of the copper and the insulation of the wire
 The exact position of the windings
 The loss of the printed wiring board material the directional coupler is built on
 The performance of the clips that connected the circuit board to the coaxial cable
 How hard you tighten the seizure screw on the coaxial cable
Figure 253: Typical vs. maximum directional coupler tap loss specification graph. (Courtesy of Arris)
After measuring enough production units, there are some statistics that the manufacturer can apply
to predict just how bad any parameter might get. And the engineers might add padding to that
number to ensure that units that fail to meet the worst-case specifications are not produced. When
designing a system, which specifications, typical or worst-case, should be used? It depends on the
scenario. If you are looking at the effect of level on one output of one directional coupler, you would
probably use the worst-case number, because when you are dealing with one directional coupler (or
one of anything), whatever you get, you need to ensure that getting the worst of the batch still works.
On the other hand, if you are dealing with a cascade of directional couplers, you might use the
typical value, because some of the directional couplers may be on the low side and some on the high
side, so it averages.

Looking at Isolation and Return Loss in a Directional Coupler
Figure 254 illustrates isolation and return loss. Both refer to signals going where they should not go,
and since higher numbers in the logs mean higher losses, the numbers should be as high as
practical.
Figure 254: Electrical characteristics of directional couplers.
Figure 255 illustrates the isolation of a typical directional coupler. Isolation in a directional coupler
refers to the amount of signal entering the tap port that goes to the output of the directional coupler.
The main signals that might enter the tap port and appear at the output are cable modem upstream
signals. There are some ways in which they might cause problems, however, it is not likely because
the signals are on lower frequencies than the downstream signals. There is another undesirable
signal in the downstream band that can cause disruption if too much of it goes downstream. Every
TV traditionally emits a local oscillator signal, which is supposed to use the local oscillator internal
to the TV only. Inevitably, some signal gets out and, if too much of it goes downstream by crossing
the isolation barrier, it might interfere with a desired downstream signal. The most recent TVs use
digital techniques to process the signal, so virtually no local oscillator signal is emitted.

Figure 255: Isolation graph of a 12 dB directional coupler. (Courtesy of Arris)
Figure 256 illustrates the return loss at any port of the directional coupler. The higher the return
loss, the less signal is returned to where it came from. Poor (low) return loss in a cable network can
produce ghosting in analog systems, and can produce echoes and suck-outs in digital signals, making
the desired signal harder to demodulate and turn into useful bits. This is typical of modern products,
and usually does not represent much of a problem, however, significantly lower measurements may
indicate a bad directional coupler, which needs to be replaced.
Figure 256: Return loss graph of a 12 dB directional coupler. (Courtesy of Arris)
For both return loss and isolation, manufacturers often provide bands of frequencies in which the
specification will not exceed the number stated. To make the curves in the graphs look a bit more
like what is expected, the frequencies are plotted at the geometric mean of the frequency band on the
datasheet, where

Where f1 is the lowest frequency and f2 is the highest frequency in the band.
Handling Power Through the Directional

Couple
► Describe how power is handled by directional couplers.
Directional couplers must pass power to amplifiers, and that power absolutely does not pass through
the transformers in the directional coupler. Rather, the power has to be separated at the interfaces
to the directional coupler, and a way to route power around the transformers (from any port to any
port) is required. This is because the power supply may be located anywhere in the distribution
plant, and if two power supplies are used in the same leg of the plant, they must be isolated from
each other.
Figure 257 is a simplified schematic of the power passing features of the directional coupler. Power
blocking capacitors stop the 60 Hz power from getting to the directional coupler transformers. They
are sized to offer very high impedance to the 60 Hz voltage, but to pass 5 MHz and up, where 5 MHz
is the low end of the RF band required to pass. Power passes through the inductors, which are also
called chokes because they choke off the RF from that path. At the same time, they pass the 60 Hz
power. Plug-in fuses in each leg of the directional coupler protect against shorts in the plant, and
allow power to be routed as designed. For example, if power is brought in at the IN port and needs to
go out on both the OUT and TAP ports, you would leave all three fuses installed. If power should be
passed to the OUT port but not to the TAP port (say there are no amplifiers on the TAP leg), then
you would remove fuse F3. If power should be passed from the TAP port (say the power supply was
located there), and it should be passed to the IN port but not the OUT port, then you would remove
fuse F2.

Figure 257: Power passing in a directional coupler.
You never want to couple two power domains. Let’s say that there was a power supply on the IN port
and a different one on the OUT port. You must remove either F1 or F2. If you leave them both in,
there is a risk that the power will be out of phase on the two power supplies, and they will conflict
with each other, at least until one fails or a fuse blows.

How are directional couplers built?
What are the four common directional coupler electrical characteristics?
What are decibels used for?

What is a consequence of getting more signal out of the tap port?
What happens if there is poor return loss in a cable network?

MODULE 2
EXAMINING POWER INSERTERS
Introduction to Examining Power Inserters

In a broadband cable system, the power inserter takes the 60 or 90 VAC from the power supply and
injects it into the cable plant. It does this without allowing any of the RF to go down into the power
supply. After the power inserter is on the cable plant, it shares the same transmission path as the
RF signal and is used to power system amplifiers. The operation and application of the power
inserter is examined so that we can properly maintain and troubleshoot the AC powering of a
broadband cable system. This knowledge is also required so that you can replace a damaged power
inserter and quickly restore system operation. The mechanical components, electrical characteristics,
theory of operation, and application of power inserters is described in detail.
Power Inserter Mechanical Components

This topic covers the mechanical components of power inserters, including anti-corrosion options,
gaskets, housing, and faceplates.
► List the mechanical components of a power inserter.
Anti-Corrosion Options – Power inserters consist of a housing and faceplate, with a resin coating
or an epoxy or polymer coating, to resist corrosion.
Gaskets – All common brands of power inserters have an RFI gasket, which is basically an
aluminum screen. This prevents cable signals from leaking out into the atmosphere (egress) or
external signals from leaking into the cable plant (ingress). There is also a rubber environmental
gasket to keep moisture and contaminants out of the power inserter. Some power inserters have the
RFI gasket in the faceplate and the environmental gasket in the housing. Some brands have both
gaskets in the housing, and others have both gaskets in the faceplate.
Housing – Power inserter housings are similar to splitter and directional coupler housings, with two
right-angled ports which allows for connector entry from various locations, (useful for underground
plant applications), a seizure screw mechanism, and a male interconnect pin for each AC and RF/AC
cable connection. The male interconnect pin is part of the housing-faceplate electrical
interconnection. In power inserters, as in other RF line passive devices, AC voltage and/or RF signals
pass from one housing port through interconnect pins, through the faceplate, and through
interconnect pins to another housing port. There is a mounting tap and a strand clamp for aerial or
pedestal installation on the back of the housing.
Faceplates – There are various examples of faceplates that you may run across depending on the
manufacturer. For example, one manufacturer has on their faceplate: (1) the electronic components,
including fuses, and the female interconnect pins; (2) the cover bolts; and (3) the RFI gasket. Another
manufacturer has all the above plus the environmental gasket.
Power Inserter Electrical Characteristics
► List the electrical characteristics of power inserters.
The power inserter passes the desired frequencies (forward and reverse), combines the RF signals
and AC voltages, and directs RF/AC signals to certain ports with minimum insertion loss. It has a
specified port-to-port isolation and sufficient RF isolation (RFI) or electromagnetic interference
(EMI) shielding. Figure 258 shows a basic layout of a power inserter, where the view is expanded on
the lower left side to show the basic interior of a power inserter. The power inserter takes voltage,
either 60 or 90 VAC, from the power supply and injects it into the cable plant. The power inserter is
a pass-through device for the RF main lines. There is a small insertion loss from input to output,
typically less than 1 dB. There is circuitry inside the power inserter so that the RF signal does not
get onto the AC line, and the AC can be directed onto one or both RF lines using fuses. The fuses, F1
and F2, direct power (60 VAC or 90 VAC) to either or both RF lines. The capacitor, C1, allows RF
energy to pass through but does not allow the power to go through. The indicators, L1 and L2, stop
RF signal from getting on the AC line. In general, there is an inverse relationship between inductors
and capacitors in regards to frequency. The lower the frequency, an inductor appears as a short
circuit and a capacitor appears as an open circuit. The higher the frequency, a capacitor appears as a
short circuit and an inductor appears as an open circuit. Power operates at 60 Hz, and RF energy is
about 25 MHz on the return and greater than 50 MHz on the forward.
Examining Power Inserters

Figure 258: Basic layout of a power inserter
Power inserter specifications for power passing are rated at 60 VAC and 90 VAC. Manufacturers’
specifications typically list the input (AC side) at 15A, and the output ports (RF legs) at 10A each.
Isolation and insertion are significantly different from those specifications for splitters and
directional couplers from the same manufacturer. Table 8 shows the average taken from various
manufacturers.
Minimum Isolation Values
Manufacturer 5 30 50 400 450 550 600 750 1000 MHz

Average 58 56 56 55 54 53 52 48 45 dB
Minimum Insertion Loss Values
Manufacturer 5 30 50 400 450 550 600 750 1000 MHz

Average 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.2 1.4 dB
Table 7: Manufacturers averages for isolation and insertion loss.
Power inserter values for hum and return loss are identical, or similar to, those specifications for
splitters and directional couplers in a brand name series. As shown in Table 2, bandwidth for most
manufacturers today are up to 1000 MHz. Common brands of power inserters have an RF isolation
specification of at least 100 dB.
Hum Values
Manufacturer 5 30 50 450 550 750 1000 MHz

Average 65 68 68 68 65 64 63 dB
Return Loss Values
Manufacturer 5 30 50 450 550 750 1000 MHz

Average 17 18 19 19 18 17 16 dB
Table 8: Manufacturers averages for isolation and insertion loss.
Power Inserter Theory of Operation
► Describe the theory of operation of a power inserter.
A power inserter's internal circuitry passes both forward (or downstream) and reverse (or upstream)
RF signals while combining 60/90 VAC onto one or both of its RF/AC ports. Installing or removing a
fuse passes or blocks AC voltage from the AC input port to an RF/AC port. In , AC voltage is passed
to both RF/AC ports because both fuses are installed. The fuses provide over current protection to in-
line components and to amplifiers.
Figure 259: Power inserter internal circuitry.

The power inserter prevents RF signals from going to the AC input port, and AC voltage from
passing between the two RF/AC ports. RF and AC voltage signals are isolated and combined by the
internal filtering networks, shown in the block diagram in Figure 260. The low-pass filter network
passes 60-Hz 60/90 VAC from the power supply to downstream and/or upstream amplifiers on the
trunk cable. It also prevents RF signals from passing through the AC input port to the power supply.
The high-pass filter network passes RF signals between the two RF/AC ports and blocks 60-Hz 60/90
VAC between the same two ports.
Figure 260: Example of a block diagram of a power inserter with RF/AC signal flow and filter networks.
As previously explained, a capacitor appears as a short circuit at high frequencies and as an open
circuit at low frequencies, as well as how an inductor appears as a short circuit at low frequencies
and as an open at high frequencies. This is where circuit resistance is inversely proportional to
frequency. Figure 261 shows a schematic diagram of the faceplate of a Magnavox 9-LPI power
inserter. The electronic components are mounted on the circuit board of the faceplate. The circuit
contains the capacitors and inductors of the filter networks. The feedthrough capacitor C1 (1,000 pF)
passes RF signals between RF/AC Port #1 and RF/AC Port #2 with its low reactance (e.g., 0.29 Ω at
550 MHz). Capacitor C1 blocks 60-Hz 60/90 VAC with its high reactance (e.g., 2.65 MΩ at 60 Hz).
Inductor L5 (0.5 MHz) passes 60-Hz 60/90 VAC with its low reactance (e.g., 0.19 Ω at 60 Hz), while
blocking RF signals with its high reactance (e.g., 1.72 MΩ at 550 MHz).

Figure 261: A schematic diagram of the faceplate-mounted electronic components in a Magnavox 9LPI power inserter. (Courtesy of
C-COR, a Division of Arris)
► Calculate the capacitive and inductive reactances in the power inserter filtering
networks.
The capacitive (XC) reactance can be calculated for 60 Hz and 550 MHz using the formula in Figure
262A. To calculate the capacitive reactance (XC) of C1 at 550 MHz, as shown in Figure 262B, (1)
multiply 2π times the frequency times the capacitance value to obtain a resultant; and (2) take the
inverse of that resultant (divide that number into 1 to obtain the capacitive reactance in ohms. Use
the same formula to calculate the capacitive reactance at 60 Hz (using 60 in place of 550 × 106 for
the frequency), as shown in Figure 262C.

Figure 262: Calculating the capacitive reactance of C1 at 550 MHz and at 60 Hz.
The inductive (XL) reactance can be calculated for 60 Hz and 550 MHz using the formula in Figure
263A. To calculate the inductive reactance (XL) of L5 at 60 Hz, as shown in Figure 263B, multiply 2π
times the frequency times the inductance value to obtain the inductive reactance in ohms. Use the
same formula to calculate the inductive reactance at 550 MHz (using 550× 106 in place of 60 for the
frequency), as shown in Figure 263C.

Figure 263: Calculating the inductive reactance of L5 at 60 Hz and at 550 MHz.

Power Inserter Application

Install power inserters on the input side of the amplifier nearest a broadband cable power supply
(Figure 264A). This installation procedure minimizes RF signal reflections and/or AC voltage loss
from the coaxial cable's directional coupler loop resistance. Only the RF/AC Port #1 fuse is installed
in the power inserter in Figure 264A to pass AC voltage to only downstream amplifiers. Both RF/AC
Ports #1 and #2 fuses are installed in the power inserter in Figure 264B to pass 60/90 VAC to both
downstream and upstream amplifiers.
Figure 264: Power inserters supplying AC power to downstream and/or upstream amplifiers by appropriate fuse installation.

Notice that the AC input port maximum current rating is larger than the RF/AC port maximum
current rating for some brands of power inserters. For example, referencing Figure 264B for
simplicity, the power inserter is placed at the input to Trunk/bridger Amplifier #2, and it feeds
Trunk/bridger Amplifiers #1, #2 and #3 with power. If each trunk/bridger amplifier and their
additional associated amplifiers require 4 amps, then at least a 4-amp fuse on one side of the power
inserter and an 8-amp fuse on the other side of the power inserter is required, and the AC input port
would require at least a 12-amp fuse. For each power inserter, the system design must ensure that:
(1) the current required by any one RF/AC port does not exceed that port's power-passing
specification (e.g., 10 or 12 amps); and (2) the current required by both RF/AC ports does not exceed
the AC input port power-passing specification (e.g., 12, 14, or 16 amps). For any power inserter,
install the fuse size required by your system specifications.
Figure 265 shows a 100' length of 0.500" PIII copper clad coaxial cable between the power supply and
the power inserter. This length of cable carries the total current requirement of all supplied
amplifiers of 12 amps.
Figure 265: Coaxial cable voltage loss reduces the AC voltage available to the power inserter. (Courtesy of CommScope)
► Calculate the voltage loss on the coaxial cable between the power supply and
the power inserter.
Some voltage loss occurs on the coaxial cable between the power supply and the power inserter. To
calculate the coaxial cable voltage loss: (1) obtain the directional coupler loop resistance value (1.72
ohms/1,000 feet) for 0.500-inch PIII coaxial cable from Figure 266A; (2) divide the cable length (in
feet) by 1,000, and multiply that resultant by the directional coupler loop resistance to obtain the
total loop resistance (Figure 266B); and (3) multiply the total loop resistance by the total current
requirement to obtain the voltage loss (Figure 266C).

Figure 266: Calculating the voltage loss on the coaxial cable between the power supply and the power inserter AC input port.
(Courtesy of CommScope)
Subtract the voltage loss from the output AC voltage level of the power supply to obtain the power
inserter AC input port voltage level (Figure 267). To minimize AC voltage loss, it is a good idea to
minimize the cable length between the power supply and the power inserter.
Figure 267: Calculating the AC voltage level at the power inserter AC input port.

List and describe the purposes of the two types of gaskets found in all common power inserters.

What RF and/or AC electrical specifications are significantly different for power inserters
compared to RF line splitters and directional couplers from the same manufacturer?
What RF and/or AC electrical specifications are identical or similar among power inserters, RF
line splitters, and directional couplers in a brand name series?
What is the effect of installing or removing a power inserter fuse?
What is the coaxial cable voltage loss on the cable between the power supply and the power
inserter when: (1) the cable length is 150'; (2) the cable's DC loop resistance is 1.07 Ω/1,000'; and
(3) the total current requirement for amplifiers supplied by that power inserter is 11 A?

Working with RF Taps (321-31-7) Page 315
LESSON 12: Working with RF Taps (321-31-7)
 Identifying Types of Taps

 Identifying RF Tap Mechanical Components
 Examining RF Tap Electrical Characteristics
 Understanding the Theory of RF Tap Operation
 Considering RF Tap System Design Criteria
MODULE 1
IDENTIFYING TYPES OF TAPS
Introduction to Identifying Types of Taps

The tap is the most common RF line passive in a broadband cable distribution system, and two main
types of RF taps exist: feed-through and terminating. There are also special function taps, enabled
by hybrid fiber/coax (HFC) networks, known as addressable, RF/AC bypass, and power distributing
taps. An RF line tap extracts a specified portion of the RF input signal from the coaxial feeder cable,
and directs it to individual tap ports for separate customer drops. Knowing the available types of
taps is essential to maintaining and troubleshooting RF line taps, as well as reducing replacement
time.
Identifying Feed-Through and Terminating

Taps
Though similar in many of their functions, important differences exist due to the distribution roles
feed-through and terminating taps perform. It is, therefore, important to understand the distinctions
between these two-line taps. Both types are commonly available, pursuant to broadband operator
distribution requirements, with either two (Figure 268A), four (Figure 268B), or eight (Figure 268C)
tap ports for customer drop connections. These are called two-, four-, and eight-way taps,
respectively. Manufacturers also make both types with features that provide for addressability, RF
and power continuity during faceplate removal, and network power distribution to the customer
premises.
Identifying Types of Taps

Figure 268: Common brands of feed-through taps with different numbers of tap ports.
As shown in Figure 269, a two-way tap is usually identified as a circle, a four-way tap is usually
identified as a square, and an eight-way tap is usually identified as a hexagon (6 sides) on a cable
map or schematic
Figure 269: Tap symbology.
Describing Feed-Through Taps
► Describe the function of feed-through and terminating taps.

A basic feed-through tap passes both the RF signals and the AC powering voltage from the input
port to the output port while directing a small portion of the input RF signal to each tap port. Feed-
through taps have specified tap port and output port insertion losses, which are covered later in this
lesson. An arrow on the tap's faceplate indicates the downstream or forward RF signal direction. You
can install a 75 Ohm (Ω) line passive terminator on a feed-through tap's output port to enable that
tap to function as an end-of-line terminating tap.
Describing Terminating Taps
A self-terminating tap (Figure 270) is the last tap installed at

the end of a feeder cable run. It has no need for an output port
signal and, therefore, does not pass any RF signals or AC
voltage to its output port. Since this type of tap does not pass
AC voltage, it cannot feed a line extender. Instead, all the RF
signal passes directly to the individual tap ports. In a basic
terminating tap, filters prevent the AC voltage from entering
the tap ports. A terminating tap's specified decibel value (loss)
basically reflects the same loss that would occur in a splitter
providing a like number of output ports. As the name suggests,
no need exists for you to install a separate 75 Ω line terminator
at the output port as required with feed-through taps. Customer
equipment connected to the drops will act as the load. However, Figure 270: A two-way terminating tap.
you should terminate unoccupied tap ports per your company's
policy.
Identifying Special Function Taps

Economic factors and expanded customer services demand that tap designs take on additional
performance features beyond the simple routing of RF signals. These features include: (1)
addressability; (2) the ability to maintain RF and AC continuity during faceplate servicing; and (3)
the ability to provide a network powering interface for customer premises telephony equipment.
Using Addressable Taps
► Describe the function of addressable, RF/AC bypass, and power distributing

taps.

At a cable system, customer churn and service

upgrades/downgrades create the need for costly truck rolls. An
addressable tap (Figure 271) can control cable service activation
and the level of authorized services from a central office
location, often eliminating many of those truck rolls. The degree
to which the tap can control services ranges from a simple on/off
switching of the broadband signal at the tap port to authorizing
and engaging any of various service level tiers.
Figure 271: An addressable tap in an aerial

cable plant. (Courtesy of Electroline
Equipment)
Using RF/AC Bypass Taps
Often a technician must remove a tap's faceplate for replacement, or as a part of a signal leakage
isolation procedure. Removing the faceplate of a basic tap with the RF components has the
undesirable effect of disconnecting the cable service for all customers downstream from that point. It
also disconnects powering for downstream amplifiers and any other network-powered equipment.
RF/AC bypass taps avoid this problem by having the added ability to maintain RF signal and AC
voltage continuity during tap faceplate removal. Typically, the tap design accomplishes this with
some type of shorting bar with bypass contacts (Figure 272A) that spring into place across the
housing input and output ports when the faceplate is removed (Figure 272B).
Figure 272: RF/AC bypass mechanism for Lindsay GHz tap. (Courtesy of Lindsay Electronics)


Describe the function of a basic feed-through tap.
Where do you install a terminating tap installed on the feeder cable?
Does a terminating tap have an output port signal?
Which tap port configurations are available in common brands of feed-through and terminating
taps?
What is the function of addressable taps?
What is the advantage of using an RF/AC bypass tap over a basic tap design?

MODULE 2
IDENTIFYING RF TAP MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
Introduction to Identifying RF Tap Mechanical

Components
Complete mechanical knowledge of the interface between the tap's housing and faceplate, and
identification of interrelated components, is essential to concise RF line tap repair. The housing and
faceplate provide easy installation and troubleshooting access, protect the electrical components from
the environment, and minimize RF signal ingress. The tap housing is the structural body of the tap.
The tap faceplate mates to the tap housing and contains the tap ports for connection to customer
drops.
Describing the Tap Housing
► List a tap's housing components.
A tap housing is the structural body of the tap that permits connection to the feeder cable, strand,
and customer drops. The input port and output port in the tap housing both have two right-angled
ports, a seizure screw mechanism, and male or female housing/faceplate interconnect pins. The
housing may contain no gaskets (Figure 273A), an RFI or environmental gasket (Figure 273B), or
both gaskets (Figure 273C). Regardless of the configuration, the housing and faceplate combined to
create a tap, will have both an environmental and RFI gasket. The back of the housing has a
threaded mounting tap and strand clamp for attachment to the aerial strand or an underground
pedestal or vault installation. The back of the tap housing also has a strip gauge for measuring the
required length of the pin connector's pin or the coaxial cable's center conductor (Figure 273D).
Figure 273: Examples of tap housings.
Describing the Tap Faceplate
► List a tap's faceplate components.
The tap faceplate contains the tap ports that provide the signals for individual customer drops. It
secures to the tap housing with attached cover bolts. Manufacturers often make the tap ports of
brass to resist corrosion. Common brands of taps also have "keyed" shape faceplates to correctly
align the faceplate with the housing. Clearly visible numerals on the faceplate identify the signal
loss to each tap port. Some tap faceplates, two-way, four-way, and eight-way series, are all
interchangeable with a standard tap housing (Figure 274A). Other manufactured taps have
interchangeable two-way and four-way tap faceplates (Figure 274B), but require a different housing
for the eight-way tap faceplate (Figure 274C).
Identifying RF Tap Mechanical Components

Figure 274: Examples of feed-through taps with interchangeable and noninterchangeable faceplates.
The interior side of a faceplate contains the electronic circuitry, plastic component cover, and male
or female faceplate/housing interconnect pins, and may contain the RFI and environmental gaskets
as shown in Figure 275A (the faceplate of the tap housing interior). Some faceplates may contain
only one gasket (Figure 275B) or no gaskets. Regardless of the configuration, the housing and
faceplate combined to create a tap, will have both an environmental and RFI gasket. A terminating
tap faceplate does not have an output port interconnect pin because it does not pass any signals to
the output port (Figure 275C).
Figure 275: Examples of feed-through and terminating tap faceplates.


What components are on the back of the tap housing?
Describe how brands of taps differ in their interchangeability of faceplates with housings.
Why does the terminating tap faceplate not have an output port interconnect pin?

MODULE 3
EXAMINING RF TAP ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Introduction to Examining RF Tap Electrical

Characteristics
RF line taps have electrical characteristics for passing RF signals and AC voltage, minimizing hum,
and isolating undesired signals. Understanding how these electrical specifications vary among taps
will help you troubleshoot abnormal feeder signal levels, maintain the feeder cable, and replace the
tap faceplates. Ensure you understand a tap's electrical characteristics including, isolation, tap loss
and tap value, insertion loss, bandwidth, return losses, and AC power.
Defining Isolation
Isolation represents to what extent one portion of a tap separates itself from other portions with
respect to back-feeding interference. A tap has two types of isolation rating developed from a bench
test: (1) the tap-to-tap isolation; and (2) the tap-to-port isolation.
Defining Tap-to-Tap Isolation
► List the two types of isolation values for taps.
Tap-to-tap isolation is the signal attenuation between any two individual customer tap ports at a
specific frequency, with all other ports terminated. Tap-to-tap isolation inhibits undesired RF signals
on one tap port from interfering with desired RF signals on another tap port. The higher the
isolation value, the better the isolation between the tap ports. Tap-to-tap isolation values are
available from the tap manufacturers. Table 9 lists the tap-to-tap isolation values for some common
four-way taps.
Minimum Tap-to-tap Isolation Values:

Four-way Taps
10-29 30-749 750-899 900-1,000 MHz
21 24 20 19 dB
Table 9: Tap-to-tap isolation values for some common brands of four-way taps.
Defining Tap-to-Port Isolation
Tap-to-port isolation (also known as tap-to-out, out-to-tap, or tap-out isolation) is the signal
attenuation between the output port and any individual customer tap port at a specific frequency,
with all other ports terminated. Tap-to-port isolation attenuates undesired RF signals on the output
port, reducing their interfering effect on the desired signals at the tap ports. This isolation also
inhibits undesired signals on any tap port from interfering with desired signals on the output port.
Tap-to-port isolation values are available from the tap manufacturers. Table 10 lists common tap-to-
port isolation values for two-way taps.
Tap-to-port Isolation Values: Two-way Taps

Two-way Taps
Tap Value 10-29 30-749 750-899 900-1,000 MHz
4 N/A – Terminating Tap
8 20 22 20 20 dB
11 20 24 22 22 dB
14 20 26 25 24 dB
Min.
17 24 30 28 28 dB
Values
20 29 33 31 31 dB
23 30 36 34 24 dB
26 34 38 36 36 dB
29 34 40 38 38 dB
Table 10: Common tap-to-port isolation values for two-way taps.
Defining Tap Loss
► Define the electrical characteristics of tap loss, insertion loss, bandwidth, and
return loss in taps.
Examining RF Tap Electrical Characteristics

Tap loss is the signal attenuation between the input port and each customer tap port at a specific
frequency. The tap loss determines the RF signal level available at each customer tap port.
Manufacturers offer taps with various tap loss to meet the cable system level requirements at
different customer locations along the feeder cable. Nominal tap loss generally increases with an
increase in frequency. In some instances, there is a slight decrease in nominal tap loss when the
frequency increases. For example, shows that a common nominal tap loss of an 18 value eight-way
tap is 18.0 dB at 50 MHz, 18.5 dB at 330 MHz, 18.2 dB at 550 MHz, 17.9 dB at 750 MHz, and 18.8
dB at 1,000 MHz. Table 11 also lists common nominal tap loss values for other eight-way taps.
Nominal Tap Loss Values:

Eight-way Taps
Tap
10 30 50 100 330 450 550 600 750 860 1,000 MHz
Value
12 10.7 10.6 10.6 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.6 11.9 12.2 10.0 dB
15 13.8 13.7 13.7 14.4 14.6 14.7 14.6 14.7 15.2 15.7 16.7 dB
18 17.8 18.0 18.0 18.3 18.5 18.4 18.2 18.0 17.9 18.1 18.8 dB
21 19.4 20.5 20.5 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.6 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 dB
24 22.3 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.3 24.3 24.3 24.2 24.3 25.1 dB
27 25.5 26.5 26.6 26.9 26.8 26.7 26.7 26.7 27.0 27.2 27.8 dB
30 28.8 30.7 30.8 30.7 30.6 30.4 30.3 30.2 30.3 30.1 30.4 dB
Table 11: Nominal tap loss values for eight-way taps.
The tap value printed on the faceplate label references the tap
loss (Figure 276). The faceplate label is often color-coded for
quick identification of the tap value. When it is necessary and
you are authorized to change the tap port's output signal level,
install a different faceplate. To increase the customer tap port
signal level, replace the original faceplate with a smaller
numbered faceplate. To decrease the customer tap port signal
level, install a larger numbered faceplate. It is usually
recommended that a system or maintenance technician
performs the installation after ensuring that setup levels are
correct.
Figure 276: Example of tap value and color
code for faceplate labels.

Defining Insertion Loss

Insertion loss is the signal attenuation between the tap's input port and output port. This loss,
sometimes referred to as "through loss," varies with the frequency of the RF signal. Generally, as the
RF signal frequency increases, the insertion loss increases. For example, Table 12 shows that an 11-
value tap has an insertion loss of 3.5 dB at 50 MHz and 5.4 dB at 1,000 MHz.
Maximum Insertion Loss Values:

Four-way Taps
Tap
10 20 50 100 200 330 450 550 600 750 860 1,000 MHz
Value
8 (N/A – Terminating Tap)
11 3.6 3.5 3.5 4.0 4.2 4.3 4.3 4.4 4.7 5.1 5.2 5.4 dB
14 1.9 1.5 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.4 2.9 3.3 4.0 dB
17 1.2 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.2 dB
20 1.0 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.6 1.6 1.8 dB
23 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.6 dB
26 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.4 dB
29 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.2 1.2 1.3 dB
Table 12: Common maximum insertion loss values for four-way taps.
A tap's insertion loss also depends upon the tap loss. The greater the tap loss (i.e., the larger the tap
value), the smaller the insertion loss. Again, referring to Table 12, note that an 11 value four-way
tap has 5.4 dB of insertion loss at 1,000 MHz. At the same frequency, a 29 value four-way tap has
only 1.3 dB of insertion loss. Table 12 also lists the insertion losses, by frequency and tap value, of
other four‑ way taps.
Specifying Bandwidth
The bandwidth is the range of frequencies the tap passes. The tap must pass both the downstream
(forward) frequencies (54-1,000 MHz) and the upstream (return) frequencies (5-42 MHz).

Understanding Return Loss

Return loss indicates the amount of signal reflected by a tap. Typical minimum return loss values are
15-20 dB for the input, output, and tap ports of common brands of taps. In this case, the reflected
signal will be 15 dB to 20 dB lower in signal level than the incoming signal to each port. A 20 dB
return loss means the power level of the reflected signal is 100 times less than the power level of the
original signal. (Remember, 20 dB = 100:1 power ratio.) Table 13 lists the input port, output port,
and tap port return loss values for common two-way taps.
Minimum Return Loss: Two-way Taps

Port 10-29 30-599 600-899 900-1,000 MHz
Input port 17 18 17 16 dB
Output port 17 18 17 16 dB
(except terminating taps)
Tap port 16 18 16 16 dB
Table 13: Minimum return loss values for common two-way taps.
Passing AC Power
To understand how taps pass AC power downstream, you need to examine their power-passing
capabilities as well as hum modulation.
Examining Power-Passing Capabilities
► Recognize the relationship between AC power and RF taps.
As the sample system design map shows in Figure 277, some taps must be able to pass AC power for
the downstream line extender amplifier(s). Notice in this example that the taps and feeder cable
installed after the last line extender are not required to pass AC power, but still have the capability
to do so if an extension or network powering for telephony is required. Each manufacturer's design
determines the amount of the tap's current-carrying or power-passing capacity. A tap's design
typically allows it to handle a maximum of 6 to 8 amps of continuous current.

Figure 277: A cable system design map and the power-passing values for some common brands of taps.
Recognizing Hum Modulation
Hum modulation is the amount of 60-120 Hz low-frequency signal on an analog RF video carrier
signal. It usually shows up as one or two horizontal bars moving vertically through an analog TV
picture. Hum modulation is specified as a percentage or a decibel value. Table 14 lists common hum
modulation percentages and corresponding hum dB values.
Percentage of Hum Modulation Hum Values

5.00% 26 dB
3.00% 30 dB
1.00% 40 dB
0.10% 60 dB
0.06% 64 dB
0.04% 68 dB
0.03% 70 dB
Table 14: Hum modulation conversion table
The amount of hum modulation introduced by a tap is specified at the tap's maximum power-passing
value. lists the hum modulation values in dB for some common brands of taps.

Hum Values (at 8 amps)

1 - 49 50 - 599 600 - 749 750 – 1,000 MHz
64 70 64 60 dB
Table 15: Common tap hum values.

Define the two types of isolation in taps.
What does tap-to-tap isolation inhibit?
What does tap-to-port isolation inhibit?
Define tap loss.
What two ways can the tap's faceplate label identify a tap's value?
To increase the customer tap port signal level in an installed tap, should the new, replacement
faceplate have a larger or smaller tap value number than the original faceplate?
What is a tap's insertion loss, and how does it vary with frequency?

How does the insertion loss value vary with the tap loss value within a full range series of taps?
What is return loss in a tap?
What is the range of typical minimum return loss values for common brands of taps?
What active devices on a feeder cable receive AC power passed by taps?
How does hum modulation display itself in an analog TV picture?

MODULE 4
UNDERSTANDING THE THEORY OF RF TAP OPERATION
Introduction to Understanding the Theory of

RF Tap Operation
The theory of tap operation is essential to maintaining and troubleshooting RF line taps. Knowledge
of the operation of the tap will help you to efficiently troubleshoot feeder problems, maintain the
feeder system, or replace taps due to damage or system redesign. Detailed knowledge of tap
operations includes the distribution of RF signals and the tracing of AC voltage in feed-through taps
and terminating taps.
Tracing Signal Distribution in Feed-Through

Taps
Cable systems install taps along the feeder cables that distribute signals from output ports of optical
nodes and bridger and distribution amplifiers. The feed-through tap combines the signal efficiency
and isolation of a directional coupler with the signal-dividing characteristics of an RF line splitter.
Figure 278 shows the RF signal distribution in an eight-way feed-through tap through its directional
coupler and splitter network portions. The RF signals enter the tap through the coaxial feeder cable
at the tap's input port. The directional coupler portion of the tap efficiently routes most of the signal
to the output port, while routing a lesser amount of the signal to the splitter network. The tap's
insertion loss determines the RF signal level at the output port. An insertion loss of 1.0 dB for the
tap in Figure 278 causes the tap's output port signal level to measure 1.0 dB less than the tap's input
port signal level. Tap loss of the 23-dB value tap in Figure 278 is a combination of both the
directional coupler tap leg loss and splitter network loss. The RF signal sent to the splitter network
first decreases by 12.5 dB on the tap leg of the directional coupler portion of this tap. Next, there is a
3.5 dB decrease at each of the three levels of signal divisions within the splitter network portion of
the tap. This results in a total tap loss of 23.0 dB (12.5 dB + 3.5 dB + 3.5 dB + 3.5 dB) between the
tap's input port and each tap port. Figure 278 illustrates the RF signal path and resulting losses to
only one of eight tap ports. The other tap ports perform similarly.
Figure 278: A simplified diagram of the RF signal distribution in an eight-way feed-through 23 dB value tap to one tap port.
Figure 279 illustrates output port and tap port RF signal levels in an eight-way tap at 550 MHz and
50 MHz. According to manufacturer specifications, this tap's nominal insertion losses are 0.9 dB at
550 MHz and 0.7 dB at 50 MHz, and its nominal tap losses are 24.3 dB at 550 MHz and 24.1 dB at
50 MHz. With input port RF signal levels of 38.0 dBmV at 550 MHz and 34.0 dBmV at 50 MHz, this
tap has resulting output port signal levels of 37.1 dBmV at 550 MHz (Figure 279A) and 33.3 dBmV
at 50 MHz (Figure 279B). Each customer tap port signal level is 13.7 dBmV at 550 MHz (Figure
279A) and 9.9 dBmV at 50 MHz (Figure 279B).
Figure 279: The output port and tap port RF signal levels in an eight-way feed-through tap at the highest and lowest used forward
carrier frequencies.
Understanding the Theory of RF Tap Operation

Figure 280 contains the formula to calculate an output port RF signal level. To calculate the output
port signal levels shown in Figure 279A, follow the calculations in Figure 280B and Figure 280C:
subtract the tap's insertion loss at 550 MHz or 50 MHz from the input signal level at the same
frequencies.
Figure 280: Calculating the tap's output port RF signal levels at the highest and lowest used carrier frequencies.
To calculate the tap port signal levels shown in Figure 279, use the formula in Figure 281A and
follow the calculations in Figure 281B and Figure 281C: again, subtract the tap loss at 550 MHz or
50 MHz from the input signal level at the same frequencies.
Figure 281: Calculating the tap port RF signal levels at the highest and lowest used video carrier frequencies.

Tracing Signal Distribution in Terminating

Taps
The terminating tap has an input port and two, four, or eight tap ports. The input port routes the RF
signals directly to the splitter network, as shown in the simplified diagram of an eight-way
terminating 12 dB value tap in Figure 282A. There is no directional coupler as in a feed-through tap.
The splitter network splits the RF signals into the desired number of tap ports. There is 3.5 dB
decrease at each of the three levels of signal division in the 12 dB value tap in Figure 282A. This
results in a total tap loss of 10.5 dB (3 × 3.5 dB) between the tap's input port and each tap port.
Figure 282A shows the RF signal path and reduction to only one of eight tap ports. Each tap port has
the same signal level. The chart in Figure 282B lists the tap values and nominal tap losses of
terminating taps at various frequencies.
Figure 282: RF signal distribution in an eight-way terminating tap and the nominal tap loss values in terminating taps.
The only signal loss in a terminating tap is the tap loss. Figure 282B shows that the 12 value eight-
way terminating tap has nominal tap losses of 11.4 dB at 550 MHz and 10.6 dB at 50 MHz. With
input port RF signal levels of 23.0 dBmV at 550 MHz and 22.0 dBmV at 50 MHz, this tap has tap
port RF signal levels of 11.6 dBmV at 550 MHz (Figure 283A) and 11.4 dBmV at 50 MHz (Figure
283B). The tap port RF signal levels are calculated in Figure 283C and Figure 283D using the
formula in Figure 281A (covered in a previous topic).

Figure 283: The tap port RF signal levels in an eight-way terminating tap at the highest and lowest used carrier frequencies.
Passing AC Voltage
► Contrast RF signal distribution and AC voltage paths in feed-through taps and

terminating taps.
Often, when taps are installed on the feeder cable at the output
of an optical node or distribution amplifier, the taps are
required to pass AC voltage further along to power downstream
line extender amplifiers. In a feed-through tap, the tap's circuit
board has a low-pass coil that passes the 60 Hz AC voltage
directly between the input port and the output port (Figure
284). The RF signals, blocked by the low-pass filter, are instead
routed to the output port through the directional coupler portion
of the feed-through tap. Terminating taps have no output port
and do not pass AC voltage.
In the field, check AC voltages with a digital multimeter

Figure 284: The low-pass coil on the
(DMM). Do this by first removing the input or output port faceplate circuit board of an eight-way feed-
seizure screw cap. Then, touching the seizure screw with the through tap.
positive (+) probe and the tap housing with the negative (–)
probe, note the indicated voltage reading.


You can divide the RF signal distribution components of a feed-through type tap into which two
portions?
Describe the two loss components that combine to make up the total tap loss of an eight-way feed-
through tap.
Describe how the routing of RF signals in a terminating tap differs to that in a feed-through tap.
What is the purpose of the low-pass coil in a tap's circuitry?

MODULE 5
CONSIDERING RF TAP SYSTEM DESIGN CRITERIA
Introduction to Considering RF Tap System

Design Criteria
Each tap is selected to fit specific design requirements of a specific location on the feeder cable. The
system design maps specify the type of tap (feed-through or terminating), the number of tap ports,
and the tap value for each installed tap, based upon the number of potential customers and RF
signal levels available at that tap's location. It is important to understand these variables in the
application of taps to interpret cable system design maps, calculate tap signal levels, and maintain
the feeder system. You need to know how to select the number of tap ports and tap values, and how
to calculate cable system design signal levels on the feeder cable.
Selecting Number of Tap Ports
► Explain what determines the number of tap ports and the tap value in selecting
a tap for a specific location on the feeder cable.
The number of ports on a tap should be adequate to accommodate all the potential customers at a
specific site. Manufacturers make environmentally-protected taps available in two-, four-, and eight-
port configurations. You install taps either: (1) individually on the feeder cable (Figure 285A) for
single residences; or (2) in multiples in MDU (multiple dwelling unit) lock boxes (Figure 285B). Tap
value selection, location, and installation are determined by the system design.
Figure 285: Examples of tap installations.
► Identify two-way, four-way, and eight-way taps on a cable system design map.
The portion of a cable system design map in Figure 286A shows how systems commonly use two-way
taps where you can access only one or two homes from a location on the feeder cable. Standard cable
system design maps represent a two-way tap as a circle, a four-way tap as a square, and an eight-
way tap as a hexagon, with the tap value number inside the symbol. Systems in more densely
populated areas use four-way taps along back easements and alleys where one location can serve
four homes (Figure 286B). Eight-way taps are: (1) used individually in a cluster of residences, such
as duplex, triplex, or four-plex housing; or (2) connected together in MDU lock boxes for apartment
buildings (Figure 286C).
Considering RF Tap System Design Criteria

Figure 286: Examples of single and multiple tap installations.

Selecting Tap Value

The selection of a tap value depends on the tap's location on the feeder cable in relation to the output
of the nearest optical node or upstream line extender amplifier. As the RF signal travels through
coaxial feeder cable, the signal is attenuated. In general, the closer the tap is to an amplifier's output
port, the higher the tap value (as shown in Figure 287A). As the distance from the amplifier
increases, taps with lower values are installed to ensure each customer receives an adequate signal
level. Lower value taps can show up close to a node or amplifier when there is considerable
attenuation from line passives preceding the tap. Figure 287B lists the input and output signal
values of these various components.
Figure 287: The tap locations and RF signal levels at various stages along the feeder cable.
Calculating Tap Signal Levels

Figure 288A shows the tap locations in a portion of a cable system design map. Figure 288B lists the
associated input and output signal levels of the taps and other components found on the design map
in Figure 288A.

Figure 288: The tap locations and RF signal levels at various stages along the feeder cable.
Calculating the input and output RF signal levels in Figure 288B requires knowing the coaxial cable
loss rate specifications, the splitter's insertion loss values, and the tap's insertion and tap loss
values. Table 16 lists these design parameters, as specified by the manufacturers. We use these
parameters in the calculations that follow.
Design Parameters for Components

Parameters at 50 MHz at 550 MHz
Insertion loss 4.4 4.5 dB

Two-way RF line splitter
First tap
Tap loss 23.0 23.0 dB

Second tap

Third tap
Insertion loss N/A* N/A*

Fourth tap
Tap loss 6.8 6.8 dB
Coaxial cable
Cable loss 0.54 1.82 dB/100’
(CommScope 0.500” PIII copper-clad)

Design Parameters for Components

*Not applicable; non-terminating tap
Table 16: The design parameters for components.
Back in Figure 288A, the two-way RF line splitter's input port signal level is equal to the line
extender's output port signal level because the splitter connects directly to the line extender's output
port. Similarly, the first tap (a two-port, 23 dB value tap) has an input port signal level that is equal
to the splitter's output port signal level because the tap is connected directly to the splitter's output
port. Figure 289A contains the formula to calculate the splitter's output port signal level. Follow the
calculations in Figure 289B and Figure 289C: subtract the splitter insertion loss at 550 MHz or 50
MHz from the splitter input port signal levels at the same or closest frequencies.
Figure 289: Calculating the two-way RF line splitter output port signal levels at the highest and lowest used carrier frequencies.
► Calculate the input port, output port, and tap port signal levels in a feed-
through tap on a cable system design map.
Use the formula in Figure 290A to calculate the output port signal levels for the first tap in Figure
290A. Calculations are shown in Figure 290B and Figure 290C.

Figure 290: Calculating the first tap's output port RF signal levels at the highest and lowest used carrier frequencies.
The formula in Figure 291A is used to calculate the tap output levels. The formulas for calculating
individual customer tap port signal levels at 550 MHz are shown in Figure 291B and at 50 MHz in
Figure 291C.
Figure 291: Calculating the first tap's individual customer tap port RF signal levels at the highest and lowest used carrier
frequencies.
To calculate the input port signal level for the second tap in Figure 288A, calculate the cable loss
using the formula in Figure 292A, the cable loss rate specifications in , and the cable span lengths in
Figure 288A. To calculate the cable loss for the first cable span, as shown in Figure 292B and Figure
292C: multiply the cable loss rate specification closest to 550 MHz and 50 MHz times the cable span
length expressed as 100‑ foot units.

Figure 292: Calculating the total cable loss in the first cable span for the highest and lowest used carrier frequencies.
Figure 293A contains the formula to calculate a tap's input port signal level, using the previous tap's
output level and the calculated total cable loss on the cable span preceding the subject tap. To
calculate the input port signal level for the second tap in Figure 288A, as illustrated in Figure 293B
and Figure 293C, subtract the total cable loss at both 550 MHz or 50 MHz from the first tap's output
signal level at the same or closest frequencies.
Figure 293: Calculating the second tap's input port RF signal levels at the highest and lowest used carrier frequencies.
The second tap's output port signal level is calculated at 550  MHz in Figure 294A and at 50 MHz in
Figure 294B, using the formula in Figure 290A. Individual tap port signal levels are calculated in
Figure 294C and Figure 294D, using the formula in Figure 291A. Insertion and tap loss values are
from Table 16.

Figure 294: Calculating the second tap's output port and customer tap port RF signal levels at the highest and lowest used carrier
frequencies.
The input port, output port, and customer tap port signal levels for the third tap in Figure 288A are
calculated in Figure 295 and Figure 296. The cable loss for the cable span preceding the third tap is
calculated for both 550 MHz and 50 MHz in Figure 295A and Figure 295B respectively, using the
formula in Figure 292A. Figure 295C and Figure 295D use the acquired cable loss figures to
calculate the third tap's input port signal levels, using the formula in Figure 293A.
Figure 295: Calculating the second cable span's cable losses and the third tap's input port RF signal levels at the highest and lowest
used carrier frequencies.

Figure 296: Calculating the third tap's output port and customer tap port RF signal levels at the highest and lowest used carrier
frequencies.
The third tap's output port signal levels are calculated in Figure 296A and Figure 296B, using the
formula in Figure 290A. The customer tap port signal levels are calculated in Figure 296C and
Figure 296D, using the formula in Figure 291A.
The third cable span's cable loss and the fourth tap's input port and customer tap port signal levels
are calculated in Figure 297, using the same formulas employed in calculations for the second and
third taps. There is no output port signal level calculation for the fourth tap, because it is a
terminating tap, as shown in Figure 288A. In this case, the entire signal passes directly to the
customer tap ports.

Figure 297: Calculating the third cable span's cable loss and the fourth tap's input port and customer tap port RF signal levels at the
highest and lowest used carrier frequencies.

Describe typical residential settings for the use of two-way, four-way, and eight-way taps.
Which symbols represent two-way, four-way, and eight-way taps and tap values on standard cable
system design maps?
What determines selection of tap value?
Why are taps with lower tap values installed as the distance from the amplifier increases?

What is the input port RF signal level for a four-way feed-through tap at 50 MHz when: (1) the
preceding tap's output port signal level is 30.0 dBmV at 50 MHz; (2) the cable length between the
two taps is 130 feet; and (3) the cable loss specification is 0.54 dB/100 feet at 50 MHz?
What are the output port and individual customer tap port RF signal levels for a four-way feed-
through tap at 50 MHz when: (1) the input port signal level is 29.3 dBmV at 50 MHz; (2) the
insertion loss is 1.1 dB at 50 MHz; and (3) the tap loss is 20.0 dB at 50 MHz?
What are the input port and individual customer tap port RF signal levels for an eight-way feed-
through tap at 550 MHz when: (1) the preceding tap's output port signal level is 35.0 dBmV at
550 MHz; (2) the cable length between the two taps is 120 feet; (3) the cable loss specification is
1.82 dB/100 feet at 550 MHz; and (4) the tap loss is 17.8 dB at 550 MHz?

Line Extender Setup and Operations (328-33-2) Page 351
LESSON 13: Line Extender Setup and Operations

(328-33-2)
 Recognizing the Role of the Line Extender

 Performing Preliminary Checks on a Line Extender
 Setting up the Forward Section of a Line Extender
 Setting up the Return Section of a Line Extender
MODULE 1
RECOGNIZING THE ROLE OF THE LINE EXTENDER
Introduction
Line extenders, also known as feeder amplifiers, are the most widely deployed amplifier in the
modern hybrid fiber/coax (HFC) architecture. The origin of the term "line extender" in the context of
the cable television industry is unknown, but it is likely because strategic placement of feeder
amplifiers "extends" the cable system deeper into neighborhoods, thereby extending the line.
Understanding the proper applications and operating characteristics of a line extender enables the
technician to better recognize the causes of some problems and what effects any changes may have
on the system's operation. Even though the line extender is a fairly unsophisticated amplifier,
understanding its operating characteristics helps optimize its application, setup, and alignment.
Considering the Operational Characteristics of

Line Extenders
► Recognize line extender applications.
Looking at Line Extender Applications – To understand how a line extender "extends" the
signal deeper into the cable system, compare the examples in Figure 298. Figure 298A shows a
simplified feeder system that is fed from the distribution amplifier to a maximum distance of about
900 feet. Note: Replacing the last tap in the series with a single line extender (Figure 298B) doubles
the distance to the farthest customer premises.
Recognizing the Role of the Line Extender

Figure 298: A feeder system with and without a line extender.
It is common to find line extenders used as distribution amplifiers to feed the different units in
multiple dwelling units (MDU) such as apartments, hotels, and dormitories. Figure 299 shows a
diagram of a line extender connected to a series of 16-port splitters dedicated to each floor in a hotel.
Figure 299: A line extender distributing service to 64 hotel rooms.
In this application, the splitter network, by itself, will have 24 dB of loss which, when added to the
cable loss to each room, could add another 6 to 10 dB of loss for a total loss of up to 34 dB. The line
extender's high-gain capabilities (typically 28 to 35 dB of gain), offsets this loss to provide
satisfactory signal levels to each room.

Examining Line Extender Characteristics
► Understand typical line extender characteristics.
Understanding the Power Options – Line extenders can be powered from the cable system or
from a 120 volts of alternating current (VAC) source. Those powered from the 120 VAC source are
usually used in MDU applications and are not capable of passing AC to other devices in the system.
Line-powered line extenders, those powered from the cable system, are most common and have an
operating input voltage range of 30 to 90 VAC. They can be configured to be powered from the input
or output ports, and to block or pass line AC to other active devices with up to 15 amps of current.
The amount of current drawn to operate a line powered line extender is dependent on two variables:
the input voltage and the power supply type used within the line extender.
There are two types of power supply used in line extenders that convert the AC voltage to DC
voltage, the linear power supply and switching mode power supply (SMPS). The linear power supply
(Figure 300) uses conventional technology and electronic components to drop and convert the
incoming AC voltage to an unregulated DC voltage range before additional filtering and voltage
regulation can provide a filtered 24 volts of direct current (VDC).
Figure 300: Block diagram of a linear power supply.
Operating efficiencies of a linear power supply can range from 40% to 60% and because it regulates
the AC voltage at its native 60 Hz frequency, the electronic components (a power transformer and
filter capacitor) are physically larger than the comparable components used in the SMPS. The input
AC voltage operating range of the linear power supply is limited, so the proper tap on the input
power transformer (a switch or a physical tap selection, see Figure 301) must be selected for the
correct AC voltage for proper power supply operation.

Figure 301: An input voltage select switch on a line extender.
On linear power supplies, the higher the input AC voltage, the less current drawn, conversely, the
lower the input AC voltage, the more current is drawn by the line extender.
The switching mode power supply (Figure 302) is used in consumer electronics devices such as TVs
and computers for many of the same reasons they are used in line extenders. The power transformer
and filter capacitor have been replaced by switching components (usually a switching transistor,
switching transformer, and support circuitry), which are smaller and lighter and at lower cost than
the linear power supply. The SMPS operates within a wide AC input voltage range, its output
voltage is tightly regulated, and its operating efficiency ranges from 50% to 80% which generates less
heat than the linear power supply. The high frequencies generated by the electronic switching
circuitry can be loud and painful to some ears, so the SMPS is usually shielded to reduce the noise
volume and to protect the technician from accidental electrical shock. Transient filtering is also used
on the SMPS input to prevent the high-frequency components from feeding into the AC power
source.

Figure 302: A diagram of a switching mode power supply.
Examining Line Extender Output Levels

The feeder portion of any cable TV system architecture is where the majority of signal loss occurs.
The cable, taps, and splitters necessary to distribute the signal and connect to customer premises all
contribute to signal loss. Except for the drop cable and tap losses, the individual losses seem
inconsequential. When added together, these losses are cumulative and unequal across the frequency
spectrum, therefore they must be considered when the system is designed and line extender
operation parameters are determined.
When adding all of the losses in Figure 303A from the line extender output to the customer premises,
the total signal loss at Channel 78 (550 MHz) is 44.33 dB as compared to the signal loss on Channel
2 (54 MHz) which is 23.46 dB (Figure 303B).

Figure 303: A comparison of signal losses at two frequencies.
The signal differential, 20.87 dB, between Channel 78 and Channel 2 can be troublesome, since a
minimum signal level of 0 dBmV on Channel 78 could be too much signal (over 23 dBmV) on
Channel 2. Adjusting the output of the line extender so that its output is sloped 9 dB from Channel
78 to Channel 2 closes the signal differential to 11.87 dB.
Understanding the Performance Characteristics of a Line Extender
The performance cost of any high-gain amplifier is an increased susceptibility to the generation of
intermodulation distortion products. In addition to compensating for unequal losses across the
frequency spectrum, the sloped output of a line extender reduces the intermodulation distortion, by
approximately .5 dB for every 1 dB of slope. This means that setting the output slope of a line
extender to 9 dB from the highest channel to the lowest channel, improves the distortion from that
line extender by 4.5 dB.
Examining the Effects of Cascading Line Extenders
When two amplifiers with similar distortion characteristics are in cascade, there is a 6 dB
degradation in their combined intermodulation distortion performance. To offset this penalty, it is
common practice to reduce the output level of cascaded line extenders by 3 dB, which improves the
distortion performance for each line extender by 2 dB for every 1 dB of signal reduction, for a 6 dB
overall improvement in each line extender. When the distortions of the two line extenders are added,
the distortion characteristics are the same as that of a single line extender operating at the normal
output level. The table in Figure 304 compares the intermodulation distortion contribution from line
extenders in cascade operating at normal output levels and at output levels reduced by 3 dB.

Figure 304: Cancelling the effect of intermodulation distortion when line extenders are in cascade.
Because the signal levels fed into each line extender are designed to be at or well above the line
extender's minimum input level, there is no penalty of increased noise as a result of reducing or
derating the output from the line extender.
Recognizing the Role of the Test Point
► Understand the importance of knowing the line extender test point

characteristics.
The original role of the test point was to provide a sample of the signals going in and out of the line
extender's forward amplifier for alignment and troubleshooting purposes. Alignment of the return
amplifier in the line extender requires the test points to be repurposed as signal injection points.
Because signal flows in both directions in the test point, a redesign is not necessary, but the location
and value of the test point in line extender circuitry must be considered. The emergence of additional
services on the return path has resulted in some manufacturers providing additional test/injection
points in the line extender return path circuitry.
There are two types of test points used in most line extenders: the high-impedance, resistive type
and the directional coupler type. The table in Figure 305 summarizes the characteristics of each.

Figure 305: A comparison of the two types of test points.
Module diagrams, schematics, or spec sheets are the only definitive methods of determining the test
point type. Knowing which type of test point is used is helpful, but of greater importance is knowing
the test point value, which is the amount the signal is attenuated between the line extender's
circuitry and the measured/injected signal level. The test point value must be known by the
technician in order to take accurate measurements and inject test signals at the correct levels. The
test point values are normally found on the module cover or marked on the housing but there is
always some risk that these values are incorrect. As when identifying the test point type, module
diagrams, schematics, or spec sheets are the most definitive methods of determining the test point
value.
Maintaining Consistent Signal Levels
Line extender output levels are set using a combination of variable and fixed-value attenuator pads
and equalizers. Assuming that levels from the headend and fiber-optic receiver are consistent and
the cable system is sound, the only reason signal levels should change is when there are temperature
changes in the aerial cable plant. Buried, underground cable is insulated by the ground and is
usually not affected by temperature changes.
As the temperature increases, the cable attenuation increases and, conversely, as the temperature
decreases, so does the attenuation. Generally, the cable attenuation will change 1% for every 10°
variance in temperature from 68° Fahrenheit (F), which is the reference temperature for most
attenuation specifications. The effect that the temperature will have on the signal level is most
dependent on the amount of cable attenuation. As shown in the table of Figure 306A, an 80° F
temperature increase for 8 dB of cable, at 68° F, increases the cable loss by only .6 dB. Figure 306B
shows how a longer span of cable, with 24 dB of cable attenuation at 68° F, is affected more by the
80° F temperature increase, which causes the cable attenuation to increase by 1.9 dB.

Figure 306: Comparing the effects of changing temperatures on cables of different lengths.
Note that the high frequencies are affected more than the low frequencies by temperature change
because there is more attenuation at the higher frequencies. Jacketed aerial cable in direct sun could
be elevated as much as 45° F higher than the air around it. This possibility is factored into the table,
up to 148° F.
► Explain the different methods of maintaining the line extender output.
Line extender manufacturers offer two methods of maintaining consistent signal levels on their
output when their input signal levels change: thermal control and automatic level control (ALC).
Thermal control utilizes passive circuitry, which includes a thermistor with a negative temperature
coefficient. The thermal circuitry adjusts the internal attenuation in the line extender as the
temperature changes to maintain a consistent output level from the line extender.
ALC samples an analog video carrier, and then uses active circuitry to convert that carrier to a DC
voltage that is used to control an electronic attenuator circuit. To maintain a consistent output level,
when the sampled analog video carrier drops in level, the ALC circuitry reduces the amount of
attenuation and, conversely, increases the attenuation when the sampled analog video carrier rises
in level.

ALC correction is usually immediate if there is an immediate input change. Thermal correction may
take a few minutes to compensate during an input change, which resembles the change in the cable's
attenuation. ALC and thermal control are necessary only in aerial applications, and are to be used as
specified in the system design.

Why is a line extender used in an MDU?
What are three advantages of SMPS uses in a line extender versus a linear power supply?
What is the effect of using an incorrect test point value when measuring input signal levels to a
line extender?
What happens when a thermal control is installed within a strand-mounted line extender,
supplied by buried underground cable?

MODULE 2
PERFORMING PRELIMINARY CHECKS ON A LINE

EXTENDER
Introduction
When servicing a line extender or any other amplifier, there are a number of checks that should be
performed to evaluate the line extender's operating condition. All amplifiers require DC power in
order to operate. Testing an amplifier should include checking the power source — both the incoming
AC and the resulting DC that is converted from the AC.
Line extenders are frequently used to route power to other devices within the cable system, so it is
important to understand how that is done along with the different power options and routes.
A mechanical inspection should be performed whenever the line extender housing is opened and
closed and should include: checks for water damage, proper installation of test port plugs, clean
installation of the rubber weather seal and RF gaskets, tightened housing bolts, and proper
installation of the covers to the line extender, with screws tightened and in place.
Delivering AC Power to a Line Extender
► Learn how power is directed in different line extenders.
Line extenders powered from the cable system, referred to as line powered, can be configured to be
powered from the input or output ports, and to block or pass AC to other active devices with up to 15
amps of current. The block diagram of Figure 307 shows the flow of AC through a line extender.
Figure 307: The AC path through a line extender.
The AC comes into the line extender with the RF signal and passes through an RF choke (Figure
308), which blocks the RF from the AC path, thereby separating the AC from the RF signal. Figure
307 is drawn so that it includes two different methods of routing power through a line extender. The
first method, option 1, requires two jumpers to pass power from input to output. This method
accommodates powering the line extender from the input or output ports. Note, the line extender
may be turned off when neither jumper has been installed. In the second method, option 2, the line
extender can pass or block power from the input to the output, but when powered from the output,
power is passed to the next upstream device.
Figure 308: An RF choke on a line extender.
Identifying Power Directors
► Recognize the different power directors.
Performing Preliminary Checks on a Line Extender

Power directors come in various packages, ranging from a conventional slide switch to a simple wire
(Figure 309A). In between, a variety of blade and cartridge-type fuses may be used as well as power
shunts (Figure 309B), suitcase jumpers (Figure 309C), and thermal fuses/breakers (Figure 309D).
Figure 309: Examples of power directors used in line extenders.
Measuring AC and DC Voltages
► Recognize what are typical and acceptable voltage measurements.
When servicing a line extender it is a good practice to measure the applicable AC and DC voltages. If
the AC voltage is outside of the line extender's operating range, the DC power supply may not
provide the required DC voltage regulation, which will cause the entire amplifier performance to be
degraded. There are up to four voltage measurements that should be taken: the input AC voltage,
the unregulated DC voltage, the regulated DC voltage, and the AC ripple voltage on the regulated
DC voltage. The table in Figure 310 shows typical voltage measurements..
Figure 310: Typical line extender voltage measurements.

► Safely measure the AC and DC voltages required for line extender operation.
Caution should be observed when measuring any voltage to avoid electrical shock, damage to line
extender components, and inadvertent service interruptions. Unless the line extender covers are
insulated, they should be removed when taking voltage measurements to avoid shorts to ground.
Meter test probes should be insulated and in good condition and the negative or black meter lead
should be connected to the line extender ground, and the positive or red meter lead should be used to
touch the appropriate measurement points.
Voltage measurements are made using a digital multimeter (DMM). The appropriate measurement
mode, AC voltage or DC voltage, should be selected on the meter for the measurement to be made,
and the range setting should be above the anticipated measurement, yet low enough to read the
voltage to within half a volt. When in doubt about which voltage range to choose, select the highest
available, then reduce the voltage range on the DMM until the measured voltage is at the top of the
range. For example, if the voltage ranges on a DMM are 2, 20, 200, and 2,000 volts and the
measurement is 24 volts, the 2 and 20 volts scales are too low and the 2,000 volts scale is too high.
When taken on the 200 volts scale, the measurement may actually be 23.8 volts, which is more
resolution than could be obtained using the 2,000 volts scale, and would read 24 volts.
Taking Input AC Voltage Measurements
There are multiple points on a line extender module where the AC voltage may be measured,
including the seizure screw, AC power director, and AC test point. When identified on the module
cover, the AC test point should be used since it is likely the most accessible. When no AC test point is
available, the power director is usually accessible after removing the module cover. Measuring the
AC voltage at the seizure screw is not always possible without removing the line extender from the
housing.
Measuring the Unregulated DC Voltage
It is necessary to check the unregulated DC only on those line extenders having linear power
supplies. These line extenders will have a power transformer and a test point labeled "unregulated
DC," or some other nomenclature. The unregulated DC voltage provides an accurate indication of the
incoming AC voltage without requiring the use of a true root mean square (RMS) DMM.
Figure 311 schematically shows the power transformer, and how it steps the incoming AC voltage
down to a manageable range for rectification and measurement at the unregulated DC voltage test
point on the output of the rectifier.

Figure 311: Adjusting a linear power supply's power transformer to the AC voltage
If the incoming AC voltage drops below a certain level, the unregulated DC voltage will be outside of
what is necessary for the power supply to provide a regulated +24 volts DC. Changing the tap on the
power transformer (by physically moving the tap or by switch selection) adjusts the transformer's
step-down voltage ratio level, thereby keeping the output AC voltage and unregulated DC voltage
within the correct operating range.
► Know what to do if the measured unregulated DC voltage is outside the desired

operating range.
To measure the unregulated DC on a line extender: set the DMM to measure DC voltage on the
appropriate scale; connect the black or – test probe to ground; connect the red or + probe to the
unregulated DC test note the voltage measurement. If the voltage measurement is outside the
correct operating parameters, select a different tap on the power transformer by changing the switch
selection (when applicable) or by moving the transformer tap (Figure 312).

Figure 312: Verifying the raw DC switch position and measuring the raw DC voltage on a line extender.
If this brings the unregulated DC voltage within the specified voltage range, leave the switch in this
position and record this measurement. As additional line extenders are added downstream of a line
extender, it is possible for the unregulated DC voltage to drop below the previous measurement.
System design maps will usually have a recommended position for the power transformer's tap
selection. Switching mode power supplies (SMPS) provide DC voltage regulation over a wider AC
voltage input range, and therefore do not require nor offer an unregulated DC voltage test point.
Measuring the Regulated DC or B+ Voltage
The regulated DC or B+ voltage is the power source for the internal forward and return amplifiers
within the line extender. In most line extenders, the B+ voltage should be +24 volts DC, ±.5 volt. On
some line extenders the B+ voltage can be adjusted with a potentiometer but, for most, if the
measured voltage is outside of the specified voltage range and the unregulated DC (when applicable)
is within range, the line extender should be replaced.
To measure the regulated DC or B+ voltage on a line extender: set the DMM to measure DC voltage
on the appropriate scale; connect the black or – test probe to ground; connect the red or + probe to
the B+ or DC test point; record the voltage measurement (Figure 313A).
Figure 313: Measuring the B+ voltage and AC ripple on a line extender.

AC ripple is the remaining AC on the DC output of a power supply. Hum or other impairments could
occur if the AC ripple is too high, as a result filter circuitry in the DC power supply removes most of
the AC ripple from the regulated DC output. When measuring AC ripple, the measurement is for AC
on the DC output, so the lowest AC measurement scale on the DMM should be used to measure less
than 20 millivolts (mV), or .02 volts of AC on the DC output. It does not matter if the DMM is a true
RMS or average reading DMM.
Measuring the AC Ripple on the Regulated DC or B+ Voltage – To measure the AC ripple on

the regulated DC or B+ voltage on a line extender: set the DMM to the lowest AC voltage scale;
connect the black or – test probe to ground; connect the red or + probe to the B+ or DC test point;
note the voltage measurement (Figure 313B).

What component in the line extender prevents RF from following the AC signal path through the
line extender?
List four different types of power directors.
What is the expected B+ voltage from the line extender power supply?
If a DMM has AC voltage ranges of 200 mV, 2 V, 20 V, 200 V and 2,000 V, which ranges should
be selected to measure the AC voltage into a line extender and the AC ripple?
What should be done if the unregulated DC voltage measurement on a line extender is outside of
its specified range?

MODULE 3
SETTING UP THE FORWARD SECTION OF A LINE

EXTENDER
Introduction
After the preliminary tests have been made, the forward section of the line extender can be checked,
set up, and aligned. In most cases, the system maps provide adequate detail regarding what
accessories to install and what level to set the output of the line extender. Understanding how the
placement of these accessories can affect the performance of the line extender aids the technician
when aligning the output of the line extender and seeking the best performance.
Discussing Line Extender Alignment
► Recognize what test equipment is required to set up a line extender.
Rough balancing is the accepted practice used to set up and align line extenders. Rough balancing
uses a signal level meter (SLM) to determine the required equalizer (EQ) and attenuator pad values
so as to adjust a line extender's output RF signal levels to meet the design requirements of the
broadband cable system. Most line extenders operate with a sloped output to improve the amplifier
performance. To aid the equalizer selection and simplify the setting of the output slope, Cisco's
service provider video technology group (SPVTG or Scientific Atlanta/SA), recommends the use of a
True Tilt Correction Network (TTCN) simulator to be used as a tool to aid the alignment of line
extenders.
Defining Slope and Tilt

The distinction between slope and tilt, terms that are frequently interchanged, must be recognized.
Tilt results when a broadband signal, or group of signals, is attenuated more at one end of the
operating frequency spectrum than the other end. Normally, the higher frequencies are attenuated
more than the lower frequencies due to the length of the cable resulting in negative tilt. Positive tilt
occurs when there is not enough cable loss to attenuate the higher frequencies. Coaxial cable
normally creates negative tilt, and an equalizer compensates by attenuating the low frequencies to
compensate (Figure 314A). A cable simulator has attenuation characteristics, similar to cable, and is
used to compensate for positive tilt (Figure 314B).
Figure 314: An equalizer and cable simulator create a flat signal to the input amplifier.
Slope is created by an amplifier module to provide less gain at the lower frequency range and greater
amplification at the higher frequencies. This calculated output setting of an amplifier module is used
primarily to improve its distortion performance. Most amplifier modules have two amplifier stages
(Figure 315). When properly aligned, the input levels into the first amplifier stage will be of equal
value, and at a low enough signal level, so that this amplifier boosts the signal equally across its
bandwidth with minimal generation of intermodulation distortion products. Therefore, a second
amplifier stage is necessary to provide enough output from the amplifier module.
Figure 315: Creating a sloped output from a line extender.
Setting up the Forward Section of a Line Extender

The amplified signal from the first amplifier stage has a flat frequency response and is at a high
enough level that, when amplified equally by the second amplifier stage, its output will contain a
significant number of intermodulation distortion products. Adjusting the input to the second
amplifier so that it has a positive tilt, reduces the number of intermodulation products generated
because the low frequency carriers are amplified at a lower level. Mathematically it is the low
frequency carriers that add, subtract, and otherwise combine to create intermodulation distortion
beats which occur within the total bandwidth of the amplifier.
The result is an output from the amplifier module that is sloped with the high frequency carriers
being of higher amplitude than the low frequency carriers. This helps compensate for the inherent
negative tilt of the passive devices in a cable network.
Identifying the Forward Test Points
► Know where to measure the input and output RF signals.
The location, value, and type of test point used, can vary by line extender model and manufacturer.
Choosing an incorrect test point or test point value could cause line extender levels to be set to
incorrect levels. The line extender module cover usually has the test point location and value labeled
and is the quickest way to identify the test point and its value. When the cover is not available or the
test point information is not on the cover, it may be necessary to consult the operator's manual for
this information. If these options are not available, assume and confirm by checking with other
technicians that the test port on the left side of the line extender (lid open and below the module
Figure 316) is the input forward test point, and the test point to the right of module is the output
forward test point. To determine if the test point is a directional coupler or a high-impedance
resistive type, the specific operator's manual must be consulted.
Figure 316: Forward test points.

Choosing the Forward Reference Carriers
► Understand which forward carriers should be used as reference carriers for line
extender setup.
The referenced channels for setting output levels should be the highest analog carrier and the lowest
analog carrier, which is normally Channel 2. Using channels above Channel 2 and below the highest
analog carrier, as reference carriers, increases the slope of the line extender. The graph in Figure
317 illustrates how using Channel 4 (67.25 MHz) and Channel 68 (487.25 MHz) as reference
carriers, instead of Channel 2 (55.25 MHz) and Channel 78 (547.25 MHz) on a 550 MHz system,
increases the line extender slope above the desired 9 dB.
Figure 317: A comparison of slope results when using different reference carriers.
As broadband cable systems convert analog channels to digital carriers, it may become necessary to
have continuous wave test carriers generated in the headend to facilitate the alignment of line
extenders and the recording of signal levels in the field.
Using a True Tilt Correction Network

Using the True Tilt Correction Network (TTCN) to set the output slope of a line extender simplifies
the adjustment of the output slope settings. The TTCN is a cable simulator available in various tilt
values. The value of the TTCN should be equal to the specified sloped output from the line extender.

Figure 318A shows the tilt of a 9 dB TTCN. When plugged into the output of an amplifier (Figure
318B), with a sloped output (9 dB) equal to the value of the TTCN (Figure 318C), the measured
carrier levels will appear to be flat (Figure 318D) across the frequency spectrum. The use of the
TTCN removes any slope errors that result from using incorrect reference carriers.
Figure 318: Using a TTCN to set the output slope of a line extender.
Although the TTCN was developed by Scientific Atlanta, it can be used with other manufacturer's
equipment with the same output slope. It is suggested that the output levels be set without the
TTCN in place, since its losses on any given channel must be added to any level measurement.

Setting a Sloped Output Using a Signal Level

Meter
There are two acceptable methods for setting the sloped output on a line extender using an SLM.
The first method uses any SLM that can measure the reference channels. This requires tuning the
SLM back and forth between the high and low reference channels to measure the amplifier slope and
overall levels, until all of the necessary changes have been made and the desired sloped output levels
are achieved.
The second method utilizes a feature found in most digital SLMs called the tilt mode. This feature of
the SLM allows the technician to view the signal levels of both reference carriers, without tuning
back and forth between them. The SLM display in Figure 319 shows a measurement in the SLM tilt
mode where six channels are being measured, including the high and low reference channels.
Figure 319: Demonstrating a signal level meter's tilt mode.
Explaining Basic Line Extender Forward

Operation
► Recognize the basic sections of the line extender's forward path.

Figure 320 shows a basic block diagram of the forward amplifier of a line extender, with waveforms
(assuming a negative input tilt) indicating what happens to the signal at each stage. For
explanations of components and features that are manufacturer and model specific, refer to that line
extender's operation manual.
Figure 320: A block diagram of a basic line extender.
A. Input and output test points—model specific, these can be high-impedance resistive or a
directional coupler type. The test point value is model specific and is usually labeled on the line
extender cover.
B. Input and output diplex filters—many line extender models have these built into them as
standard features, but on others there may be a removable module. The diplex filter separates
the forward signals from the return signals at the line extender signal entry and exit points.
C. Input attenuator pad—too much signal level into the pre-amplifier increases the number and
intensity of intermodulation distortion products generated by the pre-amplifier. Reducing the
input signal level to the specified input level by installing an attenuator pad minimizes this
condition.
D. Cable equalizer or simulator—this device compensates for unequal input signal levels so that
the signal into the pre-amplifier is flat across the frequency band.
E. Pre-amplifier—the first amplifier stage within the line extender. Input signals need to be flat
so that all the input signals are above the amplifier’s noise figure yet low enough so that the
amplifier does not go into an overload condition where it generates excessive intermodulation
distortion products.
F. Output gain control—used to adjust the output signal level from the line extender. In some
models it is a variable gain potentiometer but in others it is a fixed attenuator pad. Output
stability in the form of thermal or automatic control, is available in some models.
G. Output slope control—used to adjust the output slope from the line extender. In some models it
is a variable slope potentiometer but in others it is a fixed equalizer value. Output stability in
the form of thermal or automatic control, is available in some models.
H. Post-amplifier—this is the second and final amplifier within the line extender forward signal
path. Its input signals are tilted to reduce the number of generated intermodulation distortion
products thereby providing a sloped output from the line extender.
I. Directional coupler—used to sample a portion of the output signal from the post-amplifier that
is fed back to level control circuitry that maintains a stable output from the line extender. It is
not on all line extenders.

J. Alternate level control—model specific, it is usually a plug-in module with automatic or

thermal in its name such as; automatic level control (ALC), automatic gain control (AGC), or
thermal level control (TLC).
Understanding Output Level Controls
► Understand how the line extender output is controlled using signal loss circuitry.
The line extender output is the sum of the input level to the line extender, minus internal losses,
plus the gain of the internal amplifiers (the pre-amplifier and post amplifier). Figure 321 breaks the
forward signal flow through a line extender into five blocks, an input signal block, two loss blocks,
and two gain blocks. The gain blocks are fixed values that do not vary. Therefore, the line extender
output signal level and gain control occurs by adjusting the losses through the line extender.
Figure 321: The sum of input signal, gains, and losses which form the output level in a line extender.
Notice that the internal line extender losses are divided into two loss blocks, one in front of the pre-
amplifier and another between the pre-amplifier and the post amplifier. The first loss block uses
fixed attenuator pads and cable equalizers/simulators as course adjustments in front of the pre-
amplifier, to equalize and attenuate the input signal so that it is within the pre-amplifier's specified
input range. Proper selection of the attenuator pad must be made so that the input signal does not
cause increased intermodulation distortion products, which could result if too much signal goes into
the pre-amplifier. Conversely, too large a pad value may drop the input signal below the noise figure
of the pre-amplifier and cause an inordinate amount of noise to come from the line extender.
The second loss block can incorporate various methods to adjust the line extender output including:
fixed attenuator pads; variable attenuators; or a positive, intrinsic, negative (PIN) diode attenuator
circuit. The fixed attenuator pad and variable attenuator places the attenuation in the signal path,
and the line extender output can only be changed by replacing the fixed attenuator or adjusting the
variable attenuator.

The PIN diode circuit attenuator is more complicated, yet versatile, as it enables the use of
automatic and thermal control circuitry. When in the manual control mode, the amount of signal
attenuation is controlled by a DC voltage derived from the setting of a variable gain control
(potentiometer), shown in Figure 322. As the DC voltage changes by adjusting the gain control, so
does the attenuation.
Figure 322: Variable gain control using PIN diode attenuator.
The output signal level, set using the manual gain control in manual mode, sets the DC voltage
reference for the automatic/thermal control circuitry. In order for the automatic/thermal control to
work effectively, the desired line extender operating level must be obtained when the manual gain
control is at a mid-range position. Figure 323A shows the desired operating output level of 49 dBmV
with the gain control at a mid-range setting. When the line extender is placed in the
automatic/thermal mode there is sufficient voltage range to increase the output of the line extender
to 52 dBmV or decrease the output to 46 dBmV.

Figure 323: Showing the manual gain control interacting with the automatic/thermal controls.
Setting the line extender output to its desired operating level with the manual gain control at its
highest setting sets the attenuation through the PIN attenuator at its minimum (Figure 323B).
Should there be a decrease in input signal level, there will be no way to increase the output from the
line extender in manual or automatic/thermal mode.
Examining Automatic and Thermal Controls
► Understand what operational effect thermal or automatic gain control may

have on the output levels.

The automatic control circuits sample an analog channel carrier (pilot carrier) from a portion of the
line extender output signal and then convert it to a DC voltage. The DC voltage is used to control the
amount of attenuation through the PIN diode attenuator circuit which, when in the automatic mode,
maintains a consistent output level from the line extender. When the signal goes down, the control
circuitry reduces the attenuation to bring the signal levels back up. Conversely, when the signal
level goes up, the control circuitry increases the attenuation level.
Thermal control systems also control the attenuation through the PIN diode attenuator by varying
the voltage. Unlike the automatic control circuits, the thermal control requires no feedback signal.
Instead, a thermal network adjusts the control voltage in direct proportion to the ambient
temperature. Figure 324 shows a simplified system where the thermal network is placed in parallel
to the manual gain control.
Figure 324: A thermal network maintaining output stability during temperature change.
If the temperature rises, the resistance of the thermal network decreases, which also decreases the
attenuator voltage. This reduces the PIN diode attenuation, thereby raising the output signal from
the line extender. Since cable loss increases during higher temperature, this adjustment maintains a
consistent output from the line extender.

Setting Up the Forward Amplifier

The input signal level should be measured and compared to those shown on the system maps, which
are calculated based on the system design. If the measured input signal is not close to those on the
system map the reason for the discrepancy should be investigated. Undocumented changes to the
system design can affect the designed input to the line extender, or there could be a separate
problem that needs to be corrected. Deviations from the system design should be documented so that
the maps can be updated with updated calculations. Be sure to add the test point loss into all
measurements by entering the test point compensation value into the SLM or by adding the test
point loss directly to all readings.
Preparing to Rough Balance the Line Extender
After measuring the input signals, study the line extender cover to identify the controls, types of
controls, and locations of all the forward equalizers and attenuator pads, and confirm (removing the
cover if necessary) that they are installed. If the line extender is being activated for the first time,
consult the system maps for the recommended attenuator and equalizers, calculated for the location,
and install in accordance with your findings. Install output level control modules, (auto or thermal)
as specified on the system maps and in most aerial installations. Plug the SLM into the line
extender's output test point. When applicable, set all output level control modules (automatic and
thermal controlled) to the manual position.
Selecting the Proper Input Equalizer
The equalizer selection and adjustment of the output slope can affect the output level of the line
extender so it should be done before adjusting the output levels. On line extenders, the output slope
is set by circuitry between the pre-amplifier and post amplifier using a manual slope control, a fixed
equalizer, referred to as an interstage equalizer, or a switched equalizer value. Both the interstage
and the switched equalizer's values and settings should be specified on the system maps. If the line
extender has a manual slope control, it should be set to mid-range when the input equalizer is
selected.
Set the SLM into the tilt mode to view the high and low reference channels. On line extenders with a
manual slope control, adjust the slope from minimum to maximum and note what the slope is with
respect to the high-frequency reference channel. If the correct slope can be attained with the slope
control near mid-range, the installed equalizer is the correct selection. Otherwise, replace the input
equalizer in incremental values as necessary; too much slope requires a lower value equalizer and
too little slope requires an equalizer of higher value.
On line extenders that do not have a manual slope control, replace the input equalizer in
incremental values, as previously described, to bring the slope as close as possible to the correct
level. Because there is no manual or fine slope adjustment, there may be instances of the slope being
slightly low or high. When this happens, it is usually better to leave the slope slightly higher.

Recognizing the Application of a Cable Simulator
► Recognize how to align a line extender when its input has a positive tilt.
The input signal to most amplifiers has a negative tilt as a result of the unequal signal attenuation
through the preceding passive devices. Negative tilt is corrected by the input equalizer which
attenuates the lower frequencies to compensate for unequal input signal levels, ensuring the signal
into the pre-amplifier is flat across the frequency band. Occasionally, system design creates a
positive tilt condition on the input of an amplifier. This happens when there is not enough cable loss
to attenuate the high frequencies to the same levels as the low frequencies on the output of a device
that has a sloped output.
To address this condition, some manufacturers offer cable simulators, which attenuate the high
frequencies more than the low frequencies. Figure 325A shows how the placement of the cable
simulator provides flat input carrier levels to the pre-amplifier when the input is tilted "positive."
The interstage equalizer, or equivalent device, provides the required amplifier output slope.
Figure 325: A line extender adjusted for positive tilt on its input.

A line extender with the same positive tilt input as the previous example is shown in Figure 325B.
No simulator is available for this model line extender, so zero equalization (using a wire strap) is
done before the pre-amplifier stage. The pre-amplifier must amplify the tilted signal, and the
variable slope control will provide additional slope for the final output.
The condition in Figure 325C is similar to Figure 325B except that there is an interstage equalizer
instead of a variable, manual slope control. As with Figure 325B, the input equalizer will be
strapped, but the value of the interstage equalizer will be substituted to a lower value to obtain the
correct output slope. The system maps should specify the value of the replacement interstage
equalizer, however substituting different values until the correct output slope is achieved
accomplishes the same end.
In all of these scenarios, the input attenuator (not shown in the drawings) will be selected based on
the input signal level measured on the low frequency reference channel, since it is the lowest input
signal, instead of on the high frequency reference channel.
Adjusting the Output Levels of a Line Extender
The output levels of a line extender should be set while observing the high-frequency reference
carrier. Once the output level is set at the high frequency, the low-frequency carrier should be
checked to make sure that the output slope has been maintained. For line extenders with a manual
gain control, set the manual gain control to the maximum output level. Replace the input attenuator
pad as necessary to bring the output level to approximately 3 dB above the operating output level.
Adjust the manual gain control to bring the output level of the line extender to its operating level.
This allows for fine adjustment of the output level, and provides an adjustment range for
thermal/automatic modules when used.
For line extenders that have fixed mid-stage attenuators, select the input attenuator that brings the
input level to the specified input, and replace the mid-stage attenuator pad with a larger value if the
output level is still too high. If the line extender has a thermal/auto control module, switch the
module into the thermal/auto control mode, and adjust the line extender thermal/auto control to the
same output level that was set while in manual mode.

What advantage does using a True Tilt Correction Network offer?

If a line extender has no cover, where can it be assumed that the forward input test point is
located?
What would be the effect of using Channel 68 instead of Channel 78 as the reference carrier on a
550 MHz system, when setting the line extender's output slope?
What device is used to compensate for unequal cable loss and provide a flat input to the pre-
amplifier of a line extender?
What causes positive tilt on the input to a line extender and what device can be used to
compensate for positive tilt on its input when aligning a line extender?
What controls the signal output level from a line extender?
What is the difference between thermal and automatic gain control?

MODULE 4
SETTING UP THE RETURN SECTION OF A LINE EXTENDER
Introduction
The return portion of the broadband cable system has become an integral component of the modern
broadband cable system that offers services such as high-speed Internet, telephony, and video-on-
demand. The return path has been available for a number of years, however, the alignment and
ongoing maintenance required additional resources, compared to the services available, and so it was
seldom utilized. The deployment of services requiring return capability has driven the development
of specialized test equipment that makes the alignment and set up of return amplifiers far less
onerous than it once was.
Assessing Return Capabilities of a Line

Extender
► Determine if a line extender will support RF return.
To support RF return, a line extender must have a set of diplex filters and a return amplifier. The
diplex filters may be installed as optional modules (Figure 326A) or as discreet components (Figure
326B) on the line extender circuit board.
Figure 326: Diplex filters on line extenders.

Modules that do not have diplex filters installed have a jumper card installed where the diplex filter
would be passing the forward signal. Line extenders with diplex filters only will pass the return
signal if a jumper is installed where the return amplifier would be. This is considered to be a passive
RF return, since no active device is needed in order to pass the return signal. Because the cable
losses in the return spectrum of 5 to 42 MHz are so much lower than the forward cable losses, some
designs may not call for a return amplifier in every line extender.
The return amplifier is usually identified on the line extender cover. This amplifier is usually
mounted to the line extender chassis for heat dissipation and provides 15 to 25 dB of gain (again, see
Figure 326).
Understanding the Alignment Concept of the

Return Path
► Understand how setting up the return path differs from setting up the forward
path.
The return and forward portions of the broadband cable system share many common features but
also have distinct differences. The return differs from the forward in that the signal destination is
the headend instead of the customer premises, which makes the headend the point of reference for
providing optimum return signal levels. The headend must receive the same return signal level from
every source, so the alignment of the RF return must begin at the headend, or node, before moving
sequentially into the system. To achieve this objective, unity gain must be achieved from the
customer premises to the headend, or node.
Consider Figure 327, where the forward signal loss, into two line extenders, is 29 dB. Since the input
signal loss equals the gain of each line extender, or –29 + 29 = 0, unity gain for both line extenders
on the forward path is achieved. It is important to recognize that although the forward signal losses
are equal, the cable losses are not because a directional coupler is used (28 dB cable loss into line
extender A and 13 dB cable loss into line extender B).
Setting up the Return Section of a Line Extender

Figure 327: Forward signal losses are not equal to return path signal losses.
Now look at the return path from each line extender to the headend. Because the cable losses are so
much lower at the return frequencies, there is a difference in total signal loss (cable loss plus loss
through the directional coupler) from line extender A to the headend (7.17 dB) and line extender B to
the headend (18.86 dB). To achieve unity gain, the output losses must equal the gain of the return
amplifiers: line extender A, –7.16 + 7.16 = 0; and line extender B, –18.86 + 18.86 = 0. This means
that even though the output from each return amplifier will be different, the input to each
succeeding device (headend, node, amplifier, etc.) will be a constant input signal level.
The block diagram in Figure 328 compares the unity gain blocks of the forward path to the return
path. The forward input of the amplifier is adjusted using signals from the headend to compensate
for signal losses in the cable system to attain the same output level from the amplifier as from the
headend. (Note: A node or another amplifier may be substituted for the headend in this figure).

Figure 328: Comparing the unity gain block of the return and forward signal paths.
The return path requires a test signal to be injected at a specific signal level into the return
amplifier input. The output of the return amplifier is adjusted so that the input to the headend
return splitter is at the same level as the injected signal level into the return amplifier. The
adjustment at one location and measurement at another, which required two people to set up a
return amplifier, and the industry-wide deployment of services that use the return path, drove the
development of reverse alignment test systems.
Describing the Reverse Alignment Test System
► Describe the one-person method of setting the return path.
The return alignment test system (Figure 329) is a two-way communications system between a field
device and a device installed in the headend, or node, generically called a headend control unit
(HCU). The field device is multifunctional in that it generates return test signals and is also a signal
level meter (SLM), or spectrum display receiver.

Figure 329: A reverse alignment system connected to the cable system.
The field device generates reference return test carriers which are injected into the input of the
return amplifier via either a specified injection point or through the forward output test point. The
test signal is amplified by the return amplifier and then sent on the return path to the headend, or
node, through the return splitter network, and then to the HCU. The HCU converts the returned
test signal into a telemetry data signal which is combined onto the forward signal. The telemetry
data signal is received with the forward signal by the field unit, which recreates and displays the
return test signal or reports the signal levels that are being received in the headend by the HCU.
The field technician uses the telemetry feedback to make the necessary adjustments to the output of
the line extender return amplifier. If the test generator can inject carriers across the return
frequency spectrum (5 to 42 MHz), the frequency response and slope can be determined and return
equalization implemented as necessary.

Examining Return Carrier Injection Points

As previously described, injecting a test carrier into the amplifier input to align the return path is
common practice. Because proper operation of the return path requires consistent input levels into
the return amplifiers, the injected signal level must also be consistent for proper alignment.
Understanding the location, characteristics, and signal losses of the injection point is necessary to
inject the correct signal level. All of these concerns normally can be addressed by studying a block
diagram of the line extender being serviced. The block diagram of the line extender in Figure 330 has
three points where the return test carriers can be inserted. Point A is a high-impedance resistive test
point, with 30 dB of loss. Since it is on the output of the return amplifier, it is already downstream
from the return amplifier and is not a valid insertion point for the test signal to align the return
amplifier.
Figure 330: Three points where return test signals may be injected into a line extender.
Point B is where the return test carrier is normally injected. It is a directional coupler with 20 dB of
tap loss. If the desired input to the return amplifier is 15 dBmV, the return test carrier must operate
with an output of 35 dBmV (15 dBmV input + 20 dB tap loss = 35 dBmV). This test point allows the
field unit to inject return test carriers and receive the forward telemetry data at the same point.
Point C is shown as an alternate injection point that may not be included on all line extenders. It is
on the tapped leg of a directional coupler with 30 dB of tap loss. To provide 15 dBmV to the return
amplifier, the return test carrier must have an output of 45 dBmV (15 dBmV input + 30 dB tap loss
= 35 dBmV). This injection point is on the upstream side of the diplex filter, so the field test device
will require a separate input to receive the forward signal and an output from the field test device
signal generator to be connected to injection point C.

Following the Correct Sequence When

Balancing Return Amplifiers
The reverse alignment test system enables one technician to set up and balance the forward and
return sections of the line extender during the same visit. Alignment normally begins at the
headend, or node (Figure 331), and then proceeds sequentially into the cable system (Amplifier 1,
Amplifier 2, etc.). However, confirming the forward and return alignment at the trunk or
distribution amplifier that feeds the line extender will suffice if they are already properly aligned.
Figure 331: The sequence to follow when balancing the return portion of the system.
Aligning the Return Section of a Line Extender
► Understand how a stored reference trace is used to make return amplifier

adjustments.
When you are ready to align the return section of a line extender, learn, understand, and follow the
test equipment manufacturer's recommendations for storing a reference trace in the field device,
which indicates the desired levels received by the HCU from the field device. Beginning at the first
return amplifier, as test carriers are injected at the specified level and appropriate location, they are
compared to the reference trace. The output levels of the return amplifier will be adjusted with the
intent of matching the reference trace for received level and frequency response. Figure 332 shows
the display of a field device showing that the signal received by the HCU is within .5 dB of the
reference level.

Figure 332: The return path test results displayed on a field device.
If attenuator pads are available in .5 dB increments, the output attenuation from the line extender
return amplifier should be increased by .5 dB which reduces the return amplifier output level by
.5    dB. After aligning the first line extender return amplifier, proceed to the next line extender in
sequence and repeat the process. Once again the injected test signals are compared to the reference
trace. Any adjustments will be to the output of the line extender where the return test signal is being
inserted.

What device must be in a line extender before it is capable of passing a return signal?
What is different about setting up a return amplifier's output compared to setting up a forward
amplifier's output level?
In a reverse alignment test system, how is the field device able to report the condition of the output
of a return amplifier?
How should the test signals, reported by the HCU to the field device, compare to the stored
reference trace?


Distribution Amplifier Operation (325-11-2) Page 397
LESSON 14: Distribution Amplifier Operation (325-

11-2)
 Understanding Types and Applications of Distribution

Amplifiers
 Examining the Distribution Amplifier Housing
 Explaining AC and DC Powering of Distribution Amplifiers
 Working with RF Passives and Controls in Distribution
Amplifiers
 Understanding the Distribution Amplifier Module
 Classifying Distribution Amplifier Specifications
 Setting Up and Troubleshooting Distribution Amplifiers
MODULE 1
UNDERSTANDING TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF

DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIERS
Introduction
The distribution amplifier is typically associated with optical fiber topologies. It is usually the first
active device after an optical node. Sequentially, after the distribution amplifier, there are more
distribution amplifiers and/or line extender amplifiers. It is important to understand how and why
the distribution amplifier operates. This understanding enables quick repair or replacement of any
faulty devices, or any adjustments necessary to restore the broadband cable system signals to their
proper operating levels.
Classifying Distribution Amplifiers
► Recognize common features and uses of distribution amplifiers.
There are similarities and differences among the various types of distribution amplifiers. They all
amplify RF signals using the same basic technology. Some of the main similarities are listed in
Figure 333.
Figure 333: Similarities of distribution amplifiers.
Understanding Types and Applications of Distribution Amplifiers

► Recognize the differences between distribution amplifiers.
They differ in the details surrounding the amplification process. Some of the main differences in
distribution amplifiers are listed in Figure 334.
Figure 334: Differences between distribution amplifiers.
Applying Distribution Amplifiers
► Understand unity gain.
A basic characteristic of all amplifiers is to provide gain. Gain is accomplished by amplifying or

increasing the strength of the RF signal. The purpose of gain is to compensate for the signal loss of
cable and passive devices preceding the amplifier. If this increase in signal strength is accomplished
correctly, unity gain exists. If the gain of the amplifier is greater than the attenuation of the cable
and the passives, which is usually the case, attenuator pads and equalizers are used to compensate
for excess gain in the amplifier. The attenuation values of the attenuator pads and equalizers are
added to the attenuation of the preceding cable and passives to equal the gain of the amplifier
(Figure 335). If the total attenuation preceding the amplifier exceeds the gain of the amplifier, the
output amplitude of the amplifier will not be high enough. Either the cable or the amplifier is not
working correctly, or the system is not properly designed. Unity gain does not exist in this case.

Figure 335: An example of unity gain.
Unity gain is one of the most important ways to maintain good signal quality through the
amplification process. Other important aspects of avoiding signal degradation are input and output
levels. Input levels to the amplifier can not be too low or the signal will be degraded by noise. Output
levels can not be too high or signal distortion will result. All amplifiers introduce noise and distortion
into the system because "perfect" amplifiers do not exist. Maintaining proper levels throughout the
cable system will keep these impairments to a minimum.
The entire amplifier module is a circuit board mounted in a metal frame (Figure 336A). The hybrid
component amplifier (Figure 336B) on the circuit board is an integrated circuit (IC) that is encased
in plastic. It is referred to as a hybrid because it is a combination of power and IC transistors.
Push‑ pull and power-doubling circuits are the two different types of hybrids used in RF amplifiers
for the cable industry.
Figure 336: Amplifier circuit board and hybrid. (Courtesy of C-COR and ACI Communications)


What is usually the first active device after an optical node in optical fiber topologies?
Which types of amplifiers are included in the category of distribution amplifiers?

MODULE 2
EXAMINING THE DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER HOUSING
Introduction
The housings of different brands and models of distribution amplifiers are very similar in design.
Understanding the distribution amplifier's housing, components, and access procedures is necessary
for performing preventive maintenance and repair. This section covers housing components and their
descriptions, access procedures, ports, and connections.
Identifying Key Housing Components
► Identify housing components.
The distribution amplifier's housing (Figure 337) contains the RF amplifier module(s) and the DC
power supply. The housing is generally made of a die-cast aluminum with stainless steel hardware
for protection in harsh environments.
Figure 337: A distribution amplifier housing, housing cover, RF amplifier module, and DC power supply. (Courtesy of ACI
Communications)
Housing Gaskets
Most distribution amplifiers have two different housing gaskets. The silicone rubber environmental
gasket, when compressed, provides an airtight seal to keep dirt, water, and pollutants from entering
the RF amplifier module area. The metal mesh RFI (radio frequency interference) gasket prevents
ingress and egress of RF signals (Figure 338). To properly protect the RF amplifier, ensure that both
gaskets are in place and in good condition before closing the housing.
Figure 338: A silicone rubber environmental gasket and a metal mesh RFI gasket on a distribution amplifier housing. (Courtesy of
ACI Communications)
Cooling Fins
The distribution amplifier housing has cooling fins that dissipate heat generated by the RF amplifier
module and DC power supply. Heat naturally dissipates off of the surface of the housing. The fins
increase the surface area and thereby increase the heat dissipation. Figure 339 shows typical cooling
fins on the outside of a distribution amplifier housing.
Figure 339: Cooling fins on the outside of a distribution amplifier housing. (Courtesy of ACI Communications)
Examining the Distribution Amplifier Housing

Describing Opening Procedures
► Properly open and close distribution amplifiers.
Loosen the bolts around the perimeter of the distribution amplifier's housing with a nut driver or
other appropriate tool. Be sure to hold the cover closed with one hand while loosening the last bolt on
the side of the housing opposite the hinges. The housing then can be gently opened. Note, the cover
should never be permitted to fall open in a violent manner. Any impact or jolt can easily damage the
electronics and cabling within the housing. Figure 340 shows typical locations of housing bolts. Most
distribution amplifier housings have similar opening procedures. Always follow the manufacturer's
recommended opening procedure for your particular distribution amplifier.
Figure 340: Housing bolt locations. (Courtesy of C-COR)
Describing Closing Procedures

Each distribution amplifier has housing cover bolts that require a specific amount of applied torque
in a proper closing sequence to insure proper housing closure. The amount of applied torque can
differ for each brand and model of distribution amplifier. Do not over-torque or under-torque the
housing bolts. The housing tightening sequence is typically a star pattern, as shown in Figure 341.
Tightening the bolts in this manner, facilitates the proper sealing of the environmental and RF
gaskets.

Figure 341: Recommended housing bolt tightening sequence for closing distribution amplifier housings.
The process of closing any amplifier housing should include the following steps: (1) visually inspect
the housing for any damage to the structural integrity of the aluminum or signs of water or moisture
migration; (2) confirm that all required gaskets are in place; (3) inspect the gaskets for wear or
damage (and replace, if necessary); (4) confirm that all required gaskets are dry and free of
contaminants; (5) avoid pinching any cords or cables between the housing base and the housing cover
while closing the housing cover; (6) check the looseness of the hinge bolts to insure that the housing
cover closes easily; (7) progressively hand-tighten the housing bolts to evenly compress the gaskets;
and (8) torque the bolts to the recommended torque in the proper tightening sequence, using an
appropriate torque wrench. Manufacturers' torque specifications range from 3 to 12 ft.‑ lbs. Always
follow the specific manufacturer's recommended torque and tightening sequence when torquing the
housing bolts.
Identifying Various Access Ports

A port is any opening in the housing other than the main opening created by disengaging the
housing base from the housing cover. Ports are used for connecting cables and other equipment to
the housing and also for testing purposes.
Input and Output Ports
The typical distribution amplifier housing has one forward RF signal input port for receiving the
forward RF signals and two or more forward RF signal output ports to distribute the forward
amplified RF signals (Figure 342). The AC voltage and the return path RF signals also utilize the
same input and output ports on the amplifier housing. Some amplifier housings provide an optional
port for direct AC powering.

Figure 342: Input and output ports on a distribution amplifier housing.
RF Test Ports
Most amplifier housings have port plugs (Figure 343) on the lid that when removed, provide access to
the internal test points on the amplifier module, without opening the cover. Care must be taken not
to drop or misplace the plug. A functional rubber gasket and clean threads are important to the
proper reinstallation of the plug. Tighten the plug to the manufacturer's recommended torque when
testing is complete.
Figure 343: A housing port plug. (Courtesy ACI Communications)
Explaining Port-to-Module Connections
► Identify and describe the functions of the RF connections in distribution amplifier

housings.

A distribution amplifier typically has one self-contained RF amplifier module that plugs into the
housing base. Figure 344 shows the RF amplifier housing module input and output connections
inside the base of the housing. This simple design reduces housing connections to a few plug-in
connectors located on the back of the amplifier module. These connectors direct the incoming forward
RF signals from the input port to the RF amplifier module, and the outgoing amplified signals from
the amplifier module to the output ports. These plug-in connectors also provide AC power
distribution and direct reverse RF signals to and from the RF amplifier module.
Figure 344: Example of a distribution RF amplifier housing base connections. (Courtesy of ACI Communications)

What are the two types of housing gaskets found in most distribution amplifiers?
How should the housing gaskets be inspected prior to closing a distribution amplifier housing
cover?
How many RF signal input and output ports are on a typical distribution amplifier?
What is the purpose of the optional housing port on some distribution amplifier housings?

Where is the RF amplifier module typically located in a distribution amplifier?

MODULE 3
EXPLAINING AC AND DC POWERING OF

Introduction
The distribution amplifier requires an external AC input voltage source and a B+ regulated DC
voltage power supply. The AC voltage provides power to the DC power supply and any additional
downstream active devices. The DC power supply provides a regulated +24 volts DC to the RF
amplifier module. By understanding the AC distribution and the +24 volts DC power supply in your
particular distribution amplifier, you can quickly isolate powering problems and repair or replace
any faulty components in the distribution amplifier. This section covers AC voltage distribution,
fuses and circuit breakers, surge protection, the DC power supply, and voltage test points in
distribution amplifiers.
Providing AC Voltage Distribution
► Describe the functions of housing connectors, fuses, circuit breakers, and surge
protection components in distributing AC voltage in distribution amplifiers.
AC voltage can be received at the amplifier through the seizure screw mechanism (Figure 345A) of
any of the RF housing ports or a designated AC input port. The AC voltage is then routed
appropriately using plug-in jumpers, circuit breakers, or fuses (Figure 345B). The plug‑ in
components will open or close the circuit, effectively stopping or passing the AC. The AC needs to be
passed to the power supply in order for the amplifier to function. The AC may also be routed to other
housing ports for transmission to other active devices.
Figure 345: AC voltage distribution in typical distribution amplifiers. (Courtesy of C-COR)
Protecting the System with Fuses

Fuses protect the distribution amplifier circuitry against damage caused by an excessive amount of
current from within the amplifier module, from another active device, or from a short in the coaxial
cable connected to the same AC voltage line (Figure 346). Fuses can also pass AC to and from
different housing ports or be removed to block AC, depending on the specific powering requirements
and AC distribution capabilities of the distribution amplifier. Shorting bars, sometimes referred to
as slugs, can be used in place of fuses. They are simply a solid piece of metal shaped like the fuse. A
path for current is provided without any over voltage or surge protection.
Figure 346: Fuses.
Explaining AC and DC Powering of Distribution Amplifiers

Describing Additional Surge Protection

Distribution amplifier modules typically have a surge protection component installed near the RF
input and output ports. This component protects the amplifier's electronic circuitry against damage
caused by voltage and current surges from lightning, power line faults, and system voltage spikes.
Surge protection components vary by manufacturer in design and protection capability. Always learn
your particular surge protection component's capabilities. A popular surge protection component is
the FTEC (fast transfer electronic crowbar). These components can be found in the distribution
amplifier module and/or the DC power supply. A crowbar surge protector shorts to ground when an
over-voltage situation occurs. This essentially routes the voltage to ground instead of being directed
to, and damaging, the sensitive internal electronic circuitry. When voltage returns to normal levels,
the FTEC automatically opens back up. The FTEC is usually encased in plastic and can be replaced
simply by unplugging the bad unit and plugging in a replacement. Figure 347 is an example of an
FTEC used in some distribution amplifiers.
Figure 347: A fast transfer electronic crowbar. (Courtesy of Motorola)
If the amplifier housing is not grounded properly the FTEC will not
function. Always follow company rules for proper grounding.
Explaining the DC Power Supply
► Identify the DC power supplies.

The distribution amplifier module is powered with a regulated +24 volts DC from the DC power
supply. This power supply can be a circuit board built onto the RF amplifier module, or a separate
power supply module mounted on the distribution amplifier housing cover (Figure 348). The DC
power supply receives its AC voltage from an RF input or output housing port and converts the AC
voltage to a regulated +24 volts DC. The power supply can operate within a wide range of AC input
voltages (35-90 VAC in some cases), while maintaining the regulated +24 volts DC output within
±0.5 volts.
Figure 348: A type of distribution amplifier regulated DC power supply. (Courtesy of ACI Communications)

Why does a distribution amplifier require AC voltage?
Describe the purpose of fuses in a distribution amplifier.
What are the two common locations for DC power supplies inside distribution amplifier housings?
What is measured at the AC and DC voltage test points in a distribution amplifier?


MODULE 4
WORKING WITH RF PASSIVES AND CONTROLS IN

Introduction
Distribution amplifiers have passive components (including attenuator pads, equalizers, and filters).
It is important to understand the purpose of these items when adjusting the amplifier's output
signals to optimize the overall performance of the distribution amplifier. This section covers
attenuator pads, equalizers, filters, slope controls, gain controls, and RF test points for common
brands of distribution amplifiers.
Using Amplifier Passives
► Explain the functions of RF passives in distribution amplifiers.
Typically, plug-in components having the affect of reducing signal strength or routing signals are
considered to be amplifier passives. This signal strength reduction can affect the entire bandwidth
evenly, as in the case of attenuator pads, or unevenly as in the case of equalizers. Filters route
different frequency signals in different directions.
Attenuator Pads
A distribution amplifier usually has one or more plug-in attenuator pads (Figure 349) in the forward
amplification path. An attenuator pad is usually located before the input stage and, in some cases,
before or after the output stage. Attenuator pads are also designed into the reverse amplification
path, typically located after the reverse amplifier, and sometimes located at the reverse input before
the reverse amplifier. Attenuator pads reduce the amplitude or signal level of the forward or reverse
path RF signals, as required. The reduction in signal amplitude by the attenuator pad is equal at all
frequencies, i.e., a flat loss.
Figure 349: Examples of attenuator pads. (Courtesy of Scientific Atlanta and ACI Communications)
Equalizers
The equalizer (Figure 350A) is installed in the distribution amplifier's RF amplifier module before
the input stage. This compensates for the frequency-dependent cable attenuation leading up to the
distribution amplifier. The equalizer does this by attenuating the low frequency signals more than
the high frequency signals, which is opposite of the attenuation effects of the coaxial cable. This
equalization, or slope, results in a flat frequency response at the input stage (Figure 350B) of the RF
amplifier module. In most distribution amplifiers, there is also a second equalizer between the input
stage and the output stage. This gives additional slope to the forward RF signals to compensate for
known cable attenuation on the output of the distribution amplifier, and reduces the distortion from
the distribution amplifier.
Figure 350: Examples of equalizers and an illustration of the flat frequency response from an equalizer. (Courtesy of Scientific-
Atlanta and ACI Communications)
Working with RF Passives and Controls in Distribution Amplifiers

Filters
Several types of filters (Figure 351) are used in distribution amplifiers to separate specific bands of
frequencies. Typically, 60 Hz low-pass filters are located at the input and output of the distribution
amplifier module, to separate the 60 Hz AC voltage from the RF signals at the input, and then
combine the AC and RF signals again at the output. A diplex filter is installed after the low-pass 60
Hz filter at the input and before the low-pass 60    Hz filter at the output. A diplex filter separates
the higher forward path frequencies (50 MHz-1 GHz) from the lower reverse path frequencies (5-42
MHz).
Figure 351: A block diagram showing how diplex filters separate the higher forward path frequencies from the lower reverse path
frequencies and the 60 Hz AC signals in a distribution amplifier.
Identifying RF Controls and Test Points
► Describe the functions of controls and test points in distribution amplifiers.
RF controls and test points in a distribution amplifier are used more by the technician than any
other component.

Slope Control
The slope control adjusts the amplitude of the RF output signals to compensate for the known or
expected attenuation effects (tilt) caused by the coaxial cable downstream of the distribution
amplifier (Figure 352). Additionally, having the low frequency carriers amplified at a lower level
reduces the number of intermodulation distortion products generated by the amplifier.
Mathematically, it is the low frequency carriers that add, subtract, and otherwise combine to create
intermodulation distortion beats that occur within the total bandwidth of the amplifier. The ways in
which manufacturers accomplish slope adjustment include: (1) a plug-in equalizer selected to
compensate for the expected cable tilt; and (2) an automatic slope control, which is an electronic
control board or module that maintains the originally set output slope regardless of changes in the
input signal levels.
Figure 352: A block diagram showing how a slope control in a distribution amplifier compensates for the effects of downstream
coaxial cable tilt.
Gain Control
The gain control changes the distribution amplifier's RF output signal levels to compensate for slight
variations in the RF input signal levels. The input signal level variations are caused by temperature
changes and the signal attenuation effects of coaxial cable and passive devices. There are several
ways manufacturers can accomplish gain control: (1) manually controlling the gain with plug-in
attenuator pads that set the RF output signals to a fixed level (which means the stability of the
output signal levels is dependent upon the stability of the RF input signal levels); (2) the AGC
(automatic gain control) (Figure 353) automatically maintains the RF output signal levels regardless
of any change to the input signal levels (within design tolerances) by varying a positive, intrinsic,
negative (PIN) diode's attenuation; and (3) the thermal level control automatically adjusts the RF
output signal levels by use of a thermistor to compensate for signal attenuation caused by outside
temperature changes.

Figure 353: A simple depiction of a common loop-back AGC circuit.
RF Test Points
The RF amplifier modules in distribution amplifiers have RF test points for monitoring the input
and output RF signals for alignment and verification of the forward and reverse RF signals. It is
important to know the location of the test points on your particular distribution amplifier module,
and what dB attenuation value to add to the measured signal level to compensate for the test point
attenuation (typically 20 dB). The test points have an attenuated value because a portion of the
signal has to be split off to the test point so that a signal is present to measure. The less signal that
is split off for the test point; the more signal that remains to continue down the desired path through
the amplifier module. This is accomplished with a 20 dB directional coupler, as shown in Figure 354.
To calculate the actual signal level at the test point, add the test point attenuation value to the
signal level measured at the test point.
Figure 354: A block diagram of a typical 20 dB test point in a distribution amplifier.


Where are attenuator pads typically located in the forward amplification path of a distribution
amplifier?
Where are attenuator pads typically located in the reverse amplification path of a distribution
amplifier?
What signal level attenuation is compensated for by the equalizer installed before the input stage
in the distribution amplifier's RF amplifier module?
What signal level attenuation is compensated for by the equalizer installed between the input
stage and the output stage in the distribution amplifier's RF amplifier module?
What is the purpose of diplex filters in distribution amplifiers?
Explain the function of a slope control in a distribution amplifier.
What is the purpose of gain control in a distribution amplifier?
List three types of gain control found in distribution amplifiers.
What is added to a signal level measured at a distribution amplifier RF test point to calculate the
actual signal level?


MODULE 5
UNDERSTANDING THE DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER

MODULE
Introduction
The RF amplifier module in a distribution amplifier increases the signal level of the forward and
reverse RF carriers after attenuation by the coaxial cable, typically coming from an optical node on
the forward path and a line extender amplifier on the return path. The RF amplifier module also
compensates for frequency-dependent cable attenuation, or tilt. Knowledge of the RF amplifier
module operation is necessary when maintaining, troubleshooting, and replacing the module.
Describing the Forward RF Amplifier Section

The forward amplifier section of an RF amplifier module amplifies the forward RF signals to
optimize the distribution amplifier's output signals. These RF output signals can be carriers at
frequencies as high as 1 GHz in some amplifier models. A basic understanding of the operation of the
forward RF amplifier in a typical distribution amplifier enhances the technician's ability to perform
setup and maintenance on most distribution amplifiers. Always learn the forward amplifier
operation of your system's particular distribution amplifiers, as specific details can vary
significantly.
Forward Amplification Path
► Use a block diagram to describe the forward amplification path in a distribution

amplifier.
Figure 355 is an example of a forward RF amplification path block diagram, showing the major
components common to most distribution amplifier manufacturers. The forward RF signals,
combined with the AC voltage, are received at the RF input port in the upper left portion of the
diagram. The RF and AC are sent to the AC bypass circuit that separates the higher-frequency RF
signals from the lower 60 Hz AC input voltage. The AC needs to be separated because it is not
compatible with the RF circuitry. The RF passes through a 20 dB directional coupler (DC). The down
(tap leg) feeds a forward test point, which can also be used for injecting reverse test signals. The
through-leg of the DC-20 continues on to a diplex filter that keeps the forward RF signals separate
from the return RF signals. While the forward and reverse signals share a common path on the
coaxial cable, they take separate paths through the RF amplifiers.
Figure 355: A block diagram of the forward RF amplification path in a distribution amplifier.
The input diplex filter directs the forward RF signals to the input attenuator pad, where the signal
levels are reduced as required. This is done to set up the proper signal level to the input stage
amplifier. Amplifiers have a predetermined amount of gain. The amount of signal leaving an
amplifier is controlled by the amount of signal allowed to enter the amplifier. The proper selection
and use of attenuator pads control the output amplitude of an amplifier. Optimum input and output
manufacturer and design levels need to be observed and followed to avoid adding unnecessary noise
or distortion to the signal.
Understanding the Distribution Amplifier Module

The signals are then routed to the input equalizer to flatten out (make the same amplitude) the
carrier signal levels transmitted in the forward pass band prior to the input stage. A flat signal is
optimum for this phase of the amplification process. After a slight amplification in the input stage,
the RF signals are directed to a thermal level control, when called for in the design. A thermal level
control compensates for the effects of temperature on cable signal attenuation. The higher the
temperature, the greater the cable attenuation. The lower the temperature, the lesser the cable
attenuation. The input to an amplifier can change as much as 1 dB in a 25 dB cable span with a 40°
Fahrenheit change in temperature. There is a 1% change in cable loss for every 10° Fahrenheit of
temperature change. As the temperature increases, cable attenuation increases.
Thermal level control should only be used in aerial plants. Underground cables experience relatively
stable temperatures, and therefore, very stable attenuation characteristics. In fact, using thermal
level control in underground plants can be detrimental if the amplifier is above ground. The thermal
level control in the amplifier will compensate for the sensed temperature change of the air which, in
fact, is not affecting the cables that are underground. Misadjustment of the amplifier results and
becomes cumulative when cable runs and amplifiers are added one after another into even, short 3-7
amplifier cascades. If each amplifier is misadjusted by 1 dB, the last amplifier can be significantly
out of proper alignment.
Next, the forward RF signals are directed to a response control. This is one of the few places where
manual controls still exist in modern broadband cable RF amplifiers. These controls enable a
technician to flatten or remove any undesired peaks or valleys within the pass band frequencies. It is
important to determine the specific functionality of each control for the particular amplifier in
question. Only make adjustments to these controls while using a sweep analyzer or similar device. A
standard signal level meter is not adequate for this purpose. A nonconductive adjustment tool is also
needed. Keep in mind that slight variations in flat frequency response can be due to the nonlinear
imperfections of the amplifier itself. Considerable signal peaks and valleys are from bad cables,
connections, or previously misadjusted amplifiers. Adjustments in these cases only cover up the real
problem and, often times, only temporarily. When the source of the problem is finally repaired, the
system is again out of adjustment.
Slope is added to the RF signals as they pass through the interstage equalizer. The added slope
adjusts the main RF output signals to compensate for the expected frequency-dependent cable
attenuation or tilt downstream. The signal level of the forward RF signals is then reduced by the
main output attenuator pad, to set the appropriate output level. The signals then pass through the
AGC (automatic gain control) circuitry on their way to the first output stage amplifier. The AGC
circuit is optional and usually not in conjunction with thermal level control.
The forward RF signals are amplified in the first output stage amplifier, to sufficient levels for the
main RF output port. The RF signals are then passed through DC #1 in Figure 355, where a small
portion of the RF signal is directed to the AGC via DC #1's tap leg. The main portion of the RF signal
is directed to DC #2 via DC #1's through leg. The RF signals are again portioned off, going to two
locations: (1) the through leg of DC #2 feeds the main output port diplex filter, test point, AC bypass
circuit, and the main output port for downstream distribution; and (2) DC #2's tap leg may feed DC
#3, which taps the signal off to a status monitor transponder and directs a portion of the signal back
upstream to the headend for analysis.

Following on with Figure 355, the through leg of DC #3 feeds the auxiliary two-way splitter, which
feeds in two identical directions. Additional slope is added in the auxiliary output equalizer, as
required. The RF signals are then attenuated by the auxiliary output attenuator pad, to set the
proper signal level prior to the second output stage amplifier. The signals are amplified for the final
time in the second post amplifier prior to the auxiliary output ports. Sometimes plug-in jumpers are
utilized to split the signal to more output ports. The RF signals directed to the auxiliary output
port(s) are for additional downstream distribution, as design requires.
Describing the Reverse RF Amplifier Section

The reverse amplifier section of an RF amplifier module processes and amplifies the reverse RF
signals to optimize the output signals. These reverse RF output signals are typically in the range of
5-42 MHz. A basic understanding of the reverse amplifier operation of a typical distribution
amplifier enhances the technician's ability to perform reverse amplifier setup and maintenance on
most distribution amplifiers. The operation of a system's particular distribution amplifier's reverse
amplifier should always be learned.
Reverse Amplification Path
► Use a block diagram to describe the reverse amplification path in a distribution

amplifier.
A generic block diagram of a return RF amplification path is illustrated in Figure 356. The reverse
RF signals are received at one or more RF ports and are directed to diplex filters. The diplex filters
keep the higher frequency outgoing forward RF signals separate from the lower frequency incoming
reverse RF signals. The reverse signals then enter a DC-20 where the tap leg feeds a test point and
the through leg feeds an attenuator pad that sets the correct amplitude for input to the reverse
hybrid. Before the hybrid, the signals may encounter a reverse switch. The reverse switch enables
troubleshooting the reverse path from a remote location. If interference is entering the reverse path,
individual legs of the distribution amplifier can be shut off one at a time until the interference goes
away. The cause of the interference has simply been isolated to one distribution leg, where
troubleshooting can continue. Of course, to better ensure uninterrupted service, the reverse switches
should only be activated during planned maintenance hours (middle of the night) or when the
interference is so severe an outage already exists. The reverse signals are then combined together by
one or more DC (directional coupler). The reverse signals are then amplified in the reverse amplifier.

Figure 356: A generic block diagram of a reverse RF amplification path.
The reverse RF signals are then attenuated to the proper output level, as required, by the reverse
attenuator pad. Slope is added by the reverse equalizer to compensate for the known upstream cable
tilt. Another DC-20 is encountered for the reverse RF output test point. Finally, the reverse signals
are directed to the input diplex filter and then on to the main forward RF input port for upstream
transmission to the headend.

Where can the AC voltage be directed from the AC bypass circuit in a distribution amplifier?
How is the gain or signal level of the forward RF signals controlled if the automatic level and
slope control (ALSC) is turned off in a distribution amplifier?
What is the function of the response control in a distribution amplifier?

What is the purpose of the slope added by the interstage equalizer in the forward RF amplification
path of a distribution amplifier?
What is a typical frequency range of reverse RF output signals for a distribution amplifier?

MODULE 6
CLASSIFYING DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER

SPECIFICATIONS
Introduction
There are many specifications covering the distribution amplifier's performance capabilities, as well
as its physical size and power requirements. It is important to understand each specification and its
pertinence to a specific distribution amplifier. By knowing the different specifications for a
distribution amplifier, the technician can better identify performance problems and failures and
quickly repair and/or replace any faulty components or devices. This section covers mechanical,
electrical, and RF specifications.
Listing Mechanical Specifications
► Summarize the mechanical and electrical specifications of common models of

distribution amplifiers.
The distribution amplifier housing is small and lightweight in design. The outside of the housing is
typically measured in three dimensions (width, height, and length) and the total weight is measured
in pounds. Figure 357A illustrates how each dimension is measured on the housing. Figure 357B is a
chart of average dimensions and weight for common distribution amplifier housings.
Figure 357: The dimensions and weight of common distribution amplifier housings.
Citing Electrical Specifications

All distribution amplifier modules must receive AC voltage for two functions: (1) to supply AC
voltage to the DC power supply; and (2) to pass on AC voltage, as required or permitted, for powering
other downstream or upstream active devices. Due to the fact that the AC on the cable plant is a
quasi-square wave, a true RMS (root mean square) multimeter is required to measure the AC
accurately. If a true RMS multimeter is not available, a standard multimeter (analog or digital) will
display a voltage approximately 10% higher than what is actually present. Figure 358 lists average
powering specifications pertaining to powering requirements or capabilities of common distribution
amplifiers. The following specifications are covered: (1) AC voltage requirement range in which the
DC power supply operates properly; (2) DC voltage requirement — the B+ regulated DC voltage
range required to properly operate the DC-powered components in the distribution amplifier module;
(3) AC current draw — the total AC current draw of the distribution amplifier module; and (4)
bypass AC current capacity — the total AC current the distribution amplifier module is capable of
passing through to downstream or upstream active devices.
Classifying Distribution Amplifier Specifications

Figure 358: Powering requirements and electrical specifications of common distribution amplifiers.
Getting Familiar with RF Specifications
► Summarize the RF operating and RF distortion specifications of common models

of distribution amplifiers.
Though distribution amplifiers come in a variety of sizes and designs, most are similar in their
operating and distortion performances. Figure 359 lists average RF operating specifications for
common distribution amplifiers. The specifications are: (1) forward and reverse pass bands — the
separate bands of passable forward and reverse RF frequencies; (2) operational gain — the signal
level difference between the input signals and the output signals (this number can vary greatly
depending on the configuration of the particular distribution amplifier); (3) NTSC channel loading —
the number of 6 MHz analog channels for which the amplifier is designed (the remaining bandwidth
is designed for digital QAM carriers running 6 dB down from analog video carriers for 256-QAM and
10 dB down for 64-QAM carriers; and (4) forward and reverse output levels — the output signal
levels of the forward and reverse signals, measured in dBmV and dependent upon system
requirements and setup procedures.

Figure 359: RF operating specifications of common distribution amplifiers.
Figure 360 lists average RF distortion specifications for common distribution amplifiers. Each of
these specifications is a measurement of the signal level difference between the desired carrier signal
level and the signal level of the interfering beat causing the distortion. Composite triple beat (CTB),
exists because a triple beat is generated when three video carrier frequencies are added or
subtracted together. When several triple beats are grouped close together, the result is a composite
triple beat cluster, which surrounds the desired video carrier center frequency. Composite second
order (CSO) is an interfering beat whose frequency is ±0.75 MHz or ±1.25 MHz from the video carrier
frequency. Cross modulation occurs when the modulated 15.750 kHz video sidebands of an
interfering channel are impressed upon the 15.750 kHz sidebands of the desired TV channel's video
carrier. Hum is the result of a low-frequency signal (typically 60 Hz or 120 Hz) from a defective
active device, power supply, or corroded connector that is amplitude-modulated onto an RF video
carrier. The final distortion specification is the noise figure, or the amount of thermal noise added to
the signal as it passes through the amplifier.
Figure 360: Average RF distortion specifications of common distribution amplifiers.
RF distortion specifications are controlled by three main factors: (1) the amplifier output signal level;
(2) the output slope of the amplifier; and (3) the number of channels transmitted. If the actual factors
match the manufacturer’s factors, the actual performance should very closely match the
manufacturer’s specifications. If any of these factors vary from the values used by the manufacturer
to calculate the specifications, the actual performance will be different. Contact the amplifier
manufacturer for RF distortion specification measurement factors. As digital carriers replace analog
carriers, amplifier distortion specifications such as CTB, CSO, and cross modulation actually
improve.


Define the distribution amplifier specification "AC current passing."
What is a common forward NTSC channel loading for 1 GHz distribution amplifiers?
Define the distribution amplifier specification "forward operational gain."
Define the distribution amplifier RF distortion specification "noise figure."

MODULE 7
SETTING UP AND TROUBLESHOOTING DISTRIBUTION

AMPLIFIERS
Introduction
Setting up a distribution amplifier correctly is important for providing quality signals and reliable
service to each customer. Setting up and troubleshooting are closely tied together because
troubleshooting a distribution amplifier involves testing the set-up parameters.
Setup and Troubleshooting Parameters
► Perform activation and setup of distribution amplifiers.
The specific distribution amplifier user manual is the best place to find detailed setup instructions
for a particular amplifier. Many parameters are common to all distribution amplifiers. Figure 361 is
a checklist of the most critical of these parameters, which will be explained in the following text:
Figure 361: A checklist of setup and troubleshooting parameters.

Distribution Amplifier Properly Installed
This item is referring to the physical installation of the amplifier. Confirm that the housing is
properly attached to the strand or pedestal, and grounding or bonding is performed as required by
design and local regulations. Ensure coaxial cables have been correctly connectorized and connectors
have been installed in the housing with correct center conductor length and using the specified
torque. Seizure screws tightened to be snug, but not too tight. The amplifier module and power
supply have to be tightly screwed to the housing. Also, any cover plates need to be tightly secured to
their modules. The probability of a flat frequency response will be seriously compromised if the
modules or plates are loose or missing. The frequency response will also be compromised due to
signal reflections if 75-ohm terminators are not installed on energized unused ports.
Correct Power Routing and Surge Protection Components Installed

as Required
Determine which housing port is used for the AC input. Correctly route the AC voltage with correct
amperage-rated slow-blow or standard fuses or slugs to the power supply and other housing ports,
per system design maps. If replacing a blown fuse results in another blown fuse, there is likely a
short circuit in the coax cable. Do not install a higher-rated fuse in an attempt to keep it from
blowing, as this will likely result in damage to the amplifier. Is a surge protection component, such
as an FTEC (fast transfer electronic crowbar), installed correctly, per system parameters? An
acceptable level of AC voltage will not be present if the FTEC does not return to a normal state after
a voltage condition returns to normal. Measure the AC with and without the FTEC installed. If
different, replace the FTEC.
AC Voltage Within Tolerance
► Identify potential problems with distribution amplifiers.
Know what AC voltage the system or the part of the system in question is operating under; 60 or 90
volts AC. With a digital multimeter, measure and document AC voltage levels at seizure screws,
fuses, and/or dedicated test points on the amplifier module and power supply. In a 90 VAC system,
90 volts will be the highest measurement attained with a true Root mean square (RMS) multimeter.
A less expensive standard multimeter will typically measure the AC voltage on a cable system 10%
higher than it actually is.
Setting Up and Troubleshooting Distribution Amplifiers

DC Voltage Within Tolerance
The specification for the B+ regulated DC voltage of a distribution amplifier is 24 VDC, ±0.5 volts.
This is measured at a designated test point on the power supply and/or amplifier module. The raw
unregulated DC voltage can range from 37 to 100 VDC. Due to this broad range, it is best to focus on
the regulated voltage. If the regulated voltage is not within tolerance, the amplifier module will not
function properly if at all. If this is the case, and the AC voltage is within specification, the power
supply is most likely defective and should be replaced. If the AC voltage is not within specification,
that is the reason the DC voltage is out of specification. Isolating the cause of the AC failure is the
path to resolving this problem.
Forward RF Input and Output Levels Correct
Locate the internal or external test points for each leg of the amplifier. Measure the RF levels with a
signal level meter. At a minimum, a high and low frequency unscrambled analog video signal
measurement should be taken, per system criteria. In an all digital systems, measure a high and low
frequency digital carrier with a true digital signal level meter. That means a meter that is designed
to read digitally modulated signals not just a meter with a digital display. Are the input and output
levels within system design specifications? If the input levels are correct but the output levels are
not, make adjustments by changing attenuator pads and equalizers. Care must be taken to make
adjustments at the proper locations on the amplifier module and using the correct bandwidth
equipment. Equalizers are designed for a certain decibel value within a designated bandwidth. Using
equalizers rated at the same bandwidth for which the cable system is designed is critical. Otherwise,
gross misadjustments will occur. If the input levels are not correct, adjustments are needed
upstream of this particular amplifier location. In order to maintain unity gain, adjustments are
made sequentially starting at the node. Adjust subsequent amplifiers in the forward path toward the
customer premises.
Reverse RF Levels Correct
Even in systems with services requiring an active return path, reverse signals are not always
present due to their intermittent nature. Therefore, a reverse test signal needs to be inserted into
the reverse input (forward output) test points on the amplifier to determine if it is properly adjusted.
This signal is received at the headend, analyzed, and information about that signal is sent back to
the meter for further analysis. This is how reverse setup is commonly performed in most two-way
cable systems. The frequency of the signal being inserted needs to be in an area of the return
spectrum that will not interfere with active return services. The entire measurement is dependent
upon the correct signal level being inserted into the amplifier. The insertion level needs to be
determined as part of the system design process for proper functionality. The reverse amplifiers in a
system are all designed to have identical input levels and varied output levels. This is in contrast to
forward amplifiers that have identical output levels in a particular system and varied input levels
from amplifier to amplifier.


List at least seven items for determining proper amplifier installation.
What are three components used to route AC voltage in a distribution amplifier?
What are two common AC voltages used in cable systems?
When testing DC voltage, which is a more valuable measurement, regulated or RAW DC?
Explain what to do if distribution amplifier forward input signal levels are correct and the output
levels are incorrect?
What is a basic difference in the design of input and output levels of forward and return
distribution amplifiers?

Powering Cable Networks (319-13-3) Page 441
LESSON 15: Powering Cable Networks (319-13-3)
 Examining Ferroresonant Power Supplies

 Understanding AC Power Insertion Methods
 Performing Powering Calculations
MODULE 1
EXAMINING FERRORESONANT POWER SUPPLIES
Introduction
All of the optical node, distribution, trunk/bridger, and line extender amplifiers require AC electrical
power to amplify the broadband cable signals for distribution to the customer's TV set. A cable
system with 108,000 customers may have 1,513 miles of plant, 1,735 amplifiers, and may require as
many as 480 power supplies.
Power supplies are used to provide the interface between the broadband cable system and the utility
company. These power supplies convert the incoming 120 VAC to the voltages commonly used for
cable system operations. The choice of nonstandby or standby power in the cable system is
dependent on the cable operator's requirements for operation during power outages. A standby
power supply (Figure 362A) contains batteries and circuitry to operate during short power outages.
The nonstandby power supply (Figure 362B) will not operate during a power outage, but because it
uses a ferroresonant transformer (as does the standby power supply), its output voltage is stable
despite the amount of current drawn. Understanding the standby and nonstandby ferroresonant
power supply, as it provides a 60 VAC or 90 VAC source for system amplifiers (Figure 362C and
Figure 362D), is necessary to diagnose and troubleshoot AC power problems.
Figure 362: Examples of standby and nonstandby ferroresonant power supplies used to provide AC voltage to broadband
distribution, and line extender amplifiers.
Examining Ferroresonant Power Supplies

Describing Nonstandby Ferroresonant Power

Supplies
A nonstandby ferroresonant power supply cannot provide power to broadband cable amplifiers after
a loss of AC input voltage. The block diagram in Figure 363 shows the sections of a nonstandby
ferroresonant power supply used to convert the 115 VAC ±10% sinusoidal input voltage to the
required 60 VAC or 90 VAC quasi-square voltage. Three sections comprise the nonstandby
ferroresonant power supply: (1) the input voltage section; (2) the ferroresonant transformer section;
and (3) the output voltage section. These sections are also included in standby power supplies.
Figure 363: Block diagram of a broadband cable nonstandby AC power supply.
Understanding the Input Voltage Section
The input voltage section of the power supply contains the 115-VAC input lines, the input circuit
breaker, and the input surge protection device (Figure 364). To maintain and troubleshoot the power
supply, learn the function of the components of this section as follows:
 Input Circuit Breaker — This breaker satisfies the requirements of power companies even
though, in many instances, broadband cable short circuits will not cause this circuit breaker to
trip. It does, however, provide a convenient switch for disconnecting AC power.
 Input Surge Protection — A metal oxide varistor (MOV) placed across the AC input line or
between one side of the line and the ground provides a surge protection option. MOVs range in
rating from 40 joules to 200 joules, but cannot take repeated high-energy transient surges on
the power line. Test MOVs as a regular part of a power supply maintenance program.

Figure 364: Schematic diagram of power supply input voltage section.
Understanding the Ferroresonant Transformer Section
It is important that a technician have a basic understanding of the main parts of a ferroresonant
transformer. These parts are the saturating transformer and the resonant capacitor. Once the 115-
VAC input voltage is applied to the primary winding of the ferroresonant transformer, the
transformer sets up a resonance in the tank circuit (the capacitor and inductor in Figure 365A).
Then the transformer becomes saturated and steps down the input voltage to 60 VAC or 90 VAC.
The resonant capacitor and winding act as a flywheel, and resist any changes in input voltage. This
permits the transformer to resist a wide range of input voltages (typically 90 VAC to 130 VAC). The
transformer shunts (Figure 365B) regulate the load on the secondary winding by limiting the
magnetic path in accordance with the transformer's designed air gap. If the load on the secondary
winding increases, the resonance of the magnetic circulating paths decreases which allows the
secondary winding to receive more power from the primary winding. An unexpected short on the
output of the secondary winding will cause the ferroresonant transformer to fold-back or limit the
amount of current passed through the transformer. The collapse of the magnetic field of the resonant
circuit causes the fold-back. For a typical 15-amp power supply, fold-back typically occurs at
approximately 19 amps, or 1.25 times the rated transformer load.

Figure 365: A simplified electrical diagram and parts description of a ferroresonant transformer.
A technician also needs to understand the normal operating characteristics of the ferroresonant
transformer in order to efficiently maintain and troubleshoot system amplifier input voltages. These
operating characteristics include:
 Transformer Efficiency — The ferroresonant transformer has a typical efficiency rating of 80%
to 90%. This efficiency rating is based upon a fully loaded power supply. As the load decreases,
the efficiency decreases. A fully loaded and well-designed power supply will run cooler and
have a longer field life.
 Short Circuit Current — A ferroresonant transformer limits short-circuit current to between
100% to 200%.
 Output Voltage Waveform — The output waveform of the ferroresonant transformer is a quasi-
square wave at no load and closer to a sine wave at maximum load.
 Overload Current — This is the amount of current that a ferroresonant transformer will
produce when placed in a short circuit situation.
 Temperature Rise — This is the difference in power supply operating temperature from initial
turn-on (ambient temperature) to stabilization (about three hours later).
Understanding the Output Voltage Section
Figure 366 shows an example of the output voltage section. This section contains the output surge
protection, output option connector, and 60- or 90-VAC output lines. The following are characteristics
of the output section, which supplies the necessary AC voltages and current to the line amplifiers:
 Crest Voltage — This is the maximum peak voltage measured under any power supply load.
 Output Voltage — The output voltage provided to a cable system is typically 60 VAC or 90
VAC.
 Output Current — The total amount of current that can be drawn from the power supply is
typically 5 A to 18 A.

 Load Regulation — This describes how much the output voltage will change when the load
changes from zero load to full load.
 Line Regulation — This describes how well the power supply maintains a constant output
voltage with a change in input voltage.
 Output Surge Protection — Some type of zener diode or crowbar circuit on the output side of
the ferroresonant transformer provides this protection. The protection allows repeated surges
within its rating without damage.
 Time Delay Option — This is the time between the restoration of AC power to the power supply
and the time when the power supply actually restores power to the broadband cable equipment
to allow for line voltage stabilization.
Figure 366: Schematic diagram of power supply output section.
Describing Standby Ferroresonant Power

Supplies
► Summarize the function and characteristics of each of the four main sections in
a standby ferroresonant power supply.
Standby power supplies are a ferroresonant power supply, with enhancements to the input voltage
section of the power supply, allowing it to continue to operate for a limit period of time should the
commercial power to the power supply fail. This is accomplished by adding a bidirectional inverter
and batteries to the input section of the power supply (Figure 367).

Figure 367: Block diagram of a broadband cable standby AC power supply.
When there is a power outage, or the incoming commercial power drops or rises significantly, the
power supply goes into standby operation. During the transfer from commercial power to standby
operation, the battery-powered inverter comes on-line. At approximately the same time, the isolation
relay opens to prevent the inverter generated AC power from back-feeding to the utility company.
The key to converting the DC battery current into AC current is the inverter field-effect transistor
(FET) being turned on and off by a control logic circuit. This switching action occurs in the inverter
windings of the ferroresonant transformer, and results in regulated power to the load.
The power supply will continue to run off of the power from the batteries until power is restored from
the utility company or the per battery voltage drops to a specified level, normally 10.5 VDC. Further
discharge of the batteries results in permanent damage. This is also controlled by a logic circuit that
disables the inverter. At this point, the power supply ceases to function, so ideally the power outage
doesn't last this long. At the manufacturer recommended current load, most batteries are rated for
three hour standby operation, although newer four hour batteries are available.
When input voltage returns, either from the utility company or a backup generator, the power
supply transfers back to the AC line operation within 10 to 20 seconds. For a seamless transfer back
to utility power, the following steps occur, 1) the AC line voltage and frequency stabilize, 2) the
supply phase locks the inverter output to the utility input, 3) the isolation relay de-energizes, 4) AC
line power is routed to the primary of the ferroresonant transformer, and 5) the inverter is turned
off. The batteries are then recharged.

Most standby power supplies use a three-stage temperature compensated battery charger. During
AC line operation, the inverter windings on the ferroresonant transformer feed the charger circuit,
which provides BULK, ACCEPT, and FLOAT charge voltages to the batteries. The BULK mode is a
constant high-current charge and is used until the batteries are nearly fully charged. The charger
then switches into the ACCEPT mode, which is a constant low-current charge, to prolong the life of
the batteries. When the batteries are fully charged the charger switches to the FLOAT mode where
the charger provides a small maintenance-pulsed voltage charge to overcome the batteries' discharge
characteristics and other minor DC loads within the power supply.
Recognizing Power Supply AC Waveforms

The 115 VAC ±10% AC waveform received from the electric power company is a 60 Hz sinusoidal
wave. This voltage amplitude is too high for a broadband cable system use. So, the ferroresonant
transformer inside the power supply steps down (converts) the 115-VAC power line voltage to
60      VAC or 90 VAC, and the sinusoidal input waveform to a quasi-square output waveform. The
following overviews these waveforms.
Recognizing the 115 VAC Input Voltage Waveform
► Contrast the input and output voltage waveforms for a ferroresonant power
supply.
The 60 Hz sinusoidal waveform in Figure 368A identifies the different voltage amplitude levels of
the waveform at the input of the ferroresonant power supply. Figure 368B shows the mathematical
relationship between the different voltage levels. The 115 VAC is the root mean square (RMS) or
effective voltage, value representing the equivalent DC voltage, which is needed to generate the
same amount of heat when the same value resistor is connected across either voltage source. Note
the relationship between the RMS, average voltage, and peak voltage values. For example, the RMS
value is equal to 1.11 times the average voltage value and 0.707 times the peak value (Figure 368B).

Figure 368: A 115-VAC RMS sinusoidal waveform with the voltage relationships and a mathematical voltage relationship chart.
Recognizing the 60- or 90-VAC Output Voltage Waveform
A ferroresonant power supply does not generate a true sinusoidal waveform. Figure 369A shows the
output waveform of an unloaded 15-amp ferroresonant power supply. This output is a quasi-square
wave when there is no current draw from the load. This waveform becomes slightly rounded when a
5-amp load is applied to the power supply's output (Figure 369B). As the load increases to 10 amps,
the quasi-square wave continues to round (Figure 369C) until, at full load, the waveform approaches
a sine wave (Figure 369D). With a quasi-square wave the relationship between the RMS, average,
and the peak voltage values changes. The closer the ferroresonant power supply output waveform is
to a square wave, the closer the average voltage value comes to the peak voltage value. This effect
can cause errors in voltage measurements performed with a calculated RMS digital multimeter
(DMM).

Figure 369: The output waveform of a 15-amp ferroresonant power supply at different loads.
Measuring Power Supply AC Output Voltage
► Accurately measure a ferroresonant power supply's AC output voltage using the

correct type of multimeter.

Accurate measurement of the output voltage produced by a ferroresonant power supply depends
upon the type of DMM used. Two types of DMMs exist: the true root mean square (RMS) digital
multimeter (DMM) and the calculated RMS or standard digital multimeter (DMM). A true RMS
DMM will compensate for waveforms that are not true sinusoidal waves and give a more accurate
reading. A calculated or standard DMM will convert the measured AC voltage to an internally
corrected DC voltage that is multiplied by 1.11 to produce a "calculated" RMS reading. While this
type of meter proves useful when measuring a 115-VAC sinusoidal input waveform, it will produce
an incorrect reading when measuring the quasi-square output wave of a ferroresonant power supply.
The standard multimeter will display an error reading that is higher than it should be. For example,
a ferroresonant transformer with a 10-amp load will measure 60.4 VAC at the output using a true
RMS meter, but will read 63.7 VAC with a standard DMM. Figure 370 shows the relationship
between the load of the ferroresonant power supply and respective voltage measurements of a true
RMS and a standard DMM. It also shows, as a percentage, how much higher the standard reading is
over that of an RMS reading for the same amp load.
Figure 370: Comparative readings of a true RMS vs. a standard DMM at specific power supply loads.
Considering Power Supply Mounting Options
► Summarize mounting, metering, and disconnect box options for ferroresonant

power supplies.
The cable company can mount power supplies (standby and nonstandby) on a pole (Figure 371A), to
a concrete pad (Figure 371B), within a pedestal (Figure 371C), or on the broadband cable strand
(Figure 371D). The mounting method, size, and type of electrical wiring will depend upon where the
power utility is located and the local electrical ordinances.

Figure 371: Options for mounting power supplies.
Mounting Power Supply Meters and

Disconnects
A power supply may have an electrical power meter and a UL-approved primary disconnect box as
an interface with the utility power company (Figure 372A). In some instances, the utility power
company may require the power supply to have only the primary disconnect box mounted (Figure
372B) and simply charge a bulk rate per power supply without metering. Sometimes the power
company may require mounting a meter and primary disconnect box on a separate stub pole (Figure
372C).

Figure 372: Possible requirements for pole-mounted meters and disconnects.
Performing Nonstandby Power Supply

Preventive Maintenance
Electrical Shock Warning: Always follow company-approved

safety and AC electrical voltage testing procedures when
measuring the power supply's input and output AC voltages
to prevent injury or death from electrical shock and/or a
subsequent fall.
A ferroresonant power supply, like other active devices, requires periodic preventive maintenance.
Many manufacturers recommend that the cable system perform a biannual preventive maintenance
check on each power supply. Two of the most common problems with nonstandby power supplies are:
(1) the buildup of dirt in cooling vent screens; and (2) the failure of a surge protection device. A
preventive maintenance check may uncover more than these two problems.
Checking Input Electrical Conditions
► Perform electrical and mechanical preventive maintenance procedures.

To check the input electrical conditions at the power supply: (1) visually check that the circuit
breaker is on and seated securely; (2) measure and record the input voltage at the AC utility outlet
(Figure 373A) or at the input wiring splice point in the housing (Figure 373B) after carefully
removing the wire nut connectors and measuring the RMS input voltage between the two wires; (3)
measure the input current (if applicable) on the input wiring by placing a clamp-on ammeter around
the input wire (Figure 373C); and (4) replace and check the tightness of the splice point's wire nut
connections on the transformer's input wiring (Figure 373D).
Figure 373: Checking input electrical conditions.
Checking Output Electrical Conditions
To check the output electrical conditions at the power supply: (1) visually check that the indicator
light on the housing is lit (Figure 374A); (2) measure and record the output voltage on the coaxial
cable connector's stinger, using either a true RMS DMM or a standard multimeter and a voltage
compensation chart (Figure 374B); (3) measure and record the output current at the stinger by
clamping the clamp-on ammeter around the stinger wire (Figure 374C); check the tightness of the
stinger lug on the coaxial cable pin connector stinger after turning off the power at the circuit
breaker or primary disconnect box (Figure 374D).

Figure 374: Checking output electrical conditions.
These checks need to be performed because electrical connections may become loose over time due to
vibration or hot/cold cycling. Also, an abnormal voltage measurement at the stinger lug can reveal a
problem in the power supply wiring that may not be found at the system's test point. These voltage
measurements also act as a comparative reference for use during the next scheduled preventive
maintenance check.
Checking Mechanical Conditions
Next, visually inspect the cooling vent screens and remove any dust and dirt by gently rubbing the
screens to free any debris. Performing this maintenance will provide better air circulation to the
power supply and increase its operating life. Inspect any power supply or disconnect box locks and
lubricate them with a recommended lubricating fluid. Inspect any surge protection device according
to the manufacturer's recommended procedures. Replace the device if damaged. Inspect the primary
disconnect box for damage, dirt, or oxidation buildup on contacts, and manually check the circuit
breaker switch operation. Inspect and tighten any loose cable connections (Figure 375).

Figure 375: Tightening loose coaxial cable connector.
Figure 376 shows one preventive maintenance checklist recommended for power supplies. The list
may require adaptation depending upon the cable system's policies or if the system uses different
makes of power supplies. Always follow the manufacturer and the local cable company procedures,
as well as any applicable local electrical codes, when performing power supply preventive
maintenance.
Figure 376: A recommended preventive maintenance checklist for nonstandby power supplies.
Performing Standby Power Supply Preventive

Maintenance
In addition to the maintenance tasks performed on a nonstandby power supply, additional
maintenance tasks should be performed on a standby power supply (SPS).

Check Battery Open-Circuit Voltage
Note how the positive and negative battery terminals are connected together in the battery bank in
Figure 377. Disconnect the batteries' cables from the inverter and measure the individual voltage
across each battery (there is no need to disconnect the batteries from one another). The difference
between any of the batteries in the string should not be greater than 0.3 VDC. Defective or marginal
batteries should be replaced with identical type of battery. Record the unloaded battery voltages in
the maintenance log.
Figure 377: A bank of four batteries.
Check Battery Voltage Under Load
In order to completely verify a battery's ability to supply a load, the battery must be tested while
under a load. This is the most accurate method to determine the condition of the batteries. If
available, use a battery load tester and follow manufacturer instructions to test the individual
batteries. If a battery load tester is not available, turn off AC supply into the power supply, forcing it
into standby mode, and measure the voltage across each individual battery. Note: reconnect the
battery cable to the inverter prior to forcing the unit into standby mode. The difference between any
battery in the string should not be greater than 0.3 VDC. Having weaker batteries in the string
results in the stronger batteries to be overworked and wear out quicker. Some manufacturers have
optional circuitry to compensate for this. Defective or marginal batteries should be replaced with an
identical type of battery. Record the loaded battery voltages in the maintenance log.
Weak or severely discharged batteries can explode when put

under load. The technician should be wearing all
recommended personal safety equipment and, as an added
safety precaution, insert the enclosure's door between the
technician and the batteries before attempting standby
operation.

Check Battery Terminals and Connecting Wires
Check each battery terminal and connection. Verify the posts are clean and the crimped connectors
are tight. Terminal connections should be torqued in accordance with battery manufacturer
recommendations. If there is an in-line fuse in the battery cable, check the fuse holder and fuse.
Verify the terminals are properly protected with an approved battery terminal corrosion inhibitor.
Record the date of maintenance in the maintenance log.
Check Output Voltage in Standby Mode
With the unit in standby mode, measure the output voltage on the coaxial cable connector's stinger
using either a true RMS DMM or a standard multimeter and a voltage compensation chart.
Check Output Current in Standby Mode
With the unit in standby mode measure and record the output current at the stinger by securing the
clamp-on ammeter around the stinger wire.
In the event of a failure of the power input source from the utility
company or from fully discharged batteries, use the following OSHA
guideline when using a backup generator to provide power to a power
supply. It is not necessary to bond to a backup generator as long as
power is delivered through receptacles mounted on the generator and
noncurrent-carrying metal parts of the generator are bonded to the
generator frame. See OSHA.gov for more information.

What additional major parts are involved in a standby power supply verses a nonstandby power
supply?

What does the input voltage section of the power supply contain?
What will a short on the output of the secondary winding cause the ferroresonant transformer to
do?
What does the output voltage section of the power supply contain?
What other values is the RMS voltage value equal to?
What procedures should always be followed when performing power supply preventive
maintenance?
What is the maximum difference between each battery's voltages allowed before it should be
replaced?

MODULE 2
UNDERSTANDING AC POWER INSERTION METHODS
Introduction
The AC power is inserted into the broadband cable line to provide the trunk/bridger, distribution,
and line extender amplifiers with the necessary input voltage and current. The two methods for
inserting AC power into the cable are: (1) through a power inserter; and (2) directly into the AC
power input port of a trunk/bridger or distribution amplifier. The technician must fully understand
each power insertion method when troubleshooting AC power problems. System design or cable
company preference determine the actual method of AC power insertion employed.
Describing the Power Inserter

A typical power inserter has three ports: one port for the AC input voltage from the power supply,
and two ports for the combined AC voltage and RF signals (Figure 378A). Figure 378B provides an
example of one power inserter's specifications. This information is needed for troubleshooting,
repairing, or replacing the power inserter. This particular power inserter will pass 5 MHz to 1,000
MHz. Its maximum current rating for each leg is 10 amps. The total current draw through its AC
input port should measure no more than 14 amps.
Figure 378: Powering configuration for an amplifier using a power inserter and a typical power inserter's specifications.
► Describe the functions of the three ports and three filtering networks in a power
inserter.
A power inserter contains three filtering networks that permit combining of the RF signals and the
60 VAC or 90 VAC while isolating the AC input port from the two RF/AC ports (Figure 379). The two
low-pass filter networks pass the 60 VAC or 90 VAC and prevent the RF signals from transmitting
through the power supply. The high-pass filter network passes the RF signals between the two
RF/AC ports and prevents the 60 VAC or 90 VAC from passing between the same two ports.
Figure 379: A block diagram showing the filtering networks in a typical power inserter.
Describing Direct Amplifier Powering
► Explain the electrical connections in direct amplifier powering.
Direct amplifier powering allows the amplifiers to receive power (60 VAC or 90 VAC) directly from
the ferroresonant power supply's coaxial output cable without the use of a power inserter. The power
supply's output coaxial cable can typically connect to an AC power input or unused feeder port on the
trunk/bridger or distribution amplifier housing (Figure 380).
Understanding AC Power Insertion Methods

Figure 380: Direct amplifier powering.
Describing Multiple Amplifier Cable Powering
► List two advantages of multiple amplifier cable powering over direct amplifier
powering.
The group of amplifiers depicted in Figure 381 represent a useful and valuable application of cable
powering principles. Amplifiers No. 1 and No. 2 receive power directly from their respective sides of
the power inserter, while Amplifier No. 3 receives its power through upstream amplifier No. 2. All
line extenders receive their power, which is delivered on the feeder cable, through their respective
trunk/ bridger or distribution amplifiers. Therefore, three trunk/bridger, or distribution, amplifiers
and five line extender amplifiers are all powered from one utility power connection point. This saves
the cost of additional circuit breakers, power meters, step-down transformers, etc., and permits
greater flexibility in system layout since the designer can locate amplifiers without having to pay
special regard to access of electrical utility power.

Figure 381: Example of multiple amplifier powering.

Describe the two methods for inserting AC power into the broadband cable.
Describe a typical power inserter's ports.
What do the three filters in a power inserter permit?

What does direct amplifier powering allow the amplifier to receive?
What are some advantages of multiple amplifier cable powering?

MODULE 3
PERFORMING POWERING CALCULATIONS
Introduction
Many different amplifier voltages exist in the broadband cable system. The technician should
understand the reasons for and significance of these voltage differences when maintaining,
troubleshooting, repairing, or replacing active and passive devices in a cable system. Take time to
understand the system design parameters, the cable resistances, the amplifier current requirements,
and how to calculate amplifier voltages using Ohm's law.
Considering System Design Parameters
► Explain how coaxial cable resistance and other system design parameters
affect AC amplifier voltage levels.
The amplifier AC voltage level depends upon: (1) the distance of the amplifier from the power supply;
(2) the cascade position of the amplifier with regard to the designated power supply; (3) the type of
amplifier and number of installed modules and respective current draw; (4) the number of line
extenders fed by each amplifier; and (5) the type and size of coaxial cable and its corresponding loop
resistance. A typical cable system may have only one, two, or up to four amplifiers in cascade
drawing power from a power supply location (Figure 382). An HFC system may have only two
amplifiers and 20 or so line extenders per power supply.
Figure 382: A portion of a typical cable system design. (Courtesy of Time Warner Cable)
Identifying Cable Resistances

We know coaxial cable attenuates RF signal levels. Together, the coaxial cable shield resistance and
center conductor resistance also affect AC voltage amplitude. Figure 383 shows the shield and center
conductor of a typical coaxial cable encased in a protective outer jacket.
Figure 383: Identifying the shield and center conductor of a typical jacketed coaxial cable.
The circuit shown in Figure 384 represents a cable powering system feeding an amplifier. This
circuit diagram simplifies the actual characteristics of a cable power system, but is suitable for
studying its fundamental characteristics. The AC power source E S is selected because AC power is
universally used to power broadband cable amplifiers. The use of DC power would have some
advantages, but past experience with DC indicates it causes serious corrosion problems, such as
electrolysis effects, at points where moisture is likely to migrate into the cable system. The common
use of dissimilar metals, such as copper and aluminum, in cables and connectors aggravates this
corrosion problem. The use of AC power overcomes most of these problems, although the possibility
of electrolytic corrosion still exists.
Figure 384: An equivalent circuit of a cable powering system and its power supply, coaxial cable, and amplifier.
Performing Powering Calculations

In the circuit diagram (Figure 384), the power supply (a step-down transformer from the 115-VAC
utility service) has a voltage ES. The resistance RC is the resistance of the cable center conductor and
VC is the voltage drop across the resistance RC. The resistance RS represents the resistance and the
VS voltage drop of the cable sheath or outer conductor. The resistance R L represents the load
resistance (amplifier) and VL the voltage drop across that load. This representation is a
simplification since the power source ES may have significant internal reactance. A variety of low-
resistance ground paths, which significantly reduce the effect of the sheath resistance, may parallel
the sheath, or outer conductor. The amplifier load is only approximately represented by an
equivalent resistance. The amplifier is usually a nonresistive load, often having reactive components
and not obeying Ohm's law with respect to current and voltage. The effects of these simplifications
do not prove serious in an elementary consideration of cable powering, but they can be explored in
detail in more advanced design studies.
Cable specification sheets provide some typical values for RC and R S. Many specification sheets sum
the resistance of the center conductor and the resistance of the sheath into a combined value called
the DC loop resistance of the cable (Figure 385A). In an elementary study of cable powering, it is
more convenient to use the combined resistance value, RC, to stand for the total DC loop resistance of
the cable, and RL for the equivalent load resistance of the amplifier (Figure 385B).
Figure 385: DC loop resistances and equivalent cable and amplifier circuit. (Courtesy of CommScope and Times Fiber
Communications)
Identifying Amplifier Current Requirements

Consider a situation in which an amplifier operates at the end of 2,000 feet of 0.750-inch T10 cable.
Assume that the amplifier requires 60 volts and draws 1.08 amps. Do not actually calculate the
equivalent load resistance RL. The assumed amplifier specification sets the load voltage VL at 60
volts and sets the circuit current at 1.08 amps. The DC loop resistance R C is 1.50 Ω, based on a DC
loop resistance of 0.75 Ω per 1,000 feet in Figure 386. The flowing loop current — 1.08 amps — is the
current drawn by the amplifier. The voltage drop across RC is derived from Ohm's law: V = IR = 1.08
× 1.50 = 1.62 volts. Therefore, the power supply voltage would have to be 61.62 volts to overcome the
voltage drop across the cable loop resistance and maintain 60 volts across the amplifier load. The
resulting circuit would look like Figure 386, with the actual values inserted.

Figure 386: Equivalent circuit with required voltages, current, and resistance.
In actual practice, however, the power source remains constant, and the drop in voltage occurs at the
amplifier due to the IR voltage drop in the cable loop resistance. To illustrate what is occurring,
Figure 387 shows a circuit and a recalculation of its voltages.
Figure 387: Equivalent circuit with actual voltages, current, and resistance.
Most cable amplifiers draw an almost constant AC at a specific AC operating voltage. One of the less
desirable characteristics of most cable amplifiers, which represents a departure from Ohm's law,
states that current flow is directly proportional to applied voltage (I = E/R). The operation of the DC
power supply in cable amplifiers causes a "constant current" type of functioning.

An amplifier works quite well with only 58.38 volts instead of 60 volts. In fact, some amplifiers
continue to work properly with only 30-40 volts. The regulating circuitry inside the amplifier handles
this wide range of AC voltage input. However, there is a minimum AC voltage at which the amplifier
will cease to operate properly. More practical examples illustrate that this minimum operating
voltage seriously limits the design and operation of cable powering systems.
Calculating Amplifier Voltages

Consider a situation in which the same power feed point supplies several amplifiers. Adding the
second amplifier modifies the circuit diagram of the first amplifier's input current. Since most cable
amplifiers do not actually behave like resistors, their resistance symbol on the cable power circuit
diagram is replaced with a triangular amplifier symbol that represents the current consumed by an
amplifier.
Figure 388 shows the AC and RF paths in amplifiers A1 and A2. I1 is the current drawn by the first
amplifier and I2 is the current drawn by the second amplifier. RC1 is the DC loop resistance of the
first cable section, and RC2 is the DC loop resistance of the second cable section. Note: the first cable
section carries the current drawn by both amplifiers. This is a very important concept of cable
powering. Cable sections closer to the power feed point carry more current than sections farther
away.
Figure 388: Examples of typical amplifiers and their AC and RF paths.
► Calculate the voltage drop of a section of coaxial cable.

For example, assume that both amplifiers draw similar currents of 1.08 amps each and the power
supply provides a nominal 60 volts (Figure 389A). Also assume that the cable sections are 2,000 feet
of a 0.750-inch cable, as in the previous example. Now, fill in the resistances and currents and
calculate the voltage drops and voltage values at each amplifier, as shown in Figure 389B. Note that
the first cable section carries 2.16 amps, the current for both amplifiers. The second section carries
only the current for the second amplifier, 1.08 amps. Ohm's law (E = IR) calculates the voltage drop
in each cable section; thus, the voltage drop (E) equals the current (I) times the loop resistance of the
cable (R). With 60 volts available at the power feed point, the first amplifier has 56.76 volts and the
second has 55.14 volts.
Figure 389: System powering diagram of a power supply feeding two amplifiers and the equivalent circuit, and AC power
calculations.
Add a third amplifier using a similar diagram (Figure 390A) and calculate the currents, voltage
drops, and amplifier voltages using the electrical circuit equivalency diagram in Figure 390B. First,
calculate the total current flow for all three amplifiers and multiply by R C1 (section at first cable).
Then, subtract this voltage from ES to find ERA1 (voltage at first amplifier). Next, calculate IRC2 by
adding I2 + I3 and multiply I2 + I3 times RC2 to determine the voltage drop across RC2. Subtract ERC2
from ERA1 to get ERA2. To find ERA3, multiply I3 times RC3, then subtract ERC3 from ERA2.

Figure 390: System powering diagram and electrical circuit equivalency diagram and powering calculations of three amplifiers fed
by one power supply.
► Calculate the AC voltage level at an amplifier in a cascade of amplifiers.
Now try a more complicated situation involving amplifiers, line extenders, and two sizes of cable
(Figure 391). To simplify the diagram, do not show the return line from each amplifier, but use a
ground symbol to show A1 is an amplifier that draws 0.76 A; A2 is an amplifier that draws 1.08 A; A3
is an amplifier that draws 1.08 A; and A4 through A11 are line extenders that draw 0.6 A each. The
0.875-inch cable loop resistance is 0.56 Ω/1,000 feet. The DC loop resistance of 0.500-inch cable is
1.72 Ω/1,000 feet. Incorporate an amplifier that draws 1.08 amps, and a line extender that draws 0.6
amp, and, together are fed through a 0.500-inch cable. The technician won't have difficulty
calculating the cable power voltages if care is taken to draw a circuit diagram for the system and if
the technician clearly marks the cable loop resistances, the total currents, and the voltage drops as
they are calculated. Most of the cable lengths are assigned convenient "round numbers" for ease of
calculation in Figure 391.

Figure 391: System powering diagram for amplifiers and 0.875-inch and 0.500-inch cables.
We can redraw the system layout in Figure 391 as a schematic power diagram (Figure 392A). We can
omit cable sections that do not carry current since they are of no concern in cable powering. Note
that the current drawn by each amplifier is indicated and that the currents are then added in those
cable sections that carry the current drawn by all 11 amplifiers, for a total of 7.72 amps. The section
carrying the most current usually has the greatest voltage drop. Thus, it is a good practice to put
power into the system at a point where the current can flow through larger cables (i.e., a 0.825-inch
cable in this example). The voltage distributions would have been vastly different if the power feed
point had been located at one of the line extenders. Figure 392B shows how to calculate the AC input
voltage of each amplifier.

Figure 392: Equivalent schematic powering diagram and AC powering calculations.


What is the AC amplifier voltage dependent upon?
What coaxial cable elements affect the AC voltage amplitude?
How are sheath and center conductor resistances represented on coaxial cable specification sheets?
What type of current do cable amplifiers draw?
How is the current flow different in cable sections that are closer to the power feed point than
those that are farther away?
What is the voltage drop between two amplifiers of a 1,550-ft section of copper-clad PIII, 1.0-inch
coaxial cable (DC loop resistance of 0.44 Ohms per 1,000 ft) conducting 5.5 amps?
Using the answer to question 6, what is the AC input voltage to the second amplifier (A2) when the
AC output of the first amplifier (A1) is 55.4 VAC?

Semiconductor Materials and P-N Junctions (326-10-3) Page 477
LESSON 16: Semiconductor Materials and P-N

Junctions (326-10-3)
 Examining Semiconductor Material

 Examining N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors: Extrinsic
Semiconductors
MODULE 1
EXAMINING SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL
Introduction to Examining Semiconductor

Material
You may think that the chemistry you studied in high school was a waste of time, however, to
understand semiconductors, some knowledge of chemistry is necessary. An examination of
semiconductors starts with the valence band of electrons, the outermost set of electrons that orbit a
nucleus, and this is a subject most often taught in chemistry courses.
Examining the Semiconductor
► Describe how different elements interact with electricity and how they can be
altered to change their electrical properties.
What is a semiconductor? First, there are conductors, elements such as copper and silver that
conduct electricity well; if you put a piece of copper, maybe a wire, between the two sides of an
electrical outlet, the sparks will fly. There are insulators, such as rubber, paper, and other objects
that do not conduct electricity, if you put a piece of paper between the two sides of an electrical
outlet, nothing happens. Then there are the semiconductors, such as the elements germanium and
silicon, which, in pure form, do not conduct any electricity at temperatures of absolute zero, and
conduct electricity to some extent at higher temperatures. But add certain impurities to
semiconductors (the process is called doping) and they turn into electrical conductors.
By putting differently doped semiconductors together, we can build everything from diodes to
transistors, to complex integrated circuits that make all modern electronics possible, and from cable
TV systems to consumer electronics and cell phones.
Examining Semiconductor Material

Reviewing Semiconductor Components
► Describe the basic building blocks that make up an atom.
Atoms, the basic building blocks of material, consist of a nucleus comprised of protons (positively
charged particles) and neutrons (non-charged particles). The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that
orbit the nucleus. The number of electrons must exactly match the number of protons to avoid an
electrical charge on the atom. The electrons are organized into shells of different energy levels. The
first shell can hold two electrons, the second shell can hold eight electrons, and the third shell can
hold 18 electrons. Each shell has a progressively higher energy level. The formula for the maximum
number of electrons in a shell is 2n2, where n is the shell number (1, 2, 3, etc.). There are subshell
energy levels within each energy level, the number of subshells equaling n and termed the s (two
electrons maximum), p (six electrons maximum), d (10 electrons maximum), and f (14 electrons
maximum) subshells respectively.
What happens when something has a charge by losing or gaining electrons, with the electrons going
to or coming from someplace else? A good example of this is a cloud charged one way (e.g., positive)
and the ground or another cloud charged the other way (e.g., negative) during a thunderstorm.
Nature tries to neutralize charged objects and, in the thunderstorm example, does it in a very
dramatic way, called lightning.
Figure 393A illustrates the simplest atom, hydrogen. (Although hydrogen does not really play much
of a role in semiconductors, it provides a good example.) The hydrogen atom consists of one proton in
the nucleus, and one electron in orbit around the nucleus. If you think of the electron as a planet
orbiting the sun, you’d be wrong because the electron occupies a three-dimensional shell around the
proton; hence the term shell, or orbital shell for the electron orbits. Experimentally, we know that
the highest occupied shell for any element wants to have eight electrons in it, except for hydrogen,
which only has one occupied shell with two electrons. Because hydrogen really wants two electrons
in that outer shell, atoms of hydrogen bond, or “clump” together in groups of two, as illustrated in
Figure 393B, where there are two hydrogen nuclei (plural of nucleus) sharing their electrons in a full
shell. Because this is the natural state of hydrogen, the chemical symbol is written as H2.

Figure 393: Atomic structure of hydrogen.
But, because two atoms are sharing the electrons, the chemical (a gas in this case) tends to want to
combine with something else (e.g., oxygen), often in very dramatic fashion. Think about the
Hindenburg, the German airship that exploded upon landing in Lakehurst, New Jersey, which was
filled with hydrogen as the lifting gas. Had it been filled with helium, the next element in the
periodic table, the explosion would not have happened. Helium has two protons (and two neutrons),
with two electrons in the first shell, just as H2 has. But helium is an inert element; that is, it does
not react with anything, so there would not have been an explosion.
The most stable (inert) atoms have eight electrons in the highest energy shell, or valence band. As
mentioned, helium has one shell with two electrons, and the next simplest atom is neon, which has
two electrons in the first shell and eight in the second. Neon is also an inert gas. Most chemical
elements don’t have enough electrons to create a full outer subshell. Consequently, they must bond
with something else that lets the one or more elements share one outer layer of electrons, creating a
full outer shell of electrons. This equal sharing of electrons is called covalent bonding.
Another example of covalent bonding is oxygen, which has a total of eight electrons in two shells (two
in the inner shell and six in the outer). But that second shell needs eight electrons to be inert. One
way for oxygen to accomplish this is to work as a team of two oxygen atoms. Each atom contributes
two of its electrons to share with the other, effectively making for a full outer shell when two oxygen
atoms form a molecule. Thus, you will usually see pure oxygen written with the chemical symbol O2,
meaning that it exists as a molecule of two oxygen atoms.

Examining Sand and Silicon
► Explain why changing the temperature of certain elements can change their
electrical properties.
The formation of a molecule from atoms is the formation of silicon dioxide, SiO2, otherwise known as
common sand. Silicon is also called glass when melted and formed into a sheet. Silicon has four
electrons in its outer shell, and is probably the one most exciting atom in transistors and integrated
circuits. If it teams with two atoms of oxygen, each of the oxygen atoms contributes two electrons to
the outer shell pool, and the silicon atom contributes four electrons, resulting in eight electrons in
the outer shell. Silicon, by itself, is an intrinsic semiconductor, and sand is a good insulator.
Silicon is the most common semiconductor material today. In the early days of solid state,
germanium was the most common semiconductor, but silicon and other materials have displaced it
for most purposes. However, the material used is less important than what makes the
semiconductor work. Not only can silicon bond with certain other elements, but it can grow crystals
of pure (or mostly so) silicon, where the individual silicon molecules are in a tetrahedron, each
sharing an electron with each adjacent atom to satisfy the requirement for eight electrons in the
outer shell.
Consider a single atom of silicon, which has 14 protons and 14 neutrons in the nucleus, as shown in
Figure 394. Note the valence shell (outer band occupied by one or more electrons in an atom), where
most chemistry takes place. As stated, the stable atoms have eight electrons in the valence band
(except for helium, which has two); Figure 395 shows an abridged picture of the nucleus. This means
that silicon must have 14 electrons orbiting the nucleus. According to the formula, two of those 14
electrons are in the first shell, eight are in the second, and four in the third shell. But, to get a stable
situation with eight electrons in the third shell, the silicon atoms must be grouped in fours so that
each can share valence electrons with its neighbors and there are a full eight electrons in the outer
shell.

Figure 394: One silicon atom.
Figure 395 is a two-dimensional representation of the three-dimensional silicon crystal. The circle
with “+4” is a shorthand notation, representing one silicon atom plus all of the electrons orbiting it
except the four electrons in the outer valence band. The solid dots represent the electrons in that
outer orbit, four of which are associated with that atom, and four of which are associated with the
neighboring atoms. (Remember that the crystal lattice is arranged in three dimensions as a
tetrahedron, with a total of four adjacent atoms connected to each atom). At very low temperatures
(approaching absolute zero), the electrons are in stable orbit, and a voltage impressed from one side
of the crystal lattice to the other would not result in current (Figure 395A).

Figure 395: Two-dimensional representation of silicon crystal lattice.
At higher temperatures, as shown in Figure 395B, some electrons are knocked out of their stable
orbit by thermal effects. This leaves a positive charge, called a hole, at the location from which it was
dislodged. These free electrons can wander the lattice until they find another hole. Because there are
free electrons in the lattice, if a voltage was imposed across the crystal, represented by the battery
free electrons would migrate toward the positive side, as shown. Alternatively, another electron
could fill in the hole shown, with that electron having come from the right (negative) side of the
lattice, and thus the positively charged hole would move to the right. So, what is conducting current
through the silicon, the free (negative) electrons or the (positive) holes? It can be looked at either way
with equal validity; analogously, if you blow bubbles under water, are the bubbles moving toward the
surface, or is water being displaced downward around the bubbles? Similarly, current in a
semiconductor can be seen as a flow of electrons or a flow of holes; either way it is a flow of charge.
The direction of “conventional” (Figure 395B) is defined as charge moving from the positive to the
negative battery terminals. This is opposite the way you might have been taught, that electrons
move from negative to positive, which is true. When we talk about electron flow as comprising the
current, which is accurate in conductors such as copper and in vacuum tubes, then it is proper to talk
about current moving from negative to positive. Today we usually refer to “conventional current,”
moving from positive to negative, knowing that this is opposite of the conduction mechanism in
metals.

Summary of Semiconductor Material

The basics about how a semiconductor is made and how it works is provided. While not the only
material used as the base of semiconductors, silicon plays a prominent role, and we have described
how it forms crystals to create a full outer shell of electrons by sharing electrons among adjacent
atoms. We also detail how current can exist in a pure semiconductor (an intrinsic semiconductor) due
to thermal effects. This is important for understanding transistors and integrated circuits.

What can be done to enable semiconductors to conduct electricity?
What properties of electrons and protons prevent a charge on the atom?
3. What happens to electrons at very low temperatures?

MODULE 2
EXAMINING N-TYPE AND P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTORS:

EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Introduction
Today, silicon is the main type of semiconductor material used and introduced pure crystal lattice.
However, at high enough temperatures, we can get atoms of other materials to displace some (a
small fraction) of the silicon atoms in the lattice, without upsetting the lattice structure, resulting in
some interesting behaviors.
Examining Impurities in the Silicon Atom
► Describe the effect on the current when an impurity is introduced.
Silicon is from Group 4 of the periodic table, meaning that it has four electrons in the outer (valence)
band. Carbon and germanium are also in Group 4. Interesting things happen if an impurity from
either Group 3 or Group 4 are introduced into the lattice. Suitable materials from Group 4 include
antimony, phosphorus, and arsenic (donor impurities, as they donate an extra electron to the
crystal). These produce an impure silicon lattice with extra electrons not needed to fill out the silicon
outer electron shell, as illustrated in Figure 396A. Note that, because the impurity atom has an
extra proton in its nucleus, the extra electron in the lattice does not cause the crystal to have a
charge; the total charge on the crystal remains zero. However, this extra electron is free to wander
the crystal, and can carry current in the crystal. It is repelled from the negative terminal and
attracted toward the positive terminal of a battery connected to the doped silicon, as shown.
Figure 396: N-type and P-type semiconductors.
Figure 396B illustrates the introduction of a Group 3 (acceptor) impurity, such as boron, gallium,
and indium. This produces just the opposite situation, in which there is a deficiency of one electron
in the (mostly) silicon lattice. As previously discussed, we call this a hole. The hole is also free to
move through the crystal, and is just as capable of transporting current as is the free electron in the
N material. Of course, what is really happening is that an electron from another place in the lattice
is moving into the former hole position, creating a new hole where it was before. But it is valid to
view this as movement of positive charge, moving from the positive to the negative terminal of an
attached battery. And in fact, it has become the custom in the solid-state age to treat current as
moving from positive to negative, even in copper wiring. We understand it is electrons moving from
negative to positive, but for most purposes, the theory still holds even if we pretend the direction of
current moves in an opposite direction. Besides, it makes the arrows in the schematic point in the
direction of assumed current. It’s important to note in Figure 396 that both holes and electrons are
moving and their movements complement each other, therefore making them equally important
when creating an extrinsic semiconductor.
Examining the P-N Junction
► Explain how a basic diode is made.
Examining N-Type and P-Type Semiconductors: Extrinsic Semiconductors

Of what practical use is a semiconductor junction? We can take a slab of pure silicon and inject some
donor (N-type) or acceptor (P-type) impurities, and turn that piece of silicon into an extrinsic
semiconductor. But, so what? Well, if we put N-type semiconductors and P-type semiconductors
together, we can create different semiconductor devices. While not the only way to build
semiconductor devices, the most common way to inject donor or acceptor impurities is to diffuse them
into the silicon. Diffusion is often carried out at high and carefully-controlled temperatures and
pressures, which force the impurity atoms into the silicon lattice with a known concentration and
profile (number of impurity atoms per distance). By varying the diffusion characteristics, devices
with different characteristics are made.
Figure 397 illustrates the basic semiconductor diode, made by diffusing acceptor (P-type) impurities
into the left side, and donor (N-type) impurities into the right side. In Figure 397A, the common
schematic symbol for a diode is shown. A simple diode consists of an N-type and a P-type material
contacting each other. It conducts current in one direction, but not the other. Above the schematic
symbol is a drawing of a common axial-lead diode. Leads come out of each end, and the diode itself is
housed in a plastic or glass body. A stripe or band is painted on the cathode end. Figure 397B shows
the unbiased P-N junction that forms the diode, oriented consistently with the diode symbol. The
bigger circles with the - or + sign represent ions of silicon with an impurity atom. On the left side, an
impurity such as aluminum or gallium is infused, which has three electrons in the outer shell,
resulting in a deficiency of one electron in the outer shell of the ion (“wants” eight electrons, but has
seven), represented by the hole beside the ion. Similarly, on the right side, a donor impurity such as
arsenic infuses the silicon, which has five electrons in the outer shell, resulting in an electron that is
free to wander in the lattice.

Figure 397: Basic semiconductor diode.
As shown in Figure 397B near the junction (the intersection of the P- and N-type regions), the
electrons on the right side have drifted to the left side to fill the holes, resulting in a charged region
near the junction. To the left of the junction, a negative charge exists because electrons have
replaced the holes, but this puts too many electrons left of the junction. The opposite condition
obtains to the right of the junction. This region, where there are no free electrons or holes, is called
the depletion region. The process stops at some point, though, as the attraction of the two charged
regions becomes strong enough to prevent more electrons and holes from drifting across the junction;
the process obviously cannot continue forever, as there would eventually be an infinitely high voltage
across the diode.
Examining Diode Characteristics
► Describe the characteristics that make a basic diode work.

What is the use of silicon with acceptor impurity atoms on one side and donor impurities on the
other? We will review a qualitative explanation of how the diode works; that is, a basic description
of its operation without getting into the mathematics. Figure 398A shows the diode with a battery
connected to reverse bias the diode. With the negative terminal of the battery connected to the P
(anode) side of the diode, the remaining holes move out of the silicon material. Similarly, the positive
side of the battery is connected to the N (cathode) side of the diode, and pulls out all the free
electrons. Without free carriers in the semiconductor for transferring charge across the diode, there
is no current.
Figure 398: Basic semiconductor diode.
In Figure 398B, the battery polarity is reversed, making the anode more positive than the cathode
causing the diode to conduct current. In this position, the battery polarity pushes holes (positively
charged regions, repelled by the positive charge of the battery terminal connected to it) toward the
junction. Similarly, on the right, the free electrons are pushed toward the junction and, at the
junction, the electrons and holes combine. This lets current continue to exist through the diode.
Thus, a diode conducts current in one direction and does not conduct in the other direction. Note that
because a battery, a voltage source, is shown connected to the diode, a current limiting resistor must
be used to prevent overheating and burning out the diode.

There is some small amount of current in the reverse direction. There are several mechanisms for
generating a continuing small supply of free electrons and holes, primarily due to the temperature of
the semiconductor, which knocks some electrons out of their orbit, resulting in a very small reverse
leakage current. Also, light falling on the diodes knocks some electrons loose. This provides an
advantage in photodiodes, but sometimes causes issues in glass-encapsulated diodes if light falls on
them
Figure 399 illustrates the voltage-current characteristic of a diode. At very low voltage, relatively
little current exists. As the voltage is increased, the current increases drastically, and for most of the
usable range of the diode, whatever the current in the diode, the voltage is relatively constant at
about the forward voltage drop, VF. For germanium diodes, of which few are used today, VF is about
0.2 volt, while for silicon diodes, VF is about 0.7 volt. On the surface, it may appear that germanium
is a better material. But other undesirable characteristics of germanium, such as its greater thermal
instability, make silicon the better choice for almost every application. However, there may be an
occasional 1N34 or 1N270 germanium diode used as a detector.
Figure 399: Current-voltage diode characteristic.
To look at the reverse characteristics of the diode, to the left of the vertical line of Figure 399, the
scales are changed drastically, especially the current scale. As stated, there is a very slight reverse
current that exists, IO, but it can be in the fractions of a micro-ampere, compared with milliamperes
or amperes for forward current. If the reverse voltage continues to be increased, a point is reached at
which the current increases sharply due to the Zener effect. Engineers call this the Zener voltage,
VZ. Zener diodes are used to regulate voltage, among other tasks.

N-type semiconductor materials are formed by adding minute amounts of a pentavalent element to
the intrinsic semiconductor. This forces a few of the material's pentavalent at
oms to provide a spare electron. The doping atoms in this instance are called donor atoms because
they "donate" extra electrons to the material. The charge carriers in an N-type semiconductor are
electrons, which are said to be the majority carriers, while holes are the minority carriers.
P-type semiconductors are formed by adding a tiny amount of one of the trivalent doping materials.
This leaves a portion of the valence shells with a shortage of electrons (or excess holes). Because a
trivalent doping material leaves holes that can subsequently accept electrons from other bonds, it is
called an acceptor atom. The charge carriers in a P-type material are positively charged holes. Holes
are the majority charge carriers in this instance, and electrons are said to be the minority carriers.
Explaining the Function of the Diode

There must be some use for such a magnificent device as the lowly solid-state diode. Alternating
current (AC) is used in power distribution to homes and businesses for good reasons, including the
easy ability to change its voltage. But direct current (DC) is required to run many of our modern
electronic devices. Let’s review one use for the diode. Figure 400 shows a basic half-wave power
supply, which might be found in an older piece of electronics gear or an older wall power supply. This
is “older” because this circuit, while simple and cheap, is not especially efficient, nor does it provide
very good voltage regulation. But it is practical for some applications and it serves as an introduction
to practical diode circuits.
Figure 400: Basic half-wave power supply.

The circuit starts on the left, with alternating current from the power in a house or some other
source connected to the transformer primary winding. The secondary winding of the transformer is
connected to the rectifier circuit, which is what the diode is all about. Because there is AC on the
secondary, the top of the transformer is sometimes positive and the bottom negative, and at other
times the opposite happens; with normal AC as used in North America, the voltage goes through 60
cycles of positive and negative each second. When the top of the secondary is sufficiently positive,
then the diode is forward-biased, so that it conducts current. Some of the current goes to the load,
the circuit using the power, which is represented here as a resistor. Some of the current goes through
the capacitor, a device used to store charge. When there is a certain charge on the capacitor, it has a
voltage across it. When the power goes through the negative half cycle and the diode does not
conduct, the capacitor can continue to provide voltage across, hence current through the load.
Describing the Signal Ground
► Describe the basics of different grounds in an electrical circuit.
Note the signal ground; you will see this many times. Almost all circuits are constructed with some
sort of common point in the circuit, and most voltages (including signals of all types) are measured
with respect to this point. The common point is called the ground. In the early days of radio, and still
today in many cases, the ground point is literally connected to the ground, usually through a ground
rod or a system of conductors connecting to earth ground (a ground system). Frequently, the earth
ground is made through the third wire of the power connector, the semi-circle big contact on a North
American power plug (the shape is different in other regions of the world).
Ideally, any ground point is at the same potential (voltage) as is any other ground point. But
practically, this is not the case for most equipment. It is a common saying among engineers that
“ground is not ground is not ground.” Many modern pieces of equipment have multiple grounds
internally, such as a digital ground, a radio frequency (RF) ground, and a power ground. These have
different schematic symbols; the triangle is a common symbol used to represent signal grounds.
In Figure 401, the most common ground symbols used for earth ground, chassis ground (sometimes
RF ground), plus signal ground are shown. It is common for a circuit to have more grounds than this;
frequently, the triangle symbol with some sort of ground definition next to it is used. All grounds are
connected, preferably at one place and one place only.

Figure 401: Common ground symbols.
Summary of N-Type and P-Type

Semiconductors
We have reviewed how solid-state concepts can be useful: making an AC-to-DC power supply. By
controlling the doping characteristics and size and shape of the diode junction, as well as by using
more esoteric materials in some cases, many different types of diodes that perform all sorts of
functions can be made.

What occurs when a Group 3 (acceptor) impurity, such as boron, gallium, or indium is introduced
to the current?
What does a simple diode consist of?
Why are silicon diodes a better choice than germanium diodes?
What causes atoms of other materials to displace some of the silicon atoms?

In an electrical circuit, how is the ground point typically connected?

Diodes and Diode Circuits (326-20-3) Page 495
LESSON 17: Diodes and Diode Circuits (326-20-3)
 Examining Rectifier Circuits

 Examining Optical Diodes
MODULE 1
EXAMINING RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Introduction to Rectifier Circuits

After exploring the basic chemistry and solid state physics that are used in semiconductors, the basic
diode and its basic use as a rectifier to convert alternating current to direct current, and the most
basic rectifier circuit, the half wave rectifier, it is time to review several modifications to the basic
diode, rectifier circuits, and the most important diode ratings. By changing the geometry of the
junction, the materials used for doping, and the amount of doping, many interesting things can be
done with diodes. In fact, there are so many ways to use diodes, we cannot cover all of diodes in use
today.
Identifying Common Rectifier Circuits
► Describe the operation of the common rectifier circuits.
The basic function of most diodes is to conduct current in one direction and not the other. This allows
them to change alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), and allows them to detect amplitude
modulated signals. Figure 402 illustrates two types of diode rectifier circuits that are commonly used
today to convert AC to DC. Both of these are full-wave rectifiers. The advantage of a full-wave circuit
is that the filter capacitor does not have to supply current for over half of the power cycle; rather, in
a full-wave circuit, the capacitor only has to supply current for less than half a cycle, which improves
the filtering. Figure 402A shows a center-tapped circuit (a popular circuit in the vacuum tube era),
which has been used with solid-state diodes. On each half cycle of the AC waveform, one-half of the
transformer secondary winding is used. When the polarity of the top half of the transformer is
positive, there is current in diode D1, which charges the capacitor with the top positive. The current
returns to the center tap of the transformer secondary. Diode D2 is reverse biased, thus it does not
conduct during this half cycle. During alternate half cycles, the bottom of the transformer secondary
is positive, and diode D2 conducts current, which goes through the capacitor and again returns to the
center tap of the transformer secondary. Note that the current goes through the capacitor in the
same direction in both cases, helping to maintain the charge on the capacitor during both half cycles
of the line voltage.
Examining Rectifier Circuits

Figure 402: Rectifier Circuits.
Figure 402B illustrates what is probably the most common type of rectifier in use today, the full-
wave bridge rectifier. This uses twice the number of diodes; however, diodes are relatively low in
cost today. The entire transformer secondary is used during both half cycles of the power waveform.
When the top of the secondary is positive, there is current through diode D3, through the capacitor,
then through D2, returning to the lower (negative) end of the transformer. Diodes D1 and D4 are
reverse-biased, so they are not conducting. When the bottom of the secondary is positive, diode D4
conducts current to the top of the capacitor, and the current returns to the top (negative) of the
transformer through D1.
Of course, with any rectifier circuit, the diodes can be turned around and generate a negative
voltage. Many circuits use negative voltages as well as positive voltages. A rectifier circuit is
essentially the same as the most common type of amplitude modulation (AM) detector, the envelope
detector. It may be obvious that the DC output voltage is proportional to the input AC voltage. Now,
let the input AC voltage be an amplitude-modulated RF carrier, and the output of a rectifier can be
the intelligence modulated onto that carrier. The values of the capacitor and RL are computed a bit
differently in this case, but the principle is the same. The simple half-wave rectifier circuit is the
most common for detector circuits, though other circuits are used.
Examining Voltage Limiters (Clippers)
► Describe the function of voltage limiters.

Figure 403: Voltage limiter.
Sometimes a voltage may need to be limited, to keep it from going above a certain level, or it may
need to be clipped, converting a sine wave signal into something more like a square wave. The
forward voltage drop of a diode provides the advantage to do this, as shown in Figure 403. On the
secondary of the transformer, there is the sinusoidal AC waveform as expected from a transformer
(or any other single-frequency device). The output of the circuit has two diodes back-to-back so that,
when the forward voltage drop of a diode is exceeded in either polarity, one of the two diodes turns
on, preventing the voltage from getting any higher. The resistor is in the circuit to prevent excessive
current when either diode is turned on.
Voltage limiters have been used when a square wave synchronized to the power line may be
required. The same idea has been used in frequency modulation (FM) receivers to build the limiter
that precedes the detector, to keep the signal amplitude at the detector constant. It has been used in
amplitude modulation (AM) receivers, particularly for the short-wave bands, as a static clipper; the
normal radio frequency (RF) signal level is set to be below the diode threshold by a little, but when a
high-amplitude static crash hits, it exceeds the diode threshold, and thus is limited in amplitude.
This circuit has been implemented at the intermediate frequency (IF) or at the audio output. More
sophisticated and precision circuits are usually used today, but diode clippers were used for many
years.

Examining Clamping Circuits
► Describe clamping circuit usage.
There may be times when it is not desired for AC voltage to have a zero DC component. One
application is in certain types of detectors where the signal should always be positive or negative. In
the analog video world, it was very common to use AC coupling of the video signal between pieces of
equipment to minimize power usage, but within certain pieces of equipment, the sync tip needed to
be at a defined level. A clamping circuit can do these jobs, as illustrated in Figure 404. The incoming
signal is capacitively coupled to a diode. The resistor represents the load on the circuit. If the output
of the capacitor is negative, as it will be initially when the sine wave is applied, then the diode
conducts, charging the right side of the capacitor positive. This process continues until the negative
peak of the sine wave is at 0 volts (ignoring diode). When the waveform goes more positive (than its
maximum negative excursion), then the diode is reverse biased and is effectively out of the circuit.
This has the effect of shifting the DC level of the signal, so that it is always above ground. The value
of the load resistor (RL) is somewhat critical in that, if the amplitude of the sine wave drops, we
want the capacitor to be re-biased so that the negative excursion of the lower voltage is still at
ground. This requires the capacitor to partially discharge, which it does through RL and the source
impedance of the sine wave.
Figure 404: Positive clamp circuit.

Describing Key Diode Characteristics
► Describe key forward characteristics of the diode.
Before exploring other diode types, we will review key forward characteristics of the diode, which
include:
 Maximum forward current IF: Each diode is designed to handle a maximum forward
current, which may range from a few milliamps for a small signal diode to many amperes for a
rectifier diode. Also, IF (sometimes written If) may specify a test current for measuring forward
voltage.
 Forward voltage drop VF: The forward voltage drop of a diode is relatively constant for any
forward current below the maximum (Figure 405). However, since the voltage is somewhat
dependent on the forward current (the other use of I F), VF is specified at one or two forward
currents. For forward-biased silicon diodes, which are most common today, V F is about 0.7
volts at useful currents. For germanium diodes, VF is about 0.2 volts, but germanium has other
characteristics that make it less suitable for most applications. A modification to a silicon
diode, called a Schottky diode, has a forward voltage drop of about 0.4 volts. The lower the
voltage drop, the more efficient the rectifier.
Figure 405: Forward voltage drop.

Figure 406 summarizes the diode characteristics concept. Figure 406A shows a forward-biased diode
in which there is current due to the battery voltage. This corresponds to the right half of Figure 406.
The battery is forward biasing the diode. Resistor R1 is there to limit the current that exists in the
diode; without R1 you would quickly burn out the diode due to excess current. Figure 406B
illustrates the other set of important characteristics of diodes: reverse characteristics. This
corresponds to the left half of Figure 406. Note that the battery has been flipped from Figure 4065A.
Ideally, there is no current at all in a reverse-biased diode but, in reality, some reverse current
exists, IR. Reverse current is a figure of merit for the diode, and must be specified at a specific
reverse voltage VR. Note that we have kept the current limiting resistor in the reverse circuit
because, when we increase the reverse voltage enough, we get a lot of current in the diode and we
need the resistor to limit the reverse current. The voltage at which reverse current increases
drastically is called the Zener voltage, shown as VZ in Figure 406. There are diodes that take
advantage of the Zener voltage as a voltage regulator.
Figure 406: Key diode characteristics.
Yet another important characteristic of reverse-biased diodes is the reverse capacitance of the diode.
Due to the proximity of the P and N layers in the diode and to the creation of the depletion layer in
the diode (because of charge migration at the P-N junction), the reverse--biased diode exhibits
capacitance. The amount of capacitance depends on the reverse voltage applied to the diode. This
capacitance can work against us when it limits the speed at which the diode switches. However, we
can take advantage of the capacitance in varactor diodes.

Examining Other Interesting Diodes
► Describe other common diodes and their applications.
As previously stated, parameters such as the doping profile, dopant elements, and geometry of the
diode, can be adjusted to produce different types of diodes. These diodes can be incredibly useful for a
lot of things beyond rectifiers.
Zener Diodes
The Zener effect (discovered by Clarence Zener) is a reverse breakdown property of diodes; above the
Zener threshold, the voltage across the diode is relatively independent of the current in it. If we are
not careful, the current will burn out the diode. However, if we limit the current in the diode, we can
take advantage of the Zener effect to regulate the voltage from a rectifier. We can control the Zener
voltage by controlling the doping of the junction. So, there are families of Zener diodes used as
voltage regulators and voltage references. You can typically buy Zener diodes in the same numerical
voltages as you get resistors in numerical relations. For 10% tolerances, you can typically get
numerical values of 1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, 8.2, and repeating at multiples of 10
times these numbers. These numbers are roughly 20% separated from each other.
Figure 407 illustrates some uses of Zener diodes. Figure 407A is the most basic voltage regulator we
can build—not all that accurate and not very efficient, but simple and suitable for some applications.
Resistor R1 is a current-limiting resistor. Note the Zener diode schematic symbol, which is that of a
normal diode with the addition of two slanted lines on the cathode. Also, note that the Zener is
reverse biased. The rectifier voltage obviously must exceed the Zener breakdown voltage of the diode.
So, within limits, the Zener diode will hold the same voltage across it regardless of the current
through it. The load resistor represents the circuit that we want to power. The voltage across the
load is the Zener voltage, where we select the Zener diode to give us the desired voltage. A related
application is as a surge protection device. If a Zener diode, with a breakdown voltage somewhat
higher than the expected voltage, is placed across input terminals, then it can limit the voltage
impressed on the circuit. There are other devices, such as gas discharge tubes, that may also be used
for this purpose.

Figure 407: Application of Zener diodes.
A much-improved voltage regulation scheme is shown in Figure 407B, in which we use a regulator
circuit to control the voltage presented to the load. The regulator has a series pass transistor, which
acts as a variable voltage attenuator, controlled by a comparator circuit in the regulator. The
comparator compares the reference voltage generated by the Zener diode to a sample of the output
voltage. The sample of the output voltage is taken at the voltage divider output, at the junction of
voltage divider resistors R2 and R3. The figure shows the relation between the output voltage and
the Zener voltage: the regulator will adjust itself such that the output voltage divided by voltage
divider R2-R3 equals the Zener voltage. The voltage divider equation is shown in the figure and we
can solve this for the output voltage by this the equation:
Thus, a convenient Zener voltage can be used to get the output voltage desired by adjusting divider
resistors R2 and R3. Today, the Zener reference diode is usually built into the regulator, so you will
not see it on the schematic. For fixed voltage regulators, the voltage divider will also be built into the
regulator.
When we defined the reverse breakdown as being the Zener voltage, it is a little misleading. It is
called that in practice, however, there are two different phenomena going on. At lower voltages, it is
the Zener effect that determines the breakdown voltage of the diode, but at higher voltages it is
another mechanism called the avalanche effect (may be referred to as avalanche diodes). Both the
Zener and avalanche mechanisms are present at all breakdown voltages, with the Zener effect
dominating at lower voltages and the avalanche effect dominating at higher voltages. These effects
have opposite temperature coefficients and, at about 5.6 volts, the two temperature coefficients come
close to cancelling each other out, so you get the most temperature-stable voltage reference at this
voltage. Work in recent years has yielded some diodes with very stable lower reference voltages.
Note: The temperature coefficient is a measure of the amount by which the voltage changes as the
temperature of the device changes. Essentially, it is desired that the voltage always be the same
regardless of temperature, however, this is not realistic.

Tunnel Diodes
Tunnel diodes are made with very thin but highly doped P-N junctions. At the proper bias point, they
exhibit negative resistance. This makes them useful for amplifiers and oscillators, especially at very
high frequencies. Currently, they are not as popular as they used to be but you may still see them
from time to time.
PIN Diodes
Another useful type of diode is built the same as a regular diode, except that an intrinsic layer,
which has neither P- nor N-dopant, is inserted between the two. So, with a P region followed by an
intrinsic (I) region, followed by an N region, engineers applied their creativity and called it a PIN
diode. In Figure 408A, the N side contributes electrons to the intrinsic region, and the P side
contributes holes. The two combine (cancel out each other), but it takes some time for this to happen,
as the electrons and holes find each other through migration. If a forward current is being passed
through the diode, the holes and electrons in the intrinsic layer are constantly replenishing
themselves. Because of this, the free holes and electrons make the intrinsic layer a good conductor;
the more electrons and holes present, the better the conductor. It means that the resistance at RF
frequencies is a function of the direct current through the PIN diode, which provides a very good
variable RF resistor that is controlled by the amount of direct current passing through it.
Figure 408: PIN diode.

Note: The RF signal must be at frequencies high enough that the period of the RF waveform is long
compared with the carrier lifetime before the holes and electrons cancel out each other. As a
practical matter, PIN diodes that work down to a bit under 50 MHz can be made, as well as others
that work into the microwave region.
The automatic gain control (AGC) attenuator, shown in Figure 408B, is one of the types of circuits
made with PIN diodes. The RF signal of varying amplitude is presented to the PIN diode attenuator
and, at the output of the attenuator, some of the signal is sampled in a directional coupler. This
signal is passed to an amplitude detector, which produces a DC voltage proportional to the amplitude
of the output RF signal. This analog of the RF amplitude compares to a reference voltage
representing the desired amplitude of the signal in a comparator. (A Zener diode might generate the
reference voltage.) The difference voltage, representing the error in the output amplitude, is supplied
to the PIN diode attenuator, changing its attenuation such that the output amplitude is as desired.
There are any number of PIN diode attenuator circuits that might be used, depending on the
application. They range from simple voltage dividers to bridged T attenuators, which exhibit good
return loss over a range of attenuations, to current-sharing arrangements with transistor amplifiers.
The choice depends on the application.
Note: A bridged T attenuator has two resistors and two PIN diodes in a circuit arrangement, the
schematic of which looks like the letter T consisting of two resistors and one PIN diode, with another
PIN diode between the input and output.
Another application of PIN diodes is as RF switches. With the diode back-biased, it exhibits a very
high resistance to the RF. When biased to relatively high forward current, the resistance is
extremely low. Switching speed between the two states is very fast. Thus, PIN diodes can make an
excellent switch. They are often used as transmit-receive switches in transceivers and in other
devices that must switch RF signals. Another application of PIN diodes is steerable radar arrays. In
such radar arrays, rather than steering the radar beam by physically moving the antenna, it is
steered by controlling the amplitude and phase of RF applied to hundreds or thousands of individual
dipole antennas. PIN diodes are often used to steer the right signal to each dipole.
Schottky Barrier Diodes
The Schottky barrier diode, named after German physicist Walter H. Schottky, is built differently
than other diodes. It usually has an N-type semiconductor material in contact with a sharp metal
point. The Schottky diode, also known as a hot carrier diode, exhibits extremely fast switching time
and a lower forward voltage drop than do silicon diodes. There are several applications for the
Schottky diode.

One application takes advantage of the lower forward voltage and at least two trends are driving
this. One trend is the drive to higher efficiency—doing more for less power. The other is the trend to
lower operating voltages for integrated circuits. A simplified but accurate illustration of the problem
is presented. Consider that we need to build a 1.5-volt supply to supply 10 amperes to a circuit.
Thus, we are supplying 15 watts (power = voltage times current) to the load. Suppose we are using a
bridge circuit to derive the voltage to feed a regulator. We have the same 10 amps in the diodes in
the bridge. If a bridge circuit is built using silicon diodes with a 0.7 voltage drop, and we have two
diodes in series carrying current during each half-cycle of the AC supply (two different sets of diodes
for the two halves of the waveform), then we have 1.4 volts drop in the diodes, times 10 amps.
Therefore we are wasting 14 watts in the diodes to deliver 15 watts to the load—not very efficient,
even before we take other losses into account. But, suppose we used Schottky diodes with 0.3 volt
drop. Now we have a total drop of twice this (for the two diodes), or 0.6 volt, times 10 amps, so we are
only losing 6 watts in the rectifier diodes rather than 14 watts, a rather healthy increase in
efficiency. Note that, while this example is simplified and there are other ways to improve efficiency,
it illustrates the point that going to lower voltage drop diodes is one trick that circuit designers use
to improve efficiency of a power supply design.
Figure 409 illustrates the use of Schottky diodes in logic circuits, which relies on both the low
forward voltage and speed of the diode. A formerly popular and still used family of logic circuits is
called transistor-transistor logic (TTL or T2L). Figure 409A shows a simple TTL inverter. The
transistor terminals are labeled, collector (C), base (B), and emitter (E). In logic circuits, either the
transistor is off, not conducting any collector current, or it is in saturation, at which state the
collector is almost at ground potential (within about 0.2 volt). This is done by designing the input
resistor such that some excess base current is always available. Figure 409A shows bipolar
transistors, in which the base current over-and-above the minimum necessary to saturate the
transistor creates excess minority carriers in the base region of the transistor. When the input signal
returns to the low state and the transistor turns off, some time is required to eliminate the excess
charge from the base region, and this causes slow turn-off of the transistor, resulting in slow rise
time of the output signal.

Figure 409: Schottky diode used in a TTL circuit.
By inserting a Schottky barrier diode, as shown in Figure 409B, all excess base current is routed
through the collector, where it becomes more collector current (but not much more). No excess charge
is built up in the base region of the transistor, so the turn-off time is much faster.
Schottky barrier diodes are ideal for this application because they have low enough voltage drop to
be able to turn on, whereas a silicon diode would never even turn on. Also, Schottky barrier diodes
have the fast response necessary in fast logic. Logic circuits built with Schottky diodes are
designated with an “S” in the part number. For example, a simple low-power two input NAND gate
is the 74L00, and the Schottky version is designated the 74LS00. Note the symbol for the Schottky
barrier diode is the typical diode symbol with a couple of extra lines on each end of the cathode line.
Varactor Diodes
Buy using a conventional P-N junction diode, making the junction area large and correctly doping it,
a problem parameter can be changed into a property that lets us build frequency modulators, voltage
controlled variable frequency oscillators, and other valuable circuits. That problem parameter is the
capacitance across a reverse-biased diode. Normally, this junction capacitance is something that is
limited or minimized because it tends to slow down the operation of a diode. However, by building a
diode that has more capacitance, which varies with the applied voltage, we can build a voltage
variable capacitor called a varactor (or varicap).

Figure 410 shows a practical voltage controlled oscillator. If we make the components the correct
value to cover a wide range of frequencies, and we use a phase-locked loop or some other means of
accurate frequency control, then we have something we can use as a tunable local oscillator in a
radio or TV receiver, a ham radio transmitter, or a laboratory signal generator. If we set the
component values such that, over a reasonable voltage range, the oscillator moves approximately ±75
kHz, we can then apply audio at VC to make a modulator for an FM transmitter. Another application
of the varactor is as a reference frequency standard. For example, we design the oscillator of Figure
410 to run at 10 MHz and divide the frequency by 10,000,000 to give us a 1 Hz signal, which is
compared in phase to a 1 Hz signal generated in GPS receivers. If there is an error in the two 1 Hz
signals, the 10 MHz oscillator is adjusted to eliminate the error. We then have a very precise 10 MHz
reference, for which there are many uses.
Figure 410: Voltage-controlled oscillator.
The circuit of Figure 9 is a classic Colpitts oscillator, using capacitive feedback (C3 and C4). The
frequency at which it oscillates is given by the formula for the resonant frequency of an inductor (L)
capacitor (C):
In the formula, L is the inductance (L1) but C is more complicated. Assume that C1 and C2 are very
large, then C is the series capacitance of C3 and C4, plus the capacitance of varactor D1. Since the
capacitance of D1 is a function of the control voltage VC, then the frequency of the oscillator will
change with VC. There are as many variations of the circuit configuration as there are engineers
designing circuits.

Note the schematic symbol for a varactor diode D1. It is a combination of a capacitor and a diode.
Sometimes you will see the curved line drawn as a straight line. In a capacitor symbol, the curved
line initially represented the negative end of a polarized capacitor (one that was sensitive to the
polarity of the voltage imposed on it). This is certainly the case with the varactor, as with most
electrolytic capacitors. Today, the curved line is often used even with non-polarized capacitors, and a
plus (+) sign is used to indicate the positive end of the capacitor, if it is important.
Note: Very high value capacitors, such as those used for power supply filtering, are usually made
using techniques that result in the capacitor being useful only when charged to one polarity and not
the other. Smaller value capacitors, used for bypass and signal coupling, are usually made using
techniques that result in capacitors that are not sensitive to voltage polarity.

How does an AC-to-DC rectifier work?
How do ordinary diodes detect AM signals?
What do Zener diodes do?
What are the advantages of PIN diodes over conventional diodes?
When and why would you use a Schottkey Barrier Diode?
What are varactor diodes used for?


MODULE 2
EXAMINING OPTICAL DIODES
Introduction to Optical Diodes

Diodes perform their work in the electrical domain; that is, they do things to electrical voltages and
currents. It may be all that they do, but they do it in so many different and useful ways that they are
fascinating devices to study. In this module, we explore different classifications of diodes, which are
used to convert electrical energy into light energy and vice versa. Light emitting diodes emit non-
coherent light, meaning light that covers a relatively wide spectrum and which arrives in photons
not really related to one another. They are useful for indicator lights and LCD panel backlighting
and, recently, have been used for illuminating homes and buildings instead of incandescent and
fluorescent devices. An upgrade to the light emitting diode is to configure it so that it emits light over
a narrow wavelength such that it can be transmitted over fiber-optic cable. These so-called laser
diodes launch information from one place to another over fiber-optic cables. Conversely, there is a
wide variety of photodiodes, which can receive light and convert it back to electrical form.
Examining Light Emitting Diodes
► Explain the basic operation of the light emitting diodes used in hybrid fiber/coax
(HFC) networks.
Light emitting diodes, or LEDs, are probably the most familiar example of a diode to the average
person today; they are everywhere. LEDs started to appear as annunciator (indicator) lights and
numerical displays in electronic equipment in the 1970s. After half a century of development, they
are now being used as very efficient light sources, replacing incandescent and compact fluorescent
lights.
Figure 411 shows a P-N junction forward biased, conducting current. Holes are pushed to the
junction from the left, and electrons from the right. As the electron-hole pairs meet at the junction,
they cancel out each other (i.e., the electron fills the valence band of the P material, cancelling out
the positive and negative charge). With normal dopants, the energy level in the valence bands in the
P and N materials are about the same, so the electron and hole just disappear, to be replaced by
another pair produced by the current in the diode. We can get creative with the materials used for
dopants, so that the electron comes from a higher energy level than that which it will fill when it
moves into the valence band vacancy on the P side. Then, energy is emitted, as indicated by the two
squiggly lines coming from the pair about to cancel out each other in Figure 411A. The wavelength of
the energy thus emitted depends on the relative energy of the electron and hole. Figure 411B shows
the schematic symbol for an LED. There are two variations, with squiggly lines and with straight
lines.
Figure 411: Light emitting diode.
By varying the dopants used on the two sides of the diode, we can get the diode to emit energy at
different wavelengths. Of course, the geometry and treatment of the diode must be such that the
light can get out of the diode, traveling in the desired direction. This is possible, however, there is
not an infinite possibility of different colors because of the elements that can be used for dopants,
and their energy levels. By exploring different combinations of dopants, researchers have been able
to develop a variety different colors.
Examining Optical Diodes

Figure 412 shows a way to get up to three colors from what looks like one LED package. The package
contains two LEDs, connected back-to-back. They are driven from a voltage source represented by a
circle. If the voltage source is positive on top, the red LED is forward biased and thus emits light. If
the voltage source is negative on top, then the green LED is forward biased and emits light. Suppose
we make the voltage source put out a reasonably fast square wave, alternating polarities and
turning on the red and green LEDs sequentially. Your eye will see both colors, and red and green
make yellow. So for two LEDs next to each other in the same package, you can get three colors.
Figure 412: Two LEDs in one package.
Describing Photodiodes
► Describe the basic operation of photodiodes.
The reciprocal of the way an LED works is the way a photodiode or photodetector works. (Note that,
when referring to a photodiode as working in a manner reciprocal to the LED, this does not imply
that the construction is the same in the two devices; only that the physics of the two devices is
similar.) If we shine light on the diode, then that light can dislodge some electrons from orbit around
a nucleus. This forms electron-hole pairs, which can then conduct current through a reverse-biased
diode. Figure 413 shows the reverse-biased diode, with a free electron-hole pair created by a photon
of light striking an orbiting electron, knocking it out of orbit. This electron-hole pair can then
conduct current through the reverse-biased diode. The current develops a voltage across the resistor
R1, which is amplified by the amplifier connected across R1, and a signal is presented at the output.

Figure 413: Photodiode.
A photon is the smallest amount of light or other electromagnetic radiation that can exist. It comes
from the particle concept of light. A photon carries energy proportional to its frequency (often
expressed as wavelength; speed of light divided by frequency), but has zero rest mass. Note that,
throughout this section, when stating “light,” we mean the electromagnetic energy, frequently
carried in a fiber optic cable. The light is not necessarily visible to the eye; it may well be of a
wavelength to which the eye is not sensitive.
While you can build a photodiode as shown, many times they are made from PIN diodes. Another
common variant is an avalanche photodiode (APD), which is constructed so that every free electron
will knock several other electrons out of orbit, providing an amplifying effect. It is possible to get a
gain of up to times 10 in an APD over a normal photodiode by having one electron freed by a photon
striking it, with that electron freeing up several other electrons. Sometimes an amplifier transistor is
included in the package with the photodiode to provide more gain and higher bandwidth by reducing
the impedance of the output, so that the inevitable capacitance of the case and the printed wiring
board do not have as much effect on bandwidth.
Figure 414 shows the schematic representation of a practical detector circuit. The photodiode symbol
is the same as that of an LED except that the arrows on the squiggly line are going into the diode
rather than out of the diode indicating, in both cases, the direction of light. A power supply
decoupling circuit, C1 and R2, has been added. R2 can be a rather high value resistor because the
only current through it is the small leakage current of the diode (called dark current), plus the small
signal current produced by the light falling on the diode. C1 and R2 form a low pass filter to filter out
any noise in the power supply, which might otherwise get into the signal path.

Figure 414: Optical detector circuit.
Photodiodes are used for many applications. One that is familiar to anyone who has worked on cable
TV distribution systems is the optical receiver in a node. If we take the output of the amplifier in
Figure 4 and add an automatic gain control (AGC) circuit, a tilt network, and some more gain, we
have built a node downstream optical receiver.

Analyzing Opto-Isolators
► Describe how an opto-isolator provides good isolation between signals.
An LED and a photodiode can be combined in one package to build a device called an opto-isolator.
There are other ways to build opto-isolators, but combining an LED and a photodiode is common.
There are many times when it is not desirable to have electrical conduction (continuity) between an
input and an output, especially when it results in a ground loop. There may be times when it is
desirable to control a high voltage power source with a logic level signal, turning it on and off or
controlling its voltage. Practical ways of doing this usually involve being able to isolate both signals
and grounds. This same need comes up again when trying to provide good isolation between signals
coming into a facility and signals inside the facility, to protect against damage due to lightning or
other voltage surges.
An opto-isolator performs this function by sending an optical control signal over a short path (usually
within a single integrated circuit package) to a receiver, which does something with the optical
signal. The optical signal might be generated by an LED, with a photodiode used to receive it. The
photodiode might be connected to a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) to turn power on when the
transmitting LED is turned on. The advantage is total isolation between the controlling circuit
(maybe a microprocessor) and the controlled circuit (maybe switching off and on heavy machinery).
Identifying Laser Diodes
► Explain why laser diodes are used in the cable TV industry.
Lasers are devices that emit coherent or nearly coherent light, meaning that the light appears to be
at a single wavelength (frequency) and if it could be observed, the waveform would appear
sinusoidal, like a continuous wave (CW) radio signal. There are many ways to build lasers, but the
ones of interest in the cable TV industry are solid-state lasers, which are basically modifications of
LEDs. Two basic types of lasers used are Fabry-Perot (F-P) lasers and distributed feedback (DFB)
lasers.

Examining the Fabry-Perot Lasers
F-P lasers are named for the two scientists, Charles Fabry and Alfred Perot, who developed the filter
used in the laser. Starting with a PIN diode built with certain materials such that when a forward
current is passed through the diode, spontaneous emission of a photon of light occurs (Figure 415).
Other features, such as an automatic gain control (AGC) circuit, a tilt network, etc., are then added.
The base semiconductor material for lasers, or for LEDs should not use silicon; the energy bands
through which an electron falls when it recombines with a hole are not right for producing a photon
of light. Fortunately, there are compound semiconductor materials that can be used. Nonetheless,
the basic structure of the device is like the PIN diode..
Figure 415: Fabry-Perot laser.

As current in the laser is brought up, electron-hole pairs begin to recombine in the intrinsic layer.
Each recombination releases a photon of light, which travels at right angles to the direction of the
electron-hole travel, or to the right or left, due to the material the laser is made of. When an electron-
hole pair is released into the intrinsic region, the pair may survive in proximity to each other for
some small time (about a nanosecond) before they recombine. During this time, a nearby photon can
force recombination if it has the same energy (wavelength) as that which will be emitted when the
electron-hole recombine. The recombination releases a second photon moving in the same direction
as the first photon. Then these two photons can cause two more to be released, and so on, forming a
chain reaction.
Now, there are almost enough elements for lasing. The choice in materials has gotten us close, but
we need to get as much stimulated radiation as possible in one direction. We do this by creating an
interferometer which is done by putting a mirror on one end of the laser, so that it reflects all the
light (or nearly all). Then, on the other end, we put a partially-reflecting mirror – one that reflects
much of the light back, but which lets some out.
When a photon is reflected from the right surface to the left surface, then back to the right, we need
it to arrive in phase to reinforce the coherent nature of the laser light. For this to happen, the
distance between the two-mirrored surfaces must be a multiple of the wavelength of the light we
want. To put it another way, the two mirrors must be spaced such that we have a resonant cavity
between the two ends. This is where the interferometer, or optical bandpass filter, consisting of two
parallel partially reflecting surfaces is used. When coherent light passes through the interferometer,
if it is at a wavelength such that the reflected light reinforces the non-reflected light, we get
enhancement of the light. On the other hand, if the reflected light tends to cancel the non-reflected
light, we get no or less net light.
In the interferometer, light of the correct wavelength is reflected from one mirror, goes to the other
mirror, and is reflected back to the first mirror such that it arrives in phase with light of the same
wavelength now arriving at the mirror. In this case, we say that the light reinforces. Light at the
“wrong” wavelength is reflected from one mirror then another, arriving out-of-phase with light newly
striking the first mirror, and thus cancels out. There are multiple wavelengths for which the light is
reinforced, and multiple wavelengths for which it cancels itself.
The two reflecting surfaces from Figure 5 form a Fabry-Perot interferometer, which reinforces the
reflection of photons at the desired wavelength, causing most of the light to bounce from end-to-end,
releasing more photons from electron-hole pairs as it travels. Some of the light comes out the right
side of the laser, and for our purposes that light is coupled to a fiber optic cable for transmission to
where we want it.

Figure 416 shows a signal source in series with the bias current; we can put useful information on
the laser by directly modulating it with the RF signals we want to transmit. Since the Fabry-Perot
interferometer is many wavelengths long, there are multiple wavelengths which can be sustained in
the cavity, and there are a range of wavelengths that can be generated. So, the output of an F-P laser
can have several modes, or nearby wavelengths on which it can put out a signal, and it tends to hop
from one of these modes to another, both spontaneously and with modulation. Does this cause an
issue? It does not cause an issue so long as we are directly modulating the laser as shown, as
opposed to using an external modulator that is more sensitive to wavelength, and it must be
assumed there is no chromatic dispersion on the fiber.
Figure 416: F-P signal source.
Fiber optic cable has a characteristic of chromatic dispersion. As the F-P laser jumps from one mode
to another and the light is sent through a fiber-optic cable, not all the light arrives at the far end at
the same time, depending on the instantaneous wavelength of the F-P laser output. This can impede
the signal, producing second order distortion to RF modulated signals, and smearing the pulses of
digital signals. We can use the common single mode fibers that have a wavelength where there is
zero dispersion, called the zero-dispersion wavelength. That zero-dispersion wavelength is right at
1310 nm, the most commonly-used transmission wavelength in traditional cable TV applications.
This is the reason we can use F-P lasers at 1310 nm. If we tried to use F-P lasers at other
wavelengths, for example 1550 nm where we can get economical optical amplifiers, we would have a
useless mess of a signal at the far end due to dispersion in the fiber, combined with the mode
hopping of F-P lasers.

Examining the Distributed Feedback Lasers
The distributed feedback (DFB) laser restricts its output to one wavelength. It is like the F-P laser in
construction, except that a diffraction grating is incorporated into the active region of the laser,
replacing one or both mirrors. In a diffraction grating, a reflecting structure is placed throughout the
length of the lasing cavity to form a much narrower filter at the one wavelength where light output
is desired. This restricts the wavelengths reinforced to a very narrow range. Since the DFB laser
puts out light in a very narrow spectral width, it can be used at other wavelengths, such as 1550 nm,
where economical optical amplifiers are obtained without any problems. It can also be used with
external modulators, which provide for the best linearity and noise.
Reviewing Back-facet Diodes

As previously stated, one of the mirrors in the laser reflects all or nearly all of the It is common to
control the light output of the laser diode with some sort of a feedback circuit, which senses the light
level and adjusts the laser drive current to force the light level to be what we want it to be. This is
done because lasers tend to vary their output with temperature and with time over the life of the
diode. So, we need a way to detect the light the diode is putting out to close a feedback loop. The
solution is to let a very small amount of light out of the laser at the end with the nominally fully-
reflecting mirror (the “back facet”). Then, just behind that back facet, a photodiode is mounted,
which can put out a current proportional to the light it receives. That current can then be used to
sense the amount of light the diode is putting out, using it to close a loop that holds the light output
constant over time and temperature.

How are light emitting diodes made and what are they used for?
What are photodiodes and how are they used?
What types of laser diodes are used in hybrid fiber/coax (HFC) networks and why are they used?


Using Digital Signal Analyzers (186-31-4) Page 523
LESSON 18: Using Digital Signal Analyzers (186-31-

4)
 Describing Digital Measurements

 Operating the Digital Signal Analyzer
 Using Cable Modem Analyzers
MODULE 1
DESCRIBING DIGITAL MEASUREMENTS
Introduction to Describing Digital

Measurements
Digital modulation has replaced analog modulation as the primary method of placing television
content, high-speed data, telephony, and other information on an RF carrier for transport
throughout the broadband cable network. Even though the modulation is digital, the RF carrier
transporting the information is an analog carrier. However, unlike analog modulation services, those
services that use digital modulation can appear to operate normally in the presence of severe
network noise and impairments that would degrade analog modulation services. Checking picture
quality or accessing the Internet does not confirm digital signal quality. In addition, if a network
problem exists, it is not possible to troubleshoot and diagnose the problem using analog techniques,
such as viewing the video or listening to the audio. To troubleshoot and diagnose a digital signal,
measurements such as bit error rate (BER), modulation error ratio (MER), etc. should be taken using
a test instrument such as a digital signal analyzer. In order to use the instrument effectively, the
technician must be able to recognize and understand the information being provided by the digital
signal analyzer.
Interpreting Modulation Error Ratio
► Describe how modulation error ratio is used to quantify the quality of a digital
modulation carrier that has been transported through the network.
The modulation error ratio (MER) measurement is a relative measure of signal performance which
quickly indicates the quality of a quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) carrier. Roughly
analogous to carrier-to-noise (C/N) measurements made in analog systems, MER is a useful
measurement showing how much degradation the QAM carrier has endured while transported
through the network. Expressed in decibels, a high MER reading (greater than 40 dB) is indicative of
a good signal; a low MER reading (less than 30 dB) is indicative of a lesser quality signal. The
reception of a 64-QAM carrier begins to degrade around 22 dB MER, and a 256-QAM carrier begins
to degrade around 28 dB MER, so an MER of 32 dB is recommended for a 4 dB margin and to ensure
error-free reception.
Describing Digital Measurements

For an MER measurement, the average magnitude of the data symbol is compared to the root mean
square (RMS) error magnitude which is the result of the noise, group delay, echoes, phase noise,
distortions, ingress, and other transmission impairments that are in the channel. Expressed
mathematically, MER is 10 times the logarithm of the RMS error magnitude divided by the symbol
average magnitude, or:
MER = 10Log10(RMS error magnitude ÷ average symbol magnitude)
In Figure 417, the target symbol location represents the average symbol magnitude in one quadrant
of the constellation diagram of a 16-QAM carrier. The distance between the target symbol and the
received symbol is the RMS error magnitude. In practice, the average symbol magnitude remains
constant but the RMS error magnitude is dependent on transmission impairments. The test
instrument sums the error magnitude over many samples at each point in the constellation and
displays the average result.
Figure 417: Illustrating the modulation error ratio.
If all transmissions were perfect, the received symbols would always fall directly on top of the target
symbols. In reality, there is continually some level of MER, so the received symbols appear as clouds
around the target symbol (Figure 418A). As the MER degrades (Figure 418B), the error cloud
increases in diameter, until, eventually, the cloud exceeds the decision boundary between
constellation states and the data bits become lost or corrupted. The symbol decoder will then produce
an incorrect symbol, which may be detected and corrected during the forward error correction (FEC)
process and recorded as a bit error by the digital signal analyzer.

Figure 418: MER decision boundaries.
The error vector magnitude (EVM) is used by many device and test equipment manufacturers. Much
like a modulation quality metric such as MER, EVM is presented as a linear percentage calculation
of average error over peak signal magnitude (Figure 419). Because the calculation of EVM is made
over thousands of symbols, EVM is best suited for small random noise-like errors, instead of impulse
noise-like errors.
Figure 419: The error vector magnitude of a signal.
EVM and MER report the same information but the information is expressed in different units: MER
as a ratio in dB, EVM as a percentage. Because they are more comfortable working with decibels
than percentages, most technicians and engineers choose to cite the MER reading when diagnosing
digital carriers.

Interpreting Bit Error Rate
► Describe how the bit error rate is expressed on a digital signal analyzer.
Digital modulation carriers may contain data that is received incorrectly or lost altogether; thereby
impeding the digital receiver's ability to reconstruct the original data. The bit error rate (BER) is the
number of bits received in error divided by the total number of bits received expressed in scientific
notation. One error in every 1,000,000 bits received can be written as 1 ÷ 1,000,000 which equals
.000001 and is typically written in text as 10-6. Since most test instruments (Figure 420) are
incapable of displaying numbers in superscript format, the capital letter E is used to indicate that
the value is in exponent form. The letter E is followed by a number which represents the number of
decimal places (to the right a negative exponent, and to the left when there is no polarity) from zero
that is in the number. For example, .000001 or 10-6 would be displayed as 1.0E-6; a negative sign
(indicating a negative exponent) precedes the number six, so the number one is six decimal places to
the right of zero. Since a higher negative exponent value indicates a lower bit error rate, 1.0E-6,
which equals one error per million bits received, has a higher BER than 1.0E-9, which equals one
error per billion bits received.
Figure 420: The BER measurement function displaying BER in scientific notation. (Courtesy of Trilithic)
Introducing Forward Error Correction
► Describe how forward error correction is used to measure the bit error rate of a
digital modulation carrier.

During modulation, forward error correction (FEC) data is added to the original data stream and
carried forward to the receiver. The receiver uses the correction data to detect and repair the bit
errors that may occur during transport of the digital signal. Thus, errors are corrected as they are
detected and it is unnecessary to resend the data when bits are lost or are corrupted in transport.
The receiver has an FEC decoder which compares the correction data to the received data to make
the necessary calculations to reconstruct the original content. On the digital signal analyzer these
calculations result in BER, MER, EVM, and other measurements (Figure 421).
Figure 421: Measurements that result from FEC data. (Courtesy of Trilithic)
FEC detects and corrects for some loss of data but once the number of errors exceeds what can be
corrected, the digital receiver experiences loss of service. Most digital signal analyzers provide BER
measurements before and after FEC so that the amount of correction can be observed. The BER
measurement before FEC (displayed on different instruments as BER-Pre, pre-BER, etc.) is a true
indication of the transport system's quality. Therefore, this measurement should be used when
evaluating the signal quality going into the receiver. In almost all analyzers, the best FEC reading
after correction is less than one error per billion bits received (<1.0E-9). A BER measurement that is
greater than one error per billion bits received indicates that there are some uncorrectable bit errors
that could cause reception problems. Industry accepted pass/fail default thresholds at the end of the
drop are 1.0E-8 (1 error in 100,000,000) before FEC (pre-BER) and less than 1 error per billion bits
received, (1 error in 1,000,000,000) or <1.0E-9 after FEC (post-BER).
It takes time to calculate a BER measurement as data bits must be accumulated and counted. Thus,
many digital signal analyzers define the amount of time that data bits are being counted and the
number of seconds within the period of testing in which bit errors are corrected or uncorrected. The
analyzer display in Figure 422 shows that six correctable errors in one second (err sec) could be
corrected. Uncorrectable bits would be displayed as sev sec, which is an abbreviation for severely
errored seconds

Figure 422: BER measurement function displaying err sec and sev sec values. (Courtesy of Trilithic)
Interpreting Constellation Displays
► Describe the impairments of a digital modulation carrier that can be recognized

by viewing the digital signal analyzer's constellation pattern.
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is the result of two amplitude modulation carriers
combined at phase angles that are in-phase (I) and 90° (Q) out-of-phase. The constellation display is
created when the two carriers are plotted on a graph. The pattern of the constellation display and
the clouds around the data symbols can be used to interpret and diagnose modulation errors. Each
constellation symbol should always plot near or directly on top of each other. In a perfect transport
system, the constellation pattern would look like 64 single constellation symbols for a 64-QAM
carrier and 256 symbols for a 256-QAM carrier.
The constellation points representing the QAM symbols on the constellation display should be well
within the grid lines (decision boundaries). Points that fall near or outside the decision boundaries
are errors which may or may not be corrected by the FEC. Impairments on a network will cause the
points to spread in recognizable patterns. Three common impairments that can be easily recognized
on a constellation display are: (1) random noise; (2) phase noise; and (3) coherent interference.
Random noise can be the result of thermal noise or composite distortions from digital carriers. As
shown in Figure 423, random noise causes the constellation symbol error clouds to spread out toward
the grid lines.

Figure 423: Random noise on a constellation.
As shown in Figure 424, phase noise causes the constellation symbol error clouds to stretch out and
create a circular pattern when viewing the entire constellation display. Phase noise is an indication
of carrier frequency instability so equipment in the headend that carry out frequency conversions,
such as the channel upconverter, may be a possible cause.
Figure 424: Phase noise on a constellation.
Figure 425 shows how coherent interference causes the constellation symbol error clouds to resemble
small donuts. Coherent interference is usually caused by an ingress carrier, or possibly by an
unwanted product of another demodulator, landing inside the signal that is being demodulated. On
some test instruments, the amplitude level of the coherent interference can be measured and
reported as a specific level (34 dB-15 dB) below the modulated carrier.

Figure 425: Coherent interference on a constellation.
Understanding the Adaptive Equalizer
► Describe the information displayed by the adaptive equalizer in the digital signal
analyzer.
The adaptive equalizer function on a digital signal analyzer is very handy when troubleshooting
linear distortions caused by a bad connector or damaged cable. The resulting frequency response
irregularities of the RF carrier are counteracted by the adaptive equalizer. Any change to the RF
carrier prompts a change in the equalizer's adjustment; thus, the equalizer is adaptive to the current
conditions of the RF carrier.
In the digital signal analyzer, the corrections that the adaptive equalizer performs are displayed on
a bar graph showing the relative amplitude of each equalizer tap that is needed to correct linear
distortions of the QAM carrier. Each bar graph unit in the adaptive equalizer display represents an
equalizer tap on the horizontal axis within a unit of time. The vertical axis is a decibel (dB) scale
representing the amount of signal reflection at each tap compared to the incident signal, the eighth
bar from the left in Figure 426. The first seven bars represent how the frequency response and group
delay of the incoming signal is received into the adaptive equalizer. The remaining 24 bars are the
decision feedback equalizers providing equalization of the incoming signal. Ideally, all the bars
should gradually taper off in amplitude as their distance from the incident signal increases. The
display in Figure 426 shows how the adaptive equalizer can be used to detect the presence and
estimate the location of signal reflections caused by bad connectors or damaged coaxial cable.

Figure 426: The adaptive equalizer function locating a signal reflection. (Courtesy of Trilithic)

At what modulation error ratio (MER) does the reception of a 64-QAM and 256-QAM carrier
begin to degrade?
How is the bit error rate (BER) of a digital modulation carrier displayed on most digital signal
analyzers?
How does a receiver know the bit error rate (BER) of a digital modulation carrier?
How can the digital signal analyzer's constellation display be used?
What information can be obtained from the adaptive equalizer taps displayed in the digital signal
analyzer?


MODULE 2
OPERATING THE DIGITAL SIGNAL ANALYZER
Introduction to Operating the Digital Signal

Analyzer
The digital signal analyzer has evolved from a specialized test instrument to an integrated function
within many signal level meters (SLM) and some spectrum analyzers. Therefore, any discussion
regarding the operation and use of a digital signal analyzer is in reference to that function of the
SLM. To help ensure repeatable and reliable measurements, the SLM/digital signal analyzer has a
customized channel plan where the parameters of each digital modulation carrier (digital signal) on
the network is entered and stored. The instrument channel plan allows the technician to quickly
tune the SLM/digital signal analyzer to an RF carrier by entering a channel number or carrier
frequency. Loading and saving the modulation characteristics of the carrier into the instrument
enables quick and accurate measurements, as soon as the instrument locks onto the carrier to be
measured.
The channel plan typically includes the channel number, center frequency, channel bandwidth,
modulation type, and symbol rate. The procedures for building and editing the channel plan differ, so
the operations manual of the SLM/digital signal analyzer should be consulted for instructions on how
to set up and edit the channel plan of the specific instrument. The technician should recognize the
significance of each channel map parameter and the settings for each channel to take advantage of
the capabilities of the test instrument.
Examining Amplitude Measurements
► Describe how the amplitude of a digital signal is measured.
Amplitude measurement of a carrier modulated with analog television content is done by measuring
the peak envelope power of the video carrier (Figure 427). The video, audio, and color information,
which vary in intensity with the content, are in the sidebands of the respective carriers. Since only
the peak envelope power of the video carrier is measured, the bandwidth of the channel has no
influence on the amplitude measurement.
Figure 427: Amplitude measurement of an analog television channel.
Figure 428 shows a spectrum analyzer display of a digital signal. Notice that the modulation
information appears noise-like and is spread across the entire bandwidth of the carrier. Thus, there
is no consistent peak that can be measured.
Figure 428: A quadrature amplitude modulation carrier.
Operating the Digital Signal Analyzer

Because the power is distributed differently, when adjusted to the same power level and then
displayed together on a spectrum analyzer, the digital signal will appear to be a lower amplitude
than the analog video carrier. The digital signal is measured by first taking sample measurements
across the bandwidth of the carrier, and then calculating the average amplitude of the carrier to
determine the signal's average power. As a consequence of these multiple measurements, it may take
a noticeable amount of time for the instrument to display the signal's average power level (Figure
429), once tuned to the digital signal. In addition, the center frequency and the bandwidth of the
digital signal must be known in order to accurately measure the signal's average power.
Figure 429: Average power measurement of a digital signal.
Decoding the Digital Signal
► Describe the parameters that must be entered into the digital signal analyzer in
order to decode the digital signal.

In order to analyze the modulated digital signal, the digital signal analyzer must first decode the
digital content. Once decoded, the digital signal analyzer provides details on the condition of the
digital signal that has been transported through the network. In order for decoding to take place, the
decoder must be configured to be compatible to the modulation type. Quadrature phase shift keying
(QPSK) and quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) are the two types of digital modulation used
throughout the broadband cable industry. There is only one level of QPSK but several levels of QAM
ranging from 16- to 1024-QAM. Typically, 64- and 256-QAM are the only two levels of QAM used in
the forward path of the hybrid fiber/coax (HFC) network. Nonetheless, the SLM/digital signal
analyzer usually is capable of decoding QPSK as well as all levels of QAM up to 256-QAM.
Figure 430 shows a digital measurement made using the SLM/digital signal analyzer with the
decoding parameters highlighted. The instrument has been configured so that Channel 90 tunes to a
center frequency of 621 MHz, a bandwidth of 6 MHz, and decodes a 256-QAM Annex B digital signal
with a symbol rate (SR) of 5.360537 megasymbols per second (MS/s).
Figure 430: Digital power measurement showing instrument decoder settings.
Annex B in the QAM setting refers to the standards for a 6 MHz wide QAM channel specified by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in ITU-T j.83 Annex B. Theoretically, the symbol rate
of a QAM channel is equal to the channel's bandwidth. However, sidebands and harmonics which
result from the modulation process must be removed by a special filter called a root-raised-cosine
(Nyquist) filter which limits the occupied bandwidth of the channel. ITU-T j.83 Annex B specifies the
Nyquist filter type and symbol rates by which to limit the channel bandwidth to 6 MHz for 64- and
256-QAM. The symbol rate of the SLM/digital signal analyzer must match that of the signal in order
to decode the QAM channel.

Understanding Automated Measurements
► Explain why the technician should know what channels and measurements are
being performed when the digital signal analyzer is performing programmed
automatic measurements.
Many SLM/digital signal analyzers can be programmed to automatically measure different

parameters of the signal, then store the measurements in the instrument. Once stored in the
instrument, the measurements may be downloaded to a printer or software maintenance program for
review and analysis. Many cable operators have a drop certification program to ensure that the
signal at a drop or cable outlet is acceptable for customer use. Thus, many SLM/digital signal
analyzers have minimum and maximum criteria which may be programmed into the instrument.
When the instrument performs an automatic measurement, the results are compared to the
programmed minimum and maximum criteria. Measurements that are outside of the minimum and
maximum criteria are designated as "FAIL" (Figure 431) and those within the criteria "PASS".
Figure 431: Automated measurement results. (Courtesy of JDSU)
Automated measurements help ensure consistent measurement practices among different

technicians. However, the execution of automated measurements can take several minutes
depending on the number of channels and the number of measurements being performed by the
instrument. To save time, some cable operators perform automated measurements on a sample of
channels which can result in problems going undetected in unmeasured channels. Therefore, the
technician should recognize and understand which channels are being measured when automated
measurements are being performed by the digital signal analyzer.


When adjusted to the same power level, why does a digital signal appear to be of lower amplitude
than an adjacent video carrier when displayed on a spectrum analyzer?
What process must the digital signal analyzer perform in order to analyze the digital signal?
Why do some cable operators choose to perform automated measurements on a sample of channels
rather than all channels transported through the network?

MODULE 3
USING CABLE MODEM ANALYZERS
Introduction to Using Cable Modem Analyzers

The cable modem analyzer is a Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS®) modem
packaged in a signal level meter (SLM) or digital signal analyzer. Since the instrument function
emulates the operation of a cable modem, the cable modem analyzer is also known as a cable modem
emulator. The cable modem emulator allows the technician to test the registration and initialization
processes that are necessary to make a cable modem function correctly. Because the instrument is
packaged for field use it is possible to check a DOCSIS modem's operation at the tap, ground block,
and inside the customer premises. The technician should recognize and understand the different
steps that the cable modem system analyzer has to complete in order to make a measurement and
then interpret the information being reported by the instrument.
Provisioning for DOCSIS Operation
► Describe what must be done before the cable modem analyzer can be used in
the broadband cable network.
Just like any other DOCSIS cable modem, the cable modem analyzer must be provisioned for
operation before the device can function as a modem. The cable modem termination system (CMTS)
administrator, should be consulted for provisioning instructions, which may differ from those of a
cable modem. There may be special restrictions, permissions, or privileges assigned during
provisioning to accommodate the cable modem analyzer's use throughout the network. At a
minimum, it will be necessary to provide the media access control (MAC) address of the instrument's
modem (Figure 432) to the administrator. Consult the instrument's operations manual for
instructions on locating the MAC address.
Figure 432: The cable modem analyzer MAC address. (Courtesy of Trilithic)
Connecting a Cable Modem Analyzer
► Describe where to connect the cable modem analyzer to check modem

operations.
Since the cable modem analyzer contains a display and a keyboard, the device can be connected at
any network test point to check DOCSIS modem operations. As a substitute modem, the analyzer
can help determine whether a modem is defective (or if the problem is with the computer) without
having to go through the process of provisioning another modem. The most common locations for
testing the cable modem's operation are the tap, ground block, cable wall plate, splitter, and
computer. Since the modem analyzer is already authorized for operation in the network, the analyzer
can also be connected as a replacement cable modem. In Figure 433, the modem is replaced with the
modem analyzer. An Ethernet cable is connected from the modem analyzer to the customer's
computer, and the RF drop input cable is connected to the cable modem analyzer.
Figure 433: Connecting the cable modem system analyzer. (Courtesy of Sunrise Telecom)
Using Cable Modem Analyzers

Understanding Modem Provisioning
► Describe the value of the cable modem analyzer going through the same
provisioning process as a cable modem.
Following provisioning protocols the CMTS communicates with thousands of modems in the
network, which can be broken into nine phases of interaction between the CMTS and each cable
modem following a specific sequence:
1. Scanning and synchronization;

2. Obtaining upstream parameters;
3. Ranging and automatic adjustments;
4. Device class identification (optional);
5. Establishing IP connectivity;
6. Establishing the time of day;
7. Transferring operational parameters;
8. Registration; and
9. Baseline Privacy Interface (BPI).
Since the cable modem analyzer is emulating the functions of a DOCSIS modem, every time the
modem analyzer function is enabled, the instrument's internal modem must be provisioned with the
CMTS. Therefore, it may take the modem analyzer a few minutes to become fully functional once
connected to the network.
The different models of cable modem analyzer use different messages to display the progress through
modem provisioning. Therefore, it may be necessary to consult the instrument's operations manual
for specific interpretation of the screens. If provisioning fails at any point, the modem analyzer can
help identify a broken link in the process. The modem in the analyzer displayed in Figure 434A is
scanning the forward frequency spectrum in search of a DOCSIS carrier in the forward path. In
Figure 434B, the DOCSIS carrier has been identified with the carrier level indicated, but the
upstream parameters have yet to be transferred to the instrument's modem. In Figure 434C, the
instrument receives the parameters for its modem to transmit on the RF return path and goes
through the ranging process. If the DOCSIS carrier has a low modulation error ratio (MER), or high
number of bit errors, provisioning will be interrupted. The digital signal analyzer function of the
instrument should be used to troubleshoot the DOCSIS carrier.

Figure 434: Searching for the DOCSIS forward carrier. (Courtesy of Trilithic)
Figure 435 shows the remaining provisioning steps as the instrument establishes two-way
communications with the CMTS. In Figure 435A, the instrument status shows that the modem
ranging is successful, and the return carrier level is displayed. In Figure 435B, the instrument
reports the Internet protocol (IP) address of the CMTS. In Figure 435C, the instrument is requesting
an IP address from the CMTS, and in Figure 435D the instrument has an IP address from the
CMTS, which completes the modem's provisioning. Any interruption to a provisioning step can be
diagnosed using information from the instrument's status field.

Figure 435: Establishing two-way communications with the CMTS. (Courtesy of Trilithic)
Examining Cable Modem Analyzer

Measurements
► Describe the measurements performed by the cable modem analyzer.
After the provisioning is complete, the cable modem analyzer can be used to perform a number of
performance measurements including cable modem statistics, ping, trace route, and data
throughput. Many of these measurements can be taken from a computer connected to a modem.
However, the modem analyzer is portable and battery powered, which is relatively easy to carry into
the backyard and connect to a tap or other location in the network. In addition, most modem
analyzers have the capability of storing the measurement results for later review or diagnostic
purposes. Although the navigation screens and measurement screens differ between models of
modem analyzers, the measurements provide valuable information that can be used to diagnose and
resolve modem connection problems.

Cable Modem Statistics
The Cable Modem Statistics page, shown in Figure 436, provides details about the DOCSIS carrier
received by the analyzer and the carrier being transmitted by the modem in the analyzer. The
DOSCIS carrier is received in what is called the downstream, which is the forward signal path from
the headend. The DOCSIS carrier frequency, modulation type, receive level, signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR), and bit error rate (BER), before and after correction, are shown. In this instrument (and
many others), SNR is comparable to the modulation error ratio (MER) of the digital signal: The cable
modem in the analyzer transmits a carrier over the return path or upstream to the CMTS. The
modem's return carrier frequency and power level are displayed by the instrument.
Figure 436: Displaying the cable modem RF receive and transmission information. (Courtesy of Trilithic)
Ping
Ping is a common computer command that is used to measure the round-trip time for a ping packet
to travel from the cable modem to the CMTS, or other server, and back. Ping is a valuable tool in
determining whether excessive delays are being caused by the broadband portion of the data path or
by equipment on the other side of the CMTS. In Figure 437, the ping command is being sent from the
modem analyzer (IP 67.176.120.111) over the Internet to Yahoo.com (209.191.122.70), which is
outside of the cable operator's network. If the IP address of the CMTS is known, the ping command
could be used to evaluate the connection between the CMTS and the modem analyzer as well as
between the CMTS and Yahoo.com.

Figure 437: Results of a ping command. (Courtesy of Trilithic)
The differences between data packets sent and received are displayed as lost packets. When packets
are lost, the receiving device requests that the lost packets be sent again, which can create a
bottleneck of data traffic in both directions. Lost packets are indicative of an intermittent condition,
such as ingress, that is degrading the signal.
Trace Route
The trace route utility (Figure 438) is used to identify the router-to-router network hops that a data
packet travels across, en route from the modem analyzer (the client) to an Internet server (the host).
A trace route would be used if a ping failure occurred and it is necessary to identify where data
packets were being delayed or lost when attempting a network connection. The trace route to
Yahoo.com in Figure 438 revealed that 15 network hops were encountered.
Figure 438: Results of a trace route. (Courtesy of Trilithic)

Throughput
Throughput quantifies the speed that data travels in the forward and return paths. In the cable
modem analyzer displayed in Figure 439, the throughput is derived from the data packets traveling
in both directions through the broadband cable network to the CMTS and over the Internet to a
server in another city. Data packets traveling over the Internet can encounter delays that are beyond
the control of the cable operator. To accurately measure the throughput of the broadband cable
network, the data packets must remain on the network and never travel over the Internet.
Therefore, a specialized server must be installed to interface with the CMTS in the headend or hub.
Figure 439: Measuring data throughput. (Courtesy of Trilithic)

Why would the provisioning of a cable modem analyzer differ from that of a cable modem?
What is the value in substituting the cable modem analyzer for a cable modem?
What should be done if a cable modem analyzer experiences an interruption during provisioning
with the cable modem termination system (CMTS)?

What is the advantage of using the cable modem analyzer to measure modem performance
parameters instead of using a computer connected to a modem?

TDR Fundamentals and Operation (330-15-2) Page 551
LESSON 19: TDR Fundamentals and Operation

(330-15-2)
 Describing Types of TDRs

 Understanding Theory of Operation
 Describing TDR Applications
 Considering TDR Preliminaries
 Noting TDR Measurement Precautions
 Learning TDR Measurement Procedures
 Pinpointing Fault Site
MODULE 1
DESCRIBING TYPES OF TDRS
Introduction to Describing Types of TDRs

Time domain reflectometers (TDRs) test all types of metallic communications cables. Coaxial cable
impedance mismatch faults cause broadband cable signal degradation, customer complaints, and lost
revenue. A time domain reflectometer (TDR) detects and locates, for repair purposes, these cable-
related faults. The type of TDR used depends on the needs and budget of the broadband system. The
two basic types of TDRs are determined by how test results are displayed. Digital displays and
waveform displays are the two basic types. Both types display the distance to the cable fault and
indicate an open or a short condition.
It is important to know the types of TDRs and their operating characteristics when determining the
types of testing required. While the waveform time domain reflectometer (TDR) is becoming the
industry norm, digital TDRs are in wide use and new units currently are being manufactured. The
choice of one or the other becomes a matter of personal preference, organizational objectives,
technical specifications, and costs.
Identifying Digital TDRs
► Describe the capabilities of digital TDRs.
The two digital TDRs shown in Figure 440 have LCD digital displays, mechanical velocity of
propagation (VOP) switches, and sensitivity switches. Digital TDRs can indicate only one cable fault
at a time. Their output impedance is fixed at approximately 100 Ω. This impedance is a median point
between the broadband coaxial cable impedance of 75 Ω and telephone twisted-pair impedance of 125
Ω. Differences in impedance values do not significantly affect the distance accuracy of these digital
TDRs.
Describing Types of TDRs

Figure 440: Examples of digital TDRs. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
Identifying Waveform TDRs
► Describe the capabilities of waveform TDRs.
The waveform TDRs shown in Figure 441 utilize automatic testing, keypad operation, and LCD
waveform displays for locating cable faults. Waveform TDRs can generate cable signature displays,
detect intermittent cable or connector problems, locate and display multiple cable faults, and store
and print the TDR displays via an RS‑ 232 port for documenting new or installed cable. These types
of TDRs have selective output impedances for accurate decibel return loss (dBRL) measurements.
Changes in impedance values can affect the amplitude of the transmitted and reflected pulse.
Figure 441: Examples of waveform TDRs. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments and Tektronix)


What are the two basic types of TDRs?
How many cable faults can a digital TDR indicate at one time?
Compare the output impedances of digital and waveform TDRs.
Which type of TDR generates a cable signature display?

MODULE 2
UNDERSTANDING THEORY OF OPERATION
Introduction to Understanding Theory of

Operation
Using the time domain reflectometer (TDR) properly will help reduce troubleshooting time and help
to maintain and optimize the broadband coaxial cable plant. Understanding how the TDR operates
will help the technician understand when and why to use it.
Identifying TDR Operating Principles

TDRs locate opens, shorts, water damage, bad splices, and other cable-related impedance mismatch
faults by determining the distance from the TDR to the fault. A pulse/reflection technique similar to
radar determines the distance to the fault. Velocity of propagation (VOP), cable radar, and signal
pulse width are applicable to all TDRs. Understanding these principles is helpful when interpreting
the screen displays while performing TDR measurements.
The TDRs in Figure 442 utilize: (1) VOP or the RF speed transmission factor in coaxial cable; (2)
cable radar principles; and (3) the signal pulse width when measuring the distance of the cable fault
on the coaxial cable. These principles are fundamental learning blocks to understanding the TDR
theory of operation.
Figure 442: Two common time domain reflectometers. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments and Tektronix)
Understanding Velocity of Propagation (VOP)
► Explain the cable radar, VOP, and signal pulse width TDR operating principles.
The velocity of propagation is the speed of the RF signals traveling in a coaxial cable, or any other
transmission medium relative to the speed of light. RF signals in a vacuum travel at approximately
the speed of light (186,282 miles per second, or 299,728 kilometers per second). If the speed of RF
signals in a vacuum is given the VOP factor of 1.00, the speed of RF signals in any type of cable is
less than 1.00. The VOP factor of 1.00 is the reference value for all other types of transmission
cables. If the VOP factor for a Comm/Scope Para-III 0.875-inch coaxial cable is 0.87, the speed of the
RF signal traveling in the coaxial cable is 87% of the speed of RF signals in a vacuum. Broadband
coaxial cable has a range of VOP factors from 0.78 to 0.93. Figure 443 lists VOP factors for common
brands of coaxial cable.
Figure 443: Common coaxial cable velocity of propagation values. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
Understanding Cable Radar Principles
Radar transmitters and TDRs are similar in that they both transmit a signal pulse through their
respective transmission mediums. They also detect and measure the reflected pulse to determine the
distance to the object. While radar is transmitted through the air (Figure 444A), the TDR transmits
its signal pulse through a coaxial cable or twisted-pair cable (Figure 444B).
Understanding Theory of Operation

Figure 444: Radar and TDR signal transmission and reflection. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
The TDR uses the size of the pulse width, the VOP, and the duration of time taken to travel to and
from the reflective fault to determine the distance to the cause of the reflection. Think of a TDR as:
(1) time (signal travel time to and from the reflective fault); (2) domain (a specific area or length of
cable measured); and (3) reflectometer (a meter that measures the reflection and converts the signal
travel time to feet or meters).
Describing Signal Pulse Width
The signal pulse width and amplitude determine how far the signal travels on the coaxial cable and,
subsequently, the size of pulse the TDR is able to detect. The smaller the pulse width, with the
amplitude constant, the shorter the total distance detected. The shortest pulse width has the
smallest blind spot or dead zone. The blind spot is the portion of the displayed waveform, near the
output of the TDR, in which the TDR cannot measure any reflected RF signal. A TDR, therefore,
cannot find a fault in the "blind spot" portion of the cable tested. As the size of the pulse width
increases, so does the blind spot. As the transmit pulse increases in width, the blind spot, as a
percentage of transmit pulse width, decreases. Figure 445 shows how the size of the blind spot varies
for 2 ns (nanoseconds) (Figure 445A), 10 ns (Figure 445B), 100 ns (Figure 445C), and 1,000 ns
(Figure 445D) signal pulse widths.

Figure 445: Sample TDR display screens showing the relationship between signal pulse width and blind spot length. (Courtesy of
Riser Bond Instruments)
Understanding TDR Operation
► Explain the functions of the pulse generator, time-to-voltage converter, return

pulse detector, and other components in a TDR.
TDRs operate by sending a generated signal pulse down the cable, receiving the reflected signal
pulse, measuring the reflected signal against a reference, and displaying the results on the screen or
digital display. As an example, the TDR shown in Figure 446A is a digital display TDR and operates
according to the block diagram in Figure 446B. As shown in Figure 446B, the signal pulse is
generated in the pulse generator section, sent to the front panel output connector, and transmitted
down the cable. The front panel output connector of the TDR also is connected to a powered cable
detector. The powered cable detector uses the front panel digital display to indicate whether AC or
DC voltage is present on the tested cable. It is preferable for there to be no voltage present, as this
can skew the test results. Some TDRs have filters to compensate for potential results skews.

Figure 446: The Riser Bond 2901C TDR and its main operational components. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
When the pulse is generated, the time-to-voltage converter starts to charge a charging capacitor
whose charging rate is determined by the VOP switch setting. The reflected signal from the cable
fault is detected at the front panel output connector by the return pulse detector. The return pulse
detector sends a signal to the time-to-voltage converter to stop charging the capacitor. At that time, a
digital voltmeter measures the voltage across the capacitor. The measured voltage is converted to
distance in feet or meters, and the distance is displayed on the front panel digital display. The cable
length switch selects either 1,100 feet (335.2 m) in the "short cable" mode, or 11,000 feet (3,352.8 m)
in the "long cable" mode, as the maximum TDR range.

List three basic TDR operating principles.
Define velocity of propagation (VOP).
What is the VOP factor for RF signals in a vacuum?

Are the VOP factors for all types of cable greater or less than the VOP factor for RF signals in a
vacuum?
How are a radar transmitter and a TDR similar?
Does a smaller signal pulse width increase or decrease the signal pulse's potential travel distance?
Does an increase in signal pulse width increase or decrease the size of the blind spot?
Where is the signal pulse in a TDR generated?
What is the function of the powered cable detector in a TDR?
When does the TDR time-to-voltage converter start and stop charging the charging capacitor?

MODULE 3
DESCRIBING TDR APPLICATIONS
Introduction to Describing TDR Applications

Time domain reflectometers (TDRs) have been used as a troubleshooting device for decades. As TDR
technology has improved, more uses are found. To maximize the use of the TDR in the broadband
cable system, it is important to know the range of applications. This section covers troubleshooting
cable faults, testing cable, and confirming unauthorized customer connections with a TDR.
Troubleshooting Cable Faults
► Use a TDR to locate coaxial cable impedance mismatches and to confirm and
identify unauthorized drop cable connections.
The TDR is a common troubleshooting tool on installed aerial or underground coaxial hard line, or
drop cable. The TDR can locate unknown splices, splitters, directional couplers, and cable impedance
mismatches. Impedance mismatches are caused by: (1) bad splices; (2) water-damaged cable; (3)
crushed, pinched, or kinked cable; (4) holes in the cable; (5) damaged aerial or buried drops; (6) fence
post or other digging-caused damage; and (7) damaged or incorrectly installed cable and/or
connectors causing excessive loss of AC voltage or RF signals. Figure 447 illustrates connecting a
TDR to locate damaged buried coaxial cable.
Figure 447: Locating damaged buried coaxial cable with a TDR. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
Testing Cable
► Use a TDR to test new coaxial, antenna, and communications cables and to
determine the length of partial cable reels.
Other important applications of TDRs include: (1) testing new reels of coaxial cable; (2) determining
the length of partial reels of cable; (3) testing installed antenna cables; and (4) testing various types
of communications cables. These tests provide documentation or signatures of the cable for future
reference.
Testing New Coaxial Cable
Test new shipments of coaxial cable to confirm the cable was not damaged during transport and
delivery from the manufacturer to the cable system. Pre-installation testing also confirms the length
of cable on the reel. The TDR locates any impedance mismatches in the coaxial cable. Figure 448
illustrates testing the impedance continuity of a new reel of coaxial cable with a TDR. Later,
compare the pre-installation TDR test documentation to the post-installation/pre-activation TDR
test documentation to confirm the cable was not damaged during installation.
Figure 448: Testing the impedance continuity of a new reel of coaxial cable with a TDR. (Courtesy of Tektronix)
Determining Partial Cable Reel Length
After a rebuild or upgrade, many partial coaxial cable reels may be left in the cable system cable
storage area. A TDR can determine the length of the remaining cable on each reel. These partial
reels are used more efficiently to replace short lengths of damaged cable, or for short cable placement
in new subdivisions, when the exact length of each partial reel is known. Figure 449 illustrates a
typical TDR connection for measuring the length of cable on a partial reel.
Describing TDR Applications

Figure 449: Measuring the remaining length of coaxial cable on a partial cable reel with a TDR. (Courtesy of Tektronix)
Testing Antenna Cables
TDRs check coaxial antenna cables for bad connections, damaged cable, incorrect labeling, or flaws
in the antenna cable or antenna manufacture. This procedure takes less time than climbing the
tower to look for problems in the cable. TDRs can effectively test the cables, connectors, and
antennas on broadband cable, paging, broadcast, cellular, or two-way communications antenna
systems. Remember that a TDR measures through passive devices installed on the cable, but it
cannot measure through unpowered active devices. Figure 450 illustrates a TDR set up to test an
antenna tower cable and connections for cellular communications.
Figure 450: Testing an antenna tower cable with a TDR. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)

Testing Communications Cables
TDRs also test telephone communications lines, cable, SONET, Ethernet, or other types of
computer/LAN systems. Increasing available broadband communications services require more ways
to confirm system operations. The TDR checks transceivers on either twisted-pair (Figure 451) or
coaxial cable LAN systems.
Figure 451: Testing twisted-pair telephone cable with a TDR. (Courtesy of Tektronix)
Confirming Unauthorized Connections

A TDR also is useful in confirming cable signal theft. Figure 452A illustrates identifying various
customer premise equipment (CPE) connections on an unauthorized drop cable with a TDR. Distinct
TDR display signatures are created by different types of customer-installed drop cable connections,
including drop cable connected to: (1) a cable-ready TV set or a TV set requiring a matching
transformer (Figure 452B); (2) a VCR or DVD recorder (Figure 452C); (3) a set-top box (Figure
452D); (4) a splitter with typical customer equipment connections; and (5) an unterminated drop
(Figure 452E). Use the distinct display signatures created by the TDR to identify unauthorized
broadband drop cable connections.

Figure 452: Identifying unauthorized drop cable connections using their associated display signatures with a TDR. (Courtesy of
Riser Bond Instruments)

List seven causes of impedance mismatches on coaxial cable.
What are two reasons to test new coaxial cable on the reel?
Why is it useful to use a TDR to measure the lengths of partial reels of cable?
What types of antenna systems can be checked by a TDR?

Can a TDR measure through passive devices and unpowered active devices installed on a cable?
List three types of nonbroadband communications cables or lines that a TDR can test.
How can a TDR help confirm cable signal theft?

MODULE 4
CONSIDERING TDR PRELIMINARIES
Introduction to Considering TDR Preliminaries

Certain procedures must be followed prior to testing the coaxial cable with the time domain
reflectometer (TDR). Be sure to understand the preliminaries of using a TDR, including coaxial cable
connections and safety precautions. Determine the cable preparation and connectorization
procedures by the type of coaxial cable being tested. Always follow safety precautions when
preparing a cable and making connections.
Preparing the Cable
► Properly install appropriate connectors and adapters to prepare the coaxial

cable for time domain reflectometer (TDR) testing.
Coaxial drop and hardline cables require different cable preparation procedures. Testing a coaxial
drop cable requires installing an F‑ connector on the coaxial drop cable to connect the TDR. When
testing a coaxial hardline cable on a reel, prepare the end of the coaxial cable to install either a
combination pin connector/splice block/pin-to-F female adapter (550 MHz), pin connector/pin-to-pin
splice adapter/pin-to-F female adapter (1 GHz), or a cable-to-F female (or BAFF) connector. The
combination pin connector/splice block/pin-to-F female adapter (Figure 453A) is actually three
separate connectors (Figure 453B) assembled together. A combination pin connector/pin-to-pin splice
adapter/pin-to-F female adapter (Figure 453C) is also a combination of three separate connectors
(Figure 453D). The pin connector size in all combinations must match the hardline cable size.
Figure 453: Two connector combinations to connect hardline cable to TDR jumper. (Courtesy of Gilbert Engineering Co. Inc.)
The cable-to-F female (or BAFF) connector (Figure 454A) consists of a back nut, main nut, and an F
female body (Figure 454B) and must also match the hardline cable size.
Figure 454: A cable-to-F female connector. (Courtesy of Gilbert Engineering Co. Inc.)
Initially, properly prepare the coaxial cable end on the reel for a connector. Then, to install a
combination pin connector/pin-to-pin splice adapter/pin-to-F female adapter, as shown in Figure 455:
(1) install the pin connector back nut on the prepared cable; (2) install the pin connector main nut on
the prepared cable; (3) install the remaining portion of the combination pin connector/pin-to-pin
splice adapter/pin-to-F female adapter onto the cable; (4) hand-tighten the main nut onto the pin
connector body; (5) hand-tighten the back nut into the main nut; and (6) visually confirm that the
combination pin connector/pin-to-pin splice adapter/pin-to-F female adapter is properly connected to
the coaxial cable. Remove any coaxial cable flooding compound prior to installing connectors on the
cable to prevent damaging the O-ring in the pin connector main and back nuts. This will ensure ease
of installation and help achieve an acceptable mechanical and electrical connection.
Considering TDR Preliminaries

Figure 455: Installing the combination pin connector/pin-to-pin splice adapter/pin-to-F female adapter to the end of the coaxial cable
under test. (Courtesy of Ben Hughes Communication Products Co. and Gilbert Engineering Co. Inc.)
When the coaxial hardline cable is already installed, remove the existing hardline connector and
install either a combination pin connector/splice block/pin-to-F female adapter (550 MHz),
combination pin connector/pin-to-pin splice adapter/pin-to-F female adapter (1 GHz), or a cable-to-F
female (or BAFF) connector to connect a coaxial jumper from the TDR to the coaxial hardline cable
under test. To install a cable-to-F female connector on a previously installed coaxial hardline cable,
as shown in Figure 456: (1) disconnect the desired coaxial hardline cable from the active or passive
device and remove the installed connector (in some instances this includes removing the heat shrink
tubing from the coaxial cable and connector); (2) install the cable-to-F female connector back nut on
the coaxial cable; (3) install the main nut on the coaxial cable; (4) install the F female body on the
end of the coaxial cable; (5) hand-tighten the main and back nuts; and (6) visually confirm the cable-
to-F female connector is properly installed.

Figure 456: Installing the cable-to-F female connector on a previously installed hardline cable. (Courtesy of Gilbert Engineering Co.
Inc.)
Connecting the Cable
► Connect a TDR to a coaxial test cable using a coaxial jumper and proper
connectors and/or adapters.
When connecting the coaxial drop cable to the TDR RF output port, use the proper connector or
adapter. Some TDRs have a flush-mount male F-connector and require installing an F-81 barrel
connector to connect a coaxial jumper or drop cable to the TDR. To connect a coaxial jumper, the
combination pin connector/splice block/pin-to-F female adapter, and the TDR, as shown in Figure
457: (1) install an F-81 barrel connector onto the RF output port; (2) connect one end of the coaxial
jumper to the F-81 barrel connector; (3) hand-tighten the jumper connector onto the F-81 barrel
connector; and (4) connect the other end of the jumper to the F female adapter end of the
combination pin connector/splice block/pin-to-F female adapter.
Figure 457: Connecting the combination pin connector/splice block/pin-to-F female adapter, coaxial jumper, and TDR. (Courtesy of
Gilbert Engineering Co. Inc. and Tektronix Inc.)

The RF output ports on other TDRs use what are considered female BNC connectors (Figure 458A)
that require a male BNC-to-F female adapter (Figure 458B) for coaxial drop cable or jumper
connection.
Figure 458: RF output port connector and an adapter for TDR. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
To connect the cable-to-F female connector on the hardline cable under test, the BNC-to-F female
adapter, the coaxial jumper, and the TDR, as shown in Figure 459: (1) align the male BNC-to-F
female adapter over the TDR RF output connector so that the two twist-grooves on the adapter are
in line with the two set points on the TDR output connector; (2) simultaneously push and twist the
adapter clockwise onto the output connector; (3) connect one end of the connectorized coaxial jumper
to the installed adapter; (4) hand-tighten the jumper F-connector to the adapter; and (5) connect the
other end of the coaxial jumper to the cable-to-F female connector on the cable under test.
Figure 459: Connecting the coaxial jumper, the TDR, and the cable-to-F female connector. (Courtesy of Gilbert Engineering Co. Inc.
and Riser Bond Instruments)
Understanding Safety Precautions
► State safety precautions for working with TDRs.

TDRs use low voltages to operate and present minimal shock hazard. However, some of the voltages
on the coaxial cable are high enough that they may cause an electrical shock while coming in contact
with metallic features of the TDR. Remove power from any cable under test to prevent electrical
shock. Sudden reaction to an electric shock, such as a fall, may cause additional personal injury.
When preparing and connectorizing either the drop or hardline coaxial cable, wear safety eyewear to
minimize the possibility of eye injury. Figure 460 lists safety precautions to observe when using
TDRs.
Figure 460: TDR safety precautions.

What are three types of connectors for connecting a coaxial jumper to hardline cable on a reel?
List the three parts of a cable-to-F female (or BAFF) connector.
What are two ways to connect a coaxial jumper to the RF output port on a TDR?
List four TDR safety precautions.

MODULE 5
NOTING TDR MEASUREMENT PRECAUTIONS
Introduction to Noting TDR Measurement

Precautions
While all time domain reflectometers (TDRs) measure the distance to a coaxial cable fault, waveform
displays on some TDRs provide additional information about the impedance mismatch. As
broadband cable networks evolve, the need to detect smaller cable faults becomes more critical. This
is especially true in high-bandwidth networks and those transporting digital signals, where even
microreflections can degrade the quality of services offered. To make best use of a waveform TDR,
ensure an understanding of decibel return loss (dBRL), recognize the different impedance
mismatches on a waveform, and be aware of waveform echoes and blind spots. Also, take time to
recognize the importance of correct TDR settings. Study the precautions related to dBRL, waveform
displays, and incorrect TDR settings. Failing to pay attention to these precautions can cause
inaccurate measurements, incorrect waveform interpretations, and much wasted labor digging in the
wrong location.
Understanding Decibel Return Loss
► Define and explain a decibel return loss (dBRL) measurement.
A waveform TDR sends out a signal pulse, measures the amplitude of the reflected signal, and
displays this measurement on the screen. This reflected signal value is specified on the display
screen as the dBRL, as shown in Figure 461. This measurement compares the amplitude of the
transmitted signal pulse when it leaves the TDR, to the amplitude of any reflected signal pulse when
it arrives back at the TDR. The dBRL measurement indicates the relative size (amplitude) of the
reflected signal when compared to the transmitted signal in dB. This provides the technician with an
idea of the relative severity of a cable fault.
Figure 461: The dBRL reading on a TDR display screen. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
A coaxial cable fault that reflects most of the signal has a small dBRL value but a large visual
indication on the waveform itself. The reflected signal is almost the same size as the original signal,
and this is a bad thing in terms of cable faults. For example, since an open or shorted coaxial cable
reflects nearly all the electrical energy of the transmitted pulse, it has a reading approaching 1
dBRL. As the amplitude of the reflected pulse caused by the coaxial cable fault decreases, which is
indicative of a less severe fault, the dBRL reading increases.
Reviewing Waveform Displays

The TDR waveform also displays the cable signature caused by the cable and the termination or
impedance mismatch. The TDR screen displays different and/or multiple waveform signatures,
depending upon the cause and number of mismatches. It is important to review typical TDR
waveform displays to determine whether the coaxial cable is good or bad. While a TDR may indicate
an open coaxial cable, the coaxial cable may be good if it is the correct length and it is disconnected
at the other end.
Always use same size pulse width on all measurements to ensure

accurate calculations. dBRL loss will change with different pulse width
frequencies.
Noting TDR Measurement Precautions

Figure 462A-H (respectively) illustrate some typical TDR coaxial cable displays, including: (1) a
properly terminated cable that absorbs the transmitted pulse, resulting in a flat line; (2) an open
cable that causes the reflected pulse to be in phase with the transmitted pulse, resulting in an
upward or positive spike; (3) a shorted cable that causes the reflected pulse to be out-of-phase with
the transmitted pulse, resulting in a downward or negative spike; (4) a water-soaked cable, resulting
in a downward slope at the beginning and an upward slope at the end of the section of water-soaked
cable; (5) a coaxial cable with a splitter and two lengths of cable (one end opened and one end
shorted), resulting in a slight loss at the splitter location followed by a shorted downward and opened
upward spike; (6) a coaxial drop cable with shield damage (partially open), resulting in a small
upward spike followed by a large upward spike at the open end of the drop cable; (7) an active device,
resulting in an upward spike followed by an uneven line; and (8) a wet barrel connector, resulting in
a small valley and peak followed by a large spike at the open end of the coaxial cable.
Figure 462: Common TDR waveform displays. (Courtesy of Tektronix Inc.)

Recognizing TDR Waveform Anomalies
A waveform TDR also can show anomalies, such as echoes. An echo is a false reading caused by a
double reflection of a signal pulse between a coaxial cable fault or event and the end of the coaxial
cable. Echoes appear on the display at the same distance beyond the end of the coaxial cable as the
distance between the subject cable fault and the end of the coaxial cable span. This is because of the
extra distance a portion of the pulse travels after initially reflecting off the end of the cable span. As
this pulse segment reflects back toward the TDR, part of it reflects a second time off the backside of
the original cable fault, returning it to the end of the cable once again. Here, as with the original
pulse, it reflects a second time back to the TDR. The delay in the pulse's arrival back at the TDR
creates the echo that shows up as the secondary fault beyond the end of the cable span.
► Use the distance to a cable fault to calculate the waveform position of an echo
beyond the end of the cable.
For example, Figure 463A illustrates a signal pulse transmitted through a 100-foot (30.5-meter)
coaxial cable span with a fault at 61 feet (18.6 m) out. A double reflection occurring between the real
event (fault) at 61 feet (18.6 m) and the end of the coaxial cable at 100 feet (30.5 m), adds 39 feet
(11.9 m) to produce an echo at 139 feet (42.4 m). Calculate the Figure 463A echo distance using the
formulas in Figure 463B and the calculations in Figure 463C. Echoes are more likely to appear when
testing cable spans of less than 300 feet (91.4 m).
Figure 463: Waveform display of cable fault echo and calculating distance to echo. (Courtesy of Tektronix Inc.)

Understanding the TDR Blind Spot
TDRs have a blind spot or dead zone at the beginning of each cable under test near the TDR RF
output where coaxial cable faults may be hidden. The size of the blind spot depends on the selected
pulse width size. The larger the pulse width, the larger the blind spot. Blind spots may range from
only a few inches to several hundred feet.
► Perform three procedures to reveal cable faults hidden within the blind spot.
Three ways to locate a coaxial cable fault in the blind spot of the TDR (Figure 464) include: (1)
connecting a coaxial jumper that is at least as long as the blind spot to the output of the TDR and to
the coaxial cable under test; subtracting the length of the coaxial jumper from the TDR distance
reading to determine the actual distance to the fault on the coaxial cable under test; (2) reducing the
size of the pulse width, thereby reducing the size of the blind spot; and (3) measuring the coaxial
cable from the opposite end, moving the blind spot to the other end of the coaxial cable. While narrow
pulse widths are used to reduce the blind spot, wide pulses are necessary for testing long lengths of
cable.
Figure 464: Three ways to locate a cable fault in the blind spot of a TDR. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)

Recognizing Incorrect TDR Settings
► Demonstrate the TDR measurement errors that can result from incorrectly setting
impedance, velocity of propagation (VOP), and/or pulse width.
Take special care when making settings on a TDR. Incorrectly setting cable impedance, velocity of
propagation (VOP), or pulse width can adversely affect important maintenance decisions such as: (1)
which cable span is slated for replacement; or (2) where a cable is to be dug up for repair.
Setting Impedance Incorrectly
Incorrectly setting the RF output impedance changes the amplitude of the measured pulse and can
cause incorrect dBRL readings and therefore an incorrect indication of the severity of a cable fault.
Figure 465 lists dBRL measurements of a 141-foot (43-meter) 75-Ω coaxial drop cable. Note how
changing the RF output impedance setting can change the dBRL. For example, changing the coaxial
cable impedance setting from a correct 75 Ω to an incorrect 125 Ω, changes the dBRL from an
accurate 3.0 dBRL to an inaccurate 5.0 dBRL for this particular coaxial test cable. However,
changing the impedance setting does not affect the coaxial cable fault distance measured by a TDR.
Figure 465: TDR dBRL readings specifically for a 141-foot (43-meter) 75-Ω coaxial drop cable. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)

Setting Velocity of Propagation Incorrectly
The correct VOP setting is essential for the TDR to determine the correct distance to the coaxial
cable fault or impedance mismatch. If the VOP setting is wrong, the distance the TDR measures to
the coaxial cable fault will be incorrect. Figure 466 lists the cable fault distance measurements at
different VOP settings for a TDR. The coaxial cable in Figure 466 has a correct VOP setting of 87%.
Always ensure the correct VOP setting for the coaxial cable measured, especially in cable systems
with installed coaxial cable from different manufacturers. Figure 466 also shows that changing the
VOP setting from 80% to 90%, for this particular cable, changes the measured cable fault distance
from 135.93 feet (41.43 m) to 152.92 feet (46.61 m). This is a significant difference of 16.99 feet (5.18
m). Note: As the distance to the measured cable fault increases, so does the amount of distance error.
The TDR exhibits approximately a 1.2% error for each 0.01 change in VOP setting, which results in a
12% distance measurement error, for a 0.1 change in the VOP settings.
Figure 466: TDR cable fault distance measurements at various VOP settings. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
Selecting Incorrect Pulse Width
Selecting the incorrect signal pulse width may result in too large a blind spot, which may conceal a
cable fault close to the TDR output. When the pulse width increases, the distance that the blind spot
affects also increases. The waveform display in Figure 467A shows that a two nanosecond pulse
width produces a relatively short blind spot. The waveform display of the same coaxial test cable in
Figure 467B shows that a 100 nanosecond pulse width produces a much longer blind spot. When
testing the coaxial cable to locate a cable fault, select the shortest pulse width available first, to
minimize the possibility of a hidden fault in the blind spot. Then, as necessary, progressively select
larger pulse widths to determine the fault location or to measure out to the end of a long length of
coaxial cable.

Figure 467: Two TDR waveform displays showing blind spots produced by two-ns and 100 ns pulse widths, respectively. (Courtesy
of Riser Bond Instruments)

What two amplitudes are compared in the decibel return loss (dBRL) measurement of a TDR?
Does a coaxial cable fault that reflects most of the signal have a small or large dBRL value?
What is an echo on a waveform TDR display?
What is the expected total distance to an echo when: (1) the distance from the TDR to the end of
the cable is 120 feet (36.6 m); and (2) the distance from the TDR to the cable fault is 95 feet (29.0
m)?
What is the relationship between the size of the TDR pulse width and the size of the blind spot?
What are three ways to locate a coaxial cable fault in the blind spot of the TDR?

How does an incorrect RF output impedance setting affect the accuracy of the dBRL and distance
measurements of a TDR?
How does incorrectly setting the VOP affect distance measurements of a TDR?
What pulse width should be select first when testing coaxial cable to locate a cable fault?

MODULE 6
LEARNING TDR MEASUREMENT PROCEDURES
Introduction to Learning TDR Measurement

Procedures
Time domain reflectometer (TDR) manufacturers have simplified measurement procedures to
decrease the time needed to locate, identify, and correct coaxial cable faults. Know TDR
measurement procedures to efficiently repair and know when to replace any coaxial cables with
faults that impair the broadband signals.
Practicing Common TDR Measurement

Procedures
► State common TDR measurement procedures.
Measurement procedures that apply to all types of TDRs include, as shown in Figure 468: (1)
knowing the minimum and maximum cable length measurable by the TDR; (2) always checking the
batteries and battery level; (3) not testing coaxial cables with AC/DC power or RF signals present, as
this can skew test results unless adequate filters are installed in the TDR and they are properly set
up; (4) beginning testing with the shortest pulse width, and increasing the pulse width as necessary
to measure to the end of the coaxial cable; (5) obtaining the best possible connection between the
TDR and the coaxial cable tested; (6) testing the coaxial cable from both ends whenever possible; and
(7) operating the TDR within the recommended operational temperature range. Figure 468 lists
these common TDR measurement practices.
Figure 468: Common TDR measurement practices. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
Using Digital TDR Measurement Procedures
► Properly detect and measure a cable fault using both a digital TDR and a
waveform TDR.
Identify a coaxial cable fault using a TDR with a digital display by: (1) connecting the coaxial test
cable to the TDR; (2) turning on the TDR; and (3) measuring and reading the TDR display. These
measurement procedures assume the cable is properly prepared and connectorized. Select the correct
VOP before or after connecting the coaxial cable to the TDR.
Practicing Riser Bond Model 2901C Measurement Procedures
To locate a coaxial cable fault using the Model 2901C, as shown in Figure 469: (1) use the two
"Velocity of Propagation" push buttons to select the desired VOP value; (2) connect a BNC-to-F
adapter to the RF output port; (3) connect the coaxial drop cable or coaxial jumper to the installed
BNC-to-F adapter, and set the "Cable Length" switch to the "Short" position; (4) rotate the "On/Off,
Return Loss Sensitivity" control clockwise to turn on the TDR; (5) record the distance and the type
(open or short) of the cable fault; and (6) if no fault is indicated, change the "Cable Length" switch
from the "Short" to "Long" position. Regardless of cable length, start all cable measurements with
the "Cable Length" switch in the "Short" position.
Learning TDR Measurement Procedures

Figure 469: Locating a cable fault with the Riser Bond Model 2901C TDR. (Courtesy of Riser Bond Instruments)
Using Waveform TDR Measurement Procedures

Waveform TDRs, such as the Tektronix TV110 CableScout, have automatic measurement procedures
that permit fast coaxial cable fault identification and location. Waveform TDRs display the coaxial
cable signature and allow for waveform interpretation for cable fault analysis. These types of TDRs,
in addition to measuring distances and displaying cable waveforms, can store, compare, and print
the waveforms. If a stored waveform and a real-time waveform are of the same cable, simultaneously
displaying the waveforms on the TDR screen lets the operator compare the two waveforms and look
for any changes between the two. The following TDR measurement procedures assume that the
coaxial cable measured is properly prepared and connectorized, as outlined earlier in this lesson.

Practicing Tektronix TV110 CableScout Measurements
Once the TV110 is turned on, the operator is given the choice of either setting the measurement
parameters or testing the cable. To set the measurement parameters, as shown in Figure 470: (1)
connect the F-81 barrel connector to the RF output port; (2) connect either the coaxial drop cable or
jumper to the F-81 barrel connector; (3) press the "Power" key to turn on the TDR; (4) press the
"Setup" softkey to access the "Setup Menu" screen listing cable types; (5) press the down-arrow scroll
control key to highlight the desired cable type; (6) press the "Exit" softkey to access the measurement
screen and automatically acquire a waveform; (7) press the "More Cable" softkey to view a longer
portion of the coaxial cable tested if no coaxial cable faults are displayed in the first 80 feet (24.4 m);
(8) press the "Expand" softkey to view only the area in the expansion window; (9) press the left- or
right-arrow scroll key to move the cursor to the leading edge of the coaxial cable fault, if required;
and (10) view and record the coaxial cable fault information displayed on the TDR screen.
Figure 470: Selecting the measurement parameters and viewing the TDR waveform on the Tektronix TV110 CableScout. (Courtesy of
Tektronix Inc.)

To measure the same type of coaxial cable, as shown in Figure 471: (1) connect either the coaxial
drop cable or jumper to the F-81 barrel connector; (2) press the "Power" key to turn on the TDR; (3)
press the "Test" softkey to access the measurement screen and acquire a waveform; (4) press the
"More Cable" softkey to view a longer portion of the coaxial cable tested if no coaxial cable faults are
found within the first 80 feet (24.4 m); (5) press the left- or right-arrow scroll control key to move the
cursor and the expansion window to the leading edge of the coaxial cable fault; (6) press the
"Expand" softkey to view only the area in the expansion window; and (7) view and record the coaxial
cable fault information displayed on the TDR screen. Continue to press the "More Cable" softkey if a
coaxial cable fault is not found within the first 160 feet (48.8 m).
Figure 471: Acquiring and viewing a TDR waveform on a Tektronix TV110 CableScout. (Courtesy of Tektronix Inc.)
Storing the displayed TDR waveform requires saving the waveform to the TV110 internal memory.
To store the displayed waveform in the TDR memory, as shown in Figure 472: (1) press the
"Save/Print" softkey to access the "Save/Print Menu" screen; (2) press the down-arrow scroll control
key to highlight the desired "Empty" line storage position; (3) press the "Store" softkey to access the
"Text Entry" screen; (4) press the up-, down-, right-, and left-arrow scroll control keys to highlight
desired letters; (5) press the "Insert" softkey to insert each desired letter or number at the text
cursor; (6) repeat steps 4 and 5 until the desired text is completed, and press the "Done" softkey to
return to the "Saved Waveform" screen; and (7) press the "Exit" softkey to return to the
measurement screen.

Figure 472: Storing a waveform in the Tektronix TV110 CableScout. (Courtesy of Tektronix Inc.)
The Tektronix TV110 CableScout can also be used to locate an intermittent cable fault. This feature
allows the operator to monitor the cable over a period of time and displays and holds any
intermittent cable fault that occurs. To test a cable for an intermittent problem, as shown in Figure
473: (1) connect the installed cable as outlined in the beginning of this lesson; (2) turn on the TDR
and press the "Test" softkey to acquire a measurement waveform; (3) press the "Setup" softkey in the
"Measurement" screen to access the "Setup Menu" screen; (4) press the "Test Type" softkey to access
the "Test Type Menu" screen; (5) press the down-arrow scroll control to highlight "Intermittent Test"
screen; (6) press the "Exit" softkey to return to the "Measurement" screen; and (7) return to the TDR
after the desired time and view the intermittent cable fault problem. Always follow company
procedures when locating intermittent cable faults.

Figure 473: Locating an intermittent cable fault with the Tektronix TV110 CableScout. (Courtesy of Tektronix Inc.)

List seven measurement practices that apply to all types of TDRs.
Why is it useful to have the ability to simultaneously display a stored waveform and a live or real-
time waveform on the TDR screen?

MODULE 7
PINPOINTING FAULT SITE
Introduction to Pinpointing Fault Site
► Describe a TV set's minimum acceptable input voltage level and its equivalent
decibel millivolt (dBmV) reference level.
The time domain reflectometer (TDR) test result gives the technician the transmission distance to
the fault. This is only part of the puzzle if the fault is to be dug up and repaired. The underground
path that the transmission follows over that distance must still be identified so the cable can be dug
up at the precise fault location. In addition, the distance indicated by the TDR also must be
accurately measured along the top of the ground following that same route. The route along the top
of the ground is identified using a cable locator (Figure 474A). In order to accurately measure the
distance indicated by the TDR along this newly located path, a device called a measuring wheel is
used (Figure 474B).
Figure 474: Pinpointing fault location in order to dig up and repair the cable.
Using a Cable Locator

Several types of cable locators with varying features exist, but they have basically the same
operational theories. The locator has a transmitter and a receiver as part of its configuration. The
transmitter attaches to the sheath of the cable at the same location as the TDR test. However, with a
locator, the cable does not need to be removed from its installed condition to attach the transmitter
portion. It typically attaches with a large alligator-type clip to any metal point that has continuity
with the cable's outer sheath. Once activated, the transmitter sends a signal along the sheath. The
operator takes the receiver portion and follows the general path of the cable indicated on a system
design map. The operator passes the receiver back and forth along the ground until the transmitter
signal is picked up. The cable path is periodically marked with colored paint or marking flags to
record the cable's route underground. The distance to the fault is estimated, and the ground is
marked just past that point. If the TDR test is being conducted from both ends, the entire cable span
should be located and marked. The distance to the fault is wheeled out with a measuring wheel from
the TDR test site.
Using a Measuring Wheel

The measuring wheel looks like a bicycle wheel with a push handle attached. It is calibrated so that
each complete revolution of the wheel triggers a counter, recording the distance it travels along the
ground. The device is wheeled following the locator marks on the ground until the wheel's counter
matches the indicated fault distance of the TDR. If the TDR test was conducted from both ends of the
cable span, the respective distances from each end should be wheeled out. If the two distances show
a discrepancy in the prospective fault position, digging halfway between the two prospective faults is
a good place to start.

How does the transmitter of a cable locator attach to the plant?
How does a measuring wheel record distance?
Pinpointing Fault Site

Controlling Signal Leakage (307-33-4) Page 593
LESSON 20: Controlling Signal Leakage (307-33-4)
 Identifying Specific Signal Leakage Measurement

Considerations
 Eliminating Signal Leakage
 Preventing Signal Leakage
MODULE 1
IDENTIFYING SPECIFIC SIGNAL LEAKAGE

MEASUREMENT CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction to Identifying Specific Signal

Leakage Measurement Considerations
To comply with FCC Title 47, Part 76, the signal leakage measurements require using a half-wave
dipole antenna (fixed or adjustable), and either an SLM (dBmV reading) or a leakage field strength
meter (μV/m (microvolt/meter) reading). These and other specific requirements need to be
understood when making ground-based signal leakage measurements, compared to flyover signal
leakage measurements.
Using the Dipole Antenna When Making

Measurements
► Describe the proper usage of the dipole antenna when making leakage
measurements.
When using an adjustable half-wave dipole antenna, extend both dipole elements to the required
length. Figure 475 lists selected frequencies and the required corresponding lengths for each dipole
element. Each dipole element extends to approximately one-quarter of the wavelength of the
frequency being measured. The FCC also states that during measurements, the half-wave dipole
antenna must be placed 3 meters from the system components and 3 meters above the ground.
Identifying Specific Signal Leakage Measurement Considerations

Figure 475: Required antenna element lengths for measuring cable signal leakage levels at specific frequencies.
The FCC requires the recording of any signal leakage equal to or greater than 20 μV/m at a distance
of 3 meters (10 feet) that occurs within the aeronautical radio frequency bands. The cable system
must repair such leakage sources within a reasonable time period. What a reasonable time period is,
is not defined by the FCC, but is usually defined by the cable company. All leaks equal to or greater
than 50 μV/m are the values used in cumulative leakage index (CLI) calculations.
Remember, when measuring with a half-wave dipole and a leakage field strength meter, the field
strength of the signal leakage source is measured directly in μV/m. To measure the signal leakage:
1. Configure the operating parameters of the meter as listed in the operator manual.
2. Adjust the dipole elements to the required length for the desired frequency.
3. Place the dipole 10 feet away from the leakage source, 10 feet above the ground, and 10 feet
from any conductive surfaces (Figure 476).
4. Log the leak intensity, either manually or with the automated storage function of the meter.
Figure 476: Leakage measurements made at 10 feet (about 3 meters) above the ground, 10 feet from the leakage source, and 10 feet
from conductive surfaces.

Calculating Leakage Levels at Distances

Greater than 10 Feet
The FCC requires that any leaks equal to or greater than 20 µv/m at 10 feet from the cable be
repaired. In some cases, it could be physically impossible to take a measurement 10 feet from the
cable – the closest location could be much farther away. If the measurement is made from a distance
greater than 10 feet, an approximation of the leakage level at 10 feet can be made with the following
formula:
For example, if a leakage signal of 20 µv/m is measured 20 feet away from the cable, the leakage at
10 feet would be:
This leakage requires logging and repair.
In another example, the distance to the leak is again doubled to 40 feet. The meter reads 50 μV/m
but at 10 feet is actually a 200 μV/m leak. Each time the distance from the antenna to the leak is
doubled, the leak intensity is double what is being read on the meter. Table 17 illustrates this
relationship. The μV/m measurement is always referenced at 10 feet. The far left column of the chart
lists the μV/m level at 10 feet. If the antenna is at one of the other distances listed across the top row
from the leak, the leak intensity at 10 feet is the value listed in the far left column.

Distance vs. µV/m Reading
Distance in Feet 10 20 40 80 160
10 5 2.5 1.25 0.625

20 10 5 2.5 1.25
30 15 7.5 3.75 1.875
40 20 10 5 2.5
50 25 12.5 6.25 3.125
60 30 15 7.5 3.75
70 35 17.5 8.75 4.375
80 40 20 10 5
90 45 22.5 11.25 5.625
100 50 25 12.5 6.25
110 55 27.5 13.75 6.875
112 56 28 14 7
Reading in µV/m 120 60 30 15 7.5
130 65 32.5 16.25 8.125
140 70 35 17.5 8.75
150 75 37.5 18.75 9.375

160 80 40 20 10
170 85 42.5 21.25 10.625
180 90 45 22.5 11.25
200 100 50 25 12.5
400 200 100 50 25
600 300 150 75 37.5
800 400 200 100 50
1000 500 250 125 62.5
1400 700 350 175 87.5
Table 17: Distance from leak conversion chart.

Effect of Frequency on Leakage Signals
► Explain the issues that could arise when measuring signal leakage and how to
deal with uncertainties.
A break in the cable system can act as both a transmitting antenna – causing egress in the
aeronautical frequencies (and others), and as a receiving antenna, causing ingress in the return
path. All antennas are frequency sensitive – and can be very efficient at transmitting and receiving
at certain frequencies, and very inefficient at others. The cable leakage level as it changes with
frequency is unpredictable. For example, if a break acts as a poor antenna at downstream
frequencies, and a good antenna at upstream frequencies, it might indicate a low-level leak (egress)
in a leak detector, but, at the same time, pick up large signals (ingress) in the return path that
devastate the upstream signals. For this reason, many cable companies require that any leak
detected must be fixed.
Uncertainties in Leakage Signal Measurement

A technician measuring a leakage signal level in the field will often notice that the level does not
simply increase as the suspected source is approached; it will often have peaks and valleys. The
measurement for logging purposes should be taken at a level peak approximately 10 feet from the
cable. In practice there are many factors that can change the number recorded — wind, orientation
of the antenna, even a slight change in the position of the technician's body. Extreme accuracy is not
required; a reasonable estimate is adequate for the purposes of the leakage program.
If the technician is recording the level for repair later, it is not unusual for the measurement taken
later to be significantly different from the first. In some cases the leak might not be present at all in
a later test!
Documenting and Reporting Signal Leakage

In order to comply with FCC signal leakage regulations, documentation of the leakage must be
completed.

Documenting Signal Leakage
► Describe the FCC signal leakage regulations concerning regular or quarterly

monitoring.
Cable systems must maintain adequate records of regular leakage monitoring, measurements, and
repairs, per FCC rules. While no specified rule exists that dictates how signal leakage, over the
reportable ≥20 μV/m minimum, must be treated by the system, some systems create repair
timetables based upon the size of the leak. For example, a system could determine that leaks greater
than 250 μV/m must be repaired within 24 hours, leaks between 20 and 249 μV/m must be repaired
within seven days, and leaks below 20 μV/m must be repaired within 30 days. All leaks are
documented on a leakage log (Figure 477). According to the FCC, the signal leakage log should
contain: (1) the date, location, and level at 10-feet of each leak identified; (2) the probable cause of
the leakage; and (3) the date the leak was repaired. A system must keep these logs on file for two
years.
Figure 477: Example of leakage log data. (Courtesy of Time Warner Cable)
Document and Report
A system can also supplement leakage logs with recorded information made with signal leakage
detectors that have a logging or storage function. Such an option enables the recording of leakage
measurements and the printing of those measurements. Together with leakage logs, systems can
assemble accurate information for completing FCC-required system reports.
FCC Required Reports
► Describe the FCC signal leakage regulations concerning annual reporting.

Signal leakage technical standards and other FCC requirements for cable systems are described in
Part 76 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 47, Telecommunications. According to these
regulations, every broadband cable system must: (1) conduct the annual CLI calculation or flyover
measurement; (2) have a regular (quarterly) monitoring program; and (3) notify the FCC of all cable
channels used in the aeronautical bands. A system must keep this information, along with leakage
logs, on file at the system location for two years. The system must also file other information yearly
with the FCC (the CLI calculation or flyover test results, with supporting information and FCC Form
320). Keeping an accurate log of signal leakage in a cable system can ease the efforts needed to
comply with FCC reporting requirements. If a computerized signal leakage analysis program is used,
keep these reports on file at the system locations for two years. In addition to complying with FCC
rules, these reports are very useful in designing programs of demand and preventive maintenance.

After connecting a half-wave dipole antenna to the signal leakage equipment, which distances
must be used to ensure the accuracy of signal leakage measurements?
What is the approximate length of each extended dipole element expressed in terms of wavelength?
What is the minimum leakage level the FCC requires to be recorded and fixed?
What kinds of information are contained in a leakage log?
What three kinds of information, along with leakage logs, must a cable system keep on file for two
years?
If a leak is 20 μv/m measured 20 feet from the cable, what is it likely to be at the FCC required
distance of measurement?

Does a cable system leak at the same level at all frequencies?

MODULE 2
ELIMINATING SIGNAL LEAKAGE
Introduction to Eliminating Signal Leakage

The detection of signal leakage can serve two important purposes for the cable system: (1)
compliance with FCC regulations; and (2) as a support tool for the service and maintenance of
quality cable installations. Technicians can detect and locate signal leakage sources while
performing installations, service/trouble calls, and regular quarterly monitoring. Many cable systems
employ a tagging process at the headend. This can assist in monitoring, isolating, and repairing
signal leakage as well as helping recognize false leaks. Because a broadband cable system can isolate
much of its signal leakage to the drop system, it is important to thoroughly monitor the drop and any
equipment connected to it. When a leak is detected, it is important to locate the exact source of the
leakage to facilitate a quick and effective repair.
Recognizing False Leaks
► Identify typical sources of false leaks.
The detector might indicate a leak when receiving a signal that is not actual cable signal leakage.
(This problem is greatly reduced when the carrier is "tagged" for leakage testing.) When careful
monitoring and locating procedures find no specific source of cable signal leakage, suspect a false
alarm from one of many different noncable signals. To identify and avoid false alarms, listen to the
sound of the alarm tone if the detector has a speaker, reduce the detector's sensitivity, and, when
possible, monitor several channels selectively. If troubleshooting a drop, disconnect the drop from the
tap port and re-monitor the area for suspected leaks. When using a detector, be aware that an alarm
could be triggered by any sufficiently strong noncable over the air signal at a frequency in the VHF
or UHF ranges to which the detector is tuned.
Identifying Over-the-Air Signal Source
While monitoring, recognize that over-the-air signals can have enough strength to cause a false
alarm. Near an aircraft control facility, any detector tuned to Channel 14, 15, or 16 can display or
sound a false alarm from strong aircraft voice communication signals. Ham, mobile, and government
radio broadcasts can also cause false alarms if they are sufficiently strong and close to the detector's
tuned frequency (Figure 478). These are usually intermittent in nature. Aircraft and analog cable
carrier frequencies are, per FCC regulations, slightly different, but a sufficiently strong signal can
trigger a response.
Figure 478: Over-the-air signal sources that can cause a false alarm.
Locating the Source in the Aerial Plant

When a leak is detected in a certain area, the source must be located and repaired. If the plant is
aerial and the leak is very large, the cable system can act as a large antenna and produce "ghost"
leaks – a small signal peak some distance from the cable defect producing the leak. In the case of a
large (or medium) sized leak, it is best to drive around the whole area until an absolute peak is
located – it can usually be narrowed down to two or three spans. At that point, a hand-held detector
with a flexible antenna can be used to pinpoint the location closer. Even then, the technician should
be prepared to ascend several poles because the highest signal level might not be adjacent to the
exact location of the defect. In the case of a very strong signal, the sensitivity of the detector might
need to be reduced. One simple method of doing that is to remove the antenna; the connector alone
picks up enough signal.
Eliminating Signal Leakage

If the technician is on the pole, a visual inspection or a quick check of connector tightness will often
reveal the defect. If the source is still not found, the near-field probe can be used to pinpoint the
exact spot, often to within a few inches. If all the diagnostic techniques do not indicate a specific
source, the technician should check adjacent poles before "breaking down" any connectors.
The strongest egress signals will occur at the output of a line extender because the cable signal is
highest at that point. On the other hand, the point most susceptible to ingress is the input of a trunk
amplifier, which has the lowest level signals in the system. This also makes it the most difficult to
detect because any leakage signal from it will be at a very low level, in many cases lower than
leakage from drops. This is one reason it is extremely important that installations be leak free so any
leakage from the trunk will be detectable.
Locating the Source in the Underground Plant

Leakage in the cable in the underground trunk and feeder network is mainly caused by a
compromise of the cable jacket and resultant corrosion of the outer conductor. The signals do not
travel as far as in the aerial plant. The technician can walk along the cable route and usually
determine within a foot or so where the defect is. The rest is up to the person with the shovel.
Locating the Source in the Drop System
► Identify specific portions of the drop system that should be monitored and
inspected with a handheld leakage detector.
Many instances of signal leakage are caused by damage to portions of the drop system. When
installing or servicing the drop system, perform a visual inspection and use a leakage detector. This
keeps leakage in check and ensures acceptable quality workmanship of drop materials.
Handheld detectors allow the technician to get close-in and easily check the tap, ground block and
splitters, drop cable, and customer premises equipment for possible signal leakage.
Isolating Signal Leakage Sources
► Describe how signal leakage can be detected and isolated at the drop system.

It is possible to detect signal leakage at several locations in the drop system, seemingly anywhere
between the customer's tap and the TV set. Due to the manner in which RF signals propagate along
the drop sheath and through the air, any of these locations can cause the detector to read a leakage
level, but not necessarily be the actual leakage source. Because most signal leakage detectors
indicate the strength of the leakage signal audibly and visually, you can isolate and precisely locate
the source of the leak with simple and logical procedures.
To systematically isolate signal leakage, start at the customer's tap and disconnect the drop in
question to confirm the house wiring as the leakage source. After reconnecting the drop, work toward
the customer's TV set, disconnecting each part of the drop system to test and eliminate it as a
potential signal leakage source.
An alternative method effectively divides the drop system in half by starting at the ground block
first. Having all signs of signal leakage disappear when the ground block output is disconnected
eliminates the backward route toward the customer's tap as a source. Then, you can systematically
check the forward route from the ground block toward the customer's TV set. This alternative
method can often save time, especially in an aerial plant.
It is possible that there is more than one leak, especially in a poorly maintained system. If the leak
level drops but does not disappear when the drop is disconnected at the tap, you have found one of
the sources, but not all. The next step is to disconnect other drops at the same tap — after contacting
the customers fed by that drop — and observing the leakage signal.
Manipulating Detector Controls
If the detector has controls for sensitivity, squelch, and gain, it becomes more accurate for isolating
the location of a signal leakage source. Outside the customer premises, monitor for signal leakage
with settings on the highest levels (most sensitive). If you detect leakage, switch to progressively
lower settings to isolate its source. Inside the customer premises, keep the settings on low.
Isolating Leakage at the Ground Block and Splitter
When you detect signal leakage and isolate it to a customer's drop system, further isolate the source
at the ground block location. Use a near-field probe, if possible, for greater accuracy. Initially, check
for signal leakage coming from the ground block due to loose fittings (often checking for tightness by
hand will reveal a problem) or a damaged housing (Figure 479). Perform the same checks with
splitters and F-connectors. One at a time remove all output drops from their ground block/splitter
connections to see if and when the leak goes away. The outlet drop that eliminates the leakage is the
place to look next for its source.

Figure 479: Potential sources of signal leakage at the ground block location.
Isolating Leakage on the Service Drop at the Tap Location
If the detector still indicates leakage, the aerial or underground service drop from the ground
block/splitter back to the tap is the likely source, and you should check it. Disconnect the drop at the
tap and recheck leakage at the ground block location. (If you measure at the tap location, you are
physically close to the cable and could also be measuring leakage from a distant leak, causing
confusion.) If leakage still exists, it is possible the leakage is coming from one of the other drops at
that same tap location.
If the leakage comes from the drop, check for loose, bad, or corroded connectors, while also inspecting
the drop for defects. If replacing the connectors does not fix the leakage, the usual procedure is to
replace the entire drop rather than isolate the defect. Once the leakage to the service drop is
eliminated, return to the ground block, reconnect the input to the ground block/splitter, and recheck
the entire network for leakage.
Isolating Leakage at Individual Drop Outlets
For each drop outlet, verify that no signal leakage is coming from damaged cable, loose F-connectors,
or poorly shielded passive devices. If leakage is found, rather than trying to isolate the precise signal
leakage location along the cable, replace the individual cable per your system's policies and
procedures. After replacing the cable, check the F-connectors and passive devices for tightness of fit.
Recheck the individual drop cable for leakage.

Isolating Leakage at Wall Plates, Jumpers, and Customer Premises

Equipment
Once you verify that the entire outside portion of the drop system has no signal leakage, attention
can then shift to inside the customer premises. With the leakage isolated to individual outlets, check
all possible signal leakage sources inside the customer premises. Possible signal leakage sources
include cable wall plates (Figure 480A), coaxial jumpers (Figure 480B) used to configure customer
premises equipment (CPE), and in some cases, the CPE itself. Replace any suspect coaxial jumpers.
Poorly shielded CPE can emit RF signals in the critical signal leakage bandwidths. To isolate CPE-
caused signal leakage, remove the coaxial jumper from the RF output on the suspected device, and
then attach a 75 Ω terminator to the RF output port. Monitor the area with a signal leakage
detector. If signal leakage is coming from CPE owned by the customer, follow your system's
procedures and policy for informing the customer and making any recommendations for repairs.
Figure 480: Checking connections at wall plate and CPE locations.
Repairing Signal Leakage
► Describe how drop system signal leakage sources can be repaired.
Once you isolate the cause of the signal leakage, repair the problem using the logical choice
suggested by the leakage source. Signal leakage resulting from multiple sources could require
several or all of these repairs. If the leakage is caused by damaged coaxial cable, replace or repair
the cable (as your system policy dictates). If connectors are the problem, tighten or replace the
connectors as necessary. If a passive device is causing the leakage, replace the passive device. With
active devices, ensure the amplifier housing is providing a good environmental and radio frequency
interference (RFI) seal. If CPE provided by the cable system is the cause, replace the device. If
customer-owned CPE is the cause, follow your system's policies for informing the customer and
removing the device from use. Figure 481 outlines signal leakage sources and their possible repairs.

Figure 481: Signal leakage sources and possible repairs.

Which two purposes does signal leakage detection serve?
In the drop system, at what locations can signal leakage be isolated?
What is the recommended sequence as a strategy for systematic leakage detection in the drop
system?
What is the alternate recommended strategy for systematic leakage detection in the drop system?
In the case of a very strong leak, what is a simple method for reducing the leakage detector's
sensitivity?
Which typical over-the-air signal sources can cause a false alarm with a signal leakage detector?


MODULE 3
PREVENTING SIGNAL LEAKAGE
Introduction to Preventing Signal Leakage

Signal leakage monitoring helps maintain the integrity of the system and identify sources of both RF
signal ingress and egress. This provides the customer with the best TV picture possible, reliable two-
way services, and avoids interference with RF aeronautical navigation systems. Cable system
technical personnel must stay up-to-date on the different preventive and demand maintenance
procedures used to maintain high-quality service, as well as abide by system and FCC technical
standards.
Determining Demand Maintenance Procedures
► Explain demand maintenance procedures used to maintain service and comply

with FCC standards.
Demand maintenance is the repair of any large leaks requiring immediate attention. Demand
maintenance is determined by system policy, the severity of the leaks, and FCC requirements. Part
76 of the requirements states that any signal leakage source equal to or greater than 20 μV/m
(microvolt/meter) in the aeronautical RF bands, must be recorded in a leakage log and repaired
within a reasonable time period.
As a best practice, the system can collect this leakage log data from each technician at the end of
each day. Then the system can issue repair work order assignments listing the leaks in order of
severity the next day.
Following Preventive Maintenance Procedures
► Describe signal leakage preventive maintenance procedures to follow in a

cable system.
Almost all signal leakage can be prevented through proper installation and maintenance. For
example, it is estimated that drop-related signal leakage is caused mainly by F-connectors.
Moreover, 60-70% of the F-connectors causing signal leakage are loose, not broken. Figure 482 lists
some preventive maintenance procedures for reducing signal leakage that technicians can
incorporate into routine service work. An emphasis on quality in installation and service of the drop
system can reduce signal leakage, and the time spent on signal leakage detection, measurement, and
repair. Remember, the job of preventing and repairing signal leakage is the responsibility of every
technician.
Figure 482: Maintenance procedures to include with routine tasks to prevent cable signal leakage.

Which two types of programs can help reduce and eliminate signal leakage?
Name at least four procedures that will prevent signal leakage.
Preventing Signal Leakage

Understanding Fiber Optics and HFC Networks (805-36-6) Page 613
LESSON 21: Understanding Fiber Optics and HFC

Networks (805-36-6)
 Introducing Fiber Optics

 Constructing Fiber Networks
 The Evolving HFC Network
 Optimizing the HFC Network
MODULE 1
INTRODUCING FIBER OPTICS
Introduction to Fiber Optics

Initially, fiber-optics technology was used in the cable system's distribution system to improve
reliability and picture quality by shortening the cascade of trunk amplifiers in tree-and-branch type
architecture. Soon after, it became apparent that this new fiber-optics architecture could support
other services besides video distribution, including telephony and high-speed data. This new
technology became known as hybrid/fiber coax (HFC) architecture as it utilizes a combination of
fiber-optic technology and coaxial cable technology to deliver enhanced services to the customer.
HFC architecture has replaced tree-and-branch as the predominant architecture of the broadband
cable industry. Advancement in fiber-optic technology has enabled new versions of HFC architecture
to use more fiber and less coaxial cable. Architecture where the only coaxial cable is in the customer
premises has become a reality as the fiber is terminated and connected at the customer premises.
This architecture is referred to as fiber-to-the-home (FTTH).
As the fiber comes into the customer premises, installers and technicians must understand not only
how radio frequency (RF) travels through coaxial cable, but also how light travels through fiber
optics. A fundamental knowledge of fiber-optic cable and associated optoelectronics is necessary to
confidently work with fiber equipment inside and outside the customer premises.
Characterizing Light
► Explain the differences between light and RF signals.
In the electromagnetic spectrum (Figure 483), radio frequencies are measured in hertz, but light
frequencies are measured in wavelengths. A wavelength is the distance covered by one cycle of a
signal. Typical wavelengths or "windows" for light transmission over fiber in cable systems are 1,310
nanometers (nm) and 1,550 nm. Besides frequency, there are other differences between light and RF,
most of which are beneficial. Light carries more information over fiber than RF can over coaxial
cable. Light is unaffected by interference from lightning or other electrical sources, whereas RF is
highly susceptible to these factors. In addition, light does not interfere with any other signals. RF
can interfere with other signals within the cable and, in the case of signal leakage, interfere
externally.
Introducing Fiber Optics

Figure 483: Fiber-optic frequencies used in broadband cable systems are in the middle portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Light has noteworthy characteristics of its own. The most important ones to understand are
reflection and refraction.
Understanding Reflection
When a ray of light strikes something, such as a flower, it reflects or bounces off and spreads out in all
directions. Some of that reflected light is caught by our eyes, allowing us to recognize the flower and its
color.

Understanding Refraction
Refraction (Figure 484) refers to the changes in the

behavior of light as it passes from one medium into
another. The speed of light in a vacuum (approximately
186,000 miles per second or 300,000 kilometers per second
or 3 x 108 meters per second) is used as the reference for
which the speed of light through all media, including fiber-
optic cable, is compared. In fiber-optic cable, the refractive
index specifies the light speed through the fiber as a ratio
of the speed of light through a vacuum to the speed of light
through the fiber-optic cable.
Figure 484: Refraction.

A light wave traveling through fiber-optic cable at 124,000
miles per second has a refractive index of 1.5
(186,000/124,000 = 1.5). One way to “see” the refraction of light is to put a straw in a cup of water. The
straw appears to bend, which is caused by light refracting in two different mediums; one being air, and
the other being water.
Characterizing Fiber
► Describe the composition of a glass fiber.
Fiber is no ordinary piece of glass; it is created by one of two complex manufacturing processes. In
one method, a thin silica glass tube is filled with layers, comprising the core and cladding. In another
process, a pure silica rod is coated with glass soot core and cladding layers to make the preform; then
the rod is removed. In both processes, the preform is heated at high temperatures and drawn out
into a hair-thin solid fiber. The result often is as small as one-eighth of a millimeter in diameter.
Then, an acrylic coating is applied (Figure 485).

Figure 485: Cross-section of optical fiber.
A common misconception is that a glass fiber is a hollow tube. Fiber is composed of two glass
sections, the core and the cladding (which surrounds the core). The fiber cladding is manufactured to
be less dense than the core, having a lower index of refraction (IOR) (Figure 486). As the laser sends
a beam of light into the core, the cladding guides it down the fiber, preventing the light from
escaping the core. This is due to the characteristics of refraction and reflection inside a fiber. When
light encounters a medium that has a different index of refraction, such as from water to air (or from
the core to the cladding), it will either be refracted or reflected depending on the angle at which the
light meets the new medium (the angle of incidence). At a steep angle, the light is bent or refracted
as it enters the new medium. This is why a stick appears to bend as it is dipped into water. Light
that strikes the new medium at a shallow angle is reflected back to the original medium. The angle
at which the change between refraction and reflection takes place is referred to as the critical angle.
Figure 486: Light under conditions of refraction and reflection.

The critical angle (Figure 487A) is determined by the difference between the refractive indexes of the
two media. Optical lasers send light into the core at a shallow angle (less than the critical angle) so
that as the light meets the cladding it reflects off it, returns to the core, and continues down the
fiber. This is called total internal reflection (Figure 487B) and is what makes fiber-optic
transmission possible.
Figure 487: Critical angle and total internal reflection.
Fiber is divided into two categories, called modes, based on the way light travels through it.
Multimode fiber provides more than one path through the core at the same time, while single-mode
fiber passes light through a single path. Broadband cable systems use single-mode fiber because it
allows more bandwidth over greater distances than multimode. Single-mode fiber also has less
attenuation or signal loss caused by light colliding with the fiber cladding or dispersing as it spreads
through the fiber.
There are additional layers that compose the fiber cable. Lightweight fiber strands usually are
placed inside protective loose buffer tubes to reduce damage. A fiber cable can contain 144 individual
fibers or more, made up of 12 buffer tubes with 12 fibers each. It also can contain strength members,
jackets, and armor to protect individual fibers (Figure 488).

Figure 488: An example of a loose buffer tube optical fiber cable.
Describing Optoelectronics Equipment
► List the functions of lasers and other optoelectronics equipment.
Any equipment that responds to light waves or is used in a fiber-optic network is referred to as
optoelectronics. Besides fiber-optic cable, some of the optoelectronics used in the broadband cable
industry are lasers, optical receivers, optical amplifiers, and optical couplers and splitters.
Recognizing Lasers
All cable signals begin as electrical energy transmitting on radio frequencies. A number of these signals
are combined (or multiplexed) and linked to a semiconductor laser diode. The light carrier produced by
the laser diode is modulated by RF signals, and then the modulated light carrier can be transmitted
through the fiber core. The laser modulation may be internal or external with analog or digital signals.
Analog signals expressed as light pulses continuously vary in brightness, much like analog signals vary
in levels during an RF transmission. Digital signals transmitted via light are represented by the laser
turning on or off (light or dark) to create pulses of light.
Fabry-Perot (F-P) and distributed feedback (DFB) lasers have been the most common type of lasers used
by broadband cable systems. F-P lasers were the first solid-state semi-conductor laser diodes and are far

more economical to manufacture than DFB lasers. However, they are slower and tend to produce more
noise than DFB lasers and no longer fit the engineering requirements of today's HFC broadband
networks.
DFB lasers typically operate in the 1,310 and 1,550 nm transmission windows and are used in optical
transmission systems that require high-performance optical transmitters. Cooled DFB lasers emit very
narrow stable wavelengths that are suitable for dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)
transmitters. This type of optical transmitter is used by the broadband cable industry, to support both
forward and reverse applications. The narrow spectral widths (Figure 489) displayed by DFB lasers can
also benefit high-speed data links by limiting the effects of chromatic dispersion. In addition, DFB lasers
exhibit substantial optical output power more than of 40 milliwatts (mW), or 16 dBm, along with a high
degree of linearity and good signal-to-noise characteristics.
Figure 489: Spectral display of a single wavelength. (Courtesy of BP Enterprises)
The broadband cable industry uses amplitude modulation-vestigial sideband (AM-VSB) optical
transmitters with DFB lasers throughout HFC networks to transport more than 100 analog broadcast
channels over single-mode fiber. These types of optical transmitters are commonly used in HFC network
forward paths and typically are in the master headend and primary hub facilities.
Identifying the Optical Receiver
Once signals pass through a span of fiber-optic cable, the light enters an optical receiver. The main
function of the optical receiver is to perform optical-to-electrical conversion. The light detection is carried
out by a photodiode (Figure 490), which produces a current when light energy is detected.

Figure 490: A photo showing examples of optical detectors. (Courtesy of PD-LD)
The optical receivers are usually located in an optical node (Figure 491),
where the light ends up, or at the headend for the upstream path. In
the downstream path, the optical receiver converts light back to RF
signals and the signals are then amplified for distribution over coaxial
cable to the customer premises.
Utilizing Optical Amplifiers
An optical amplifier is an optical/electrical device that strengthens the

signal by increasing the amplitude of the optical signal. Optical
amplification can be performed on optical signals of 1,550 nm using an
erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA). In the simplified drawing of an
EDFA in Figure 492, a dichroic coupler is used (much like diplex filters
Figure 491: Optical node example. (Courtesy in RF amplifiers) to combine the 1,550 nm signal with a 980 nm or a
of Motorola Broadband Communications)
1,480 nm signal coming from a pump laser which is actually a laser
diode generating light at one of these wavelengths. When the combined
signals (1,550 nm and 1,480 nm or 980 nm) are coupled into a fiber-optic cable doped with erbium, a
photochemical reaction occurs to effectively amplify the 1,550 nm signal. The amplified 1,550 nm signal
is then passed to the output of the amplifier by the output dichroic coupler which does not pass the 980
nm or 1,480 nm signal. No photochemical reaction has been developed (outside of a laboratory) to work
at 1,310 nm, so EDFAs can only be used to amplify 1,550 nm signals.

Figure 492: Functional block diagram of an EDFA.
Using Optical Couplers and Splitters
Optical couplers and splitters are used for both splitting and combining optical signals. Optical coupler
configurations provide an efficient means of maximizing available optical transmission power in point-
to-multipoint optical networks. They are available in a wide variety of balanced and unbalanced values,
as shown in Table 18.
Balanced Optic Coupler Unbalanced Optic Coupler

Value Insertion Loss (dB) Value Insertion Loss (dB)
1x2 3.5 60% / 40% 2.4 / 4.2
1x3 5.7 65% / 35% 2.1 / 4.7
1x4 7.0 70% / 30% 1.7 / 5.4
1x6 9.0 80% / 20% 1.2 / 7.2
1x8 10.4 85% / 15% 0.8 / 8.5
1 x 10 11.5 90% / 10% 0.6 / 10.4
1 x 12 12.5 95% / 5% 0.35/ 13.8
Table 18: Split ratios of optical couplers and related insertion losses.
Balanced couplers share approximately the same insertion loss through each port, while unbalanced
couplers exhibit different losses for each port, depending on the value used. An optical coupler can be
either fused or modular. Fused optical couplers like the transmissive star coupler in Figure 493A provide
the least amount of insertion loss since each coupler pigtail is fusion-spliced to a dedicated optical fiber.
Modular couplers (Figure 493B) incur a higher insertion loss as each port has an optical connector for
ease and flexibility.

Figure 493: Star and optical couplers.

What are the typical wavelengths or "windows" for light transmission over fiber in a cable system?
Besides frequency, what are four differences between light and RF?
What is reflection?
What is refraction?
What are the two glass sections of which fiber is composed?
What happens when light encounters a medium with a different index of refraction?

What is the difference between multimode and single-mode fiber?
What additional layers compose the fiber cable?
What is the function of an optical receiver in the downstream path?

MODULE 2
CONSTRUCTING FIBER NETWORKS
Introduction to Constructing Fiber Networks

In an HFC network (Figure 494), construction techniques of the fiber backbone in aerial and
underground installation are like those for coaxial cable. However, special fiber handling and
splicing procedures are required. In addition, highly trained fiber-optic technicians and construction
crews work on the fiber plant. To gain some perspective into the techniques in building today's HFC
networks, it is helpful to briefly glance at some of the procedures these personnel must follow. Proper
construction techniques lead to an efficient and reliable network.
Figure 494: HFC network with nodes providing signal to small serving areas ranging from 150 to 2,500 customers.
Handling Fiber
► Discuss three procedures that technicians must use in handling fiber.
Personal safety is of utmost concern to anyone handling fiber. Technicians should follow important
safety precautions by avoiding direct eye contact with the end of a fiber and handling fiber or its
debris. Certain techniques must be followed to help prevent damage to the fiber.
Avoiding Direct Eye Contact
Technicians are warned never to look directly into the end of a piece of optical fiber. The fiber is
examined only at an angle and only after the laser transmitter has been shut off. A power meter
connected to the end of the fiber tests to be sure the laser is not active. Lasers are categorized from Class
I to Class IV depending on their increased level of personal risk. Before beginning work on fiber plant,
workers should wear protective goggles that can block certain wavelengths.
Although the light from a laser is invisible to the eye, its intensity (about 10 milliwatts) can cause
irreversible damage. The cornea can amplify a beam of light 100,000 times to try to identify its
brightness. Even though one generally feels no pain, the light burns the retina tissue, resulting in
permanent blind spots.
Following Safe Handling Techniques
Handling the glass fiber or its debris also is a safety issue. When making a splice, the technician must be
sure not to touch the end of the fiber. If this procedure is not followed, the fiber can break off or get
caught in the skin. It is almost impossible to see a tiny piece of glass (about the size of a human hair)
that is lodged in the skin, and an Xray cannot find it. Normally, a foreign object will irritate the skin
until working its way out. This may not be the case with fiber. The glass used in fiber is so pure that it
can be sterile and therefore remain undetected in the body. Undetected glass in the body can result in a
very serious medical situation. The technician also makes certain that glass does not stick to clothing.
Tweezers are used when picking up fiber pieces, and all broken glass is carefully quarantined, usually by
attaching it to a strip of electrical tape, and then properly discarded.
Constructing Fiber Networks

Determining System Design Parameters

Extensive planning is required before fiber-optic cables are installed. Prior to designers mapping out
the new fiber-optic cable plant, engineers must design the system using the desired levels of
performance. They also determine acceptable noise and nonlinear distortion levels. Fiber‑ optic
design differs little from copper cable design in most respects, since many of the same parameters
also are needed. But, in the design of the fiber-optic plant, the attenuation created by all passive
components also is calculated in a link loss budget (Figure 495). Each optical connector, optical fiber
splice, optical coupler, and kilometer of fiber-optic cable in the plant adds a certain amount of loss to
the optical signal level. For example, depending on a manufacturer's specifications, an optical
connector's loss might be 1 dB. The budget also should allow for a safety margin and future optical
fiber splices.
Figure 495: Example of a link loss budget.
Examining Construction Techniques

Construction techniques for aerial and underground fiber-optic cable are like coaxial cable
construction techniques, with allowances made for the length (over seven miles,11 kilometers) of the
fiber-optic cable. The pulling tensions that result from such a long run could damage the fiber-optic
cable, so it is common to perform a midpoint pull by laying the cable out in a figure-eight pattern
(Figure 496A), at the midpoint of a cable pull. Allowances for the storage of slack fiber-optic cable
and splice points should be included in the design. Procedures for laying out fiber-optic cable into
figure eights, closure installation (Figure 496B), and optical fusion/mechanical splicing are specific to
fiber‑ optic cable installation. Even though fiber-optic cable is durable, careful handling of the cable
during installation is required. Always follow the manufacturer's recommended installation
procedures.

Figure 496: Examples of fiber-optic cable figure eights and a closure. (Courtesy of Comcast and Cox Cable)
Describing Installation Techniques
► Describe the different methods for aerial and underground installation.
Installing fiber-optic cable underground uses the same procedures and similar precautions employed
during copper cable underground installation. Methods include motorized trenching and plowing.
Despite harsh environments, aerial installation of fiber-optic cable is common, especially where the
fiber-optic cable can be overlashed to the existing aerial plant. When necessary, two types of aerial
construction methods are recommended: (1) pull-in (Figure 497A); and (2) drive-off (Figure 497B).
Figure 497: Recommended aerial fiber-optic cable construction methods.

With the pull-in approach, a chocked cable reel remains stationary, while a bucket truck pulls the
fiber-optic cable along the messenger wire. A worker in the bucket truck places cable blocks every 35-
40 feet on the strand. The cable block supports the cable, while allowing the truck to continue to pull
the cable. This method requires lashing the optical fiber to the strand in a separate procedure. The
drive-off procedure employs a moving reel of cable attached to a truck driving slowly underneath the
strand. The truck pulls the cable reel trailer while the cable guide feeds the fiber-optic cable to the
lasher. The lasher attaches the cable to the messenger in one pulling operation. Drive-off works best
when there are no obstructions.
Exceeding the recommended maximum pulling tension or minimum bend radius of the fiber-optic
cable can damage or reduce the life of the optical fibers and may induce extra bending losses. Do not
exceed the maximum pulling tension, which is 600 pounds for most fiber-optic cable. Do not exceed
the cable's minimum bend radius or coil the cable too tightly. This minimum bend radius usually is
10-20 times the fiber-optic cable's diameter. Stressing too much or bending too tightly can cause
microcracks. These cracks increase signal attenuation and eventually cause optical fiber breakage.
Explaining Optical Fiber Splicing
► Describe two types of fiber-optic splicing.
All optical fiber topologies require some splicing. A splice connects two optical fibers or pigtails of
optoelectronics. The fiber-optic cable between the optical laser transmitter and the optical receiver
requires splices to connect the individual spans of fiber together once they are taken off the spool. An
optical fiber splice is required when a continuous span is not possible (or desirable) or when the
fiber-optic cable is cut. All optical fibers in a cable are spliced one at a time. The overall objective is
to produce a low-loss (<0.2 dB) precision splice. Two common optical fiber splicing techniques are
optical fusion and mechanical fiber splicing.
Describing the Fusion Splice
The fusion splice (Figure 498) melts the glass fibers together and is used when the fiber is installed. This
method of splicing attenuates the light much less than a mechanical splice. Fusion splices are initially
expensive because of the high cost of the splicing equipment, but as more splices are performed, the cost-
per-splice decreases. Optical fusion splices offer: (1) consistently low splice losses (0.01 dB to 0.10 dB); (2)
strong optical fiber splice connections; (3) the ability to observe the optical fiber ends before fusion; and
(4) an increase in the number of optical fiber splices placed on a splice tray.

Figure 498: An example of optical fusion splicing. (Courtesy of Cox Cable)
Describing the Mechanical Splice
Uses of optical mechanical splices include:
 Repairing cut or damaged optical fiber

 When the optical fusion splicer is not available
 Connecting the system optical fiber to the test pigtail connected to the optical time domain
reflectometer (OTDR) when testing the optical fiber
An optical mechanical splice may require an assembly tool (Figure 499) to properly align the optical
fibers. Mechanical splices are easier to prepare and can provide low losses per splice and low installation
costs, but fusion splices are desired for long‑ term reliability and superior performance.
Figure 499: An example of optical mechanical splicing. (Courtesy of Cox Cable)
Once the optical fusion or mechanical splices are made, they are placed in a splice tray (Figure 500). The
splice tray is located either in the splice closure (outside) or in the equipment bay frame (inside) to
organize and protect the optical fiber splices. While individual splice trays can hold up to 24 optical fiber

splices, multiple splice trays in the splice closure permit the installation of up to 324 optical mechanical
or 432 optical fusion splices.
Figure 500: Optical fiber splices in splice tray.
Explaining Optical Fiber Couplers
► Describe the use of couplers in fiber-optics.
In many applications, especially fiber distribution topologies, it is necessary to divide a light signal
from one fiber into several other fibers to distribute the source among several customers. A coupler is
a device that is used to perform that function. It can divide or combine light signals. The couplers
provide input and output ports or points for light signals to enter and exit the device. Couplers
typically are passive, bidirectional devices and do add loss to the link budget above the loss incurred
connecting them to the network. Couplers are classified as either tee couplers, three-port devices, or
star couplers.
Tee couplers are used when there are few drop-off points along a route. The coupler at each drop-off
node distributes a portion of the light signal to equipment at the terminal location (Figure 501A).
The coupling is formed by embedding fiber-optic cables into a precision branching junction (Figure
501B).
Figure 501: Dividing the light signal with couplers.

The transmissive star coupler is an alternative to the tee coupler. It has an equal number of input
and output ports. The input signal is distributed equally among the output ports, making this ideal
for use in connecting many terminals. Another star coupler, the reflective star coupler, is a multiport
device in which any port can serve as either input or output. A light signal injected into any port is
equally divided among all other ports, making this device suitable for use in the evolving fiber
distribution topologies.
Typical input and output ports of the couplers are normally pigtails (raw fiber ends) or are factory
connectorized. The most common couplers are constructed by twisting or wrapping fibers at a central
point and fusing them together. The glass melts into a single mass so that a light signal from any
fiber designated as an input will pass through the fused point to all the other fibers set up to be
outputs. Figure 502 illustrates an 8×8 transmissive star coupler (Figure 502A) and an eight-port
reflective star coupler (Figure 502B).
Figure 502: Examples of star couplers.
Explaining Optical Fiber Testing

Optical fiber testing between the optical laser transmitter and the optical receiver is performed
before and after installation. Cracks in an optical fiber can cause undesired reflections and
backscatter. These installation-caused damages to the optical fiber contribute to the system's optical
return loss. Optical return loss is the ratio of the laser transmitter's optical output power to the
optical fiber's reflected optical power. Proper test equipment must be used to measure optical return
loss and other causes of attenuation.

Listing Optical Fiber Test Equipment
Fiber-optic cable requires special test equipment for measuring optical

power, optical fiber attenuation, and splice loss. Two common pieces of
fiber-optic test equipment are the OTDR and the optical loss test set.
The OTDR (Figure 503), similar in function to a metallic time domain
reflectometer (TDR), measures the distance to the end of the fiber-optic
cable. While the TDR indicates the location of any undesired reflections
or impedance changes in a copper cable, the OTDR can indicate the
location and attenuation of fiber splices in the optical link. Therefore,
the OTDR measures the overall performance of the fiber-optic cable and
splices.
Figure 503: Optical time domain

reflectometer (OTDR). The optical loss test set
includes a transmitter or
stabilized light source and
receiver or optical power meter (Figure 504) that measures the
total loss of the optical fiber link. The transmitter has a specific
output level at either 1,310 nm or 1,550 nm. The power level is
measured at the output of the stabilized light source (input to
the fiber-optic cable) and at the output of the fiber-optic cable.
The difference between the two levels is the fiber-optic cable
loss. This loss also includes any splice or coupler losses in the
cable.
Identifying Fiber-Optic Testing Requirements Figure 504: Optical power meter and light
source.
The basic fiber-optic testing requirements include:
 Testing all optical fibers in the cable on the spool after receiving it from the manufacturer
 Testing each optical fiber after installation
 Testing optical fiber after it is repaired
This testing is done with an OTDR or similar equipment, and the results are printed. These printouts
document the system fiber-optic cable loss received from the manufacturer and a total optical link loss
after the cable is installed. The printouts also provide a means to compare the original losses with those
measured after an emergency restoration.

What are technicians warned never to do regarding looking into the end of a piece of optical fiber?

How can light from a laser cause irreversible damage to the eye?
Why must a technician be sure not to touch the end of a fiber when making a splice?
What is calculated in the link loss budget?
Why is it important to not exceed maximum pulling tension and minimum bend radius when
placing fiber optical cable?
Describe the reflective star coupler.
Name two common types of fiber-optic test equipment.

MODULE 3
THE EVOLVING HFC NETWORK
Introduction to the Evolving HFC Network

The broadband cable industry recognized the potential benefits of fiber-optic technology as a solution
to formidable competition from direct broadcast satellite (DBS) and telephone companies. At the
time, the cable industry was most vulnerable to competition because of channel limitations and
quality of service. Despite the competition, the cable industry chose to cautiously accept fiber-optic
technology because: The projected life span of a coaxial cable system is 20 to 25 years and most
systems had yet to reach mid-life when fiber-optic technology became available; operators were
reluctant to replace their existing coaxial cable infrastructure, with its known limitations, at midlife
for fiber optics—a comparatively new technology with no track record of reliability and longevity,
and; fiber-optic cable and associated optoelectronics was expensive, required specialized and
expensive test and splicing equipment along with expensive, specialized and expensive labor.
Hybrid fiber/coax (HFC) network architecture resulted from the cautious acceptance of fiber-optic
technology. As the name implies, HFC utilizes a combination of fiber-optic and coaxial cable
technologies to deliver services to the customer premises. As the early concerns about fiber-optic
technology (including cost) have gone away, variations to HFC architecture have evolved. Self-
healing fiber‑ optic rings, fiber-to-the-feeder (FTTF), fiber-to-the-node (FTTN), and fiber‑ to-the-curb
(FTTC) are examples of HFC design evolution that has placed the fiber-optic cable termination closer
to the customer premises. The final evolutionary step, fiber-to-the-home (FTTH) is still expensive,
but is being implemented by some operators and has proven to be economically feasible in some new-
build applications.
Using Fiber Optics for Network Redundancy
► Describe how a ring architecture using fiber-optic cable can maintain reliability.
Redundancy features can be designed into optical transmission

networks to maintain reliability and highly available service
standards. In HFC networks using primary ring architecture
(Figure 505) to serve multiple hub locations, a redundant path
would normally exist to protect the primary transport path. Ideally,
the redundant path should have a different physical route whenever
possible. Optical switches are installed at each headend and hub
location to detect the incoming optical power level on the primary
path. In the event of an electronic failure or fiber cut, the switch will
transfer to the redundant path, and services will continue
uninterrupted.
Figure 505: An illustration depicting a dual

ring topology. (Courtesy of Force Inc.)
Fiber nodes in HFC networks are usually connected to hubs in a point-to-point fashion and are not
supported by a ring topology. Scalable fiber-optic nodes may be configured to support a second optical
receiver offering equipment redundancy by activating a second fiber and receiver. An RF detection
switch monitors the RF output of the primary receiver. In the event the RF level drops below a
preset threshold, the RF switch transfers to the secondary receiver.
Identifying HFC Architectures
► Recognize the HFC progressions that have brought fiber-optic cable closer to
the customer premises.
Since its introduction to the broadband cable industry, numerous versions of HFC architecture have
been introduced. In each version, the location of the fiber termination has moved progressively closer
to the customer premises. Moving the fiber termination closer to the customer premises not only
improves system reliability, but also reduces the customer serving area size (homes per node) for
each node. A contained serving area enables; quicker isolation and identification of problems,
reduces the number of customer premises sharing return spectrum bandwidth, and encourages
targeted advertising as an additional revenue resource.
Describing Fiber-To-The-Feeder
By the early 1990s a fiber-intensive design (Figure 506), initially called "fiber trunk and feeder," was
developed. For clarity, since there is no trunk cable in this design, it was renamed fiber-to-the-feeder
(FTTF). FTTF was most cost-effective wherever new plant was planned or where an existing network
was scheduled for a rebuild. This design used fiber to replace all coaxial trunk cable and trunk
amplifiers between the headend and the feeder network. The fiber terminates at a node to within a mile
The Evolving HFC Network

of all the homes to be served and, typically, places no more than three or four active devices between the
headend and the customer premises. The number of homes served from the fiber node, range from 600 to
1,200 depending on home density.
Figure 506: Fiber-to-the-feeder design. (Courtesy of Time Warner Cable)
Describing Fiber-to-the-Node
Also known as fiber-to-the-neighborhood, FTTN takes the fiber deeper into the cable system, reducing
the number of RF amplifiers to a maximum of two between the headend and customer premises.
Comparing the FTTN design (Figure 507) to FTTF, the node in the FTTF design is replaced by an optical
splitter and more optical nodes are used to distribute signal to smaller service areas. The number of
homes served from each node, again, is dependent on density, but typically range from 150 to 600.

Figure 507: Fiber-to-the-node design.
Describing Fiber-to-the-Curb
FTTC is the natural next step in HFC evolution. The FTTC design (Figure 508) eliminates the use of all
active RF devices (such as amplifiers) in the cable plant by placing the optical node at a location in the
neighborhood, close enough to all the homes, so no RF amplifiers are necessary to boost the RF signals.
The typical number of homes served by each node ranges from 35 to 150.
Figure 508: Fiber-to-the-curb design.

Describing Fiber-to-the-Home
► Understand why the broadband cable industry is developing its own PON
(passive optical network) standard.
Passive optical network (PON) is the generic term for point-to-multipoint networks that utilize fiber-
to-the-home (FTTH) or fiber-to-the-premises (FTTP) architecture. In FTTH architecture, fiber-optic
cable replaces all copper-based communications cable and terminates at the customer premises into
an optical to electronics interface. There are no active electronics, RF or optics, in the system
between the headend and the customer premises. Optical splitters are used throughout the fiber
plant to distribute the optical signal.
The opportunity to gain a competitive advantage through what appears to be "future proof"
architecture has driven the deployment of FTTH architecture. The FTTH Council, a nonprofit
organization representing FTTH providers, reports that as of October, 2016, the number of homes
with FTTH connections in the United States has exceeded 13.7 million (Figure 509).
Figure 509: The number of North American homes connected to fiber-optic cable.
Industry experts agree that homes with a fiber-optic connection are equipped to handle the
bandwidth demands of any home, now and in the future. Home builders and developers are building
communities with FTTH as an additional selling feature and are only negotiating franchises with
service providers that support FTTH.

Examining PON Standards
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE) have established PON standards for home and corporate local-area networks (LAN). IEEE favors
the use of Ethernet transport protocols, which simplifies the optical-to-electrical interface, usually
Ethernet devices. The ITU PON standard supports multiple transport protocols, including asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM), Ethernet, and time division multiplexing (TDM), which makes it more like a
telephone network. The PON architectural (Figure 510) requirements are the same from both
organizations. An optical line terminal (OLT), located in the central office or similar location, converts
the electrical data information to optical signals and transmits them into a single dedicated fiber-optic
cable. That fiber-optic cable transports the optical signal to a service area of approximately 32 homes or
businesses, where it is connected to an optical splitter. The optical signal is split 32 times with dedicated
fiber-optic cable being run to each home or business (fiber-to-the-business or building, FTTB) connecting
to the optical network terminal (ONT). The ONT provides the interface from the fiber-optic cable to the
customer premises equipment (CPE) with the respective PON standards determining the ONT output
connections, signals and data rates.
Figure 510: Standard PON architecture.
The PON standards support up to 64 FTTH connections by splitting the

optical signal 64 times, however 32 connections are typical.

Broadband cable operators have invested in HFC networks, digital set-top boxes (STB), Data Over Cable
Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS®), modems and cable modem termination system (CMTS)
servers, embedded multimedia terminal adapters (EMTA), and back office support systems (billing
systems). None of these devices or systems is compatible with ITU and IEEE PON standards.
Operating Broadband Cable Systems Using FTTH Architecture
The broadband cable industry's PON solution is to continue using HFC architecture, but move the fiber
termination, or micronode, to the customer premises or business to convert the light waves to an RF
signal. The RF signal is distributed around the customer premises like a conventional broadband cable
installation connecting digital STB, DOCSIS modems, and EMTAs. The HFC FTTH network
architecture is like the standard PON architecture, except the hardware in the headend and customer
premises is different (Figure 511). Standards for this PON architecture are being developed by the
Society of Cable Telecommunications Engineers (SCTE), which is calling it "advanced fiber access," but
another term, RF over glass (RFoG), appears to be gaining traction as the preferred term industry-wide.
Other terms that have been suggested include CablePON and DOCSIS PON (D-PON).
Figure 511: A PON system for broadband cable.
Some cable operators have moved forward with RFoG to meet franchise requirements for FTTH
connections. Until the standards for RFoG are finalized, definitive performance specifications, such as
data rates, will not be established. However, when used with DOCSIS 3.0, estimates are that
downstream data rates of the RFoG network will be comparable to those of the the gigabit passive

optical Networks (GPON) and GigEPON standards, but the upstream data rates will be substantially
lower. Despite these shortcomings, RFoG allows cable operators to utilize the advantages of FTTH and
continue using their legacy hardware and support systems. Recent developments with DOCSIS 3.1 will
allow 10 gigabits per second (Gbps) in both the upstream and downstream.

What feature of primary ring architecture provides redundancy?
Besides bringing the optical node closer to the customer premises than FTTF and FTTN, what is
another attractive feature of FTTC design?
Why is the broadband cable industry seeking to develop its own PON standards?

MODULE 4
OPTIMIZING THE HFC NETWORK
Introduction to Optimizing the HFC Network

Placing fiber optics in a network significantly increases bandwidth and brings that added capacity
closer to the customer. This enhanced capacity enables operators to offer new services such as high-
speed Internet access, Internet protocol (IP) telephony, interactive TV, VOD, and so on. In large part
because of fiber optics, the cable network is rapidly changing from sending everyone the same
services (point‑ to‑ multipoint) to bringing individual neighborhoods and premises a series of
narrowcast services (point-to-point).
Today's well-maintained HFC networks transport advanced services efficiently and will serve
customers for many more years. But "future‑ proofing" broadband cable networks may rest on the
shoulders of new fiber system designs. A major goal of operators is to provide an optical signal that
begins at the headend, passes through a minimum number of devices, and reaches specific individual
households or a very small concentration of homes. This method is often called fiber node
segmentation. Most of these new applications require a two-way network with a reliable upstream
optical path. In addition, optoelectronics and system design must keep pace with the opportunities
that high‑ bandwidth networks allow.
Improving the Fiber Upstream Path
► Describe how multiplexing makes more efficient use of fiber-optic cable.
New architectures that bring fiber nodes closer to the home and reduce households passed by each
fiber node segment improve and lower the number of signals on the 5 to 42 MHz upstream path
(Figure 512). Systems are also beginning to use different return frequencies and there are instances
where the return is 5 to 85 MHz or even 5 to 200 Mhz. By shortening the home-to-node path,
operators can limit interfering effects of ingress because there is less coaxial cable in the customer
path.
Figure 512: The upstream path of an HFC network, beginning at CPE (e.g., cable modems and digital set-top boxes) and ending at
the headend.
The optical node's return optical transmitter collects signals from a number of homes, converts them
to light, and multiplexes them back over a separate fiber strand to the headend. Nodes can house
digital transmitters and employ wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) or dense wavelength
division multiplexing (DWDM) techniques to send multiple signals simultaneously over different
wavelengths over the same fiber. In WDM techniques, light signals are multiplexed onto different
wavelengths and sent through a fiber. Using DWDM, lasers transmit different types of data into the
fiber network at various wavelengths simultaneously. DWDM dramatically increases network
capacity and enables hundreds of optical signals of different types to enter the system more
efficiently over longer distances.
In the downstream (forward) path, the node's receiver demultiplexes and converts the optical signals
back to RF before sending them on to the home.
Moving Fiber Farther
► Identify what device can be used to amplify the light signal.
Distribution feedback lasers (DFB) are the most common types used at the headend and in the
network. These serve to convert RF to light. In long-haul networks of more than a few dozen miles, a
signal must be regenerated or repeated after a certain distance. In one approach, an optical receiver
changes a light signal to RF, amplifies it, and then converts the RF signal back to light before it
continues its path.
Optimizing the HFC Network

Extending fiber to outlying suburbs in large metropolitan areas or between remote headends can
deliver the benefits of increased bandwidth to more locations. To maintain a reliable optical signal,
operators must justify the costs of adding more optoelectronics. New digital modules and DWDM
techniques enable signals to be boosted "repeaterlessly" over longer distances without the need for
laser regeneration.
An early application of repeaterless transmission was

long-distance undersea fiber cable, through which
signals travel hundreds of miles across the ocean floor
to deliver voice and data. Instead of placing optical
repeaters after a certain distance, operators boosted the
light signal using an erbium-doped fiber amplifier
(EDFA). An EDFA optically amplifies the light signal
directly, without RF conversion (Figure 513). It uses a
short length of optical fiber doped with the rare-earth
element erbium. When the light signals pass through
this fiber, external energy is applied by a pump laser,
which excites the atoms in the erbium-doped section of
optical fiber, increasing the intensity of the light signals
passing through. The signals emerging from the EDFA
retain all of their original modulation, but are brighter
than they were before entering the EDFA. The EDFA
will not work with a 1,310 nm signal, so for the cable
network, an EDFA module is placed at the headend or
hub in the path of a 1,550 nm laser to increase the
signal's strength.
Figure 513: An example of an erbium-doped fiber amplifier.
Describing Wavelength Division Multiplexing
► Explain how signals are multiplexed in a wavelength division multiplexing system.
Optical beams of light with different wavelengths (represented by the symbol lambda, λ), or light
colors, may propagate through a properly designed fiber-optic system without interfering with one
another. Wavelength division multiplexing takes advantage of this phenomenon by transmitting
several channels of information, each utilizing a different wavelength, over a single fiber. WDM
greatly increases the carrying capacity of new or existing fiber-optic systems. WDM does for the
fiber-optic system what frequency division multiplexing (FDM) does for the coaxial cable system.

In the typical WDM system, an optical multiplexer couples the light from individual light sources to
the individual fiber. On the receiving end of the system, an optical demultiplexer separates the
optical signal into individual wavelengths before they are processed at the photodetector. A typical
unidirectional three-channel system operates with one channel at 800 nm, another at 1,310 nm, and
another at 1,550 nm (Figure 514). As with any system, crosstalk and insertion loss are important
properties that must be considered in system design. In the WDM system, crosstalk is any fraction of
input power on one wavelength that reaches the output of another wavelength. Insertion loss is the
attenuation from input to output for an individual wave. The well-designed system will have a
similar insertion loss for each channel at the demultiplexer inputs.
Figure 514: Three-channel wavelength division multiplexed network.
The most important design element to consider in WDM is the number of channels or wavelengths
required for the system. The maximum number of wavelengths in a WDM system may be
determined by the spectral range of the amplifiers, the sensitivity of the couplers and filters, the
spectral width of the laser source, and the ability of the fiber to transmit multiple wavelengths. In
general, the number of channels may be calculated by dividing the channel spacing into the spectral
width of the entire communications system. As technology improves, the number of channels possible
increases dramatically. Channel spacing becomes smaller and smaller, while system capacity
continues to grow.
Currently, the broadband HFC network architecture provides adequate transmission of broadcast
video through standard single‑ mode fiber to many system nodes. High-capacity fiber has enabled
cable operators to cut costs by effectively moving their headend equipment closer to the customer. As
the demand for additional services (i.e., high-speed Internet access, interactive video services,
telephony, etc.) continues to increase, network architecture will evolve to meet the growing demand.

Installing new fiber-optic cable is expensive, and as the cost of optical components has declined, it
has become common to upgrade capacity by converting a single-channel system to WDM. Without
laying new fibers, the capacity of a system may be increased up to a hundredfold. Depending on the
application, this could be a simple widely spaced WDM system, a coarse wavelength division
multiplexing (CWDM) system, or a dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) system. The
fundamental difference between systems is minimal. WDM uses fewer wavelengths spaced farther
apart than CWDM and DWDM. DWDM systems originally were developed for "long-haul"
applications and require the use of EDFAs operating in the 1,550 nm range to be cost‑ effective,
while CWDM systems were developed for metropolitan applications and do not use amplifiers.
Upgrading the existing fiber-optic system does introduce several economic trade-offs into system
design. Although previously installed systems designed to operate with a single wavelength can be
upgraded, not all fiber currently installed is suitable for upgrade. Electronics are expensive and may
require environmental housings or hardening, and deployment of a DWDM system requires
additional training and more sophisticated test equipment.

What are some benefits of new architectures that bring fiber nodes closer to the home?
What is the role of the optical node's return optical transmitter?
How do lasers use dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)?
How do signals travel in long-haul networks?
What equipment is used instead of optical repeaters in long-distance undersea fiber applications?

What is the name and symbol for wavelength?
In a wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) system, what is crosstalk?
How is the maximum number of channels in a WDM system determined?
What is the difference between WDM, CWDM, and DWDM systems?

Developing Prevention Programs (341-12-4) Page 649
LESSON 22: Developing Prevention Programs (341-

12-4)
 Ensuring Safety Awareness

 Monitoring Leakage
 Stressing Preventive Maintenance
 Reducing Outages
 Reducing Theft
MODULE 1
ENSURING SAFETY AWARENESS
Introduction
Field employees in the broadband cable industry are exposed daily to the possibility of fatal electric
shocks, falls from ladders, motor vehicle injuries, burns from hazardous chemicals, hand and eye
damage from tools, etc. Safety for all employees is a responsibility shared by the cable operator and
the employee. The cable operator must create a safe workplace through safe practices and rule
enforcement, tools and equipment, and through proper training. Employees must adhere to the
practices set forth, properly use the tools and equipment provided, and implement the safety
training they receive. Employees working in an unsafe manner are a threat to themselves, fellow
workers, and customers.
Meeting OSHA Requirements
► Explain OSHA standards applicable to the cable industry.
The U.S. government's Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) has standards for
telecommunications companies, including the broadband cable industry (Title 29, CFR, Part
1910.268). These guidelines were designed to create an environment of health and safety in the
workplace.
To obtain a copy of Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29, Part

1910.268, contact: Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402 or: www.osha.gov
Ensuring Safety Awareness

Complying with these standards is not optional. Willfully failing to comply could be financially costly
to the cable operator. Violations include: (1) failure to complete and maintain all records of accidents
and illnesses; (2) failure to keep records of safety training; (3) failure to identify and properly label
hazardous materials; (4) failure to maintain records of hazardous materials or to not make them
available to employees; (5) failure to notify OSHA within 48 hours of an employee's death (or the
hospitalization of five or more workers); and (6) failure to correct problems discovered during
inspection.
OSHA inspectors can inspect a cable operator's buildings, trucks, and other facilities without prior
notice. Citations can be given for any violation of OSHA standards. During the inspection, the OSHA
representative can request to see accident files as well as the operator's safety training program.
Usually, the OSHA office responds to employee complaints of unsafe working conditions, but it often
inspects known hazardous areas. It follows up on reports of serious accidents, fatalities, or imminent
danger.
Accurate record keeping of job accidents by operators with 11 employees or more is required for
OSHA compliance. Cable operators should set an open-door policy with technical workers (including
contract labor). Injury victims should never be punished, and employees should be rewarded for
honesty and trained to prevent future accidents.
Recording on-the-job injuries that change an employee's abilities is also required (forms are available
from OSHA offices). Such conditions include restriction of work or motion, loss of one or more
workdays, transfer to another job, and loss of consciousness, medical treatment, or death. These
records must be kept on file by calendar year for five years.
For each injury in these categories, operators must complete OSHA Forms 300 (Log of Work-Related
Injuries and Illnesses) 300A (Summary of Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses) and 301 (Injury and
Illness Incident Report) (Figure 515).

Figure 515: OSHA record-keeping forms effective January 1, 2005.
In addition to keeping accident records, employers must post, in a conspicuous place, a variety of
OSHA and safety-related information, such as the OSHA 3165 poster (Figure 516) (or state
equivalent) and petitions for varying from OSHA standards.
Figure 516: OSHA "It's The Law" poster.
OSHA poster number 300A (Figure 517) is a summary of work-related injuries and illness from the
previous year and is to be posted from February 1st through April 30th each year.

Figure 517: OSHA 300A poster summarizing work-related injuries from the previous year.
Employers also must keep any citation received for a workplace violation near the area of the
violation for three days or until the problem is fixed.
If violations are corrected and standards are maintained, the cable operator has no problems
complying with OSHA. By refusing to take citations seriously or by ignoring unsafe conditions, the
operator eventually faces fines and even imprisonment. For example, OSHA can fine an operator up
to $10,000 or up to six months in jail for falsifying records. This money, of course, is better spent on
occupational safety and health than on legal matters.
Developing a Training Program
► Describe OSHA requirements for employee safety training.
Without adequate training in accident prevention, field workers in hazardous situations are at a
loss. Therefore, OSHA also requires the cable operator to give its employees regular safety training.
This training is conducted by a technical instructor or other staff member acting as a safety training
coordinator. As with all OSHA regulations, filing of detailed records (e.g., date of training, name of
instructor, list of attendees, topic, etc.) is required. Accidents that are due to lack of training can
leave the cable operator liable to receive fines from OSHA for each employee not properly trained.

OSHA recognizes that not all industries have the same workplace risks, so they encourage employers
to evaluate their own work sites and job tasks and determine for themselves, using reason and
prudence, what training is relevant, necessary, and appropriate. The safety program for the cable
industry's technical staff usually includes life-saving procedures such as: (1) cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR) and first aid; (2) awareness in the dangers of working near electricity and power
lines; (3) aerial safety in pole climbing, ladder handling and bucket truck use; (4) wearing seat belts,
practicing defensive driving techniques, and correctly storing equipment in vehicles; (5) proper use of
tools and equipment; and (6) the importance of wearing protective clothing.
Recognizing the importance of safety in the workplace, most cable operators go beyond OSHA
training requirements by conducting monthly safety classes for field personnel. The monthly safety
classes remind employees about safety in the workplace and include topics such as the effects of
substance abuse on the job, the importance of keeping the right attitude toward safety, and
maintaining personal health and fitness.
Describing Industry Standard Safe Work

Practices
OSHA’s GHS System
 In March 2012, the Occupational Safety and Hazard Administration (OSHA) updated its
HAZCOM standard (29 CFR 1910.1200) to align with the Globally Harmonized System of
Classification and Labeling of Chemicals.

The major changes to the standard

are:
 Hazard classification: Provides

specific criteria for classification
of health and physical hazards,
as well as classification of
mixtures.
 Labels: Chemical manufacturers
and importers will be required
to provide a label that includes a
harmonized signal word,
pictogram, and hazard
statement for each hazard class
and category. Precautionary
statements must also be
provided.
 Safety Data Sheets (SDS): Will
replace "Material Safety Data
Sheets" and now have a
specified 16-section format.
 Information and training:
Employers are required to train
workers by December 1, 2013 on
the new label elements and
safety data sheet format to
facilitate recognition and
understanding.
Important implementation dates:
 Dec. 1, 2013 – Employees must

be trained on the new label
elements and SDS format.
 June 1, 2016 – Alternative
workplace labeling and
HAZCOM programs must be
updated as necessary, and
additional training for newly
identified physical or health
hazards must be provided.


List some violations that OSHA may cite against a cable operator.
What information should be documented as part of any safety training?

MODULE 2
MONITORING LEAKAGE
Introduction
Ideally, the coaxial cable plant is a closed system: no over‑ the‑ air signals enter from the outside
(ingress), and no broadband cable signals exit (egress) from within the coaxial cable or other
components. In reality, these conditions do not exist. As the seasons and environmental conditions
change, the coaxial cable cracks or breaks as a result of expansion and contraction, and cable
connectors corrode, loosen, or break. Improper installation procedures, construction damage, rodents,
and illegal hookups may also cause ingress and egress.
Since broadband cable frequencies are shared with over-the‑ air signals (television, radio,
government, business, and private communications), it is important that the cable operator contain
these shared frequencies. Minimizing signal ingress- and egress-related problems not only is
required by federal regulations, but also helps to maintain the best possible service to the broadband
cable customer.
Understanding FCC Signal Leakage

Regulations
If the coaxial cable is damaged or a connector is loosened (Figure 518A), cable signals transmitting
on a variety of frequencies (or channels) can escape. This signal leakage then propagates in all
directions. Atmospheric conditions can affect the range and direction of signal propagation.
Broadband cable signal egress can interfere with over‑ the‑ air signal transmissions operating at the
same frequencies (Figure 518B).
Figure 518: Common causes and possible consequences of signal leakage.
The resulting interference could be noise or even the audio or video carrier cable signals. For
example, if a system operates at 426 MHz and there is a leak in the coaxial plant, nearby ham radio
operators could pick up the signal from the cable system.
Signal leakage became a serious issue in the late 1970s. As the number of broadband cable channels
increased, the frequency bandwidth also increased. Before satellites multiplied the number of
services offered, only over-the-air TV frequencies were used and any cable signal egress interfered
only with TV sets not connected to the cable system.
However, as the need for more frequencies increased, the cable industry began using the mid-band,
super-band, and hyper-band frequencies. The industry had to share frequencies with other users
such as ham radios, mobile phones, plus airline and maritime navigation (Figure 519). If the cable
system maintained its coaxial plant, no RF broadband cable signals were received by these over-the-
air signal users.
Monitoring Leakage
Figure 519: Broadband cable channels that can interfere with their corresponding over-the-air channels.
Monitoring Leakage
Signal leakage gained attention with the "Harrisburg incident" in 1976. Signals leaking from the
local cable system caused disruption with a communications receiver aboard an airplane flying over
Harrisburg, Pa. At once, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) and the Federal Aviation
Administration studied potential problems broadband cable signal leakage could pose to aircraft
communications and navigation. The FCC advised operators to offset (or move away from) the
frequencies used by aircraft. Then, during the summer of 1980, leaks from a cable operator in Flint,
Mich., interfered several times with aircraft trying to contact air traffic controllers.
To minimize the possibility of aeronautical frequency interference caused by broadband cable signal
leakage, the FCC ruled that operators must: (1) comply with quarterly signal leakage monitoring
requirements; and (2) report annual ground-based or airspace measurements for calculating the
cable plant's Cumulative Leakage Index (CLI) — a figure of merit or status of plant integrity. Cable
operators also must offset aeronautical bands at the headend, including emergency frequencies 121.5
MHz, 156.8 MHz and 243.0 MHz.
The FCC imposed stringent punishment for noncompliance. Fines (called "forfeitures") of $25,000
and more per offense, per day could be levied. The FCC also could shut down any channels in the
aeronautical bands (108-137 MHz and 225-400 MHz) until the signal leakage was repaired. In a
competitive environment, no cable system operator wants to be singled-out for failing to comply with
the FCC's leakage rules. In addition to the fines, the customers' perception of the cable operator is
severely tarnished and revenue is lost when channels are not distributed.
Even before the CLI regulations were fully implemented in 1990, the FCC imposed punishment. In
late 1989, it forced one rural Texas operator to temporarily lose three basic channels. The operator
had failed to repair some signal leakage during its monitoring program.
Cable operators must continue annual CLI filings and quarterly monitoring. Meanwhile, the FCC's
Field Office Bureau began inspections in its electronics measurement units, looking for operators
with improper logs, detection equipment, or monitoring procedures.
Reporting and Repairing Signal Leaks
► Explain Cumulative Leakage Index (CLI) requirements.
Cable operators must comply with annual CLI reporting if they use frequencies in the 108-137 MHz
and/or 225-400 MHz frequency ranges and if signals are transmitted at signal levels higher than
38.75 dBmV. Even if a broadband cable operator does not need to file Form 320 to meet the annual
CLI requirement, this does not exclude the necessity of finding and repairing leaks under the
quarterly monitoring requirement.
Monitoring Leakage
The quarterly monitoring requirement is described in this quote from the Code of Federal
Regulations, Title 47, Telecommunication, Part 76, Cable Television Service, Section 76.614: "Cable
television operators transmitting carriers in the frequency bands 108-137 MHz and 225‑ 400 MHz
shall provide a program of regular monitoring for signal leakage by substantially covering the plant
every three months. The incorporation of this monitoring program into the daily activities of existing
service personnel in the discharge of their normal duties will generally cover all portions of the cable
system and will therefore meet this requirement. Monitoring equipment and procedures utilized by a
cable operator shall be adequate to detect a leakage source which produces a field strength in these
bands of 20 µV/m or greater at a distance of 3 meters. During regular monitoring, any leakage source
which produces a field strength of 20 µV/m or greater at a distance of 3 meters in the aeronautical
radio frequency bands shall be noted and such leakage sources shall be repaired within a reasonable
period of time. The operator shall maintain a log showing the date and location of each leakage
source identified, the date on which the leakage was repaired, and the probable cause of the leakage.
The log shall be kept on file for a period of two (2) years and shall be made available to authorized
representatives of the Commission upon request. [50 FR 29400, July 19, 1985]."
To obtain a copy of Code of Federal Regulations, Title 47,

Telecommunication, Part 76, contact: Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 or: www.fcc.gov
Under the quarterly monitoring requirement, every three months cable technicians must cover the
entire cable plant in search of signal leaks. During this procedure, the technician records the
location, intensity, and cause of signal leaks, as well as the date the leaks were found and repaired.
All signal leaks should be repaired as soon as possible. This might include tightening a connector,
replacing a piece of damaged coaxial cable, terminating a cable, or fixing a loose amplifier housing
anywhere in the plant. Operators also are responsible for repairing signal leaks in homes and within
multiple dwelling units (MDUs), hotels, and other buildings subscribing to broadband cable services.
Vehicle-mounted and hand-held equipment can be used to detect signal leakage. For example, an
antenna such as a dipole on the truck roof receives the signal leak. Inside the truck, a leakage field
strength meter measures and records the leak's location and intensity. Inexpensive hand-held signal
leakage detectors act as alarms to detect a signal leak in the area (Figure 520). More sophisticated
equipment can locate, measure, and record the data for later computer analysis.
Monitoring Leakage
Figure 520: Examples of leakage field strength meters.
For quarterly monitoring, signal leaks are measured from 10 feet (3 meters) in microvolts per meter
(µV/m), see Figure 521. The term µV/m refers to signal leakage power measured over a certain
distance and is often converted to dBmV. Note: More calculation takes place if measuring occurs at
distances other than 10 feet or 3 meters.
Figure 521: Measuring cable signal leakage using a leakage field strength meter and a half-wave dipole. (Courtesy of JDSU).
According to FCC rules, signal leaks of 20 µV/m or greater must be logged (Figure 522) and repaired.
Only signal leaks equal to or greater than 50 µV/m must be included in the annual CLI report. When
added up, many of these signal leaks can cause the cable operator to fail its CLI. An operator also
can fail with just one signal leak of hundreds of microvolts per meter in intensity.
Monitoring Leakage
Figure 522: One example of a signal leakage reporting form.
Instead of (or in addition to) driving out the plant to gather CLI data, operators can use the flyover
reporting method offered by independent contractors. A plane tuned to an aeronautical frequency
flies in parallel lines 450 meters (1,476 feet) above the cable system and checks for signal leakage
(Figure 523). The result is an accurate "snapshot" of plant integrity.
Figure 523: An example of a flyover reporting method of compiling CLI data.
► List reasons for monitoring cable signal leakage.
Operators discovered that after implementing a CLI program the number of service calls decreased.
Loose connectors, damaged cable, and interference which had previously been identified only by
service calls, are identified during CLI monitoring and corrected before the customer is affected. In
addition, signal ingress wreaks havoc on advanced two-way services in the cable system such as
high-speed Internet access and telephony services, so most cable operators have adopted leakage
programs (if signal leaks out, interference from ingress can occur) that exceed the requirements of
the FCC.
Monitoring Leakage

Explain how broadband cable signals leak and interfere with other transmissions.
Describe the "Harrisburg incident" involving signal leakage.
Describe the two signal leakage monitoring and measurement programs required by the FCC.
List three methods used to detect broadband cable signal leakage.
Monitoring Leakage
MODULE 3
STRESSING PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Introduction
A cable operator can either fix plant problems after they cause customer irritation or correct the
problems before they affect system performance. The first approach saves money in the short term,
but it eventually costs more by causing replacement of expensive equipment and loss of customers.
The second method uses the available technical staff to save money in the long run by replacing
smaller components. It also keeps the signals flowing to customers. The best way to protect the
investment is with an ongoing preventive maintenance (PM) program that involves all cable system
personnel.
Scheduling Preventive Maintenance
► Describe the importance and scope of a preventive maintenance (PM)

program.
Preventive maintenance refers to the regular monitoring of all cable system components by
installers, technicians, and engineers as part of their normal routine. The plant can be maintained
on a set schedule (daily, weekly, monthly, or annually), depending on the sophistication of the
technology used. More reliable equipment can be checked less often.
As with any form of maintenance, PM requires the technical staff to keep detailed, permanent
records of operating levels for each area of the cable system. This establishes a history of reliability
in the receive site, headend, and distribution plant. Such logs are necessary in deciding when to buy
new equipment, replace components, or make adjustments based on fluctuations in equipment
performance.
Signals originating in the headend can affect the entire system, so equipment and signal levels in the
headend should be monitored frequently. Check and log items, such as audio and video quality along
with modulator and processor output levels, early each morning. Reporting on less crucial headend
parameters (such as modulator IF levels or frequency response) can take place every month or once a
year.
Each time a new piece of headend hardware is installed, the technical staff should start a record of
baseline levels and other pertinent information. Whether the equipment is old or new, correct any
deviation from the cable system's accepted operating levels as soon as possible. Numerous
adjustments over time might mean more frequent monitoring and later replacement of components.
As no part of the cable system is immune from equipment problems, be sure to include every area in
the PM program. Besides inspecting the headend, the technician should make regular visual
inspections and monitor measurements of signal sources such as over-the-air antennas and TV
receive-only (TVRO) sites. The technician also should check out components and signal levels of
transportation systems, including microwave transmit and receive sites, and fiber-optic lasers,
receivers, and cable.
In the field, hold all members of the technical staff accountable for their own monitoring duties.
Installers can inspect nearby drops for loose connectors, broken coaxial cable, proper grounds, etc.
During leakage detection or after trouble calls, technicians can examine the status of amplifiers,
passive devices, power supplies, etc., in the area. Placing a laminated card with service date,
equipment status, and amplifier input and output levels inside the amplifier housing, alerts the next
technician of the amplifier's operating condition when last serviced.
Ideally, a database containing all amplifier and power supply numbers and addresses is available to
update with device operating parameters. The database is a powerful tool which can help identify
trends or chronic problems.
Using Calibrated Test Equipment
► Explain the purpose of using only calibrated equipment during preventive

maintenance.
Test equipment that is used to record signal levels serves as the common denominator for
preventative maintenance (PM), so the test equipment used must be maintained as part of the
program. Without properly calibrated signal level meters (SLM), maintenance and record keeping
become an exercise in futility. If measurements are inaccurate, the decision to replace an item such
as an amplifier module could be made in error. Even though most SLMs have an internal self-
calibrator, it remains a good practice to check the device against a known signal level in the system
to make sure it produces a correct reading. All test equipment, including SLMs, TV sets, leakage
detectors, and digital multimeters (DMM) should be stored securely in the truck, preferably in an
insulated container where heat, cold, dust, or bumpy roads cannot affect them.
Stressing Preventive Maintenance

Maintaining Vehicles, Ladders, Tools, and

Personal Protective Equipment
► Recognize that preventive maintenance extends to vehicles and tools.
Vehicles, ladders, tools, and personal protective equipment require a major investment by the cable
operator in order to enable the field technician do their job safely and effectively. The cable operator
has maintenance and inspection programs to help identify defective or unsafe equipment, but must
also have the field technician's involvement in order for these programs to be successful. This means
that inspections of hand tools and ladders must be done before every use, and replaced or repaired
when damaged or not working properly. Check ladders or other equipment hanging on the side or
rear of the vehicle, upon loading, to make sure they are secure. Personal protective equipment (PPE)
must be accessible, in every vehicle, and used according to cable operator guidelines. Vehicles should
be kept clean and orderly with recommended maintenance schedules adhered to. During scheduled
safety inspections, the vehicle should be thoroughly inspected for worn tires, bad brakes, worn-out
shocks, body damage etc. The first aid kit should also be inspected with used items replenished.

Describe the practice of PM.
What records should be started when new headend hardware is installed?
What is the role of test equipment in PM?
Stressing Preventive Maintenance

MODULE 4
REDUCING OUTAGES
Introduction
An ongoing perception of the broadband cable industry is that it is unreliable and prone to frequent
service interruptions or outages. To succeed in a competitive, multiservice (video, Internet,
telephone, and more) environment, that negative perception can be overcome by managing outages
through preparation and prevention. Prepare customers for planned outages during construction,
plant maintenance, channel realignments, software upgrades, headend upgrades, etc., and for
transit outages caused by interference from the sun. Announce such outages with a character
generator channel, set-top box (STB) customer message, or with billing statement inserts. Other
outages are not so predictable, such as those caused by: (1) improper installation and/or maintenance
procedures; (2) lightning; (3) vandalism; and (4) equipment failure. Place the emphasis for outage
repair on: (1) preparation, which allows quick restoration of service; and (2) ongoing preventive
programs, to minimize future outages.
Status monitoring, as its name implies, monitors and reports cable system conditions, which can be
used to mitigate many outages. Lightning control methods and procedures can help reduce the
number of lightning-related outages.
Implementing Lightning Protection

Lightning is a particularly difficult outage problem because of its unpredictability and potential
severity. However, even lightning can be anticipated and its damage reduced to a certain degree.
Proper grounding of the cable plant is a major part of reducing the harmful effects of lightning to
both life and property (Figure 524).
Figure 524: Example of cable plant grounding showing dissipation of harmful electrical energy.
One bolt of lightning takes only millionths of a second to hit, but during that time it can reach
50,000°F (27,760°C) and discharge up to several million volts, with a 20,000 amperes charge. A
direct hit, which would vaporize coaxial cable and cable plant equipment, is rare. Lightning that
strikes nearby can shut down service to a neighborhood or to a large part of the cable system.
► Define methods that prevent lightning-related outages.
The first step in reducing the effects of lightning is proper grounding of the cable plant. Grounding
of the drop system is required by the National Electrical Code (NEC). If a drop is not properly
grounded, the drop system and customer premises equipment (CPE) could burn out or explode from
a lightning strike.
The National Electric Safety Code (NESC) provides grounding requirements for the mainline
distribution portion of the cable system. Aerial coaxial cable's strand is bonded to the existing power
company ground (Figure 525) or telephone company strand at a minimum of every 10th pole.
Broadband cable underground plant is bonded directly to its own ground rods. Perform bonding at
intervals throughout the cable system according to your company's policies. Normally, bond at least
at every active device and termination point, but maybe as often as every time the cable comes up
out of the ground. Bonding can prevent damage caused by differences in voltage potential between
the coaxial cable and other plant that can result from sheath currents (unwanted surges of voltage)
or a nearby lightning strike.
Reducing Outages
Figure 525: An example of aerial cable and telephone plants bonded to power vertical ground.
Grounding and bonding are not enough to protect the broadband cable system from power company
outages caused by lightning. The Electric Power Research Institute estimates that 30% of all power
outages annually, are lightning related. Standby power supplies (SPS) (Figure 526) and
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) switch to battery power sources when a loss of utility company
power is sensed. There is no cable system outage since the SPS/UPS switched to the battery source
before the system is affected. The run-times of SPS/UPS with batteries as their power source is
determined by the condition of the batteries, power supply load, and application. In some
applications, the SPS/UPS is in service until a backup generator (fueled by natural gas, propane,
diesel, or alternate power source) can come on-line after its output voltage has stabilized. In other
applications the SPS/UPS will continue to run from the batteries until the utility power is restored
or the battery voltage is no longer sufficient. Similar units and configurations can protect the cable
operator's office, headend, hub sites, and nodes.
Reducing Outages
Figure 526: A standby power supply, cabinet, and batteries.
Other cable plant components need protection from lightning-related outages, as well. Amplifiers,
power supplies, power inserters, and other plant equipment should contain fuses, metal oxide
varistors, zener diodes, gas discharge pellets, or similar devices that dissipate damaging electrical
currents. The Amp Clamp™ (from Alpha Technologies) has been effective in thunderstorm-prone
areas by redirecting power disturbances to ground. The Amp Clamp can be factory installed in host
hardware or easily installed in existing power inserters, splitters, directional couplers, and
amplifiers.
Headend buildings and inside equipment are susceptible to damage from lightning strikes to
antennas, towers, and earth stations which are vulnerable because of their height and location in
open areas. There is no proven system that diverts or prevents lightning strikes to any of these
structures. Instead, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA-780) accepts the fact that
lightning can and will strike any structure, thereby, specifying lightning protection based on the
following quote:
"Since our knowledge of the nature of the lightning flash is so limited, the best that we can do is to
accept the results of years of practice and observation by the best known authorities on the subject."
NFPA-780 specifies lightning protection systems that divert the lightning energy from the structure
safely to ground by specifying: lightning rods; ground terminals; the conductor system; electrical
bonding of all conductors. For telecommunications systems, the National Lightning Safety Institute
(NLSI) recommends surge protection devices at main and secondary power panels, telephone punch
blocks, and communication cable entry points.
Reducing Outages
Utilizing Status Monitoring
► Describe how a transponder monitors equipment status.
When customers call about service interruptions, the cable operator uses this information to help
troubleshoot the problem. However, an ideal method predicts an outage or problem before it occurs.
By using status monitoring (SM) equipment, a cable operator can pinpoint malfunctions anywhere in
the plant. As shown in Figure 527, special modules called transponders are placed in amplifiers and
power supplies throughout the plant. These modules keep track of functions including temperature,
specific forward and return RF signal levels, voltage, and standby power supply status. SM also
helps operators maintain the integrity of the return path (the transmission of upstream signals back
to the headend). A computer equipped with SM software is usually stationed in the main office. It
frequently polls each transponder in the cable system for a certain packet of data.
Figure 527: Status monitoring (SM) signal paths.
If any function monitored by a transponder goes outside of an operating window, the SM software
alerts a technician to diagnose the problem based on parameters built into the software. For
example, if the SM software detects that a standby power supply's battery has engaged, it could
indicate a utility power failure in that neighborhood. The SM alerts the operator to a potential power
outage so that a technician, equipped with a power generator, can be dispatched. If the technician
verifies a power outage, they can connect and switch the standby power supply to operate from the
power generator in case the power outage extends past the battery's run capacity.
SM can be used to monitor for ingress, noise, and other difficulties that plague the two-way plant.
With SM, problem areas can be identified and addressed before they degrade system reliability. This
enables operators to introduce such desirable services as impulse pay‑ per-view, video-on-demand,
interactive television, high-speed Internet, telephony, etc. SM software is available for one-way
systems, using modems interfacing with the computer via a phone line or over‑ the-air return
carrier.
Many cable operators have regionalized their SM process using a network operations center (NOC).
Status information is funneled to the NOC and, if necessary, operator personnel are contacted to
troubleshoot the problem.
Reducing Outages

What could result from improper grounding of a customer drop?
Explain aerial bonding and why it is necessary.
How does status monitoring work?
Reducing Outages
MODULE 5
REDUCING THEFT
Introduction
U.S. cable operators reportedly lose billions of dollars in annual revenues through theft-of-service.
Some of this money is lost by the illegal decoder, "black box," market as well as by thieves who "tap"
into the cable system. But much of this piracy is due to the lack of procedures and controls by the
operator. By implementing preventive measures, cable operators can reduce theft.
Defining Passive Piracy
► List the causes of passive and active piracy.
Passive piracy is the unintentional or passive reception of unauthorized signals or services. Passive
piracy occurs when assigned tasks such as downgrades and disconnects are not executed, yet
documented as complete. A common scenario occurs when someone moves into a new home or
apartment and they connect their TV set to a cable outlet and receive service without establishing an
account. The cable operator shows that there was no service to this address, so the new resident
receives "free cable service." Most people consider it to be the operator's responsibility to turn the
service off when the previous resident moves out, so they will not call unless there is a problem with
the "free" service.
Another example of passive piracy occurs when the installer, during the installation of basic service,
does not have a trap to remove the subscription services. The installer advises the customer that
they will be receiving the subscription services as a free promotion for a few days until someone can
come back and install the trap. The installer notes this on the work order, closes the work order, and
the work order is checked in for reconciliation. No one ever returns to install the trap and the free
promotion continues.
Passive piracy can occur in cable systems that issue digital set-top boxes (STB) that are fully
authorized to the installer. If the installer does not place the STB on the customer account during
installation, the STB will receive all the services, including the subscription services that they did
not order.
Although passive piracy is not punishable under law, it is costly for operators, amounting to
hundreds of millions of dollars in lost revenue per year. Passive piracy is the result of an operator's
ineffective procedures to ensure that assigned tasks are being completed.
Defining Active Piracy

Active piracy is prohibited by the Cable Act and is punishable by fines and/or imprisonment at both
the local and federal levels. With some coaxial cable, household tools, and basic know-how, a person
can get services via an innocent neighbor's unused tap port, by climbing a pole or gaining access into
a nearby pedestal or by using splitters and other devices. Most pirates lack the knowledge to tamper
with an STB in order to receive (steal) pay services. The majority of STB theft and tampering is
performed by illegal businesses that sell the hardware to people through fictitious distributors. Use
of an illegal STB also is considered active piracy.
Controlling Cable Piracy
► Explain methods to control passive and active piracy.
The first way to reduce piracy is to establish an ongoing monitoring program using existing
personnel. Discovering unauthorized hookups and upgrades can be accomplished easily by a
technician during routine installations or trouble calls. Locking terminators should be used when
possible and pedestals and multiple dwelling unit (MDU) boxes should be locked (Figure 528).
Passive pirates can be revealed by checking all drops at the tap against records of disconnects. A
tagging program at the tap that indicates the status of a drop and its service level can make
identifying active pirates and unauthorized upgrades an efficient process. During regular leakage
monitoring, any tap port/drop-related leak could be the result of an illegal connection and should be
checked.
Figure 528: Locking terminators, pedestal, and an MDU box.
Reducing Theft
The second way to reduce piracy is time-consuming, but effective. This is accomplished through the
tap audit, often a block-by-block survey of all drops that appear to be in use. Auditors compile the
information onto a map and compare it with the database of customers. Any unauthorized drops are
disconnected. If passive piracy is discovered, a trained technician disconnects service at the drop and
recovers in-home hardware. Since the fault lies with the cable operator, no further action should be
taken. But if active piracy is the problem, other steps are necessary.
After a disconnect, the marketing and/or security staff must immediately do a follow-up. This entails
sending letters to the pirate, showing proof of the person's activities, as well as stating the laws
against piracy. Instead of paying a fine, amnesty for piracy could be offered if the former pirate
subscribes to cable service. At this point, pursuing legal action could be expensive for the operator. If,
however, a further check reveals that the person has committed piracy before, a lawsuit may be the
only recourse.
Addressable analog and digital STBs contain several features that will prevent piracy if inventory
control procedures are followed. Issuing an unauthorized STB takes only a few minutes to authorize
in the customer's home, but discourages STB theft and ensures that only authorized customers are
receiving services. Occasional audits of customer accounts to STB-authorized services can be done
through the billing system. As more customer premises equipment (CPE) utilizing the CableCARD™
come onto the market, audits will be run on a regular basis (Figure 529).
Figure 529: A CableCARD. (Courtesy of Cisco)
Finally, operators should be wary of individuals or companies buying or selling STBs. Before doing
business, the operator should request and check out references. Beyond this, an operator suffering
from "black-box" piracy can hire a security manager or seek help from the FBI. Violators often are
caught in "sting" operations.
Reducing Theft

How does passive piracy occur?
List two forms of active piracy.
Describe the ongoing monitoring and tap audit methods.
Reducing Theft
Glossary
16-QAM
A quadrature amplitude modulation scheme with 16 symbols containing four bits.
256-QAM
A quadrature amplitude modulation scheme with 256 symbols containing eight bits.
64-QAM
A quadrature amplitude modulation scheme with 64 symbols containing six bits.
Absolute zero
The lowest possible temperature, at which all vibratory motion in material ceases.
AC generator
An AC power source, such as a machine that uses magnetism and mechanical force to produce an AC
current.
AC voltage distribution
The routing and division of the AC input voltage to the splitter's output ports.
AC waveform
A time vs. amplitude representation of alternating current voltage where the voltage starts at the zero
reference point, rises to a peak, reverses, and declines past zero to reach a negative peak, reversing again
and going back to zero.
Active circuitry
Electronic circuitry that requires power and possibly a reference signal to perform its designed task.
Active devices
Amplifiers and other equipment in the cable plant that require powering to operate.
Active piracy
Intentional theft of cable services.
Alternator
A generator that produces alternating current.
Amplitude
The magnitude or strength of the voltage, current, or power of an electrical signal or radio wave; i.e. the
strength of the signal; the maximum level of the positive or negative half cycle of an AC waveform; the
magnitude of a signal (its strength); the distance between high and low points of a waveform; the signal
strength or, in the terms of wavelength, the height of the wave.
Amplitude modulation-vestigial sideband (AM-VSB)

A type of amplitude modulation that filters off most of the lower sideband present in the RF carrier allowing
for more efficient use of the RF spectrum.
Angular velocity
The rate of change of angular or rotational motion, measured in degrees per second or radians per second.
Glossary
Armature
The power producing component of an electric motor when a magnetic field is applied through the motor’s
field winding or magnet.
Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM)

A 53-byte cell-based transport mechanism international standard that was developed for the transport of a
broad range of information, including voice, data, and video communications.
Attenuation
A decrease in power measured as a ratio, expressed logarithmically in decibels (dB).
Attenuator pad
A component used to add attenuation (signal loss) into the transmission path.
Automatic gain control (AGC)

Circuitry that automatically adjusts an amplifier’s gain up or down to maintain some desired parameter
within specifications.
Avalanche effect
A mechanism in many diodes used for voltage regulation and protection, in which minority carriers are
accelerated enough by high electric field, to create ionization in the crystal lattice. The ionization produces
more carriers, which in turn produce more ionization.
Average value
The value equal to 0.636 times the peak value of the positive half cycle of an AC waveform.
B+ DC voltage
The output of a DC power supply after the output has been regulated to maintain a precise DC voltage.
Back nut
The second nut in the pin-type connector (tightened last) that secures the connector to the coaxial cable.
Backscatter
The scattering of light into a direction that is generally in reverse of the original one.
Bandpass filter
A filter that blocks or removes the signals of all the frequencies on either side of a desired frequency or
frequencies.
Bandwidth
The range between the lowest frequency and the highest frequency in a cable system; the larger the
bandwidth of a system, the more information it can carry.
Bend radius
The radius of the loop when there are bends or angles in a cable route; the radius of an imaginary circle
described by the inside edge of a bend in the cable; the minimum radius to which a loop of fiber or cable
should be bent to maintain optical and physical qualities.
Bidirectional inverter
An inverter that facilitates the charging of a battery bank while an AC power supply is available, but in the
advent of a power failure the inverter supplies the output load utilizing the battery bank.
Bidirectionally
Description of a flow in two or both directions, such as AC conducting in both upstream and downstream
directions from the power inserter.
Glossary
Bipolar transistor
A transistor with three or sometimes more doped semiconductor regions, and is current-operated. This is
opposed to field effect transistors that are built differently and are voltage-operated.
Bit error rate (BER)

A measurement of data transmission accuracy that, over a period, registers and reports the number of bits
received in error vs. the number of bits transmitted.
Black box
An illegal set-top box that has been tampered with; sold to active pirates who receive pay and/or basic
services.
Blind spot
A relatively short portion of the waveform display, beginning where the cable is connected to the time
domain reflectometer (TDR), in which a TDR cannot accurately detect a fault. Also known as a "dead zone."
Breakdown voltage
The amount of voltage required to break down the dielectric material and provide a current path between
the center and outer conductors.
Brushes
Stationary electrical conductors that make sliding, continuous contact with the rotating slip rings in an AC
generator.
Cable fault
A change in the impedance at a point in the coaxial cable that causes part or all of the signal to reflect back
toward the beginning of the cable.
Cable loss ratio chart

A chart that illustrates the relative amount of cable loss between two frequencies on the same size coaxial
cable of any length.
Cable modem termination system (CMTS)

A major DOCSIS network element located in the headend or distribution hub, which manages the
configuration of cable modems and modem data transmission and reception, as well as the interface to
external networks such as the Internet and public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Cable signature
The line on a waveform time domain reflectometer (TDR) display that is the TDR's visual interpretation of a
cable's impedance continuity. Also known as a "waveform."
CableCARD
A removable security module (in a PCMCIA or PC card form) which, when inserted in a CableLabs
OpenCable certified set-top box, television, or other device, enables delivery of digital video programming
and other services.
Cable-to-F female (or BAFF) connector

A coaxial cable connector used to connect a hardline cable directly to a drop cable.
Calculated RMS
A standard digital multimeter that converts the AC voltage being measured to a DC voltage and multiplies
the internally corrected DC voltage by 1.11 to produce the "calculated" AC root mean square (RMS) voltage.
Glossary
Capacitance
Circuit behavior where the phase of the current leads the phase of the voltage as it would through a
capacitor. In copper cable, this effect is an accidental result of the copper pairs, insulation around the pairs,
and grounded aluminum sheath.
Capacitive reactance
Opposition to the flow of AC, such as caused by a capacitor.
Capacitor
Electronic component comprised of two parallel conductors separated by dielectric material that when
charged, temporarily stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. Common applications are in power
supplies to filter AC, and to block DC or low frequency AC signals while passing high frequency RF signals.
Carrier
A radio frequency (RF) or optical wave used to transport (carry) video, audio, or data signals over various
media such as coaxial cable, microwave, broadcast TV, radio, or optical fiber employing various modulation
techniques. In solid state electronics, the free electrons or holes that can carry charge through a
semiconductor .
Carrier-to-noise (C/N)
A measurement, expressed in decibels, of the received carrier amplitude relative to the amplitude of the
received noise.
Cascade
A series of amplifiers in the cable plant; the more amplifiers in a cascade, the more noise and distortion may
be added to the broadband signal.
Center conductor resistance

The DC resistance of the coaxial cable's center conductor.
Channel loading
The amount of passable forward RF amplifier input channels or signals.
Character generator
A device that overlays graphics or text on top of video, usually to provide additional information.
Characteristic impedance
The opposition to AC caused by the inductive, resistive, and capacitive properties of the coaxial cable; special
property determined by the distributed inductance (of the conductors) and the distributed capacity (between
the conductors) of a line. Expressed in ohms, it is approximately equal to the square root of the ratio of
inductance to capacitance, with the ratio taken for any given length of line.
Charge
A characteristic of some subatomic particles. Charge is quantized: when expressed in units of the elementary
charge, it uses fractional or integer values.
Chromatic dispersion (CD)

A characteristic of all optical fiber that causes transported pulses of light to spread out and overlap before
they reach the receiver, hindering the receiver's ability to interpret data and causing bit errors in high-speed
data transmissions.
Citation
A written notice of code violation from a government or law enforcement agency, such as those given by
OSHA for a safety violation.
Glossary
Clamp-on ammeter
An ammeter with a toroid element that clamps around a wire to measure the amount of alternating current
in a circuit without directly connecting into the circuit.
Closed system
An ideal cable system that allows no ingress or egress of signals by constraining the signals to a closed
transport medium like coaxial or fiber optic cable.
Combination pin connector/pin-to-pin splice adapter/pin-to-F female adapter

The assembly of three separate types of connectors that enable a coaxial drop-size cable to be connected to a
coaxial feeder- or trunk-size cable.
Composite second order (CSO)

An intermodulation distortion caused by the sum and difference of pairs of analog TV channel carriers that
create clusters of interference beats 0.75 MHz and 1.25 MHz above and below an analog TV video carrier,
expressed in decibels (dB) as the ratio of the peak level of an unmodulated TV channel carrier to the peak
level of the cluster of beats.
Composite triple beat (CTB)

An intermodulation distortion caused by the sum and difference of three analog TV channel carriers that
create clusters of interference beats around an analog TV video carrier, expressed in decibels (dB) as the
ratio of the peak level of an unmodulated TV channel carrier to the peak level of the cluster of beats.
Connector pin
The needle-shaped portion of the three-piece coaxial cable connector installed in the housing port that
provides a mechanical connection between the coaxial cable center conductor and the housing's seizure screw
mechanism.
Corrected cable attenuation loss

The amount of attenuation of a coaxial cable at a temperature other than the specified 68°F.
Coulomb
The unit of measure for the quantity of electrons transferred in one second across a conductor. The amount
of 1 coulomb (6.28 × 1018 electrons) passing a given point in 1 second results in a current of 1 ampere.
Counter electromotive force (cemf)

Current created by changes in the magnetic field around a conductor or inductor that oppose the AC current
flowing through the conductor or inductor; also called back emf.
Covalent bonding
When two atoms are joined by a commonly shared electron pair, the electrons form a covalent bond.
Critical angle
The most vertical angle in which a ray (optical or RF) can be refracted from the medium of higher to the
medium of lower index of refraction.
Cross-modulation (X-mod)
Video interference caused when two signals carried by the cable system are mixed together when amplified;
a type of signal distortion that occurs when one signal modulates another; a TV signal distortion that occurs
when a desired channel appears to be modulated by a strong undesired channel through an active device,
causing two separate channels on the TV screen at the same time; this interference occurs when the video
sidebands of an interfering channel are impressed within a desired channel's video carrier sidebands, rated
in decibels (dB).
Glossary
Crystal
A solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an ordered pattern extending
in all three spatial dimensions.
Crystal lattice
The shape assumed by the atoms in a crystal.
Cumulative leakage index (CLI)

A calculation of the relative amount of signal leakage in a broadband cable network that is provided
annually as a numerical score to the Federal Communications Commission that represents a cable system's
signal leakage prevention.
Customer message
A feature of digital set-top boxes (STB) where the cable operator can send text messages to the subscriber. A
light or icon illuminates on the STB to alert the subscriber to the message.
Customer premises equipment (CPE)

Telecommunications equipment located in the customer premises (whether home, office, or factory) beyond
the demarcation point regardless of who owns it, installs, or maintains it.
Cycle
One complete sine wave in an AC waveform, which is equal to one complete rotation an armature in an AC
generator, or two alternations of any AC waveform; a complete sequence of an electrical current from the
start of one wave to the start of the next wave.
Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification (DOCSIS®)

Standards and specifications that define protocols for the delivery of high-speed Internet service over hybrid
fiber/coax (HFC) networks.
Database
Information or files stored in a computer.
Decibel return loss (dBRL)

A measurement in decibels (dB) of the difference between the amplitudes: (1) of the transmitted signal pulse
when it leaves the time domain reflectometer (TDR); and (2) of the reflected signal pulse when it arrives
back at the TDR.
Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM)

A means of increasing the capacity of fiber-optic networks through the multiplexing of multiple wavelengths
of light measured in ITU-specified 50/100/200 GHz frequency spacings.
Detector
A device that converts optical energy to electrical energy.
Dichroic coupler
An optoelectronic device capable of passing or rejecting specific wavelengths of light in a specific direction.
Comparable to a diplex filter used in RF amplifiers.
Dielectric
Material that is a poor or non-conductor of electricity that is used as an insulating material between
conductors.
Dielectric losses
That portion of the total cable attenuation caused by the coaxial cable's dielectric material.
Glossary
Diffuse
To spread out in many directions, such as a light ray striking an object.
Digital multimeter (DMM)

A meter with a digital display, often a liquid crystal display (LCD), that permits measurement of voltage,
current, and resistance.
Digital time domain reflectometer (TDR)

A TDR with digital numeric readouts showing information about only one cable fault at a time.
Diode
The simplest electronic device that conducts current flow in one direction and is used to rectify AC voltages,
detect signals, and mix signals of different frequencies to obtain additional signals that are the sum and
difference of the original signals.
Diplex filter
A passive device typically placed in the headend, nodes, and at both the input and output of an RF amplifier
station to separate forward and reverse path frequencies onto independent paths through the amplifier
station and then recombine the two bands of frequencies on the other side of the amplifier station.
Dipole
An antenna often used in leakage detection, it resembles the letter T; any antenna containing a bidirectional
pole. Its measurement sensitivity allows for precise signal leakage detection and measurement.
Directional coupler
A passive device in the feeder that splits RF signals through each of the two output ports into unequal
amounts.
Directional coupler loop resistance

The sum of the center conductor resistance and the outer conductor resistance of a coaxial cable.
Distortion
Unwanted modulation or interference with signal performance caused by amplifiers; undesired carriers
within the operating bandwidth caused by excessive input levels at either the optical transmitter or the
optical receiver.
Distributed feedback (DFB)

Type of semiconductor laser transmitter device used in AM, FM, and dense wavelength division multiplexing
(DWDM) optical fiber applications that uses an internal grating to reduce line width of the laser.
Doping
The process of adding an impurity to a semiconductor material to provide it with either free electrons (N-
type material) or a deficiency of electrons (P-type material). In both cases, the free electrons or deficiency of
electrons should not be taken to suggest that the material has a charge.
Double reflection
An RF signal that: (1) travels to the end of the coaxial cable; (2) is reflected back toward the beginning of the
cable; (3) is reflected by a cable fault back to the end of the cable; and (4) is reflected a second time from the
end of the cable back to the time domain reflectometer (TDR).
Echo
A reflection that occurs when an electrical signal encounters an impedance irregularity; secondary RF signal
reflection occurring in a time domain reflectometer (TDR) test of a coaxial cable, causing a ghost to appear
on a TDR display; secondary light and secondary reflections occurring in an optical time domain
reflectometer (OTDR) test of an optical fiber, causing a ghost or ghosts on an OTDR display.
Glossary
Eddy current loss

Loss of power in an AC circuit, primarily in the conductors, caused by eddy currents.
Effective value
The value of an AC waveform that causes the same effect (such as heat in a resistor) caused by an equal
amount of DC; also known as root mean square (RMS) value.
Electrical inertia
The electrical characteristic of an inductor when current is passed through it that causes a resistance to any
change in current. Also called inductance.
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding

The shielding of a passive or active device that prevents EMI; the power inserter's ability to prevent RF
ingress or egress, same as RF isolation.
Electron
A stable subatomic particle having a negative charge, orbits the nucleus of an atom or molecule, and which,
in many materials, can conduct current.
Electron hole
Usually referred to simply as a hole, it is the absence of an electron from an otherwise full electron shell. A
hole is essentially a way to conceptualize the interactions of the electrons within a nearly full system, which
is missing just a few electrons.
Element
A basic building block of matter, consisting of a single nucleus composed primarily of protons and (usually)
neutrons, with a number of electrons in orbit about it, the number of electrons being equal to the number of
protons in the nucleus under normal conditions.
Energy level
The level or amount of energy that an electron possesses. The total energy level consists of both kinetic
(motion) and potential (position) energy of the electron.
Equalizer
A passive component or circuit with a sloped frequency response opposite that of the cable preceding it, to
compensate for the response of the cable.
Erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA)

An optical amplifier that uses active erbium-doped fiber and a pump source (laser) to boost or amplify the
optical signal.
Ethernet
A network system used primarily within the same building or nearby buildings, it interconnects system
components such as printers, workstations, computers, etc.; a baseband local area network (LAN) for data
transmission.
Exponentially
When a waveform is changed by a component such as a capacitor, creating a nonlinear part of the original
waveform or exponential curve.
Extrinsic semiconductor
This type of semiconductor is the result of a semiconductor that has been doped with a doping agent, giving
it different electrical properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor.
Glossary
Farad
Unit of capacitance (F), 1 farad stores 1 coulomb of charge with 1 volt applied. In telecom, micro-farads (1
millionth of a farad) are to measure capacitance. See also Microfarad, Nanofarad, and Picofarad.
Feedthrough capacitor
The capacitor on the power inserter's circuit board that passes the RF signals between RF/AC ports but
blocks the AC voltage.
Ferrite
Iron or iron alloy that is frequently used as the core in transformers due to its highly magnetic properties.
Ferroresonant
A type of power supply technology installed in broadband systems that uses a large transformer with a
resonate capacitor enabling it to effectively operate with a steady output even with changing input voltages.
Field-effect transistor
Switches DC voltage.
Figure of merit
A numerical score denoting a cable system's status of plant integrity; synonymous with Cumulative Leakage
Index (CLI).
Filter capacitor
A capacitor typically used in linear power supplies that effectively smoothes the AC component from a
rectified DC voltage.
Flat frequency response

The condition when all of the RF carrier signal levels in the broadband cable frequency spectrum are at the
same amplitude.
Flat loss
Approximately equal loss across all frequencies.
Flush-mount male F-connector

A 75-ohm male F-connector embedded in the housing of a time domain reflectometer (TDR) to prevent
damage to the connector, requiring an F-81 barrel connector for connection to a coaxial drop cable F-
connector.
Flux density
The number of magnetic field lines or maxwells per unit area of a section perpendicular to the direction of
flux in an inductor or coil.
Fold-back
The current limiting characteristic of a ferroresonant transformer when there is a short on the output of the
ferroresonant transformer.
Form 320
A cable system's annual Cumulative Leakage Index (CLI) report to the Federal Communications
Commission.
Forward error correction (FEC)

A process by which additional data is coded with information data that enables the receiver to detect and
correct some classes of errors that occur during transport.
Glossary
Forward pass band

The band of frequencies or the amount of passable forward RF amplifier input signals, for example, 50 MHz-
1 GHz.
Forward-biased
A condition where a semi-conductor P-N junction allows current to flow in one direction only.
Frequency
The number of times a phenomenon is repeated in a given period of time; the number of times per second
that a signal completes one cycle (from zero to a positive value, back to zero, to a negative value and back to
zero) in a given time period; the number of cycles that an alternating current (AC) generator's armature
turns, or the number of cycles of an AC waveform that occur, in one second; a signal's position on the
electromagnetic spectrum. In electronics, frequency is expressed as cycles per second or Hertz.
Frequency-dependent cable attenuation

Same as tilt.
FTEC (fast transfer electronic crowbar)

A component that routes an unacceptably high voltage level to ground and away from sensitive electronics in
a circuit, until such time that the voltage is again acceptable and the crowbar returns to normal.
Fusion splicing
Permanent connection between two strands of optical fiber created by the application of intense heat at the
juncture.
Gain
The resulting increase in the strength (power) of a signal level as it passes through an amplifier, expressed
in dB.
Gas discharge pellet

Type of electrical surge protection device.
Ground
A common point in a circuit, against which voltage is measured. It usually forms a common point for several
circuits. In modern equipment, it is not unusual for several grounds to be used for different purposes, with
the grounds being connected at one and only one point.
Ground system
A common point in a circuit, against which voltage is measured. It usually forms a common point for several
circuits. In modern equipment, it is not unusual for several grounds to be used for different purposes, with
the grounds being connected at one and only one point.
Group delay
The difference in transmission time between the highest and lowest of several frequencies through a device,
circuit, or network.
Hardening
The term used to describe measures to protect fiber-optic cable. An example of hardening is to pour concrete
over fiber in the trench to protect the cable from being damaged during digging.
Hardline
The rigid aluminum outer sheath of coaxial cable used in the distribution portion of the broadband cable
network.
Glossary
Hardline radio frequency (RF) passive devices

Broadband transmission equipment containing electrical circuits that do not require AC power to operate
and that are primarily used to attenuate or divide RF signals or to insert AC power.
Harmonic
A carrier that is derived from a fundamental carrier which is at frequency that is an exact multiple of the
fundamental carrier frequency. For example, 108 MHz is the second harmonic of the original transmitting
frequency, 54 MHz.
Heat shrink tubing

The rigid aluminum outer sheath of coaxial cable used in the distribution portion of the broadband cable
network.
Highest forward carrier frequency

The carrier frequency of the highest broadband channel transmitted on the broadband system from the
headend to the customer premises.
High-pass filter
A filter that passes frequencies above a given value and rejects frequencies below that value.
Hole
An absence of an electron in an extrinsic semiconductor material due to the introduction of a dopant with
fewer than four electrons in its outer orbital shell. . Holes can carry current just as electrons can.
Hot/cold cycling
When cable system components are subject to repetitive changes in high and low temperature extremes.
Housing
External shell of an amplifier or other electronic equipment protecting it from environmental damage,
vandalism, etc.
Hum
Interference, rated in decibels (dB), caused by a low frequency signal (typically 60 Hz or 120 Hz) from a
defective active device, power supply, or corroded connector that is amplitude-modulated onto an RF video
carrier.
Hybrid
Amplifier technology that uses a combination of power and integrated circuit transistors within a single
package.
Hybrid fiber/coax (HFC)

A broadband cable network architecture that uses both fiber-optic and coaxial cable.
Hybrid fiber/coax (HFC) network

A network using a fiber trunk design and coaxial distribution network; a cable system constructed of both
fiber (in the trunk) and coaxial cable (in the feeder and drop); a hybrid system using a fiber-optic backbone
and coax cables for final distribution from the node to the customer.
Imminent danger
A hazard within a company's facilities that may cause accidents if not immediately corrected.
Impedance continuity
The degree to which a cable delivers electrical energy without impedance mismatches.
Glossary
Impedance mismatch
A point on a cable where there is a difference or change in impedance causing all or part of the incident
electrical energy to be reflected.
Incident (original) signal

The beginning signal transmitted through the coaxial cable.
Incident power
The power contained in the original transmitted signal on the coaxial cable.
Index of refraction (IOR)

Characteristic of a medium that indicates the velocity of light traveling through it relative to the velocity of
light in a vacuum.
Inductance
Circuit behavior where the phase of the voltage leads the phase of the current as it would through an
inductor. In telecom, this effect is a problem because crosstalk comes from noise induced from other cable
pairs. In a load coil, this effect is used control the amount of capacitance in a cable pair and improve voice
quality.
Inductive reactance
Opposition to a change in the flow of AC, such as caused by an inductor.
Inductor
A passive electronic component that opposes AC current change, also called a coil or choke; a device that
provides inductance in a circuit.
Inert
An element that does not combine with other elements.
Ingress
Unwanted signals entering a broadband cable network that cause interference to desired signals, often as a
result of poor shielding or faulty connections.
Input surge protection device

The electronic device installed on the input (utility side) of the power supply to protect it from utility power
surges and other high amplitude electrical spikes.
Insertion loss
The amount of signal level reduction or loss, in decibels (dB), that a passive device, including cables and
wires, has between its input and output ports at a specific frequency and distance. A low insertion loss is
preferred.
Instantaneous value
The value of a single point on an alternating current (AC) waveform at a specific instant of time.
Integrated circuit (IC)

A piece of silicon or other semiconductor called a chip on which is etched or imprinted a network of electronic
components such as transistors, diodes, resistors, etc. and their interconnections.
Integrity
Status of a cable system's protection from signal leakage, maintained by a monitoring and repairing
program.
Glossary
Interconnect pin
The connecting pin on line passives that provides an electrical and mechanical contact point and directs the
RF and AC signals between the faceplate and housing.
Intermediate frequency (IF)

The frequency that is used by a modulator or receiver for common processing before a final frequency
conversion.
Intermodulation
A nonlinear distortion that can result when two or more RF carriers are amplified.
Interstage equalizer
An equalizer, located between the first and second amplifier stages in an RF amplifier, that provides
additional slope to the forward RF signal.
Intrinsic layer
The layer of silicon in a PIN diode that is between the p- and n-type silicon, and which is not doped with
either a p- or n- dopant.
Intrinsic semiconductor
A semiconductor, such as pure silicon or germanium, in which the number of excited electrons and holes are
equal.
Isolation relay
Electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical circuit, thus isolating the input
circuit from the out put circuit.
Jacketed/armored coaxial trunk cable

The steel reinforced coaxial cable used in underground construction.
Keyed faceplate
A faceplate containing a keyed shape that ensures correct alignment of the faceplate and the splitter
housing.
Lag
To be behind another waveform by a certain time (usually measured in degrees) along the horizontal axis of
a waveform chart, such as occurs when a generator producing an output-voltage AC waveform starts after a
first generator.
Laser
Transmitting device that generates a stream of focused light and sends it into a fiber. Laser is an acronym
for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
Lead
To be ahead of another waveform by a certain time (usually measured in degrees) along the horizontal axis
of a waveform chart, such as occurs when a generator producing an output-voltage AC waveform starts
before a second generator.
Leg
The input or output cable (path) of an active or passive device.
Limiter
An amplifier stage that is configured so the output amplitude remains the same once the input amplitude
reaches or exceeds a specified level. After limiting begins, the amplifier output remains the same regardless
of amplitude noise at the input of the amplifier.
Glossary
Line extender
An RF amplifier in both tree-and-branch and hybrid/fiber coax cable system architectures that is typically
the last active component before the customer's tap.
Line extender amplifier

An RF amplifier, typically the last active device on the feeder line before the customer's tap, that amplifies
feeder line RF signals to proper tap levels.
Linear distortion
A distortion caused by the altering of a signal's frequency response, phase, or combination of the two within
a device. The amplitude of a linear distortion typically varies in proportion to any change in amplitude of the
input signal into the device causing the distortion.
Linear power supply

A power supply that converts AC to DC using a transformer to step the voltage down for a rectifier circuit,
with a voltage regulator, to provide a regulated DC power source.
Link loss budget

Calculation of attenuation values and optical power levels in the design of a fiber-optic system.
Logarithm
A type of shorthand to represent a number expressed as the exponent of a base number (usually 10) that
equals the original number; the conversion of a numerical value's expression. The numerical value is the
same whether expressed as a decimal or its logarithm. A common logarithm always has a base 10 with an
exponent. This logarithmic expression says: the decimal value is equal to the base (10) times itself (by the
exponent).
Logic circuit
A circuit that performs some peocessing or controlling function.
Lowest forward carrier frequency

The carrier frequency of the lowest broadband channel transmitted on the broadband system from the
headend to the customer premises.
Low-pass filter
A filter that passes frequencies below a given value and rejects frequencies above that value.
Main nut
The middle nut of a three-piece pin connector placed onto the end of the coaxial cable used to secure the pin
connector to hardline coaxial cable center conductor.
Majority carriers
The electrons or holes in extrinsic semiconductor materials that enable current flow. In N-type materials,
the majority carriers are electrons. In P-type materials, the majority carriers are holes.
Maximum pulling tension

Rating for a cable that indicates its limit of stress. This number is not to be exceeded during the construction
process.
Maximum signal transfer

Passing the maximum amount of signal energy from one device to another with minimum loss due to signal
reflections.
Glossary
Mechanical fiber splice

A temporary or permanent connection between two strands of optical fiber using a mechanical fixture as
opposed to fusing the strands at high temperature.
Mechanically induced periodic impedance variations

Repetitive changes in coaxial cable impedance created during the cable's manufacturing process.
Media Access Control (MAC) Layer

A sublayer that operates between the Physical Layer (Layer 1) and the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) specified
in the OSI protocol stack to control access of the devices connected to the shared network.
Metal oxide varistor

Type of AC (alternating current) surge protection device often used in power supplies.
Metal port plug

The plug installed in an unused housing port to preserve the weatherproofing and RF integrity of the device.
Microcracks
Extremely small cracks in a strand of optical fiber that can create larger cracks over time.
Microfarad
(μF), a basic unit of capacitance that is one one-millionth of a farad (0.000001).
Micronode
A termination point of the fiber-optic cable at or in the customer premises. It includes an optical detector of
downstream optical signals, and a laser for sending signals up the return path back to the headend.
Micro-reflections
Reflections caused by impedance mismatches having a time difference between the main signal and the echo
of less than 1 microsecond.
Minimum bend radius

Rating for a cable indicating how tightly it can be coiled or bent around corners; usually 10-20 times the
cable's diameter.
Minority carriers
The electrons in P-type material and the holes in N-type material; called minority since there are fewer
electrons in P-type material than holes and fewer holes in N-type material than electrons.
Mode
Path for light propagation within an optical fiber.
Modulation error ratio (MER)

Term used to quantify the quality of a quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) channel as it is transported
through media (fiber-optic cable, coaxial cable, etc), expressed in decibels (dB) of average power in error
vectors compared to the average power in ideal vectors of a QAM constellation.
Molecule
A combination of more than one nucleus and the electrons orbiting it.
Multiplex
A process where two or more signals or data streams are combined for transport over a single
communications path. The multiplexed signals/data streams are separated by a demultiplex process.
Glossary
Mutual inductance
The transfer of energy from one current-carrying inductor to any other nearby inductor, producing induced
voltage in both inductors.
Nanometer (nm)
One billionth of a meter (1 × 10 to the power of -9 meter), used to express the wavelength of a light signal,
the peak-to-peak distance across one cycle of the waveform.
National Electrical Code (NEC)

Book identifying procedures for safe installation of electrical wiring and equipment at the customer
premises; issued by the National Fire Protection Association.
National Electrical Safety Code (NESC)

A publication by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers that covers basic provisions for the
safeguarding of persons from hazards arising from the construction, installation, maintenance of overhead
and underground electric supply stations and communication lines; not a government code or law per se, but
frequently adopted as a whole by local governments.
Near-field probe
A short antenna fixed at the end of a connector cable that allows for close-in measurements in places such as
attics or crawl spaces; signal leakage antenna that provides the most narrowly focused measurement and
the greatest accuracy, often used in confined areas such as attics or crawl spaces.
Negative temperature coefficient

The characteristics of a device, such as thermistor, where resistance decreases with an increase in
temperature.
Negative tilt
A condition where the signal levels across the frequency spectrum are higher on the lower frequencies than
the higher frequencies.
Neutron
An uncharged particle in the nucleus of an element.
Node
A distribution station where the forward path optical signal terminates and is converted to RF signals for
subsequent transmission through the associated coaxial feeder and drop systems. In the return path, the
opposite occurs; RF return signals arrive at the node and are converted to light for transmission back to the
headend.
Noise
Unwanted random interference produced by electronic circuits or from an outside source that degrades
signal quality.
Noise figure
The amount of thermal noise produced by a device, such as an amplifier. This noise is added to the signals
that pass through the device.
N-type semiconductors
An extrinsic semiconductor doped with a dopant having more than four electrons in its outer shell.
Nuclei
Plural for nucleus, the positively charged central portion of an atom.
Glossary
Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA)

Branch of the U.S. government's Department of Labor that regulates safety practices and procedures for
companies to follow.
Offset
To adjust a channel's transmit frequency at the headend so as not to interfere with aeronautical navigation
or communications.
Ohm's law
Mathematical expression of the fundamental relationships between the electrical elements of voltage,
current, and resistance represented by the equation E = I × R, where (E) is voltage, (I) is current, and (R) is
resistance.
Operational gain
The normal operating gain or increase in signal level an amplifier provides to RF input signals, rated in
decibels (dB).
Optical coupler
Device that splits a signal into different outputs (directions) or combines several optical fibers into one
output; a passive device used for both splitting and combining optical signals.
Optical line terminal (OLT)

An active device that transmits and receives optical signals, is located in the headend or hub, and is part of a
passive optical network architecture.
Optical network terminal (ONT)

The ONT resides at the customer premises end of the passive optical network (PON). It provides the
interface between the network and the customer premises equipment (CPE).
Optical node
A housing with modules that receive and convert an optical signal from the headend into RF signals that are
amplified and supplied to coaxial cable to feed customers in a cable system and receive and convert RF
signals from customers into an optical signal that is transmitted to the headend.
Optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR)

A test instrument that injects light waves into an optical fiber, and then displays the reflected light's
amplitude and length of time to return, which is used to measure the length and attenuation of optical fiber
and pinpoint the presence of any connectors, splices, or faults.
Optoelectronics
Any technology that responds to light waves or is used in a fiber plant, such as a laser, photodiode, optical
coupler or amplifier, etc.
Packet
A block or collection of data addressed to be received at a certain location, such as by a status monitoring
computer; groups of data formed from a larger document; "chunks" of data formed by combining signals from
a number of sources; a unit of data in a packet-switching unit of fixed size that has been prepared for
network transmission. Each packet contains a header that indicates its origin and destination.
Pass band
The range of frequencies indicating the signal-carrying capacity of a cable, passive device, or piece of
equipment.
Passive circuitry
Electronic circuitry that requires no power or external signal to perform its designed task.
Glossary
Passive device
Equipment in the cable system that does not require powering to operate.
Passive piracy
The reception of unauthorized cable signals, usually caused by the cable system's ineffective internal
procedures.
Peak value
The vertical distance between the most positive or negative level on a waveform and the horizontal axis, also
known as the amplitude of a waveform.
Peak-to-peak value
The vertical distance between the positive and negative peaks of a waveform.
Period
The amount of time it takes for one cycle of a waveform to be completed; the amount of time a satellite takes
to complete one orbit of the Earth.
Periodic defect
A change in the coaxial cable's impedance caused by an electrical abnormality in the cable.
Periodic table
A way of organizing all chemical elements by the orbital shells of each element’s electrons.
Permeability
The property of a magnetizable material that determines the degree in which it changes the magnetic flux
lines within the magnetic field.
Phase angle
The difference, in degrees, between any point on a waveform and a 0° reference point on that waveform.
Phase difference
The amount of time in degrees that separates two out-of-phase waveforms.
Photochemical reaction
The reaction of certain chemicals which when exposed to light that causes an action to occur.
Photodiode
A semiconductor component within photodetector circuitry that converts detected light energy to an
electrical current.
Picofarad
(pF), a unit of capacitance that is one one-trillionth of a farad.
Pin connector body

The part of the pin connector having a pin or stinger that attaches to the pin-to-pin splice adapter, splice
block, or active/passive port.
Pin-to-pin splice adapter

A coaxial cable connector used to join two connectors with pins together.
Piracy
Receiving or causing to receive unauthorized cable signals.
Glossary
Positive tilt
A condition where the signal levels across the frequency spectrum are lower on the lower frequencies than
the higher frequencies.
Positive, intrinsic, negative (PIN) diode

A diode having a lightly doped intrinsic layer separating the more heavily doped p and n type regions that is
widely used to convert optical signals to electrical signals and as a variable attenuator in RF and microwave
circuits.
Potentiometer
A variable resistor that can be used to deliver a fine adjustment of a voltage level.
Power passing
A line passive device's ability to conduct alternating current and voltage through the device.
Power realm
A bounded area within a broadband cable system comprising all the cables and devices (active and passive)
that conduct or receive power exclusively from a particular power supply.
Power transformer
A transformer that typically operates at a frequency of 60 hertz and steps the AC voltage to a lower AC
voltage.
Power transmission circuit

A commercial system of power production and distribution, making a circuit in which a power plant is the
power source, power transmission lines are the conductors, and homes and businesses comprise the load.
Power-doubling
An amplification technique in which two amplifying devices are operated in parallel to gain an increase in
output capability.
Preventive maintenance
Procedures performed regularly in the broadband cable system to remove causes of problems before they
become noticeable to a customer.
Primary disconnect box

The electrical utility box wired to the power supply and containing a circuit breaker and/or an on-off switch
to disconnect the AC input voltage from the broadband cable power supply.
Primary winding
The wire coil forming the part of an electrical circuit such that changing current in it induces a current in a
neighboring circuit; current through the primary coil induces current in the secondary coil/winding.
Typically a part of a transformer.
Propagate
To spread or be transmitted through the air, such as cable signals from a leaky plant.
Proton
A positively-charged particle in the nucleus of an element.
Provision
The configuration of the cable modem, embedded multimedia terminal adapter (EMTA), and cable modem
termination system (CMTS), beginning with the modem's or EMTA's initialization and continuing after their
authorization for service.
Glossary
P-type semiconductors
An extrinsic semiconductor doped with a dopant having fewer than four electrons in its outer shell.
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)

A modulation technique for transporting digital information using a combination of amplitude modulation
(AM) and phase modulation (PM).
Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK)

A digital modulation technique that combines two binary phase shift keying (BPSK) signals 90º out-of-phase.
Qualitative
The quality or character of something, often as opposed to its size or quantity.
Quasi-square voltage
The output voltage of the step-down ferroresonant power supply.
Quasi-square wave
The waveform that resembles a square wave at the output of a ferroresonant transformer under minimal
load.
Radian
A unit of angular or rotational measurement; one radian is equal to about 57.3 degrees in a circle of 360
degrees.
Radio frequency isolation

The effectiveness of the hard-line RF passive device's shielding that prevents RF egress and ingress.
Real time
Occurring without a delay in the network.
Rectifier
A diode, typically a semiconductor diode, that is used to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC). The direct current is pulsating, and not constant.
Reference trace
The inactive (unadjustable) first trace that determines the before and after changes made to the currently
displayed active (adjustable) trace.
Reflected power
The amount of power contained in the coaxial cable's reflected signal.
Reflected wave
A portion of signal reflected back along a transmission path caused by an impedance mismatch on a coaxial
cable or between the coaxial cable and another device.
Reflection
The behavior of a radio or light wave at an interface between two dissimilar media in which the wave either
disseminates or returns back to the medium from which it originated, as with a mirror.
Refraction
The bending of a radio or light wave caused by a change in the wave’s velocity when transported between
mediums of different density.
Glossary
Refractive index
Also called index of refraction. A measure of how light velocity is slowed in a transport medium such as
optical fiber, compared to light's velocity in a vacuum.
Regenerate
The act of copying a light signal and generating a new one with the same characteristics.
Repeater
A receiver/transmitter combination that removes the effects of noise and distortion, amplifies the signal, and
transmits it further down the channel.
Resistive AC circuit
An AC circuit in which properties such as capacitance and inductance are negligible so that it contains
nearly only resistance.
Resonant capacitor
A capacitor in the ferroresonant transformer circuit that forms a tuned tank circuit with the secondary
winding of the transformer.
Resonant frequency
The frequency in a circuit with capacitance and inductance at which inductive reactance equals capacitive
reactance providing maximum impedance (when in parallel) and minimum impedance (when in series).
Reverse bias
A diode with lower voltage on the cathode than on the anode, preventing current from existing in the diode.
Reverse pass band

The band of frequencies or amount of passable return RF amplifier input signals, such as 5-42 MHz.
RF choke
An electronic component that offers low resistance or impedance to low frequencies (less than 180 Hz) but
high resistance and impedance to RF frequencies so they are blocked from a circuit.
Ripple
The AC voltage pulses that remain on a DC signal after the AC has been rectified.
Root mean square (RMS)

The amount of AC voltage or current necessary to provide the same power as a DC voltage or current. The
RMS voltage of a sine wave is 0.707 times the peak value of the positive half cycle.
Root mean square (RMS) multimeter

A meter capable of correctly measuring voltages with nonstandard waveforms, such as those powering a
cable system.
Root-raised-cosine (Nyquist) filter

A specialized Nyquist filter that is designed to prevent intersymbol interference (ISI) which results from
linear filters.
Run-time
The effective time that a battery can be used in operation before it losing its charged voltage.
Saturating transformer
A ferroresonant transformer that converts the sinusoidal input voltage waveform into a saturated or quasi-
square output voltage waveform.
Glossary
Schottky diode
Also known as a hot carrier diode, is a semiconductor diode which has a low forward voltage drop and a very
fast switching action.
Secondary winding
A wire coil where the current is induced by passing a current through the adjacent primary coil; typically a
part of a transformer.
Seizure screws
The screws in the RF line passive housing that mechanically and electrically connect the housing's seizure
screw mechanism to the coaxial cable's pin connector.
Self-inductance
The ability of a conductor to induce voltage in itself when the current changes.
Semiconductor laser diode

Type of laser with circuitry composed of materials such as silicon, germanium, aluminum, gallium arsenide,
etc. Generally used in broadband cable lightwave transmission.
Sheath currents
Unwanted electricity (such as power surges) that travel on the outer surface of coaxial cable.
Sheath resistance
The DC resistance of the coaxial cable's outer aluminum shield.
Shell
In an element, electrons orbit the nucleus at certain distances from the nucleus, the distances being defined
as shells, or orbital shells. Each shell can hold a maximum of a certain number of electrons, according to the
formula 2n2, where n is the shell number (1, 2, 3, etc.).
Shield resistance
The DC resistance of the coaxial cable's outer aluminum shield.
Short
An unintended connection between two conductors that will usually cause high current flow and will operate
the over current protection (fuse or breakers) to interrupt the circuit.
Sideband
Additional carriers that fall above and below the modulated RF carrier which result from the heterodyne
mixing with another (typically lower frequency) signal.
Signal pulse width

The width, in nanoseconds, of the RF signal pulse transmitted by a time domain reflectometer (TDR).
Silica
Silicon dioxide, used in the manufacture of glass optical fiber.
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)

A special four-layer switching transistor used to control electrical power
Sine wave
A mathematical curve that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation that retains its waveshape when added
to another sine wave of the same frequency and magnitude.
Glossary
Sinusoidal input voltage

The waveform or shape of the 115 VAC input voltage to the broadband cable power supply.
Skin effect
The phenomenon of RF signals traveling on the outside portion of the center conductor causing a decrease in
the effective cross-sectional area of the transmission medium and an increase in the cable attenuation; type
of copper loss in which most of the flow of electrons is diverted to the surface (skin) of the wire, ultimately
resulting in increased power losses as frequency increases.
Skin effect loss

Loss of power in an AC circuit, primarily in the conductors, caused by the skin effect.
Slip rings
Two or more circular bands of conducting material that make continuous contact with stationary brushes in
an AC generator.
Slope
The nonlinear RF carrier attenuation in an RF amplifier that attenuates the lower RF carrier frequencies
more than the upper RF carrier frequencies to compensate for cable loss (tilt) and to minimize
intermodulation distortion from an amplifier.
Slope control
An amplifier control that gradually adjusts the frequency response, with increasing attenuation to lower
frequencies and minimal loss at the highest frequencies.
Solid-state
Refers to a semiconductor device used in electronic circuits, as opposed to older technology involving
movement of electrons in a vacuum.
Spectral width
A measurement for the band of wavelengths over which a laser light source emits energy, generally
measured in nanometers between the half power points of an optical light source's maximum amplitude at
the center frequency full width at half maximum (FWHM).
Standard digital multimeter (DMM)

A digital multimeter that samples the high and low points of a measured waveform and multiplies the
average voltage by 1.11 to obtain the effective AC root mean square (RMS) voltage.
Standby power supply (SPS)

Power source located throughout the cable network that normally runs off of utility power, then
automatically switches to a battery power source in case of an electrical outage.
Status monitoring
Technology that allows the network operator to remotely monitor and pinpoint malfunctions anywhere in
the network and analyze them on a computer.
Stinger lug
The electrical connection attached to the coaxial cable connector stinger that connects the output of the
broadband cable power supply to the coaxial cable.
Stub pole
A short utility pole for mounting any external power supply equipment not allowed on the standard utility
pole.
Glossary
Subshell
Each orbital shell surrounding a nucleus can be divided into several subshells, each with different energy
levels, and each holding a specified number of electrons.
Suck-out
Condition causing the center conductor of coaxial cable to pull away from its seizing mechanism due to
shrinkage from extreme cold or abnormal physical stress put on the cable connection.
Superscript
A distinguishing character written next to and slightly above a letter or number—for example, x2.
Switching mode power supply (SMPS)

A power supply that converts AC to DC using high-frequency switching regulators to produce a regulated
DC power source.
Symbol
One or more data bits relating to a single modulation state transition.
Symbol rate (SR)

The rate at which the data bits change states (on to off/off to on) in one second, typically expressed as
symbols per second (S/s) or mega-symbols per second (MS/s).
Synchronous optical network (SONET)

An international telephone industry digital transmission standard that works on the physical layer or Layer
1 technology and transmits data in frames over a wide area network (WAN). It defines a physical interface,
optical line rates known as optical carrier (OC) signals; frame format; and an operations, administration,
and maintenance protocol.
Tagging
The electronic process of inserting a tone at a specific frequency in the headend that matches the tuned
frequency of a signal leakage detector used in the system; signal leakage detection procedure in which a
specific frequency tone inserted at the headend corresponds to the same frequency programmed into the
leakage detector.
Telemetry
Measuring and transmitting data to a distant location by telecommunication facilities, such as employed in
remote security systems or for remote industrial measurements.
Tetrahedron
A shape composed of four triangular faces, three of which meet at each corner or vertex. It has six edges and
four vertices. The tetrahedron is the simplest of all the ordinary convex polyhedra and the only one that has
four faces.
Thermal level control

A circuit that automatically adjusts RF output signal levels in response to temperature-related signal level
variations.
Thermal noise
A type of noise generated in all electrical systems and related to the temperature of the systems components.
Thermistor
A temperature-sensitive resistor that changes its electrical resistance with a change in temperature.
Three-way balanced splitter

A three-way splitter that has three output ports all with the same signal loss.
Glossary
Three-way unbalanced splitters

Three-way splitters that have one output port with less signal loss than the other two output ports, which
have equal signal loss.
Tilt
The nonlinear signal attenuation over a band of RF carrier frequencies that attenuates the higher RF carrier
frequencies more than the lower RF carrier frequencies and is directly proportional to the length of the
coaxial cable.
Time constant
One time constant is the time it takes a capacitor to reach 63% of its fully charged value.
Time domain reflectometer (TDR)

An instrument that uses signal pulse reflections to locate cable-related impedance mismatch faults.
Total internal reflection

Characteristic of optical fiber that completely reflects the light wave off the cladding and back into the core.
Transformer shunts
The internal part of the ferroresonant transformer's core that provides load regulation.
Transit outage
The predictable loss of a cable system's transmission caused by the sun's pointing angle lining up with a
satellite receiving dish.
Transponder
An abbreviation of TRANSmitter/resPONDER, a device that has the ability to receive and transmit
information; in status monitoring, any module in the cable plant that feeds information about an electronic
device (where the module is situated) directly to the status monitoring computer; a device on an orbiting
satellite that receives uplinked signals from an Earth-based antenna and retransmits or downlinks them to
another Earth-based antenna. Each C-band satellite usually contains 24 transponders.
True root mean square (RMS) digital multimeter (DMM)

A digital multimeter that measures nonsinusoidal AC waveforms accurately.
Turns ratio
The ratio between the number of turns in the primary coil and the number of turns in the secondary coil of a
transformer.
TV receive-only (TVRO)
An Earth-based parabolic antenna that receives downlinked signals from orbiting satellites; most often,
TVROs are referred to as satellite dishes because they look like a dish and their sole purpose is to receive
programming signals transmitted from a satellite.
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

Power supply that smoothes and stabilizes the incoming AC signal through a transformer. If a loss of AC
occurs, it switches automatically to a battery power source. The switching is faster than the switching in
standby power supply. Run-time The effective time that a battery can be used in operation before it losing its
charged voltage.
Unity gain
Equalizing of signals in an amplifier, where the amount of loss in the coax is offset by the gain produced by
the amplifier.
Glossary
Valence band
The outer shell of electrons of an element. By experiment, it is known that the most stable elements have
eight electrons in the valence band. Much of chemistry deals with the behavior of elements with different
numbers of electrons in the valence band.
Varactor diode, or varicap

A diode that changes in capacitance value with the bias voltage.
Velocity of propagation (VOP)

The ratio of the speed of RF signals traveling in a cable to the speed of RF signals traveling in a vacuum. A
VOP of 0.50 means the RF signals move through the cable at 50% of the speed of RF signals in a vacuum.
Voltage potential
The amount of electrical charge present at a point with respect to a reference point.
Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)

The comparison of maximum and minimum amplitudes of resultant waves created when the original wave
mixes with various reflected waves.
Waveform
Graphical representation of a wave, such as an AC waveform, a line on an optical time domain reflectometer
(OTDR) display screen, or the shape of an RF signal as plotted on a graph or displayed on a test equipment
monitor. On an OTDR it is a visual interpretation of the optical fiber response, also known as a "trace" or
"fiber signature."
Waveform time domain reflectometer (TDR)

TDR with a display showing the cable’s signature with information on one or more cable faults.
Wavelength
The distance covered by an electromagnetic wave in one complete cycle, measured in micrometers (at radio
frequencies) and nanometers (at optical frequencies), symbolized by the Greek lambda (λ).
Wavelength of the periodicity

Description of the frequency that the electrically abnormal portion of the coaxial cable reacts with.
Wheel out
The act of rolling a measuring wheel along the ground to record cable footage.
Wire nut connectors

Insulated connectors for mechanically splicing two electrical wires together.
Zener diode
A type of DC (direct current) surge protection device used in power supplies. Zener diodes maintain a
relatively constant voltage despite varying current through them. Thus, they are useful as voltage regulators
or references. They can also be used as surge protection .
Glossary

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Credits and Copyright

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LESSON 1: DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OVERVIEW (305-15-4)

LESSON 1: DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM OVERVIEW (305-15-4)

Using Test Equipment ................................................................................................................. 23

LESSON 2: ALTERNATING CURRENT (300-11-8)

LESSON 3: UNDERSTANDING AC WAVEFORM FUNDAMENTALS (300-21-6)

Identifying the Frequency ............................................................................................................ 64

Calculating the Power Consumed by Coaxial Cable (Problem 5).............................................. 113

LESSON 5: INDUCTANCE AND TRANSFORMERS (302-11-5)

LESSON 6: CAPACITANCE (303-11-5)

LESSON 7: EXAMINING HARDLINE COAXIAL CABLE (322-13-3)

Examining Cable Impedance ..................................................................................................... 185

LESSON 8: CONNECTORIZING HARDLINE COAXIAL CABLE (322-15-6)

LESSON 9: REACTANCES (304-11-7)

LESSON 10: WORKING WITH HARDLINE RF SPLITTERS (321-13-4)

Defining RF Isolation ................................................................................................................. 265

LESSON 12: WORKING WITH RF TAPS (321-31-7)

Describing Feed-Through Taps ............................................................................................ 317

LESSON 13: LINE EXTENDER SETUP AND OPERATIONS (328-33-2)

Recognizing the Role of the Test Point .................................................................................. 358

LESSON 14: DISTRIBUTION AMPLIFIER OPERATION (325-11-2)

Identifying Key Housing Components ....................................................................................... 403

LESSON 15: POWERING CABLE NETWORKS (319-13-3)

LESSON 16: SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS AND P-N JUNCTIONS (326-10-3)

EXAMINING SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL

LESSON 18: USING DIGITAL SIGNAL ANALYZERS (186-31-4)

Interpreting Modulation Error Ratio ......................................................................................... 524

Think About it — Review Questions .......................................................................................... 565

LESSON 20: CONTROLLING SIGNAL LEAKAGE (307-33-4)

Introduction to Eliminating Signal Leakage ............................................................................. 603

Describing Wavelength Division Multiplexing .......................................................................... 645

LESSON 22: DEVELOPING PREVENTION PROGRAMS (341-12-4)

LESSON 1: Distribution System Overview (305-15-

Modules in this Lesson

 Applying Electronics to Distribution Systems

APPLYING ELECTRONICS TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Applying AC Waveform Fundamentals

► Relate waveform fundamentals of frequency, amplitude, and wavelength to

Applying Electronics to Distribution Systems

Figure 1: Three principle characteristics of an AC waveform.

Applying Electronics to Distribution Systems

Applying Resistance, Capacitance, and

Grounding and Bonding Cable Plant

► Relate electrical characteristics of resistance, capacitance, and inductance to

Figure 2: The application of Ohm's law to grounding practices.

Applying Electronics to Distribution Systems

Trapping and Filtering Signals

Figure 4: Example of resistive and capacitive components in bandpass filters.

Applying Electronics to Distribution Systems

Think About it — Review Questions

What are three principle characteristics that define an AC waveform?

Think about your answer and then click SUBMIT.

Think about your answer and then click SUBMIT.

Think about your answer and then click SUBMIT.

What is a high-pass filter?

Think about your answer and then click SUBMIT.

Applying Electronics to Distribution Systems

COMPARING SYSTEM ARCHITECTURES

Identifying Differences Between System

Signal Flow Through a Tree-and-Branch Feeder

► Define tree-and-branch feeder architecture and identify its boundaries within a

Signal Flow Through an HFC Distribution