of Heredity
• DNA determines the structure of
proteins
–All living things contain proteins
–Provide complete instructions for
making proteins
–Made up of nucleotides
History of DNA
Griffith (1928)
• Tried to figure out how bacteria causes
pneumonia
• Experiment:
– 1st: injected mice with disease-causing bacteria
(all died) and again with harmless bacteria (no
sickness)
• He heated the disease-causing bacteria to kill
them and injected it into mice (mice lived)
– 2nd: mixed heat-killed bacteria with live,
harmless bacteria and injected into mice (all
died)
• Conclusion: transformation 1 strain
changed into another
– Genes control changes to organisms
History of DNA
Avery (1944)
• Repeated Griffith’s work
– Experiment: Made an extract from heat-killed
bacteria and treated it with enzymes (destroyed
organic compounds)
• Transformation still occurred
• Repeated using enzymes to break down DNA
– Transformation did not occur
Bases G, C, A, T G, C, A, U
(uracil)
Structure Double- Single-stranded
stranded
Location in a Only in the In nucleus and
Cell nucleus cytoplasm
Base Pairing C-G and A-T C-G and A-U
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• Brings instructions from DNA out of
the nucleus and into the cytoplasm
• Moves toward the ribosomes
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• Makes up
ribosomes
• Binds to
messenger RNA
• Uses the
instructions from
DNA to put
amino acids in
the correct order
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Delivers the
amino acids to
the ribosomes to
be made into a
protein
DNA Controls Protein Synthesis
• What are proteins?
– Long chains of amino
acids (polypeptides)
– Key structures and
regulators of cell
functions
• Help with structural
parts
• Enzymes chemical
reactions
• Help in transport
through cell
membrane
Making Proteins
• Protein production is similar to
building car
–DNA provides workers with
instructions for making proteins
–Workers build proteins (RNA)
–Other workers bring parts (amino
acids) to the assembly line
Translation
• Process of building proteins from mRNA
• Takes place in the ribosomes
• Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings amino acids to the
ribosomes
– Attaches to only 1 type of amino acid
– Amino acid will become bonded to 1 side of the tRNA
– The other side of the tRNA has 3 nitrogen bases called
an anticodon
• Pairs up with mRNA codon
• Amino acids are joined by
peptide bonds
• Anticodon bind to the codon
of mRNA through base
pairing
– Example: Codon: CGA
Anticodon: GCU
• A chain of amino acids form
until a stop codon is reached
– Translation will end
– Amino acid strand is
released from the
ribosome to become
proteins
Mutations
• Any change in the sequence of
DNA
• Can be caused by errors in:
–DNA replication
–Transcription
–Cell division
–External agents
Mutations in Reproductive
Cells: Birth Defects
• Within the egg or sperm cells
• Can produce new traits
• Can result in proteins that do
not work (can kill organism)
• Could have positive effects
– Faster
– Stronger
– Important in the evolution
of a species
Mutations in Body
Cells
• Not passed on to
offspring
• May impair cell
function
• Can affect genes
that control cell
division (cancer)
Point Mutation (substitution)
• Change in 1 N-base in
DNA
• Example: CGATTACGC
(normal DNA)
CGATTTCGC
(mutated DNA)
• Albinism
– Inability to produce
pigments
– Lethal to plants
Frameshift Mutation
• 1 N-base is added or deleted
• Changes all codons from that
point on
• Example: CGATTACGC
CGAATTACGC (N-base added)
• Example: CGATTACGC
CGTTACGC (N-base deleted)
• May cause no problems or can be
severe
• More dangerous than point
mutations
Chromosomal Mutations