LIST OF PAPERS

1. Applications and recent research in alkali-activated binder materials……….. 2

2. Study of effect m-sand in self compacting concrete………………………….. 11
3. A novel approach of recycled plastic aggregates and its utilization in
Concrete………………………………………………………………………. 19
4. An innovative corrosion evaluation technique for reinforced concrete
structures using magnetic sensors……………………………………………. 26
5. Time reducing construction practices in high rise buildings………………… 35
6. Analysis and Design of RCC and post-tensioned flat slabs
considering seismic effect……………………………………………………. 46
7. Modern prefabrication techniques for building structures ………………….. 56
8. Structural retrofitting to protect deteriorated buildings …………………… 63

1
1

APPLICATIONS AND RECENT RESEARCH

IN ALKALI-ACTIVATED BINDER
MATERIALS

2
Abstract
This paper, which forms part of the series of Eco-Efficient Cements, provides a brief discussion of
the class of cementing materials known as ‘alkali-activated binders, which are identified to have potential
for utilization as a key component of a sustainable future global construction materials industry. These
binders are not expected to offer a like-for-like replacement of Portland cement across its full range of
applications, for reasons related to supply chain limitations, practical challenges in some modes of
application, and the need for careful control of formulation and curing. However, when produced using
locally-available raw materials, with well-formulated mix designs (including in particular consideration of
the environmental footprint of the alkaline activator) and production under adequate levels of quality
control, alkali-activated binders are potentially an important and cost-effective component of the future
toolkit of sustainable construction materials.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Technology presentation
3. Materials for Production of Alkali-activated Binders
4. Reaction mechanisms and binder structure
5. Durability of alkali-activated binders: A clear advantage over Portland cement
5.1 Resistance to acid attack
5.2 Alkali–silica reaction (ASR)
5.3 Corrosion of steel reinforcement
5.4 Resistance to high temperature and Fire
5.5 Resistance to freeze–thaw
6. Comparison with OPC
6.1 Production process
6.2 Materials processing and Application
6.3 Simplified environmental Assessment
7. Application of alkali-activated Binders
8. Further Research priorities
9. References

4
 1. Introduction
There is a burgeoning interest in the development, characterization, and implementation of
alternatives to Portland cement as a binder in concrete. The construction materials industry is under
increasing pressure to reduce the energy used in production of Portland cement clinker and the associated
greenhouse gas emissions. Further, Portland cement is not the ideal binder for all construction
applications, as it suffers from durability problems in particularly aggressive environments. Several
alternative binders have been available for almost as long as Portland cement, yet have not been
extensively used, and new ones are being developed.
Alkali-activated binders are receiving increasing attention as an alternative to Portland cement
because of their high strength and durability and low environmental impact.
2. Technology presentation
Alkali-activated Binders: Alkali activation is the generic term which is applied to the reaction of
a solid aluminosilicate (termed the ‘precursor’) under alkaline conditions (induced by the ‘alkali
activator’), to produce a hardened binder which is based on a combination of hydrous alkali-
aluminosilicate and/or alkali-alkali earth-aluminosilicate phases. This definition may also appear to
include high-volume blends of pozzolans or blast furnace slag with smaller quantities of Portland cement,
but such cements are in general excluded from the definition of alkali-activation if the Portland cement is
the main source of alkalinity.
GEOPOLYMER: Additional terminology which is often used regard to these materials can include
‘geopolymer’ nomenclature which is used largely to describe low-calcium alkali-activated aluminosilicate
binders, and discussion of ‘hybrid binders’ which include both Portland cement and a source of alkalis in
addition to the main aluminosilicate component.
3. Materials for Production Alkali-activated binders
Alkali-activated binders are made by mixing,
 Solid aluminosilicate powders:
such as fly ash, blast furnace slag, , coal fly ash, calcined clays and natural
pozzolans or metakaolin.
 Alkaline activating solution.
the most commonly used compounds used are MOH and
M2O∙rSiO2, where M is either Na or K [39]. For activation of high-calcium
precursors such as blast furnace slags, or for production of hybrid cements with a significant Portland
cement content, Na2CO3 and Na2SO4 can also be effective.
The reaction product, or gel, can have a network structure similar to those of organic thermoset
polymers, and thus the binders are sometimes called “inorganic polymers” or “geopolymers”.

5
 4. Reaction mechanisms and binder structure
The detailed chemistry of alkali activation is still the subject of much discussion in the scientific
literature and depends on the nature of both the solid precursor and the alkali activator selected. The focus
here will be on aluminosilicate systems activated with alkali metal hydroxide, silicate, or possibly
carbonate (for sufficiently reactive metallurgical slags) solutions. These materials generally form an
alkali-containing X-ray amorphous gel binder, and follow a conceptually similar sequence of reaction
pathways as depicted.
Level of Calcium for reaction:
The nature of the binder gel is determined mainly by the level of calcium available for
reaction. It should be noted that the amount of calcium present and the amount of calcium that can actually
react often differ. so the superficial mix composition does not always provide an accurate prediction of
reactive components.
High calcium level: A high-calcium alkali-activated binder (such as one derived from the
activation of blast furnace slag) usually forms a primary binder phase of C–(A)–S–H gel that is
amorphous to partially crystalline, relatively highly cross-linked, with a moderate degree of Al
substitution and a low C/S ratio.
Low calcium level: On the other hand, lower levels of calcium lead to the presence of highly
cross-linked aluminosilicate gel which bears strong nanostructural resemblance to zeolite frameworks. but
is generally lacking in long-range crystalline order.
 This gel contains a very low level of chemically bound water, which brings both
advantages and disadvantages in performance; thermal (e.g. fire) resistance is generally
excellent, but permeability can tend to be high.
 This type of gel is increasingly being described in the literature as N–A–S–H gel , but
given the low bound water content, it may be more accurately indicated by N–A–S–(H), as
in Zeolite crystallization within the binder does tend to take place with high water content.

5. Durability of alkali-activated binders: A clear advantage over Portland cement

Portland cement based concrete presents a higher permeability that allows water and other
aggressive media to enter leading to carbonation and corrosion problems. The early deterioration of
reinforced concrete structures based on Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is a current phenomenon with
significant consequences both in terms of the cost for the rehabilitation of these structures, or even in
terms of environmental impacts associated with these operations.

6
 Research works carried out so far in the development of alkali-activated binders showed
that much has already been investigated and also that an environmental friendly alternative to Portland
cement is rising.

5.1 Resistance to acid attack

Several authors reported that chemical resistance is one of the major advantages of alkali-activated
binders over Portland cement. Glukhovsky [23], used alkali-activated slag mortars noticing that they
showed increase tensile strength even after being immersed in lactic and hydrochloric acid solutions (pH =
3).

5.2 Alkali–silica reaction (ASR)

The chance of ASR may take place in alkali-activated Binder is an unknown subject. For OPC
binders, however, the knowledge of ASR has been intensively studied; therefore some explanations could
be also applied to understand the possibility of ASR when alkali- activated binders are used.
ASR was reported by the first time by Stanton and needs the simultaneous action of three elements in
order to occur: (a) enough amorphous silica, (b) alkaline ions and (c) water. The ASR begins when the
reactive silica from the aggregates is attacked by the alkaline ions from cement forming an alkali–silica

7
gel, which attracts water and starts to expand. The gel expansion leads to internal cracking.

5.3 Corrosion of steel reinforcement

Alkali-activated binders are able to prevent the ingress of harmful elements that could start steel
corrosion. Chloride diffusion for OPC and alkali-activated binders reporting that the former presented
almost half of the diffusion values of the OPC binders.
Alkali Activated fly ash mixtures reporting a steel corrosion resistance similar to the one OPC
binders. Authors even demonstrated that alkali-activated fly ash binders have superior pH conditions than
OPC binders.
5.4 Resistance to high temperatures and to fire
Concretes based on Portland cement show a weak performance when subjected to a thermal
treatment and when the temperature rises above 300 ° they begin to disintegrate. As to the alkali-activated
binders they show a high stability when submitted to high temperatures even around 1000°.
5.5 Resistance to freeze–thaw
According to Yunsheng and Wei alkali-activated fly ash can withstand 2.2 times more freeze–thaw
cycles as compared to concrete made from OPC with the same compressive strength.
Experimental techniques carry out a detailed environmental evaluation of alkali activated binders using
the Life Cycle Assessment methodology confirming that they have a lower impact on global warming than
OPC but on the other side they have a higher environmental impact regarding other impact categories. The
high cost of alkali-activated binders is one of the major factors which still remain a severe disadvantage
over Portland cement.
6. Comparison with OPC
6.1 Production process
There does not appear to be a strong need to develop new process facilities in the short term to enable the
production of alkali-activated concretes. Mixing and casting/placement of alkali-activated concretes can
generally be achieved using the same technology as is used for Portland cement concretes, potentially with

8
slight modifications to optimize the input of mixing energy and the dosing of the activator. Precursors and
activators are produced and prepared using existing processes.
6.2 Investment and Cost of Production
The cost of production of alkali-activated binders is in general a closely-held trade secret, and is
fundamentally dependent on the degree of control of the materials supply chain which is held by the
producer. If precursors such as fly ash and slag must be purchased at a price which is similar to the unit
price of Portland cement, the added cost of the activator will make these materials relatively more
expensive.
However, if the solid precursors can be sourced (or, in the case of clays, calcined) locally and
cost-effectively, and the activator doses are kept low, cost-competitive production of alkali-activated
binders is undoubtedly possible, as has been demonstrated by the successful commercial
operations which are selling these products in several countries worldwide.

6.3 Simplified environmental Assessment

the production of an alkali-activated concrete, which are relevant to the discussion of
environmental assessment. In any given production situation, factors such as the mix design (determined
by performance and cost requirements), the source and dose of the activator, the transport requirements for
aggregates and precursors, and the energy mix used in production of all components (i.e. electricity from
coal, hydroelectric, nuclear, etc.), must all be specified for each particular mix design, location and
application. When comparing with Portland cement-based concretes, a comparable baseline for that
particular location and application must also be specified.
For these reasons, it is clearly impossible to provide a single value – or even a well-defined range
of values – to globally describe the environmental savings which may be able to be achieved through the
use of alkali-activated materials in place of conventional cements and concretes.
7. Application of alkali-activated Cements
The scope of application of alkali-activated binders is broad, and continues to grow, with
demonstrated utilization in:
○ Reinforced concrete
○ Plain concrete
○ Precast concrete components (including lightweight elements),
both reinforced and unreinforced, and including pipes
○ Mortars, grouts and renders
○ Foamed and lightweight concretes
○ Matrices for the immobilization
8. Further research priorities
Research priorities in the area of alkali-activated materials include,

9
but are not limited to:
 Development and optimization of mix designs based on an ever broader range of
raw materials and activators, including both one part and two-part binder systems.
 Analysis of durability characteristics, in particular interactions between the binder
and embedded steel reinforcing.
 Development of appropriate admixtures to enable rheology control.
 Development of activators with lower environmental impact than sodium hydroxide
or sodium silicate, but with similarly desirable rapid early strength development.
 Validation and standardization of testing methods and performance- based
specifications directly applicable to alkali-activated binders and concretes.


 Improved precision and technical basis of environmental assessment of activators,

precursors and concrete mixes.

9. References:
1) Provis, Alkali-activated materials, Cem. Concr. Res. (2017),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.009
2) M.C.G. Juenger a,⁎
, F. Winnefeld b, J.L. Provis c, J.H. Ideker d , Advances in
alternative binderitious binders
3) J.L. Provis, S.A. Bernal, Geopolymers and related alkali-activated materials, Annu.
Rev. Mater. Res. 44 (2014) 299–327.
4) J.L. Provis, A. Palomo, C. Shi, Advances in understanding alkali-activated
materials, Cem. Concr. Res. 78A (2015) 110–125.
5) J.L. Provis, J.S.J. van Deventer (Eds.), Alkali-activated Materials: State-of-the-Art
Report, RILEM TC 224-AAM, Springer/RILEM, Dordrecht, 2014.
6) F. Pacheco-Torgal a,⇑, Z. Abdollahnejad a, A.F. Camões b, M. Jamshidi c, Y. Ding
d Durability of alkali-activated binders: A clear advantage over Portland cementor
an unproven issue.

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2

STUDY OF EFFECT M-SAND IN SELF

COMPACTING CONCRETE

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Abstract
In the present situation the scarcity of natural sand has become a problem for the
construction industry, after much research the developed technology gave rise to new generation sand
named as M-sand or manufacture sand. The M-sand is produced by crushing rocks and stones to sizes and
shape similar to N-sand. In the present study an effort has been made to investigate the potential usage of
M-sand in powder based SCC and to carry out partial replacement by M-sand for natural sand till flow
ability and passing ability of SCC are in favorable limits. It was found that up to 30% of replacement by
M-sand for natural sand was found to be optimum replacement. Fresh properties such as slump flow,
T500mm test, L-box, U-box, J-ring, V-funnel test are tested and hardened properties such as compressive
strength and bond strength by pull out test for cylindrical specimens embedded with 20mm bars have been
tested and results are compared.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Objectives and scope of the report
3. Manufacturing Sand (M-Sand)
4. Production of SCC Concrete with M-Sand
5. Experimental Investigations
5.1 Materials Used
5.2 Mix Proportion
5.3 Properties of Fresh Concrete
5.4 Durability Study
6. Future Scope
7. Conclusion
8. References

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1. Introduction
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a highly flowable concrete which does not segregate and can
spread into place, fill the formwork with heavily congested reinforcement without any mechanical
vibration. In SCC, the aggregates contribute 60–70% of the total volume. Proper choice of aggregates has
significant influence on the fresh and hardened properties of concrete. Aggregate characteristics such as
shape, texture and grading influence workability, finishability, bleeding, pumpability, segregation of fresh
concrete and strength, stiffness, shrinkage, creep, density, permeability, and durability of hardened
concrete. The effects of shape and texture of fine aggregate are much more important than the effects of
coarse aggregate.
2. Objective and scope of the Report
The Objective of the present study is to discuss the properties of self compacting concrete prepared
by a of M-sand as fine aggregates. The properties of self compacting concrete with river sand and M-sand
fine aggregate are compared to evaluate the effect of replacement of river sand by M-sand.
The main objective of this study is to explore the possibility of using M sand in SCC. In this
process, an attempt was made to understand the influence of paste volume and w/p ratio (water to powder
ratio) on the properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC) using Msand.
3. Manufacturing sand
River sand (R sand) is being used as fine aggregate in concrete for centuries. However, increase in
demand and depletion of river sand, along with restrictions imposed on the exploitation of the river sand,
have resulted in search for a suitable alternative. From the literature , it was identified that the alternative
materials for river sand include manufactured sand (Msand), industrial by products (some forms of slag,
bottom ash), recycled aggregates, etc.
Among these materials, Msand is receiving great attention these days as a replacement for river
sand. The Msand is produced by crushing rock deposits to obtain a well graded fine aggregate which is
generally more angular and has a rougher surface texture than naturally weathered sand particles.
However, by using appropriate crushing technology (Impact crushing – Comminution in this type of
crusher is the result of propelling particles with a rotor moving at high speeds, against an anvil or a curtain
of falling particles), it is possible to produce cubical particle shapes with uniform grading, consistently
under controlled conditions.
4. Production of SCC concrete with M sand
Manufactured sands contain high fines content. Generally, the fines are composed of rock dust
rather than the silts and clays in the case of natural sands. The maximum permissible limit of Msand fines
(75 lm passing) as per ASTM C 33 is 7% and the limit proposed for Msand fines (150 lm passing) as per
the Indian standards is 20% . Due to the presence of high fines content, the Msand has a significant
influence on the water demand and the workability of the mortar.

14
 The high fines content in crushed fine aggregate mainly increases the yield stress of the mortar
due to increased interparticle friction, and contributes to the increase in plastic viscosity. The influence of
fine aggregate on the properties of mortar to a large extent depends on the paste volume of the mortar. The
negative effects of poorly graded and shaped aggregates can be eliminated or significantly reduced by
increasing the volume of paste . On the other hand, the mechanical and durability properties of the
concrete are reported to be considerably improved by using Msand (especially produced from granite
sources in comparison with the dolomite and sandstone origin). For SCC, high powder (cement,
cementitious materials and inert fillers) content is essential for achieving the required fresh concrete
properties . Therefore, Msand, which contains large amount of fines, can be used as an alternative to river
sand. The excess fines in Msand contribute to the filler content of the SCC.

The main objective of this study is to explore the possibility of using M sand in SCC. In this
process, an attempt was made to understand the influence of paste volume and w/p ratio (water to powder
ratio) on the properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC) using Msand. The powder and aggregate
combinations were optimised by using the particle packing approach, which involves the selection of
combinations having maximum packing density. The chemical admixtures (superplasticisers, viscosity
modifying agent) were optimised based on simple empirical tests. Fresh concrete tests such as slump flow,
T500 and J-ring were performed on SCC; hardened concrete tests were limited to compressive strength.
From the results, it was
observed that relatively higher paste volume is essential to achieve the required flow for SCC using
Msand, as compared to river sand. Low and medium strength (25–60 MPa) SCCs were achieved by using
Msand based on the approach adopted in the study. Results showed that it is possible to successfully
utilise manufactured sand in producing SCC.

5. Experimental investigations
5.1 Materials used
Grade-53 Ordinary Portland Cement was used. Manufactured sand was used as fine aggregate.
Blended aggregate of size 12.5mm and 6mm were used as coarse aggregate. Specific gravity of fly ash
used was 2.1. Master Glenium Sky 8233 was used as super plasticizer. The various properties of fine and
coarse aggregate was shown in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1: Physical Properties of Coarse Aggregate
Properties Values
Specific Gravity 2.72

Table 2: Physical Properties of Fine Aggregate

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Properties Values
Specific Gravity 2.65
Fineness Modulus 3.12

5.2 Mix Proportion

Table 3 presents the quantities of ingredients required for one cubic meter of SCC.

Cement Fine Coarse Water Admixture

Aggregate Aggregate
376 Kg 514.14 Kg 649.9 Kg 203 l 6 Kg

5.3 Fresh Properties of Concrete

In order to study the fresh properties of SCC various tests were done like Slump flow, T500, L-box
test and V-funnel test. The values obtained doing this test were tabulated in Table 4 and it conform to the
range of SCC.
Table 4: Fresh Properties of Concrete
Slump (mm) T500 (s) Passing Ratio V-Funnel (s)

720 1.9 0.98 24

5.4 Durability Study

Its ability to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion or any other process of
deterioration. In order to study the durability characteristics, that is, the sulphate attack and chloride attack
the SCC cubes were immersed in sodium chloride and Magnesium sulphate solutions. The cubes were
demoulded and dipped in the respective solutions. Then the cubes were taken from the solutions after 7,
14, 28, 56, 90 days and their corresponding compressive strengths were noted. Sodium chloride solution
of three different strengths were used. Salt content of soil is 0.5M so 0.25, 0.5 and 0.75M was used.
Similarly Magnesium sulphate solution was also of three different strengths. They are 4% MgSO4, 5%
MgSO4, 6% MgSO4 were used.

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6. Future Scope

The main aims of this report are to present state-of-the- art knowledge regarding production and utilization
of manufactured sand. The overall objective is to develop a technology Platform for the shift from natural
to manufactured aggregates based on hard rock. This includes knowledge of resource management, cost
effective production, use of manufactured aggregates in concrete and mix design concepts for concrete.
Current specifications in many countries still are based on the use of natural sands, where several
specifications do not allow high percentages of fines to be used in concrete. A new understanding of the
properties of manufactured sand and the need to treat it differently is require.
The purchase cost of artificial sand is about 70% to that of natural sand and considering cost of
screening, washing and wastage due to oversize particles of natural sand, the artificial sand concrete may
be 20% cheaper than that of natural sand concrete. As natural aggregate resources near urban centres
terminate, the transport distances increase. Even though production of manufactured sand requires more
energy than corresponding production of natural sand, the vicinity to the market, with less transport, will
make manufactured sand environmentally Favourable. It must be our ambitions for the future to enable
100% use of manufactured aggregate in Concrete, producing high quality concrete, both in the fresh and
hardened state.
7. Conclusion
The crushing processes of Msand affect the shape, grading of the Msand and the proportion of
microfines (particles passing through 75 lm), particularly when compared to natural fine aggregates. These
factors may affect the performance of the SCC. Therefore, appropriate crushing technology has to be
selected to ensure that the Msand produced is having cubical shapes with uniform grading under
controlled conditions.
Whereas the cost of M sand is higher than that of river sand, M sand presents numerous
advantages, including its contributions as filler content of the concrete (as it has excess fines that are not
clay or silt), and in reducing environmental impact. This helps in achieving a lower cost to benefit ratio as
compared to river sand. Moreover, the difference between the cost of Msand and river sand will likely
become smaller as the use of such alternative materials increases in the future, with increased awareness
of its benefits. From this study, it is evident that Msand is a suitable alternative for river sand in
developing SCC.

8.References
 Comparative study of self compacting Concrete using artificial crushed sand With conventional
concrete without Using artificial crushed sand by dr. M. B. Varma, s. B. Magare Journal of
information, knowledge and research in Civil engineering.

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 Durability study of self-compacting concrete using manufactured sand by deepthy rajagopal1 &
mathews m paul.

 Study on the Effect of Ggbs & M Sand in Self Compacting Concrete M.Adams Joe, A.Maria
Rajesh Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Middle East Engg College, Oman
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, ACEW, Tamilnadu, India.
 Experimental Investigation ofSelf-compacting ConcreteUsing M-Sand S.Baskar, T.Nelson Ponnu
Durai Department of Civil Engineering,Vel Tech Dr.RR & Dr.SR Technical University, # 42
Avadi Vel Tech Road, Avadi, Chennai-600 062, Tamil Nadu, India.
 Fresh and hardened properties of self-compacting concrete produced with manufactured sand
Prakash Nanthagopalan, Manu Santhanam Cement & Concrete Composites.

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3

A NOVEL APPROACH OF RECYCLED

PLASTIC AGGREGATES AND ITS
UTILIZATION IN CONCRETE

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Abstract

Rapid industrialization and the development of a throw-away culture has led to waste handling and
disposal problems. Rapid growth is impacting on virgin materials, which are available only in limited
quantities. This pressure on finite resources and burdensome waste
is leading to both economic and societal pressures, driving the need to recycle waste. The adhered old
mortar paste of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) plays an important role in production of new concrete
with RCA and has positive environmental impacts. A larger number of research papers are available on
the properties of concrete where different percentage of natural aggregates (NA) is being replaced by
RCA. The outcomes of those research papers have shown that if the good quality of certain percentage (up
to 30–50%) RCA is used; the properties of new concrete don’t change when it is compared with concrete
made from 100% NA. However, the properties of RCA vary significantly from its source to source.
Plastic waste and its low recycling rate make a significant contribution towards the pollution of the
environment. It is therefore essential that plastic waste is utilised in different applications, such as
aggregates in concrete. In this paper, an investigation of a manufactured plastic aggregate as a replacement
for natural aggregate in concrete is discussed.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Recycled Plastic Aggregates in Concrete
3. Types of Recycled Plastic Aggregates
4. Materials for production of Recycled Plastic Aggregates
5. Limitation of RPA in production
6. Utilization in Concrete
7. Conclusions
8. References

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 1. Introduction
Plastic represents an environmental issue, as only 7% of it is recycled. The plastic
remaining is either burned, disposed of in an uncontrolled manner, or landfilled. Thus, to reduce the
quantity of plastic that is disposed of, there is a need to increase the amount of the material that enters
various product streams. This includes its use in the construction industry, and more particularly in
concrete, which uses large quantities of aggregate. A novel aggregate (RPA) comprising recycled plastic
was developed. The aggregate produced was lightweight, with a density ranging from 510 to 750k kg=m3
and absorption of from 2.7 to 9.81%. Other properties were comparable to aggregates of similar densities.
Various composition RPA was used in concrete, and the resulting properties of both fresh and cured
concrete were measured.
2. Recycled Plastic Aggregates in Concrete
The problem of waste products is of major concern around the globe. However, plastic waste is a
material that has potential recycling in various products. Polyethylene-based products form the largest
percentage of waste from this, at about 29% of total waste plastic, These include low-density polyethylene
(LDPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), and high-density polyethylene (HDPE). Polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene amount to 20 and 18%, respectively, of global plastic waste, and
other polymer types represent about 33%.
Plastic has been used in concrete shredded or has been mixed with other materials to form an
artificial or synthetic aggregate. It should be noted that aggregates amount to about 60–70% of the total
mass of concrete, and replacing natural aggregates either partially or fully with waste plastic aggregates
will help preserve natural resources. This argument is emphasized by the fact that global consumption of
aggregate is expected to exceed 48.3 billion metric tons by 2015. Since plastics have lower density than
most natural materials, they can therefore be readily used to form lightweight aggregates, which may
replace naturally existing aggregates of similar density. However, the use of plastics as aggregate in
concrete significantly reduces its workability and strength properties dependent on the replacement level.
3. Types of RPA
 Plasmatex and Plasmega : Plastic aggregates such as Plasmatex and
Plasmega have been produced from shredded mixed plastic waste and
secondary aggregates. These aggregates range in size from 5 to 50 mm.
 Synthetic lightweight aggregates (SLAs) have been produced from a mix
of fly ash and plastics such as polystyrene (PS), low-density polyethylene,
high-density polyethylene, and a mixture of various . SLAs have also been
produced at different fly ash: plastic ratios, ranging from 0:100 to 80:20, and
natural aggregate then replaced with SLA in concrete and pavement
systems.

22
  Waste plastic lightweight aggregate (WPLA) was also produced from
polyethylene terephthalate with granulated blast-furnace slag (GBFS) and
river sand aggregate
4. Materials for production of RPA
The basic materials used to produce RPA were
1. Polymer and
2. Filler.
 The plastic (LLDPE) used was supplied in powdered form by a local supplier who collects all
types of waste plastics from the local vicinity and treats them. The treatment process starts from
collecting, purifying, shredding, melting, pelletizing then powdering in the final form. The unit
weight of polymer (LLDPE) used was 918 kg/m3.
 Fillers included red sand, fly ash, and quarry fines with median particle size 186.37, 6.14, and
19.27 μm respectively. Conventional Portland cement was used in this investigation. The specific
gravity and fineness of cement were 3.15 and 3,500 cm2/g, respectively. For the preparation of
control mixes, conventional coarse LWA, which was collected from the western region of Saudi
Arabia, was used in this investigation. The nominal maximum size of conventional LWA (volcanic
rock based) used was 10 mm.
5. Limitation of RPA in production
Plastic wastes are divided into two categories (i.e., recyclable and nonrecyclable), and only 7% of
these wastes are recycled in the United Kingdom. Eight percent are directly burned and 80% sent to
landfill. In fact, the recycling percentage for plastic is very low, due to environmental, economic, and
social impacts. For instance, burning polymers results in toxic gas emissions, including carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, methyl, hydrocarbons, hydrogen cyanide gas, nitrogen monoxide, and nitrogen dioxide,
which pollute the environment. Furthermore, the cost of products incorporating waste plastic can be more
than those produced from virgin plastic due to the additional cost of recycling. It is worth noting that the
quality of recycled plastic may not be compatible with virgin plastic after passing through various
recycling processes.
This further limits opportunities to incorporate such materials into products. Similarly,
contaminated plastic products cannot be recycled due to their potential hazards and harmful gases, which
can have serious implications for society. Additionally, sending waste plastic to a landfill or burning it is
not an efficient solution because the evolution of toxic and hazardous gases can cause serious issues for
surrounding areas. Therefore, there is an urgent need to explore various ways of using waste plastic
products in an efficient and economical manner. One of the options in this regard is to use this plastic
waste in the form of aggregates in the production of concrete.

23
 6. Conclusions
Overall, RPA aggregate exhibits potential applications for use as a replacement for conventional
LWA, as this innovative aggregate is lighter than LWA. Thus, the technology developed for
manufacturing this aggregate, as well as the manufactured aggregate itself, has the potential to be exported
outside the Arabian Gulf region to other countries that are deficient in natural, lightweight construction
materials. Conclusions can be drawn from this study as elaborated below:
 Novel synthetic recycled plastic aggregate was successfully manufactured using
LLDPE and different types of fillers (at 50/50 and 30/70 LLDPE/filler).
 The novel RPA (i.e., RP1F2A, RP1F3A, and RP2F2A) has satisfied ASTM C330-04
standard limits, whereas, RP1F1A, RP2F1A, and LWA deviated from the minimum
permissible limits by 32, 26, and 39%, respectively. Also, RPAs demonstrate lower unit
weight and water absorption compared to LWA.
 The crushability of LWA is pronounced, while RPA is not crushable due to the plastic
nature of its matrix.
 RPA can be used in concrete as a total replacement for conventional LWA.
 The reduction of compressive strength due to RPA incorporation was between 40 and
53%. Similarly, the reduction for flexural strength was between 27 and 21% compared
to the LWA concrete.
 Compared with LWA concrete, the reduction in the flexural Strength of the RPA
concrete is less noticeable than the reduction in compressive strength because of the
elastic and ductile behaviour of the plastic in the RPA particles. The RPA concrete can
thus be used for structures where concrete with ductile behaviour is required instead of
LWA concrete.
 Only two types of RPA concrete, namely RP1F3C0.5 and RP2F3C0.5, complied with
the compressive strength requirements of ASTMC 330-04. Hence, it can be used for
applications where low strength is accepted, such as pavements, paths, and backfill of
utility trenches.
 The mechanisms of failure in conventional lightweight concrete are characterized by
crack propagation through the aggregate itself, whereas in RPA concrete, stress transfer
leads to deformation in the aggregate instead of crushing or cracking through the
aggregate.
 The RPA produced at 30/70 of LLDPE to dune sand is the most cost effective among
the RPA produced. However, it is still costly ineffective due to low landfill and the high
cost of recycled plastic waste.

24
  The cost of RPA will reduce if stricter tax regulations are implemented and if the
plastic waste was taken from the household directly or it was used directly without any
further treatments.
 Recovering plastic waste would reduce the CO2 emissions by 3.8 million tons.
7.References
A novel approach in modelling of concrete made with recycled aggregates Suvash Chandra Paul,
Biranchi Panda.
Novel lightweight concrete containing manufactured plastic aggregate Fahad K. Alqahtani ,
Gurmel Ghataora , M. Iqbal Khan , Samir Dirar.
Production of Recycled Plastic Aggregates and Its Utilization in Concrete Fahad K. Alqahtani,
M. Iqbal Khan, M.ASCE2, Gurmel Ghataora and Samir Dirar.

25
4

AN INNOVATIVE CORROSION EVALUATION

TECHNIQUE FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE
STRUCTURES USING MAGNETIC SENSORS

26
Abstract

To investigate the fundamental relationship between corrosion rate and magnetic induction
surrounding steel reinforcement, an innovative magnetic-based corrosion evaluation apparatus has been
developed, which can be directly embedded inside reinforced concrete structures to monitor the corrosion
rate of reinforcement. Preliminary calibration results show that the mass loss of corrosive reinforcement
has a linear relationship with the voltage increment detected by Hall-effect sensor due to the variation of
magnetic induction surrounding the corroded reinforcement.
Subsequently, an experiment on the reinforced concrete beam subjected to chloride solution
coupled with external loading has been conducted. Magnetic technique, half-cell potential measurement
and acoustic emission detection have been utilized simultaneously in the experiment to monitor the
corrosion process of reinforcement. The experimental results from the aforementioned techniques
demonstrate good consistency. Especially, the magnetic corrosion monitoring device proposed in this
study has the good capacity of quantitative analysis of corrosion rate.

27
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Corrosion detection methods
2.1 Destructive testing (DT)
2.2 Non-destructive testing (NDT)
3. Embedded sensors
4. Magnetic-based corrosion evaluation apparatus
5. Experimental Investigation
5.1 Preparation of a full scale reinforced concrete beam

5.2 Test procedure and measurement

5.3 Corrosion degree evaluated by magnetic-based apparatus
6. Conclusions
7. References

28
 1. Introduction
Reinforced concrete is concrete in which reinforcing bars or other types of reinforcement have
been integrated to improve the strength of the concrete. It has been utilized as an economic construction
material in buildings, bridges, and many other types of structures throughout the world. The durability and
service life of the reinforced concrete structures is one of the major problems faced by the construction
industry for the past decades.
Naturally reinforced steel in concrete is highly corrosion resistant because of the protective and
stable oxide passive film that is regularly formed on the surface of the steel reinforcement due to the high
alkalinity of concrete. However, breakdown of this passive film on the surface of the steel reinforcement
occurs by the process of carbonation and or the ingress of chloride ions . Corrosion of the reinforcing steel
not only damages the structure, but also causes safety problems. Thus, corrosion monitoring of the
reinforcing steel in concrete structures is very important toward development of various mitigative
techniques.
2. Corrosion detection methods
Corrosion detection methods in civil engineering are usually divided into
2.1 Destructive testing (DT) and
This is ocular to measure the diameter of corroded reinforced steel by removing the
protective concrete layer, even by amputating a part of structure and taking it back to laboratory
for testing when necessary. Nevertheless, in this way, the reinforced concrete structure may be
destroyed to some extent. Thus, it is superior to monitor the corrosion of rebar in concrete using
non destructive methods.
2.2 Nondestructive testing (NDT).
Non destructive testing plays an important role in the effort by enabling the detection of
early signs of corrosion so that renovation may be applied before the damage becomes severe.
Among various non destructive testing techniques for detecting corrosion of reinforcements, half-
cell potential and acoustic emission (AE) measurements prove to be reliable ones. Currently,
Magnetic-based corrosion evaluation apparatus is used to monitor the corrosion.
3. Embedded sensors
Now-a-days sensors have been introduced for corrosion monitoring applications in field condition
such as
 Fibre optics,
 Strain gauges,
 Accelerometers,
 Guided wave and chloride sensors.

29
 Monitoring and control of corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete require reliable
measurement of stable steel potentials. Embedded sensors are very useful in corrosion monitoring
of concrete structures. Configuration of sensor assembly (a) surface mounted, (b) guard ring and
(c)embedded corrosion rate monitoring probe sensor.

4. Magnetic-based corrosion evaluation apparatus

An innovative magnetic-based corrosion evaluation apparatus is developed to monitor
corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. in this study, the major structure of which is demonstrated in
Fig. 1. In this apparatus, the magnetic field is generated by a group of series-wound permanent magnets
and magnetic circuits are formed through the stainless steel frame structure. The equivalent model of this
magnetic apparatus is shown as Fig. 2. Obviously, once corrosion has commenced, the reluctance Rm1 of
the detected reinforcing steel changes definitely due to the substantial permeability difference between
rust and steel. Consequently, the magnetic flux through the Hall-effect sensors alters correspondingly. In
other words, the voltage output of Hall-effect sensor is governed by the effective cross-section of
uncorroded reinforcing steel. The SS495A Hall-effect sensor, featuring the advantage of small size, low
power consumption and current sourcing linear output, is employed in this study. This kind of MRL
30
(Miniature Ratiometric Linear) sensor has a ratio metric output voltage, varying in linear proportion to the
magnetic field intensity.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the home-made magnetic-based corrosion evaluation apparatus.

31
Fig 3 .Embedded magnetic apparatus for corrosion monitoring

5. Experimental Investigation
5.1 Preparation of a full scale reinforced concrete beam
A steel-reinforced concrete beam was cast (2000x180x120 mm), which was reinforced by three
steel bars, two in the compressive zone and one in the tensile zone. The diameter of the tensile
reinforcement was 16 mm and the thickness of the concrete cover was 30 mm. In this experiment, the
reinforcement in the tensile zone was continuously monitored by the magnetic technique, half-cell
potential and AE detection. The magnetic corrosion monitoring device and piezoelectric sensors for AE
detection need to be fixed on the tensile rebar before casting concrete. After a curing period of 28 days,
the reinforced concrete beam was subjected to the following procedures.
5.2 Test procedure and measurement
Three types of non destructive techniques including magnetic corrosion monitoring technique,
half-cell potential and AE detection were used to measure the corrosion condition of the reinforced
concrete beam subjected to wet-dry cycles by NaCl 3-day-wetting (soaked in 3.5% NaCl solution) and 4-
day-drying (23 ± 1 _C, 50 ± 2% r.h.) cyclic tests were conducted on the RC beam to accelerate the
corrosion process. According to the previous researches, it was found that the coupling effects between the
flexural loading and wet-dry cycles reached the maximum when the flexural loading is around 40% of the
ultimate loading. So 40% of the ultimate loading was selected for the external force, accompanied by the
wet-dry cycles.
The magnetic monitoring device was conducted to measure the output signals by Hall-effect sensor
1 cycle by cycle. The experimental data was collected and processed by the fitted linear Eq. (1) to
determine the corrosion condition of rebar. Half-cell potential testing was conducted simultaneously for
comparison according to ASTM C876-91. For AE measurement, the trigger threshold was set as 10 mV,
just beyond the background noise level. The acoustic emission signals detected by the cement-based
piezoelectric sensors were modulated by a pre-amplifier (gain of 40 dB, bandwidth of 30 kHz–1 MHz)
and transmitted to the data acquisition system (sampling frequency of 5 MHz). The traditional AE
parameter, i.e. accumulated event number (AEN), is employed as the indicator for corrosion accumulation
of steel reinforcement subjected to the accelerated corrosion test.
5.3 Corrosion degree evaluated by magnetic-based apparatus
It is well-known that steel exposed to natural environment is apt to corrosion. Nevertheless, steel
reinforcement in good quality concrete does not corrode even with sufficient moisture and oxygen. The
high alkalinity surroundings (pH = 12.5–13.5) in the micro pore solution of Portland cement concrete
forms a passive layer on the surface of reinforcing steel. The compact and impermeable passive film
inhibits further corrosion inward the reinforcement. But the passive film breaks down if [Cl_]/[OH_] ratio
exceeds a threshold value. Normally, due to its low permeability of concrete material, it consumes a long

32
period for external chloride ions to pass through the concrete cover to the surface of reinforcements.
However, flaws and cracks critically accelerate the diffusion process of chloride solution. In this
experiment, the external loading, 40% of the ultimate bearing capacity, induces initial visible cracks in
concrete matrix, which provides shortcuts for the diffusion of chloride solution . Due to wet-dry cycles,
chloride ions promptly accumulate to a critical level that damages the passive film and initiates the erosion
of reinforcements. Because of the substantial permeability difference between rust and steel, the magnetic
induction surrounding reinforcement alters as the corrosion products accumulate.
The voltage increment of Hall-effect sensor, influenced by magnetic field intensity, reflects the
mass loss of steel rebar. Fig. 10 demonstrates the voltage increments detected by Hall-effect sensor 1 over
six wet-dry cycles. It clearly illustrates that the voltage signals continuously go upward, which indicates
that the steel reinforcement has been corroded and the cross-section area decreases correspondingly.
6. Conclusions
In this study, an innovative magnetic-based corrosion evaluation apparatus has been developed,
which can be directly embedded inside RC structures to monitor the corrosion rate of reinforcing steels.
The proposed magnetic corrosion monitoring technique, half-cell potential and AE measurement are
employed simultaneously to measure the corrosion condition of the loaded RC beam subjected to wet-dry
cycles of NaCl solution. The following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The feasibility and efficiency of the innovative magnetic-based corrosion evaluation technique
has been investigated. The calibration results show that the mass loss of corrosive reinforcement has a
linear relationship with the voltage increment detected by Hall-effect sensor due to the variation of
magnetic induction.
2. The experimental results of the full-scale RC beam under accelerated corrosion condition
indicate good consistency from these three techniques, including the magnetic technique, half-cell
potential and AE detection. Especially, the magnetic corrosion monitoring apparatus proposed in this
study is capable to quantitatively analyze the corrosion rate of steel reinforcement.
7. References
[1] M. Ates, A review on conducting polymer coatings for corrosion protection, J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 30
(14) (2016) 1510–1536.
[2] A. Byrne, N. Holmes, B. Norton, State-of-the-art review of cathodic protection for reinforced concrete
structures, Mag. Concr. Res. 68 (13) (2016 Jul) 664–677.
[3] Y.X. Zhao, J.F. Dong, Y.Y. Wu, W.L. Jin, Corrosion-induced concrete cracking model considering
corrosion product-filled paste at the concrete/steel interface, Constr. Build. Mater. 116 (2016) 273–280.
[4] X.H. Wang, Y. Gao, Corrosion behavior of epoxy-coated reinforced bars in RC test specimens
subjected to pre-exposure loading and wetting-drying cycles, Constr. Build. Mater. 119 (2016) 185–205.

33
[5] X. Zhu, G. Zi, W. Lee, S. Kim, J. Kong, Probabilistic analysis of reinforcement corrosion due to the
combined action of carbonation and chloride ingress in concrete, Constr. Build. Mater. 124 (2016) 667–
680.
[6] H.L. Wang, Steel-concrete bond behaviour of self-compacting concrete with recycled aggregates,
Mag. Concr. Res. 68 (13) (2016 Jul) 678–691.
[7] Q. Feng, P. Visintin, D.J. Oehlers, Deterioration of bond-slip due to corrosion of steel reinforcement in
reinforced concrete, Mag. Concr. Res. 68 (15) (2016) 768–781.

34
5

TIME REDUCING CONSTRUCTION

PRACTICES IN HIGH RISE BUILDINGS

35
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Construction processes and materials
2.1 jump form system to construct concrete core walls
2.2 prefabrication of elements
2.3 composite materials
2.4 external cladding
3. Construction equipment
3.1 especial equipment
3.2 robotics in construction
4 . Conclusions and recommendations
5 . References

36
Abstract
The triangle of project objectives -cost, quality and time- is well known. The relative priorities
among them are established by the client/owner. Over the last three decades, special needs pertaining to
construction of tall buildings have been established. Particular emphasis has been given to reducing
construction schedules. Real estate costs, housing demand, and growth of major cities in developing
countries have changed the core concept of traditional construction management and methods. The
purpose of this thesis is to analyze the main factors influencing construction schedules of tall buildings,
and to describe measures and methods that have been successfully used in achieving significant time
reductions in overall construction schedules.

37
 1. Introduction
Time over-runs in construction projects have often been one of the more remarkable 'failure
modes' drawing criticisms of construction industry performance. Bordoli and Baldwin (1998) highlighted
50-80% over-runs on 1627 World Bank projects between 1974 and 1988 and an average of 23% time
overrun on UK Government construction projects from 1993 to 1994. Kumaraswamy and Chan (1998)
found average time over-runs of 9%, 17% and 14% on public building projects, private building projects
and civil engineering projects respectively in Hong Kong. The multiple problems arising from such
project delays are usually aggravated by their cost implications. Overheads incurred by all participants, as
well as the potential claims for progress disruptions by contractors, and/or liquidated damages by clients
are the most common consequences.
Among such concerns, many national construction industries or representative organizations have
set themselves targets to improve performance levels. For example in the US the Construction & Building
Subcommittee of the National Science and Technology Council recently adopted the National
Construction Technology Goals (NIST, 1995; CERF, 1997) to improve global competitiveness. Among
the goals to be achieved between 1994 and 2004 is a 50% reduction in project delivery times. In Australia,
studies target to potential timesavings of 25- 40% (Sidwell, 1997). Recognizing 'construction time
performance' as critical, many investigations have been focused on factors that reduce the overall duration
of the construction process of tall buildings. The most relevant methods found are presented in this
research.
2. Construction processes and materials
2.1 Jump Form System to Construct Concrete Core Walls
The use of a climbing formwork systems (sometimes referred to as self-climbing or self-lifting) to
construct the core walls of high rise buildings has been successful in different countries in reducing
construction times, primarily because the process become repetitive though the whole height of the
building.
Basically it consists of a frame constructed from structural steel members over the score wall. Steel
formwork panels are hung from this frame, some supported on rollers. After the concrete walls are poured,
the framework is released and rolled back from the concrete face. Jacks then lift or climb the whole frame
up one level. All the formwork panels are attached to the frame. This process takes approximately one and
a half hours. The moulds are cleaned after being lifted out of the finished unit and then reassembled. A
thin layer of a steel mould-releasing agent is then applied by spraying it onto the surface of the steel mould
in contact with concrete prior to reinforcing bar placement. Inspection of the moulds is then carried out.
Once the climbing formwork is in its approved position, the next concrete wall is

38
poured. The cycle continues, which is normally four days. Faster times have been achieved. However, the
limiting factor to faster times is usually the construction of floor slabs, which usually are done as a
separate process.

2.2 Prefabrication of Elements

Prefabrication of elements is another method that has been successfully used to save time in the
construction of tall buildings. The repetitiveness of many elements makes this process suitable and very
effective. Walls, staircases, external facades, and door sets are common examples of prefabricated
elements. Components are manufactured units, made to predetermined sizes, to be used in buildings.
Dimensional coordination governs their design and use, and forms the necessary discipline for
industrialized, system, or component building. For example a prefabricated standard staircase component
with a rise of 266 cm will govern the floor to floor height of the building in which is to be fixed.
Prefabricated wall cladding panels will closely govern the story height and the length of the building, or
part of the building where they are used. The standard frame is usually erected by site work methods,
whether mass-produced to standard sizes or specially dimensioned for the particular building project. An
accurate tie-in between the respective dimensions of the structure and cladding units is essential.
The advantages of prefabrication are
a) Mass production of units
 Automation of the manufacturing process can save labor and
 Reduce price
 Designers can become familiar with the standard units and have ready access to details
b) Reduction of cost and construction time on site
 Less work to be done on site
 Saving in the use of formwork on site
 Precast units can be erected in bad weather
c) Effective use of formwork
 Steel formwork is normally used and increases the number of uses to 200 times
 Precast units can be shaped so that they are self-stripping thus reducing wear on moulds and labor
during construction
d) Improved quality of units
 Factory production provides stricter quality control than on site construction
 Precast units can be closely checked after manufacture
e) Special shapes and surfaces finishes
 Units can be cast in any position, such as upside down, on their sides, etc.
 Colored concrete can be produced by using white cement and a color pigment
f) Construction over and under water
39
  No or little formwork is required
 False work is not required
 Minimal disruption to traffic
g) Casting of units before the site becomes available
 Units can be casted and stock piled before the site becomes available, which can shorten the
construction time.
2.3 Composite Materials
Two factors in the design of high-rise buildings set them apart from other structures. They are
required to resist large lateral loads, and the repetitive nature of the construction requires that the design is
refined to enhance the speed of construction and usable areas. Composite construction in high-rise
buildings refers to the mixed use of concrete and structural steel in major load supporting elements.
Composite construction is not new, but the widespread use of steel in high-rise buildings outside
North America is undergoing a renaissance Determined publicity and research campaigns by steel
organizations have promoted the benefits of composite construction. The reliability of the steel supply and
the successful construction of important "pathfinder" high rise projects now result in a composite scheme
being studied among other alternatives for all new major high rise projects. Composite construction
endeavors to use the best properties of concrete and structural steel in the most appropriate way.
2.4 External Cladding
A building envelope serves the functions of weather and pollution exclusion, thermal and sound
insulation. It also provides adequate strength, stability, durability, fire resistance, aesthetics appeal, etc.
The external walls of traditional buildings are mainly made of masonry and/or reinforced concrete. They
are usually finished with cement render and painted. With the advancement of prefabrication, non-load
bearing claddings in panel forms have become common especially for tall commercial buildings, where
accelerated schedule and architecture of facades have become driving decision factors.
There are many forms of prefabricated cladding panels and each works in conjunction with the
structural system of a building. The common forms of cladding are precast concrete cladding, as presented
in section 3.2, and curtain walls fabricated of natural stone, metal sheeting and glass. Curtain walls are
non-load bearing external walls of buildings composed of repetitive factory assembled elements. Its dead
weight and wind loading are transferred to the structural frame through anchorage points (Chew, 1999).
There has been three generations of these systems which have changed according to new technologies and
the continue change of needs in the market, such as the continuous pressure to reduce time and budget of
tall buildings.

40
3 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
3.1 Special Equipment
Facilitating horizontal and vertical movement is one of the main tasks in tall buildings construction
that must be accomplished in order to develop a schedule that is effective and tight. This means: getting
more effective work times; providing materials as soon as they are needed; and reducing time by avoiding
repetition of tasks that require closer supervision Special equipment that has been development to meet
these objectives is described below. 1. Hoists: these are intended for vertical movement only and thus are
only able to move in one direction (Chew, 1999). The maximum reachable height is virtually unrestricted
in theory, but depends on the particular hoist design.
2. Gondola/Swinging Stage: provides vertical movement for workers working in painting, spraying,
caulking, sash-sealing, cleaning, etc.; in general for all the external finishes of a building. The gondola is
powered by motors, which are either situated at the top of the building or on the gondola itself.

41
 3. Work
3.platforms:
used for
glazing or
masonry, they
can be
matched to
any type of
building.
Platforms
lengths are
from 1.5m up
to 23.4m and
payloads up to
3500 kg.
Heavy building
components
and their
installation
crews can be
elevated and
positioned
exactly with optimum safety and efficiency to heights of 200m and beyond. The machines that operate
them are located around the perimeter of buildings.

42
4. Elevators: moved on tracks are more stable and have higher capacities as
compared with a gondola.
5. Cranes: they are generally capable for moving objects in all directions. Various attachments are
available for a crane to perform different functions. Common types of cranes used on building sites are the
truck mounted crane, the mobile crane, the tower crane and the climbing crane. Which ones should be
used depends upon the carrying capacity; maximum coverage; space for assembly, erection and
dismantling the equipment; ability to weathervane freely; building height; cost; availability; and speed
necessary to complete the project.
Cranes may be fitted with either a derricking jib or a fixed horizontal jib. Counterweights are
generally not installed in the mast during the climb up. Tower cranes are tied to the main structure for
stability. Shorter tower cranes are often self-erecting while larger ones require the assistance of mobile
cranes. Some smaller cranes have no provision for mast lengthening and simply fold down ready towing.
For others, mobile cranes erect the mast parts. Some, however, are self-erecting in the sense that they can
lengthen their mast by either:
43
a) Inserting inner tower units through one side below the working platform after jacking the crane on an
external sliding tower piece.
b) Inserting tower units through the top of the crane (in this case the platform and parts are attached to a
frame that fits around the tower)
c) Jacking the platform and parts on an inner sliding mast section and then attaching two external L-
shaped sections to the main tower.
d) Mounting the platform and parts on an inner tower that fits into an outer tower fixed to the ground.
Tower units are inserted through the side of the outer tower at ground level.
Cranes may also be climbing in the sense that they can climb up a shaft in the building using only
a limited number of mast sections. The crane sits on a slewing ring on an outer frame that is braced on
three sides but open on the fourth. The frame extends down over slightly more than two units of the tower.
It picks up a tower unit with its jib, luffs in and hooks the unit to a monorail immediately adjacent to the
open side. The outer frame is then jacked up hydraulically and the tower unit is slipped in.
7. Robotics in Construction
The casting, erection, joining, connection and finishing of building components require a high
level of skilled manual work on site. The problem with the shortage of skilled personnel in some countries
and the need to increase productivity and reduce building schedules has pushed research and development
into robotics .Recent progress in robotic technology enables robots to perform sequences of tasks on-site,
by interactions with its environment through electronic sensors. An example is Obayashi's "Super
Construction Factory" which integrates the concepts of factory automation into the building site for steel
structures. Buildings materials and components are delivered to the floor under construction through
elevators and are lifted to the exact location of the floor by cranes. Robots then carry out welding and
fastening. Upon completion of one floor, the factory is jacked up through an internal climbing system to
commence work on the next floor.

44
5. Conclusions and recommendations
The pace of living is changing along with the evolution of the cities of the word; economic factors
increasingly are shaping the needs for the new millennium and the construction industry is responding by
aiming to speed up building processes. High-rise buildings are particularly important. Government,
researchers, and firms of different countries around the world are targeting their efforts towards reducing
time in the construction of such structures.
Management methods, construction processes and materials, and construction equipment have been
successfully used in reducing time in the overall schedule of tall buildings. Significant factors that have
emerged with regard to applying management methods to reduce construction schedules of tall buildings
are:
(a) project scope factors (actual cost, presence/absence of precast facades, height and number of stories);
and
(b) non-scope factors such as speed of decision making involving all project teams, information flow
between consultant and contractor and informal communications between architect/engineer and
contractor. While certain common strategies can be adopted to reduce construction durations in general,
specific measures should be formulated to focus on the specific sector and specific project according to
their special and unique characteristics. Jump form systems to construct concrete core walls,
prefabrication of elements, composite materials and external cladding have been extensively used in the
past decade to improve productivity, taking advantage of repetitiveness in processes, quality control,
optimization in the use of materials, and technological development of new materials.

45
 6

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF RCC AND POST-

TENSIONED FLAT SLABS CONSIDERING
SEISMIC EFFECT

46
Abstract

The post-tensioning method is now a days increasing widely, due to its application. By using post-
tensioning method one can design the most economic and the safe design. While using this method more
precautions has to be made for shear and deflection criteria for the slabs. The design of post-tensioned flat
slab can be done by using load balancing and equivalent frame method. For the application of design
procedure an office building is considered as a case study. The plan of the office building (G+4) is
considered. This building is designed by considering four cases with different floor systems. The
quantities of reinforcing steel, prestressing steel, concrete required for the slab, beam and column is
calculated for the same and are presented in tabular form. Along with this total cost of the building per
square meter is found and comparison of all the four cases with respect to cost is done.

47
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction
2. Scope
3. Design methodology
3.1 Load-Balancing Method
3.2 Equivalent Frame Method of Analysis
4. Parametric study
5. Results and conclusion
6. Seismic Analysis
7. References

48
 1. Introduction
As the floor system plays an important role in the overall cost of a building, a post-
tensioned floor system is invented which reduces the time for the construction and finally the
cost of the structure. In some countries, including the U.S., Australia, South Africa, Thailand
and India, a great number of large buildings have been successfully constructed using post-
tensioned floors. The reason for this lies in its decisive technical and economical advantages.
The most important advantages offered by post-tensioning systems are as follows –
• By comparison with reinforced concrete, a considerable saving in concrete and steel
since, due to the working of the entire concrete cross-section more slender designs are possible.
• Smaller deflections compared to with steel and reinforced concrete structures.
• Good crack behavior and therefore permanent protection of the steel against corrosion.
• Almost unchanged serviceability even after considerable overload, since temporary
cracks close again after the overload has disappeared.
• High fatigue strength, since the amplitude of the stress changes in the prestressing steel
under alternating loads are quite small.

• If a significant part of the load is resisted by post-tensioning the non-prestressed

reinforcement can be simplified and standardized to a large degree. Furthermore, material handling is
reduced since the total tonnage of steel (non-prestressed + prestressed) and concrete is less than for a
Reinforced Concrete floor.

• Assembling of precast elements by post-tensioning avoids complicated reinforcing bar

connections with insitu closure pours, or welded steel connectors, and thus can significantly reduce
erection time.

• Usually the permanent floor load is largely balanced by draped post-tensioning tendons so
that only the weight of the wet concrete of the floor above induces flexural stresses. These are often of the
same order as the design live load stresses. Post-tensioning usually balances most of the permanent loads
thus significantly reducing deflections and tensile stresses.

• The P/A stress provided by post-tensioning may prevent tensile stresses causing the floor
to crack. For the above reasons post-tensioned construction has also come to be used in many situations in
buildings. In addition to the above mentioned general features of post-tensioned construction systems, the
following advantages of post-tensioned slabs over reinforced concrete slabs are listed as follows:

• More economical structures resulting from the use of prestressing steels with a very high
tensile strength instead of normal reinforcing steels.

49
 • Larger spans and greater slenderness, which results in reduced dead load, which also has
a beneficial effect upon the columns and foundations and reduces the overall height of buildings or
enables additional floors to be incorporated in buildings of a given height.

2. Scope

The post-tensioning method is now a days increasing widely, due to its application. By
using the post-tensioning method one can design the most economic and the safe design. But while using
this method more precautions has to be made for the shear and the deflection criteria for the slabs. The
design of the post-tension flat slab can be done by using load balancing and equivalent frame method.
Among of both the equivalent frame method is widely used. In the load balancing method the 65 to 80%
of the dead load is carried by the tendon itself. So that there is an upward deflection due to tendon profile
resulting the reduction in overall deflection. In the present study the design of the post-tensioned flat slab
is done by using both methods, load balancing method and equivalent frame method. As the shear and
deflection check is the most important for the post-tensioned slabs the detail design for the shear and
deflections (short term deflection and long term deflections due to creep and shrinkage) is carried out.

The parametric study of the post-tensioned flat slab by varying the span by 0.5m interval is done
and results of the different parameters such as thickness of slab, grade of concrete, loss due to stress,
normal reinforcement, reinforcement for the shear, number of tendons, stressing force per tendon and
deflection etc. are presented in the graphical form. Continuing to this a design of post-tensioned beam is
also done. For the study of post-tensioned slab and beams a case study of a multistory office building
(G+4) is taken and it is designed by four cases, the post-tensioned flat slab, post-tensioned beams and the
R.C.C. slab, only R.C.C. flat slab and the R.C.C. slab and beams. After the design of these four cases the
comparative study with respect to the economy is carried out.

3.Design methodology

50
 The design of post-tensioned slab is done by two methods, load balancing method and the
equivalent frame method. The load balancing method introduced by T. Y. Lin is most suitable for the
indeterminate structures rather than the determinate structures. In this method the 65 to 80% of dead load
is balanced by the tendons so that the flexural member will not be subjected to bending stress under a
given load conditions. On the other hand the equivalent frame method is widely use for the design of
post-tensioned slabs. Here load balancing method and equivalent frame method are discussed in the
following section.
3.1 Load-Balancing Method:
The concept of load balancing is introduced for prestressed concrete structures, as per T.Y
Lin a third approach after the elastic stress and the ultimate strength method of design and analysis. It is
first applied to simple beams and cantilevers and then to continuous beams and rigid frames. This load-
balancing method represents the simplest approach to prestressed design and analysis, its advantage over
the elastic stress and ultimate strength methods is not significant for statically determinate structures.
When dealing with statically indeterminate systems including flat slabs and certain thin shells, load-
balancing method offers tremendous advantage both in calculating and visualizing. According to load-
balancing method, prestressing balances a certain portion of the gravity loads so that flexural members,
such as slabs, beams, and girders, will not be subjected to bending stresses under a given load condition.
Thus a structure carrying transverse loads is subjected only to axial stresses.
3.2 Equivalent Frame Method of Analysis
The equivalent frame method of analysis is known as the beam method. This method of
analysis utilizes the conventional elastic analysis assumption and models the slab or slab and columns, as
a beam or as a frame, respectively. This is the most widely used and applied method of analysis for the
post-tensioned flat plates. According to Y. H. Luo, A. Durrani et al [4] the effect of vertical of lateral
services and design loading on post-tensioned flat plates, bonded or unbonded, may be analyzed as for
rigid frames in accordance with the provisions of the code ( IS, ACI etc.). When the columns are
relatively slender or not rigidly connected to the slab, their stiffness may be neglected and continuous
beam analysis applied. As per A.C. Scordelis, Lin, T.Y, and R Itaya et al the moment induced by
prestressing may also be determined by a similar analysis of a rigid frame or continuous beam, using
equivalent load or load balancing concept. However it should be kept in mind that the distribution of
moments due to loads may differ considerably from the distribution of moments due to prestressing.
Service loads produce very pronounced moments peaks at columns, whereas the moment curve produced
by post-tensioning has a more gentle undulating variation of the same form as the tendon profile.
According to A .Pan, and J. P. Moehle the effects of reversed tendon curvature at supports are generally
neglected in applying the load balancing method to design of flat plates since the reverse curvature has
only a minor influence on the elastic moments (in the order of 5 to 10 percent), and does not affect the

51
ultimate moment capacity. It is necessary to consider reverse tendon curvature tort adequately evaluate
the shear carried by the tendons inside the critical section.
4.Parametric study
For the purpose of parametric study of post-tensioned slab the slabs with and
without drop varying from 7m to 12m at an interval of 0.5m are considered. Load considered-
Dead load –self weight Live load – 2 KN/m2 Superimposed dead load - 1 KN/m2 Analysis and
design is done by using following methods Load balancing method Equivalent frame method
For the application of design procedure a office building is consider as a case study. The plan of
the office building (G+4) is considered. This building is designed by considering four cases with
different floor systems. The different floor systems used for these four cases are as follows. For the
above four cases the quantities of reinforcing steel, prestressing steel, concrete required for the
slab, beam and column is calculated and are presented in the tabular form. Along with this a total
cost of the building per square meter is found and the comparison of all the four cases with respect
to cost is given here.

52
5. Results and conclusion

The analysis, design and the estimation of the office building for the four different floor systems is
done and finally the rate per square meter for the construction of this building is found out. The fig .6
shows the variation of the rate per square meter for these four different cases.

The design and the estimation of the office building for the four different floor systems is done and
finally the rate per square meter for the construction of this building is found out. The Fig. 6 shows the
variation of the rate per square meter for these four different cases. The observation made from the above
work is as follows:

 From the economic point of view the post-tensioned flat slab is the most economical
among all four floor systems and the reinforced concrete slab with reinforced concrete
beam is the costlier one for this span.
 If we consider the post-tensioned flat slab and reinforced concrete flat slab, the thickness
of reinforced concrete flat slab is 12.5% greater and its cost is 27% greater than the post-
tensioned flat slab.
 From both post-tensioned floor system building the post-tensioned flat slab is more
economical than the post-tensioned slab with reinforced concrete beams.
 The quantity of prestressing steel is 4 Kg/m2 for post-tensioned flat slab and 3.2 Kg/m2
for post-tensioned slab with reinforced concrete beams i.e. the prestressing steel required
for the post-tensioned flat slab is greater.

53
  The reinforcing steel required for the post-tensioned flat slab and post- tensioned slab with
reinforced concrete beam is 15 Kg/m2 and 20.15 Kg/m2 respectively.
 The reinforcing steel is more in case of post-tensioned slab with reinforced concrete beams
because the slab transfers the load on the beam and more loads is taken by the beams itself.
 The reinforcing steel for the reinforced concrete flat slab is 41 Kg/m2 while for the
reinforced concrete slab and beam it is 40 Kg/m2.
 The amount of concrete required for a floor is more in case of post-tensioned slab with
reinforced concrete beams while it is least for the post-tensioned flat slab floor system.
 The floor to floor height available in case of post-tensioned flat and reinforced concrete flat
slab is 2.65m while in case of post-tensioned slab with reinforced concrete beams and
reinforced concrete slab and beams is 2.4m.
 If we consider the period of construction for a floor it is less in case of post- tensioned flat
slab than the other three cases as the post-tensioning allows the earlier removal of the
formwork. In case of post-tensioned slab with reinforced concrete beams the formwork of
slab can be removed earlier but the formwork for the reinforced concrete beams cannot be
removed earlier.
 While estimating the cost of the each building the labour charges are not considered, as the
time period reduce the labour charges will reduce in case of post-tensioned flat slab.
 The wall load is considered on all over the floor (KN/m2) for the post-tensioned building
While analysis. So there is flexibility to the user to construct a wall wherever required in
case of post-tensioning.
8. Seismic Analysis
According to A. J. Duran, S.T Mau, A.A Abouhashish [7] and Y. H Luo, A.
Durrani, J. Conte [ 8] the Equivalent frame method for flat slab underestimates the negative
moment and overestimate positive moments. A comparative study of pt and RCC flat plate is done
considering the earthquake load using Equivalent frame method in accordance to [9],[10] and
using struds software the conclusions drawn are as follows:
1) The moment calculated for Post-tensioned flat plate slab is less as compare to moment
calculated for RCC flat plate slab by equivalent frame method because as depth of Post tensioned
flat plate slab 30 to 35% less than RCC plate slab, due to which self weight of slab get reduced.
2) Due to post-tensioning of flat plate slab there is no much effect on axial force but shear and
moment on column increases.
3) The deflection at center of flat plate slab is controlled more effectively by parabolic and
Trapezoidal tendon than triangular tendon.

54
 4) Modeling flat plate slab with diaphragm and without diaphragm in case of response spectrum
there is no variation in axial force, shear force and moment as moment of inertia of slab is very
high it acts as rigid.
5) Post-tensioned design of flat plate slab allows nearly 70% reduction in steel and 30 % reduction
in concrete as compared to Reinforced cement concrete flat plate slab.
7. References
[1] E. H. K. Park, “RC Flat Plate under Combined in-Plane & Out-Of-Plane Loads,” Journal of
Structural Engineering, vol. 125, no. 10, October, 1999.
[2] Y. H. Luo and A. Durrani, “Equivalent Beam Model for Flat-Slab Buildings: Interior
Connections,”ACI Structural Journal, vol. 92, no.1, pp. 115-124, 1995.
[3] T. Y. Lin, “Load balancing for design and analysis of prestressed concrete structures;” Journal of
American Concrete Institute, vol. 60, no. 6, June 1963.
[4] Y. H. Luo and A. Durrani, “Equivalent Beam Model for Flat-Slab Buildings: Exterior
Connections,” ACI Structural Journal, vol. 92, no. 2, pp. 250-257, 1995.
[5] A. C. Scordelis, T. Y Lin, and R. Itaya , “ Behavior of continuous slab prestressed in both
direction,” Journal of American Concrete Institute, vol. 40, no.3, December 1959.
[6] A .Pan and J. P.Moehle, “Lateral Displacement Ducility of R/C Flat Plates,” ACI Structural
Journal, vol. 86, no. 3, pp. 250-258, 1989.
[7] A. J. Duran, S. T. Mau and A. A. Abouhashish, “Earthquake response of flat-slab buildings.”
Journal of Structural Engineering, vol. 120, no.3, March, 1994.
[8] Y. H. Luo, A. Durrani, and J. Conte, “Seismic Reliability Assessment of Existing R/C Flatslab
Buildings,”Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, vol.121, no.10, pp. 1522-1530, 1995.
[9] Code of Practice for Prestressed Concrete Is: 1343 –1980, BIS,Indian Standard Institution, New
Delhi. [10] Plain and Reinforced Concrete Code of Practice Is: 456 - 2000, BIS, Indian Standard
Institution, New Delhi.

55
 v

MODERN PREFABRICATION TECHNIQUES

FOR BUILDING STRUCTURES

56
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. Market demands
3. Flexibility in use
4. Quality consciousness:
5. New materials
6. New systems
7. Examples of application of precast buildings
7.1 Industrial and commercial buildings,
7.2 Housing
7.3 Office buildings
8. References

57
 1. . Introduction
Many ongoing developments in building activity are inspired by social and economic factors that have
marked our society in recent decades:
- Fierce competition between construction materials and techniques: concrete versus steel, precast
concrete versus in situ concrete or steel.
- successive economical crises
- growing environmental consciousness
- higher demands as regards labour circumstances and general comfort
The key words governing the evolution of the construction activity in general and precast concrete in
particular are efficiency, durability and respect for the environment. Prefabrication possesses a large
potential in this field to become a leading actor in the building activity of the future.
2. Market demands
The above mentioned trends started during the 1980s and have been gradually taking shape ever
since. Before getting into technical details, it might be interesting to describe the meaning of the most
prominent factors behind these changes. Structural efficiency: The idea here is to design structures and
develop systems so that the building offers maximum efficiency to the user. For example create maximum
exploitation capacity of the available building space by using more slender building components like in
slim floor structures etc. Competition between different construction materials and systems is more and
more judged in terms of performances and costs. Systems offering more floor area inside the building
volume are increasingly competitive.
3. Flexibility in use
Certain types of buildings are frequently required to be adaptable to the user’s needs. This is
especially the case with offices, but housing might also need to be more adaptable in the future. The most
suitable solution to this effect is to create a large free internal space without any restriction to possible
subdivisions. Optimum use of materials: Each construction material possesses specific properties and
optimum applications. Until recently, the structure of a building was mostly build in the same material.
Now, the tendency is to use construction materials that are best suited for the particular function within the
project. Speed of construction: Because of the slowness of traditional in-situ construction methods, long
construction delays have been accepted. Today, the demand for a speedy return on investment is becoming
more and more important: the decision to start the work is postponed until the last moment, but the
initially agreed construction delay has to be met. In addition, projects are getting more complex, which is
not in favour of short construction delays. One of the solutions taken by the general contractor, is to put
more responsibilities on subcontractors.

58
 4. Quality consciousness:
Quality has a broad meaning. Not only do the quality of materials and execution have to respond to
higher standards than before, but also the quality in the domain as regards user friendliness, comfort and
aesthetics is becoming more important. Several precasting companies have already obtained the ISO-9000
label, and a lot of work is being done in the field of European Standardisation. Adaptability: In the future,
building design will have to take into account not just the direct costs for construction and exploitation,
but also the deferred cost for adaptation or demolition. In other words we shall have to design for the
whole building's life span from cradle to grave.
In this context, there will be much less demolition of entire buildings, but owners will rather
choose for renovation. The initial concept of the entire building will therefore have to take account of the
life span of the different components of the building: load bearing structure: 50 to 100 years and more;
external envelope: 20 to 60 years; services: 10 to 20 years; finishes: 5 to 15 years. Consequently
everything apart of the main structure should be designed replaceable and renewable within the normal
building life to avoid early termination; thus we have to design our buildings for sufficient inherent
flexibility and adaptability to permit full reconfiguration of spaces and services. Periodic refurbishment,
major modifications, replacements and improvements throughout the building life shall be possible. An
inherent condition for reuse will be the complete inspectability of all building components. Protection of
the environment: in many countries the design of buildings and structures continues to be
determined solely by the factors of "capital" and "labour" employed by ecologically unregulated market
economies. This will become expensive when "nature" is added as the third market-determining factor
with the full cost required to be paid.
Preserving the environment is becoming globally increasingly important. In Europe, some
governments are already imposing regulations as regards plastic, recovering of packaging, recycling of
waste, ground pollution by chemicals, etc. It is expected that more severe restraints will be imposed in
construction, e.g. with respect to emissivity of materials, shortage of raw materials, waste dumping,
energy consumption etc. 3. Solutions offered by precast concrete Prefabrication has often been the prelude
to modernisation in many fields: working conditions, advanced manufacturing technology, speed of
construction and environmental friendliness. The latest developments to respond the market needs are
described
below.
5. New materials
High performance concrete, with compressive stresses exceeding 80 MPa, is now being used
routinely in precast concrete. Initially, the applications were for heavy loaded columns, where the cross-
section can be significantly reduced. Other applications include heavy bridge beams, long span roof
beams, products with high durability requirements, etc.

59
6. New systems
Multi-storey precast concrete frames are constructed with columns and beams of different shapes
and sizes, stair and elevator shafts, and floor slabs. The joints between the floor elements are executed in
such a way that concentrated loads are distributed over the whole floor. The system is widely used for
multi-storey buildings up to 20 storeys and above.
The structural frame is commonly composed o rectangular columns over one or more storeys
height (up to four storeys). The beams are normally rectangular, Lshaped or inverted T-beams. They are
single span beams, simply supported and pin-connected to the columns or
concrete corbels, or by specially developed hidden connection details. Hollow core floor slabs are by far
the most common type of floor slabs in this type of structure.

60
7 . Examples of application of precast buildings
7.1. Industrial and commercial buildings, parking garages etc. Systems, using frames composed of
columns and beams, are still widely applied. The most prominent current changes are larger spans, lighter
structures, new types of connections. A new system for industrial buildings is using load bearing sandwich
walls in architectural concrete and long span light-weight TT roof units. The latter have a self weight of
180 to 200 kg/m² and are spanning from facade to facade over up to 30 m. The system offers a more
rational, economical and aesthetic construction.
7.2 Housing
Large wall panel systems combined with hollow core slab floors are still currently used for
housing projects. However, the design has become much more flexible. The formerly rigid bloc shaped
realisations hare now replaced by much more lively architectural designs. In the Netherlands, a new
hybrid system for domestic projects has been introduced successfully in the beginning of the 1990's. The
internal load bearing walls are made with large smooth silica stone blocs with accurate dimensions and
tooth and groove connection.
They are glued together to form the wall. The blocs are pre-cut at the factory to form the openings
for windows, doors and other details. Only a slight rendering is needed to finish the walls. The precast
hollow core units are supported on the walls. The external envelope of the houses is made with brick
masonry.
7.3 Office buildings
Current trends in office buildings point towards more prefabrication, more efficiency e.g. through
a flat under surface for floors without underneath beams and corbels, reduced site activity by
incorporating ducts and conduits in the floor elements, and safer and faster construction. Slim floor
structures offer an effective solution to reduce the total floor construction eight is to support the floor
elements on the bottom flange of a steel beam. This Enables to realise a shallow floor in which beams and
slab elements are integrated within the same depth. The hence combined units form a composite structure.
The FIP Commission on Prefabrication has just published an Guide to Good Practice with design
guidelines for "Composite floor structures". Stone is highly regarded as a cladding material or finish. Its
expense can be mitigated by using thin veneer in precast concrete facade units. The system provides not
only economy, but also better quality, speed of construction and higher safety than traditional in situ
solutions. Split structure facade concerns a facade construction in which the two leaves (inside leaf and
outside leaf) are fabricated separately and erected separately. The loadbearing leaf of the facade consists
of simple framed panels placed with the smooth moulded side towards the interior of the building.

61
 The
precast floor units are supported on these elements. Afterwards an air tight joint sealing is applied and an
insulation layer is attached to the exterior face of the wall panels and finally the exterior cladding panels
are erected. The exterior cladding can be made in precast concrete or in other materials. Very often the
window frames are placed over several storeys giving a large architectural freedom to the design New
types of hidden corbels: Column corbels often are inconvenient, especially in residential and
administrative buildings. Recent developments go towards hidden steel corbels. The advantage of the
solution is that the intersection between beam and column is neat, without an underlying corbel. The
connection is also attractive from the aesthetic point of view.

62
8

STRUCTURAL RETROFITTING TO PROTECT

DETERIORATED BUILDING

63
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
9. Introduction
10.Strengthening practice
11.Retrofitting materials
3.1 Shotcrete
3.2. Preplaced aggregate concrete
3.3 . Epoxy resin
4. Retrofitting specific structural elements
4.1. Foundation

4.2. Strengthening of existing shear walls

4.3 Strengthening of existing columns and beams

5. Conclusion
6. References

64
 1. Introduction
Well established retrofitting techniques for structural retrofitting of buildings are not readily available.
Current available methods are based on experience, hence they are empirical in nature. In the case of
strengthening of existing buildings however, the engineer must depend on inspection, analysis and to a
very large extent on engineering judgement to determine the areas of weaknesses that are to receive
attention. The existing building codes do not have any provision for remedial work. The engineer must be
capable of using his judgement so that the structure is upgraded to full requirement of code. That is to say
that after retrofitting, the allowable stresses shall be within the specified limit as stipulated in building
codes.
2. Strengthening practice
Existing elements are generally improved by increasing their cohesive nature through
injection of grout or other structural adhesives. Mass of a structural member can be increased by
encasement, by increasing its dimension with the addition of section or a combination of the above.
Sometimes, they may be strengthened by bracing, by the addition of ties, struts or other connecting
elements. Shear walls are often improved by the addition of section. Existing holes/cavities are filled in
with repair materials. Strengthening of roof and floor diaphragms can be achieved by increasing their
thicknesses or the addition of stiffening ribs. Foundation elements are improved by increasing their plan
dimensions, extending their depth or both. Underlying soil may be stabilized by grouting.
3. Retrofitting materials
3.1 Shotcrete
Shotcrete, also known as gunite or pneumatically applied concrete has been used for repair as well
as for new construction for many years. Shotcrete may be applied by either a ‘dry mix’ or ‘wet mix’
process. In dry mix process, cement and aggregate are thoroughly mixed. The mixture is fed into special
mechanical feeder or gun called the delivery equipment. The material
is carried by the compressed air through the delivery hose to a nozzle. The nozzle is fitted inside a water
ring, through which water is introduced under pressure and intimately mixed with other ingredients.
The material is jetted from the nozzle at high velocity onto the surface to be shotcreted. Wet mix
shotcrete is somewhat newer development. It involves pumping of a premixed cement mixture to the work
location. At this point a blast of compressed air diffuses the mixture and impels it onto the substrate
surface. Shotcreting is a convenient repair method. There is no need of formwork, less expensive, and the
operation is very fast compared to conventional concreting. In this process, w/c ratio can be controlled
easily due to which rate of production can be varied according to the requirements of the job.
3.2 Preplaced aggregate concrete

65
 Preplaced aggregate concrete is cast by pumping mortar into the pores of previously placed large
aggregate. The intrusion mortar is composed of cement, sand and an admixture that promotes expansion.
Epoxy resin materials though expensive have also been used for rapid curing.
3.3 Epoxy resin
Epoxy resin materials are available in a wide variety of types and consistencies which provide a
nearly infinite range of physical properties after curing. In general, epoxies offer very high bond strength
and for this reason have received wide usage, and in some cases, been acclaimed as a “magical repair
material’. Epoxy resin is a polymeric product which is formed due to a chemical reaction between
ethylene oxide rings with a reactant plastic material. Because of this very broad definition, there are
literally an infinite number of chemical formulations that can properly be considered epoxies. Epoxy
resins can remain the same for a very long time.
They are useful only when reacted with hardeners. It is not possible to describe properties that are
typical of all potential epoxy formulations. However, most of the commonly used epoxy systems possess
the following properties. They are easy to apply, develop quick strength, have high compressive and bond
strengths. Epoxy resins have low modulus of elasticity and exhibit chemical resistance to both acids and
alkalis. They are unaffected by ambient temperature, and the finished product has a long life with a
reasonably hard surface that does not crack easily. Epoxies can be made to work even under water. There
are innumerable ways in which an epoxy formulation can be prepared by the addition of solvents, diluents,
fillers etc. It can be pigmented to almost any colour to satisfy aesthetic considerations. Excepting use as
grout in filling narrow cracks, epoxy systems are always fillerised. This is basically to reduce heat and co-
efficient of thermal expansion along with improvement in other mechanical properties of the mixed
system. The amount of filler is dependent on viscosity of the system (i.e. resin + hardener) and the end
use.
4. Retrofitting specific structural elements
4.1 Foundation:
Foundation Sometimes strengthening of foundations become necessary either due to increased dead load
or because of loads resulting from high overturning forces generated during an earthquake or wind. A
detailed engineering analysis and design calculations are essential for
developing proper retrofitting methods. Where the foundation system consists of conventional spread
footings or mats, the most frequent treatment involves increasing the length, breadth or depth. Figure 1
shows a typical example of foundation augmentation. Where existing depth is increased, the work is
usually done in alternate segments. (Between 1.5 to 3 m in length) Conventional concrete or shotcrete is
generally used in such work. Continuity is maintained by placing new reinforcing steel or dowels through
existing concrete. These are pl

66
 aced in position by
holes, and filling in the holes with epoxy grout. In the case of pile foundation, piles are installed parts by
parts. A number of short steel sections are welded and driven according to design requirement. Where
steel tubing is used, dirt forced into the interior thereof is cleaned out and replaced with concrete. Cast-in
drilled hole concrete piling can also be provided in some cases.
Sometimes soil is strengthened by compaction grouting or by chemical solidification in the case of
relatively permeable granular soil. Compaction grouting reduces the potential for liquefaction of soil.
Reduction of liquefaction potential in granular soil can be provide by cohesion through chemical
solidification.
4.2 Strengthening of existing shear walls
Existing shear walls are frequently strengthened by the addition of section, most often by shotcreting.
Figure 2 shows a typical shear wall strengthening procedure. The existing wall is sandblasted so that the
surface well prepared with significant aggregate exposure. New reinforcing rods and epoxy set dowels are
67
placed in position to satisfy the design provision i.e., these rods and dowels are placed according to design
calculations. New rebars are installed by drilling through the existing pilaster or floor slab as called for in
the design drawings. These bars should be well set in position with the help of

epoxy resins. New shear walls are generally constructed of conventional reinforced concrete or shotcrete.
Where such walls are cast between existing members, continuity of its reinforcing steel or the use of
epoxy set dowels can be used in a manner similar to that used for the strengthening of existing walls.
4.3 Strengthening of existing columns and beams
Existing columns and beams are frequently upgraded by the addition of properly reinforced
shotcrete. Proper preparation of the surface to receive new concrete is imperative. New reinforcing steel is
placed with special emphasis to insure continuity through or around other conflicting elements. Shear
transfer and continuity are provided by the use of chipped shear keys, wedge anchors or grouted bars.
Typical examples of such strengthening are shown in Figures 3 and 4. Strengthening of floor and roof
diaphragms Floor and roof act as a diaphragm to transmit horizontal forces (due to wind or seismic load)
to end walls of a building. Strengthening of existing diaphragms is often accomplished by the addition of
68
an overlay of either concrete or shotcrete. Sometimes new diaphragms are added by filling in abandoned
shafts, stair wells etc.
The removal of existing concrete and total replacement of diaphragms is occasionally made as
well. The preparation of surfaces and installation of flexural or shear reinforcement is similar to that used
in the strengthening of beams and columns.

69
5. Conclusions
Repair or retrofitting of structures has never been performed on a large scale basis. So, there are no
established guidelines available for this purpose. Existing building codes do not address this problem
adequately. In the case of large or important projects, often elaborate and costly testing programs become
necessary. Building codes should be modified to include simplified repair procedures. Present methods for
evaluation of existing structures deal with static loadings.
No provision is available for dynamic loadings. Better methods for determining the behaviour of
structures under dynamic loading conditions are to be studied and reported.
Epoxies and other polymers are widely used for retrofitting jobs. This field of chemistry is extremely
complex. It is imperative to carry out further research for additional development and understanding of
these magic materials.
7. References
 Daniels D., Ground penetrating radar, 2nd ed. London, UK: The Institution of
Electrical Engineers, 2004.
 Rhazi J. E., Dous O., Ballivy G., Laurens S. and Balayssac J.P., Non-destructive
health evaluation of concrete bridge decks by GPR and half cell potential

70
 techniques, International symposium non-destructive testing in civil engineering
(NDT-CE), Berlin, Germany, September, 2003, Proceedings on BB 85-CD, V57,.
 Colla C. and Maierhofer Ch. Investigation of historic masonry via radar reflection
and tomography, 8th international conference on GPR 2000, Gold Coast, Australia,
(Noon D., Brisbane, May 2000, SPIE vol. 4084, pp. 893–898.
 Maierhofer Ch, Leipold S., Schraurich D, Binda L, Saisi A., Determination of the
moisture distribution in the outside walls of S. Maria Rossa using radar, 7th
International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Lawrence, USA,
(Radar Systems and Remote Sensing Laboratory, Lawrence, 1998) ssMay 1998,
Vol. 2, p. 509–14.

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72