1.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
The op amp is one of the basic building blocks of linear design. An
operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic
voltage amplifier with a differential input and typically a single-ended
output. The output voltage an op-amp produces is typically hundreds of
thousands of times larger than the voltage difference between its input
terminals.

Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp are set by external

components with little dependence on temperature changes or
manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself, which makes op-amps
popular building blocks for circuit design.

The operational amplifier is one of the most useful and important

components of analog electronics. Op-amps are widely used in
consumer, industrial, and scientific devices.

Op Amp Symbol

The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:

 V+: non-inverting input

 V−: inverting input
 Vout: output
 VS+: positive power supply
 VS−: negative power supply

Feedback Configurations
Op amps circuits have the following 3 feedback configurations

 Open Loop - there is no feedback. An opamp used in this configuration is also

called a comparator.

Negative Feedback - a fraction of the output signal is connected back to the inverting
input (V-). Circuits using this configuration are considered linear op-amp circuits and includes

 Inverting, non-inverting, summing difference

 Instrumentation amplfier
 I-V converter, V-I converter
 Active RC filters, Integrator, Differentiator

Positive Feedback - a fraction of the output signal is connected back to the non-inverting
input (V+). Circuits using this configuration includes

 Schmitt Trigger
 Schmitt Trigger Oscillator
 2. SCR (Silicon controlled Rectifier)
SCR is a four layered PNPN device and is a prominent member of thyristor
family. It consists of three diodes connected back to back with gate
connection or two complementary transistor connected back to back.

It is widely used as switching device in power control applications. It can

switch ON for variable length of time and delivers selected amount of
power to load.
 V-I Characteristics of SCR

V-I characteristics reveal that an SCR has three basic mode of

operation: Reverse Blocking Mode, Forward Blocking Mode and
Forward Conduction Mode

1. Reverse Blocking Mode- An SCR in reverse blocking mode behaves as if an

open switch. Hence this mode is also known as OFF state of SCR. It is shown by OP
in the V-I characteristics of SCR.The anode to cathode voltage in is negative in this
mode. A small leakage current of the order of mili or micro ampere flows
thorough the SCR in this mode. At some critical voltage an avalanche
breakdown takes place at reverse biased junctions J1 and J3 which
leads to sudden increase in reverse current. This critical reverse voltage
is called Reverse Breakdown Voltage. VBR
Forward Blocking Mode -Forward Blocking Mode is that operational
mode of SCR in which it does not conduct even though it is forward
biased. The term forward biased SCR implies that its anode terminal is
positive with respect to cathode terminal with gate switch S open. A
small leakage current, called the forward leakage current, flows as
shown by OM in the V-I characteristics of SCR in this mode.
Forward Conduction Mode

When the forward biasing voltage is increased then at some critical

voltage VBO, an avalanche breakdown take place at reverse biased
junction J2. This critical voltage is known as Forward Breakover
Voltage.

3. UJT (UniJunction Transistor)

The UJT is a three-terminal, semiconductor device which exhibits
negative resistance and switching characteristics for use as a relaxation
oscillator in phase control applications.

Like diodes, unijunction transistors are constructed from separate P-

type and N-type semiconductor materials forming a single (hence its
name Uni-Junction) PN-junction within the main conducting N-type
channel of the device.

Construction of UJT

Fig.1 shows the basic structure of a unijunction transistor.

UJT consists of an n-type silicon bar with an electrical connection on each end.

The leads to those connections are called base leads base-one B1 and base two B2.

Important points

1. Since the device has one pn junction and three leads, it is commonly called a
unijunction transistor.
2. With only one pn junction, the device is really a form of diode. Because the two
base terminals are taken from one section of the diode, this device is also called
double-based diode.
3. The emitter is heavily doped having many holes. The n-region, however, is
lightly doped. For this reason, the resistance between the base terminals is very
high when emitter lead is open.
4.INTERFACING DEVICES

Interfacing can be defined as transferring data between microcontrollers and

interfacing peripherals such as sensors, keypads, microprocessors, analog to
digital converters or ADC, LCD displays, motors, external memories, even with
other microcontrollers, some other interfacing peripheral devices. These devices
that are interfacing with 8051 microcontroller are used for performing special
tasks or functions are called as interfacing devices.

Need of Interfacing

Interfacing is one of the important concepts in microcontroller 8051 because the

microcontroller is a CPU that can perform some operation on a data and gives the
output. However to perform the operation we need an input device to enter the

data and in turn output device displays the results of the operation.
Microcontroller is interfaced with devices such as ADC, keypad, LCD display and
so on.

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

A to D converter is an electronic integrated circuit used for converting the analog
signals into a digital or binary form. Generally, analog to digital converters takes
an input voltage from 0 to 10V, -5V to +5V, etc. and thereby converts this analog
input into digital output.

Keypad or Keyboard

In general keypads or keyboards are used as input devices for computers. But,
among various types of interfacing devices, keypad is also one type of frequently
used interfacing peripheral devices.

LCD Display

An LCD display or liquid crystal display is one of the most frequently used
interfacing devices that consist of liquid crystals. It can be considered as a
combination of solid and liquid (directly liquid is not used, but in fact water liquid
crystals are used.
 5. ADDER OR SUMMING AMPLIFIERS
The Summing Amplifier is a very flexible circuit indeed, enabling us to
effectively “Add” or “Sum” (hence its name) together several individual
input signals. If the inputs resistors, R1, R2, R3 etc, are all equal a “unity
gain inverting adder” will be made. The Summing Amplifier is another
type of operational amplifier circuit configuration that is used to
combine the voltages present on two or more inputs into a single
output voltage.