Quality Assurance in Concrete Construction

--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright American Concrete Institute

Provided by IHS under license with ACI Licensee=Fluor Corp no FPPPV per administrator /2110503106, User=MacKenzie, Ala
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale, 05/16/2009 05:23:46 MDT
Quality Assurance in Concrete Construction
AC1 Compilation 16
Contents
3 Obtaining Quality in Concrete Construction, by 53 Product Control and Acceptance Inspection as
Lewis H. Tuthill Viewed by the Owner and Designer, by Bertold E.
Weinberg
9 Selecting Relevant Levels of Quality, by Bryant
Mather 58 Batch Plant Inspection and Field Testing of
Ready-MYred Concrete, reported by AC1
16 Common Quality in Concrete Construction, by Committee 3 11
Ken Newman
62 Quality Control and Acceptance Inspection as
29 Future Trends in Concrete QC, by Joseph F. Viewed by the Testing Laboratory, by Robert L.
Artuso Henry
32 Service Life Design vs. Life Cycle Management, 66 Guidance in the Establishment of an Inspection
by James C. Porter Program, by Claude E. Jaycox
34 You Can Make Money with Quality Control 7 1 Assuring Concrete Quality, by Richard M. Weed
36 Quality Assurance Systems for Concrete 74 Concrete Quality Control in the Arabian Gulf, by
Construction Osama E.K. Daoud and Shafik K. Hamdani
40 Quality - Contractors Cannot Afford Less, by 80 For Quality There Is No Quitting Time, by Maher
M.Lee Powell III F. Wissa
45 Quality Control by the Contractor, by Charles W. 85 Quality Assurance in Concrete, by Luis H. Diaz
Mayer and William O’Donnell
48 Inspection and Quality Assurance, by Edward A. 91 Quality Assurance for Concrete Platforms in
Abdun-Nur North Sea Oil Fields, by Jan Moknes
QUALITY ASSURANCE --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

1
A C 1 COMP*lb >Kt 0662949 0 5 0 l 7 b 3 W
Preface
The AC1 Compilation Series offers an opportunity to gather together

materials previously published in Institute periodicals as a compact and
ready reference on a specific topic. The material in a compilation does not
necessarily represent the opinion of an AC1 technical committee-only
the opinions of the individual authors. However, the information pre-
sented here is considered a valuable resource for readers interested in the
subject.
Joe Gutierrez
Chairman, AC1 Committee 121
Quality Assurance Systems for Concrete
Donald E. Dixon
Chairman, AC1 Committee 311
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Inspection of Concrete
On the cover: More than one million cubic yards of concrete will go into the section of 1-90 be-
tween Bellevue and Seattle in Washington state. Much of this concrete will be used in struc-
tures such as the Seattle Lid, designed to reduce the adverse effects of the heavily-trafficked ex-
pressway on local residential communities. (Photo by Robert I. Pearson, Engineering Editor,
Concrete International.) ,
American Concrete Institute, Box 19150, Redford Station, Detroit, Michigan 48219
2 AC1 COMPILATION
I
by Lewis H. Tuthill I n 1928, Franklin R. MeMillan,
then director of research at the Successtul quality control
Portland Cement Association, requires murmgers who will
Chicago, Ill., wrote the first edi- notpull the rug out from
tion of his famous C o n c r e t e under capable inspectors
P.r.imer.l In the three editions to endeavoring to see that
date, it has been a popular publi- there is substantial
cation of the American Concrete compliance.
Institute. In his 1928 preface, Mr.
Keywords: acceptability; concrete con-
struction; inspection; performance; qual- McMillan said: “Many who have
ity assurance; quality control; tests. been interested in the cause of
better concrete have noted the dif- The need for quality
ficulty of making any real pro- assurance
gress until someone in authority Why then, if all responsible par-
has been convinced that good con- ties concerned want quality, don’t
To get quality in concrete constmc- crete c a n be had, that it should be we have it automatically?” Why do
tion, it takes more than making a few we need to consider what it takes
slump tests and cylinders for strength had, and having been so con-
tests. It hcludes all that influences the vinced, has sent out the word that to get and assure quality? Perhaps
effectiveness of sufficient inspection it must be had.” So, quality in con- the answer lies in the inadverten-
and testing to insure that spekfied re-
sults are obtained at all stages of concrete construction is the decision cies which a r e not uncommon in
struction. I t .includes strong, clear t o have it, and to see that you get construction activities. Perhaps it
B dl
s eci ications of requirements, stan-
ar s limits, and certain equipment
and methods which do much thern-
it.
And who does not want assur-
lies in the deterioration many have
noted in pride of craftmanship.
selves to insure quality v t h e y are fol- ance that the concrete job with Perhaps it is something inherent
lowed. I t includes good training and which he is concerned will be of in human nature. It is noted that
able supewision, as well as meetings of
all concerned at valious stages of the the quality necessary to give good more than a century and a half ago,
wogram to develop interest in quality, performance and the appearance to prevent inferior work during
understanding of poblems, comnmuni- of quality throughout its intended the construction of the Erie Canal
cation, and acquaintance.
Specifically, it i s material-accep- life? Probably no one. The de- in New York in 1817-18, the com-
tance testing, concrete production in- signer wants it; his reputation and missioners found it necessary to
spection and testing, and inspection of professional satisfaction depend on have their engineers “examine the
concrete construction. These three
areas are discussed in detail to show it. The builder wants it for much works’’ and “employ faithful, ac-
what i s needed and what i s not, par- the same reason, but sometimes tive, and vigilant assistants - to
ticularly in tests f i concrete strength, there are adverse iduences such inspect every job - and report -
slump, and a i r content. The impor-
as time and money problems. The every departure from compliance
f‘
tance o recwds in establishing assur-
ance o quality i s stressed.
It .is emphasized that the credibility
owner wants it; his money is in the
project and he has to live with
with the respective contracts.’’
And many centuries ago in 79
of any quality construction program
will stand or fall on whether OT not the what he gets. Any governmental A.D., Frontinius, the operations
individuals doing the inspection and agency having surveillance re- and maintenance superintendent
testing a r e f i e e agents w i t h the full sponsibilities wants it for the gen- for the famous Roman aqueduct,
support of management to say “no”
when necessary and not have the rug eral good of the public, and of its noted, possibly with a touch of ex-
pulled out f r o m under them. reputation.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- asperation, after describing the
QUALITY ASSURANCE
3
procedure necessary for making just before delivery to the
secure repairs, t h a t these were 17te task of inspection will batchplant bins2
things “which all t h e workmen be easier and more effective automatic batching and record-
know, but few observe.’’ Perhaps i f the specitïcations include ing of at least the cement
it is because some are no different CIS many requirements as weighing
today that we need to do some- possible. rigid prohibition of separation
thing special to insure quality in during handling or placing
concrete construction. concrete3
But let us not feel inferior in the positive forbiddance of adding
construction industry because of water to plant-mixed o r to
ments, which presumably were the truck-mixed concrete at any
this necessity. We are not unique,
basis on which bids for the work time during delivery of the con-
either in having the need, or in were taken.
doing something about it. It is crete to and into forms
It also includes proper study and low limits on concrete tempera-
very common in manufacturing
designation of such available mature as placed in warm weather
and service industries today to terials as will make concrete with
maintain a rigorous program of in- a working limit on slump of con-
properties best suited to the pur- crete as placed, with a stated
spection and testing, reporting in-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
pose. But this is a separate subject inadvertency margin or toler-
dependently to top management
of its own. ance of 2 in. (51 mm) or less,
and with authority to say “No” It will include specifications
and reject substandard perfor- and a stipulation that rejection
which clearly spell out require- would occur not only when that
mance. Increasingly I have noted ments, limits, standards, and
that large concerns are emphasiz- margin is exceeded, but also if
where necessary, equipment and prompt action was not taken to
ing in their advertisements this
methods. Proposals for “perfor- get the slump back to within the
aspect of their efforts to better mance-type’’ specifications for
serve their customers. The prime working limit4
concrete work of significance are no air-entraining admixture ex-
example in our own industry is the totally unrealistic and merely re-
quality control maintained by the cept where air entrainment is
flect an utter unawareness that really needed for durability, be-
cement producer. Many of the they can produce inferior results
ready-mixed concrete suppliers cause readily varying air con-
despite apparently acceptable per- tent causes troublesome varia-
are also doing a good job in this formance or appearance, unless
respect. tion in slump
each step, which will be covered by the largest and most powerful
the next step, is inspected as the vibrators that can be used in the
Factors affecting quality
work proceeds. Few constructions work, supplemented by late re-
assurance
can be accepted only on the basis vibration where appropriate5
Quality control and resulting as- of final performance or appear-
surance is no different on con- sandblast o r a demonstrated
ance with certainty that all is as it equivalent for final cleanup of
crete construction work. Basically should be, where it can no longer
this is inspection and the related construction joints
be seen. If quality throughout is to only 1in. (25 mm) lap and tight
testing of materials and concrete. be assured, it must be definitely
It is however, more than making a bolting of reset forms a t hori-
recognized, confirmed, and re- zontal joints3
few slump tests and cylinders for corded with sufficient frequency
strength tests. In addition to the completion of repairs and cone-
during the entire performance of hole filling before half of the
full scope of the duties and re- the concrete work, so that when-
sponsibilities of the inspection and water-curing period has elapsed
ever i t is not a s i t should be, water curing with wet cover in
testing staff, if they are to be ef- prompt and effective action can be
fective it must also include all that contact with formed surfaces
taken for its correction. and wetted with automatically
may affect them in that effort.
It includes a recognition by Specification inclusions controlled soilsoaker hoses, and
management of the worth of this The task of inspection will be insulation for protection of new
wider concept, and accordingly, easier and thus more effective, concrete in freezing weather.
adoption of a policy that is in full and job results will be better, if These and other such require-
support of it. For instance, it will the specifications include as many ments in strong, clear specifica-
require that engineers and archi- requirements as possible of the tions will do a great deal to assure
tects firmly support their own kind that tend to insure accom- quality if they are followed.
specifications. It will not pull the plishment of the intended result This broader concept for getting
rug from under capable inspectors with relatively little inspection. quality construction with concrete
endeavoring to see that there is This means requirement of such will also include any pretesting of
substantial compliance and will not things as: materials, mixes, and concrete
make concessions in obvious dis- finish screening and possibly properties needed to insure that
regard of specification require- rinsing the coarse aggregate they will be suitable for the work.
4
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMPU16 f *
~~~ ~ ~~
m 06b2949 0501766 T m
During construction they will be Aggregates should be sampled
tested routinely for compliance Quality is best assured at the time concrete is sampled
and performance, and results will when inspectors have the but only moisture content and
be recorded. Specifications will af- correct attitude of firm but cleanness and grading tests should
firm that sampling, testing, and pleasantly &tuched be made on each of these samples,
evaluation of results for accep- authority, although depending on whether these prop-
tance will be based on statistical endeavoring to be helpful erties have been marginal. Tests
patterns, not on a single tests6-* wherever they properly can. of other aggregate properties
Basically, this will mean that when should be made only at one to two
4 out of 5 consecutive tests for month intervals for the record to
each specified property of mate- show t h a t they are unchanged
rials or concrete meet specified lished. Such meetings during con- from those approved for the work.
values, i t will be considered t o struction can also be helpful. If it is thought that there has been
comply with that requirement. The change or significant encroach-
principal of 100 percent compli- Inspection and testing ment on specification limits, addi-
ance is now widely discredited and What inspection and testing tional such tests should be made as
recognized as not only unrealistic then is necessary to provide the a basis for any needed action and
but a needless cause of higher quality desired? This may be di- for the record to show what was
costs. Concessions made under it, vided into material-acceptance done.
though probably reasonable as to testing, concrete production in-
some aspects of materials, may spection and testing, and inspec- Concrete testing
tend to weaken firm requirement tion of concrete placement and Concrete should be sampled for
of compliance with non-material, other aspects of construction. To- the various tests at least once each
performance aspects of the speci- gether with these go sufficient re- shift of concrete production.
fications. cordkeeping t o show what was ASTM C 94 for ready-mixed con-
done and what was obtained. The crete and the AC1 318 Building
Training and communication extent to which each is carried out Code say to sample concrete for
Quality is best assured when the may vary somewhat in accordance strength test cylinders each 150
inspection and testing force is well with the size and importance of yd3 (115 m3). The AC1 standard
trained and ably supervised. This the job, but this should only be in “Specifications for Structural
includes seeing that the inspectors degree as each is an element in Concrete’’ says each 100 yd3 (77
know at least what they need to getting quality, regardless of size m3). In any event, the sampling
know and that they have the cor- of job, from a house foundation to should be established on a com-
rect attitude of firm but pleas- a nuclear powerpIant. pletely random basis without any
antly detached authority, although Concrete materials other than hint or taint of selection. Tests
endeavoring to be helpful wher- aggregates can be accepted on should include unit weight, slump,
ever they properly can. For these certification of the producer but it air content, and temperature. Cyl-
important reasons of supervision should be required that these cer- inders should be made for tests of
and training, it is usually better to tifications be accompanied by a compressive strength, in number
include these functions in the own-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
copy of his test results showing and ages prescribed by the speci-
er’s or engineer’s organization that the cement, pozzolan, admix- fications or pertinent code. A
than to assign this great responsi- ture, or membrane-curing com- common requirement is for two 6
bility to an outside organization pound does in fact meet specifica- x 12-in. (15 x 30-em) cylinders each
over which supervision and con- tion requirements. Random sam- for tests at 7 and 28 days. Some-
trol is difficult at best. The cost of ples of delivered materials can be times tests at 91 days and 1year
quality concrete work will be least taken, possibly at one month in- are very reassuring and instruc-
when all concerned really want it tervals more or less as experience tive.g Applicable ASTM standards
and work harmoniously together may indicate advisable, and tested for sampling and testing the con-
to see that they get it. for conformance with certification crete should be carefully followed
An important early move in this tests. and the results recorded.
direction is to hold prebid and pre- Concrete suppliers for the work The great importance of this
construction meetings attended by should require their aggregate care and correctness in all the op-
responsible representatives of the producers to see to it that mate- erations of making concrete
owner and builder, architect and rial delivered t o their batching strength tests cannot be overem-
engineer, inspection and testing plant conforms to specification re- phasized. In most acceptance con-
people, and materials suppliers. quirements. Otherwise disagreea- frontations the indicated strength
Thus mutual understanding of ble and disruptive delays may re- of the concrete is the deciding fac-
specifications and potential prob- sult when there is persistent and tor. Usually other questions can be
lems is promoted, and acquaint- significant failure to meet speci- worked out if strength tests are
ance and communication is estab- fied requirements. good. If they are not, there is a
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Copyright American Concrete Institute 5
A C 1 COMP*l6 ** W Ob62949 0501767 I
real problem. So it is important and are being batched uniformly
that they not be low due to care- Eternal vigilance is the from the same aggregate, the con-
lessness and ineptness in sam- price of success in concrete sistency or slump of the concrete
pling, molding, curing, and test- constructionjust as it has is the primary item for inspection
ing. Aside from dishonesty, there been the price of liberty in and control. A variable slump is
is little that can be done to make a the history of mankind. likely to add to variation in con-
test cylinder stronger than the po- crete strength. Excessive slump
tential of the original concrete. usually decreases strength
But there are many things that through increase water-cement ra-
can reduce its strength.lo Well- tio or stratification. Concrete of
Control of strength and any
practiced and supervised persons insufficient slump, particularly at
evaluation of strength tests should
should do this work with care to the start of a placement, is likely
be carried out in accordance with
see primarily that the sample is to lead to poor consolidation and
AC1 Standard 214, “Recom-
truly representative and that the appearance.
mended Practice for Evaluation of
cylinder specimens a r e evenly Unfortunately, slump is not sub-
Strength Test Results of Con-
filled and fully consolidated with- ject to precise production or mea-
crete” and its Appendix. The ear-
out voids or rock clusters in any surement. For this reason it is
liest indication from strength tests
portion; that they are kept wet found most practical to specify a
that corrective action is needed is
with visible moisture on the sur- proper working limit on slump
when the moving average of the
face at all times and in moderate with a reasonable tolerance rather
five last tests encroaches the stip-
room temperatures until testing; than a certain n ~ m b e r Because
.~
ulated value f o r x at t h a t age.
that capping for testing should be slump is critical to concrete place-
Many times if an appropriate ad-
strong, thin, precisely flat, and es- ment, it is important to designate
justment in cement content has
pecially not convex. This need for the specified value as placed. Thus
been made, a modest encroach-
perfect planes applies also to the if temperature, delay, or material
ment on 28-day strength will be
two loading surfaces of the testing conditions cause a loss in slump
acceptable on the basis of compan-
machine. Convexity or other ir- between mixing and placement, a
ion 91-day tests which show
regularity of end surfaces has se- suitable average compensating ad-
strengths well above require-
riously reduced t e s t values and justment should be added to the
ments. I t is strongly recom-
caused needless trouble and con- slump of the concrete as mixed.
mended that these be made for the
cern on too many occasions. Don’t Tests are by no means needed
insurance they often p r ~ v i d e . ~
let it happen to you. on every batch as i t can be seen
Along with the immediate plot-
and recorded that the slump is not
ting of all strength tests and the
The concrete mix and strength out of limit. The only time a truck
moving average, the correspond-
control should be held up for a slump test
ing air content, slump, and water-
Either from previously estab- is when it is marginal and the eye-
cement ratio determined for each
lished strength expectancy for the ball test is not sure enough for re-
test batch should be plotted.
proportions and materials used, or jection. Practically speaking, in
The compressive strength of ce-
from tests of preliminary batches such cases it may be better to ac-
ment-mortar cubes from mill test
of similar proportions, it should be cept marginal loads now and then
reports on the cement going into
reasonably well known before the than to hold up smooth-running
the concrete should be plotted. It
concrete work starts what placement, unless there has not
is also helpful to plot the corre-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
strength the mix should produce if been prompt response to notifica-
sponding influential aggregate
the slump and air content are kept tion that the working limit was
properties, particularly percent
within the stipulated limits. Thus being exceeded and that the toler-
moisture and fines in sand, sand
the strength tests of job concrete ance-rejection limit was being ap-
equivalent values, and percent of
a r e primarily for the record t o p r ~ a c h e d .When
~ the rejection
significant undersize in coarse ag-
show to what degree the expected limit has obviously been exceeded
gregate as determined on samples
strength was obtained. Obviously by a wet batch, no time should be
taken at the time of the test batch
7 and 28-day tests would be too lost in making a test; an estimated
once a shift o r a day, as may be
late to take any prompt action. If value with note of rejection is
appropriate. This plotted informa-
it is found that fewer than the re- enough for the book.
tion kept faithfully up to date will
quired percent reached required often reveal trends requiring cor-
strength, it merely means a slight Inspection of construction
rective action which will forestall
encroachment on the factor of operations
later sags in the strength lines.
safety at that age. If it is deemed We have discussed the materials
that probable higher strength later Slump and slump tests for making concrete and the con-
will still be insufficient, an appro- Once concrete proportions and crete itself as a material. Speci-
priate adjustment can be made in cement content have been se- fied numbers for various aspects
cement content. lected for the strength required of these materials are our guide to
6
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*3b
~ _____~
** W 0662949 0503768 3 W ~~
the sufficiency of quality in them. It has been suggested that such

Inspection of construction opera- I f faithfully hxpt records doubts of credibility would be
tions is less specifically defined show compliance with largely allayed or eliminated if the
than t h a t of materials and con- specincation requirements owner or engineer had at least one
crete production. It is nonetheless and the general appearance qualified person working along
important and that importance has of the concrete work is good, with the builder’s inspection
prompted the preparation of sev- there should be iu) question forces. This person could not only
eral valuable guides to such atten- of acceptance of the work. make confirmatory observations
tion. These include a number of but make confirmatory random
recommended practices composed tests as well, to insure that the re-
by working committees of AC1 cord being produced by the builder
and the AC1 Manual of Concrete Records was accurate. On turnkey work
Inspectìon. where the owner has no staff on
Assurance of quality in con-
Appearance tells much of how the job, the builder can establish
struction is not a reality without
well the work was done but by no the credibility of his testing and
records that give that assurance.
means all. And if it is not what it inspection records only by con-
These records must be systemati-
should have been, it is too late to vincing evidence that his quality
cally and presentably kept. They
do much about it. Unlike the forces are entirely free agents, re-
must be accurate, consistent, and
neatly tabulated results of sponsible only to his top manage-
believable. But they need not be
strength tests in proof of the qual- ment. As one advertisement said
excessive in coverage and should
ity attained, the often hidden good about its quality managers:
not be redundant.
results of constiuction inspection If faithfully kept records show
are not readily documented even “Their job is to help make sure
compliance with specification re- that you get what you pay for.
though daily shift reports are requirements and the general ap- Their only allegiance is to qual-
quired. Accordingly, construction pearance of the concrete work is ity. If they say “no” due to non-
inspection will encourage quality good, there should be no question conformance, then no it is. And
by seeing and approving or disap- no one reverses their decision.
of acceptance of the work regard- To insure that they remain free
proving, step by step, while action less of its size, complexity, or im- spirits, they a r e responsible to
can still be taken if necessary for portance, or for what owner or our corporate vice president for
corrections. agency it is built. It is emphasized quality. He reports only to the
Checkout cards for each con- t h a t no other records of other Office of t h e President.”
crete placement with initials of tests or observations are neces-
foremen and inspectors attesting sary nor will they improve the as- Whatever way our concrete con-
that all elements were properly surance that can be taken from the struction work may be set up, if
ready for concrete will do much to fully adequate record herein advo- such firmly declared intent is es-
get quality construction. This will cated. In fact, any further testing tablished and so operated, quality
include such items as preparation and inspection, such as recording concrete construction through ef-
and cleanup of foundation and all batch weights, slump tests on fective inspection and proper test-
construction joint surfaces, cor- most truck loads, or routine sam- ing will be accomplished in a fully
rect setting of reinforcement and pling a t the end of pump lines, is credible fashion. And, as Mr.
other embedments, dimensions likely to detract from the quality McMillan answered his last ques-
and tightness of forms, adequacy of the work through its many in- tion in the Concrete Primel; “Is
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of facilities for each concrete terruptions, and certainly will in- good inspection an important fea-
placement including vibrators, crease its cost unnecessarily. ture of concrete construetion?”,
proper use of suitable starting “Eternal vigilance is the price of
mixes, avoidance or scattering of Credibility success in concrete construction
separated coarse aggregate, flat- There is no question of the cred- just as it has been the price of lib-
work finishing procedures, curing ibility of efforts such as these to erty in the history of mankind.
and protection, and repairs. get quality constixction when they Careful inspection should be en-
Inspection forces will be most are conducted by personnel in the forced in all of the operations re-
effective in getting correct perfor- employ of the owner or architect- lating to:
mance of these unnumbered as- engineer. But unfortunately there the selection of the materials;
pects of good concrete construc- is a trend in some agencies, and the design of the mixtures;
tion when it is understood on the some engineers advocate, to place mixing, transporting, placing,
job that the work was organized these activities in the hands of the consolidating, and finishing;
and administered in such a way builder.I2 This is inherently the protection and curing.
that the inspection staff was there case on turnkey projects. Some
as free agents of management ex- doubt of the credibility of such in- By careful and intelligent control
pected t o get the desired and spection and its freedom from a t all of these stages, enduring
specified performance paid for. conflict of interest may exist. structures can be achieved.’’
QUALITY ASSURANCE 7
A C 1 COMP*3b ** m 0bb2949 O503769 5 m
10, Oct. 1977, pp. 537-539.
The great importance of 6. Wright, R. Harlan, Discussion of Quality in concrete
care in muking concrete “How Good is Good Enough?” by Edward construction is the decision
A. Abdun-Nur, AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings
strength tests cannot be V. 59, No. 9, Sept. 1962, pp. 1236-1238. to haue it, and to see that
oueremphized. In most 7. Tuthiil, Lewis H., Discussion of “Re- you get it.
acceptance confrontations sponsibility in Concrete Inspection,” AC1
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 71, No. 10, Oct.
t h indkated strength of the 1974, p. 532.
concrete is the deciding 8. Tuthill, Lewis H., Discussion of “Pro-
fdor. posed Revision of AC1 214-65; Recom-
mended Practice for Evaluation of
Strength Test Results of Concrete” by AC1
Committee 214, AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings
V. 74, No. 1, Jan. 1977, pp. 43-44. Honorary AC1 mem-
9. Tuthiil, Lewis H., “Cylinder Strength ber Lewis H. Tut-
References at 91 Days,” AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. hili Is a concrete
1. McMillan, F. R., and Tuthill, Lewis H., 72, No. 11, Nov. 1975, p. N17. engineering consul-
Concrete Primer, SP-1, 3rd Edition, Amer- 10. Mercer, L. Boyd, ‘‘Concrete Strength tant, Sacramento,
ican Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1973, 96 Variations-60 Contributory Causes,” AC1 Cali& Until retire-
PP. JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 47, No. 9, May ment he was a con-
2. Tuthiil, Lewis H., Discussion of “Con- 1951, pp. 745-747. crete engineerfor 13
crete Control” by I. L. Tyler, T r a m t i o m , 11. “Quality Problems Get Hard Look,” yearsfor the CaliJor-
ASCE, V. 106, 1941, pp. 1272-1275. Engineering News-Record, V. 211, July 28, nia Dewartment of Water Resources.
3. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. 1983, p. 11. Prior to’ that he w& a concrete engineer
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 1975, 627 12. Isaak, Merlyn, “Contractor Quality for the Bureau of Reclamation in Denver,
PP. Control: An Evaluation,” Proceedings, Colo. He has served on ACl’s Technical
4. Tuthill, Lewis H., “Quality Attain- ASCE, V. 108, C04, Dec. 1982, pp. 481- Activities Committee and the Board of
ment and Common Sense in Nuclear Con- 484, Engineering News-Record, Oct. 22, Directfon. He is active on ACI Commtt-
crete Construction,” Concrete Interna- 1981, p. 17. tees 116 , Notation and Nomenclature;
tional: Design & Constmtion, V. l, No. 3, 207, Mass Concrete; 224, Cracking; 302,
Mar. 1979, Specification for Concrete Construction of Concrete Floors; 305, Hot
Slump and Consistency, p. 36. Weather Concreting; 306, Cold Weather
5. Tuthill, Lewis H., “Revibration Reex- Received and reviewed under Institute Concreting; 308, Curing Concrete; and
amined,” Concrete Constiwt.ion, V. 22, No. publication policies. 31 1, Inspection of Concrete.
ha coJfier@te
comaJJlJt@.s Ek?sL?gm
“UBW i
This publication is a :ompilation of useful articles
and papers on the subject of use of computers in
concrete design. The 16 reports cover topics This publication is a compilation of useful
including computers in concrete technology, articles and papers on the subject of use of
spreadsheet applications for prestressed concrete computers in concrete construction. The 14
bridge girder design, applying PC-base graphics to reports cover topics including an overview of
computers in concrete technology, quality
the display of loads on concrete, monolithic control, expert systems for concrete
simplifying cancrete mix design with the PC, construction, computer-aided cusum analysis
integrated software for concrete design, concrete and evaluation of strength test results, PC
detailing using autopade, database-interactive- analysis of construction loads on slabs and
shores, concrete construction optimization,
graphics reinforced concrete structure, a simple cold weather concrete curing, project duration
knowledge-base design approach and much more. estimation software, expert systems, shore and
This compilation offers an opportunity to gather reshore sc heduIing, computer-a ided equipment
together material previously published in Institute selection for concrete placing, Interactive
horizontal and vertical formwork selection, and
publications as a compact and ready reference on automatic adjustment of concrete mixtures. This
computers in concrete design. cornpilation offers an opportunity to gather
C-14, 1991,86 pages useful information on computers in concrete
construction in a compact and ready reference.
C-15,1991, 88 pp.
AP”9EROCAK COPJCRETE UPJST!TUTE

@i3
MEMBEWCUSTOMER SERVICES DEPT. American Concreto Institute
P.O. BOX 19150 DETROIT, MI 48219-0150 Member/Customer Seivices Dept.
(313)532-2600 FAX (313)533-4747 P.O. Box 19150 Detroit, MI 48219-0150
Tel. (313)532-2600 FAX (313)533-4747
8 --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COflP*ltb ** W Ob62749 0503770 II W ~~~~~ ~
nite number of alternatives can be

considered, and the single, most
economical, satisfactory solution
Selecting Relevant selected. Thus the proper levels of

quality w
ill be established which, if
met, will insure construction that
will give the desired service at
Levels of lowest cost.
Desired performance
Quality As I said, what is wanted in any

construction is work of the quality
that will give the desired perfor-
mance at the lowest cost that must
by Bryant Mather be paid to get such work. We want
concrete having the levels of rele-
vant properties it should have to
give this service, but we do not
want to pay extra to cause it to
have higher levels of properties
that i t does not need. Thus, the
best concrete for any given pur-
To do quality concrete work one needs seems to me to be still as relevant pose is the one that does the job
to have both a proper set o wtteTia fw
the levels of properties eing sought
and proper procedures to control the
tf now as it was then with the prem-
ise that, in all construction, the in-
satisfactorily at lowest cost, hav-
ing due regard for both ñrst cost
qualzty of what i s done so that these tent is to maximize proper perfor- and maintenance and repair
levels are attained. Failure to realize mance, minimize improper perfor- (Mather, 1964). A concrete job
that adequate quality f o r certain wo?%
OT in certain regions m a y be either mance, and do this at the lowest that costs more than it should is a
more w less restyictive than needed f o r practicable cost. Quality control poor job and is poorer proportion-
other wwk in other places and can re- and quality assurance can maxi- ately to the amount more that it
sult in excellent quality-control proce-
dures being employed to oduce hi hly
uniform concrete to eit ber waste ully
expensive highey levels o quality than
r f ” mize the probability of obtaining
the level of performance that will
costs than it should, regardless of
whether or not one result of its
are needed or to lower evels than re- í result if the construction meets costing more may be t h a t i t is
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
quired to provide the desired sewice in the specified requirements. It can- structurally stronger or of better
use. not, directly, maximize the obtain- appearance than it has any need to
Keywords: concrete construction; costs; ing of proper performance unless be.
performance; quality assurance; quality the levels of quality that will yield Different standards and criteria
control; serviceability. proper performance happen to be are applicable t o different con-
those which result from compli- structions as these constructions
Early in 1966 I learned that there ance with the requirements that have different purposes. The fit-
was going t o be held in May of were established. There are an in- ness of concrete to do a job is sim-
that year, at the University of Vir- finite number of quality levels that ilar to the fitness of a person to do
ginia, a conference on “Statistical can be set. Sometimes the levels a job. For some purposes a con-
Quality Control Methodology in are set too low and the product, crete-or a person-needs a much
Highway and Airfield Construc- even if it meets the established re- greater degree of any of many ca-
tion.” It seemed to me that there quirements, fails to give satisfac- pabilities than is needed for other
was a gap in the planning for that tory service. Often the levels are purposes. Such capabilities include
conference, because although set too high, and the work is made the ability t o carry load without
much was planned to be covered in more costly than it needs t o be. undue strain or cracking, the abil-
the fields of uniformity, variabil- Procedures are needed by which, ity to endure adverse environmen-
ity, quality control, and quality as- using such tools as electronic data tal conditions, physical attractive-
surance, little apparently had been processing, all the relevant prop- ness, or the ability to remain rela-
planned for presentation on the erties that a structure needs to tively unchanged in dimensions
subject of what levels of quality have so as to give the desired ser- with changes in ambient tempera-
are appropriate and how are the vice in the environment in which it ture or moisture conditions.
proper levels selected. So I wrote, is to serve are related to the prop- Concrete can be provided-even
and later presented, a discussion erties of available materials and as people can be employed-hav-
called “Selecting Appropriate combinations of materials, con- ing a great range in the degree to
Levels of Quality” (Mather, struction systems, methods, prac- which these and other capabilities
1966a). I started then, and it tices, and schedules. Thus an infi- are possessed.
QUALITY ASSU RANCE
A C 1 COflP*Lb ** M 0662949 0 5 0 3 7 7 3 3 M
Concretes-like people-have The vast majority of concrete procedure’’ is what I am again
certain minimal capabilities in satisfactorily serves the purposes suggesting here.
these respects even when little ef- for which it was produced. Few How should proper levels of
fort is consciously made to select examples of concrete are the best quality be established? To be spe-
among the available alternatives; that they could have been. Most cific, how should appropriate lev-
conversely, high degrees of capa- are better than they need to be els of quality be established to in-
bility in some of these respects can and hence cost more than they sure that the concrete to be used
only be obtained by very rigorous needed to cost. A few do not sat- in a particular part of a particular
selection. isfactorily serve the purposes for structure will give satisfactory
which they were made. It is this performance by being able ade-
Owners, architects, designers,
latter few that receive most of the quately to resist the deteriorative
structural engineers-and statisti-
attention.’ forces of its environment of ser-
cians-do not always appreciate
the degree to which the attain- The few jobs that do not satis- vice?
ment of the best concrete for the factorily serve their purposes do There is no variety of concrete,
purpose requires selection of qual- so, in nearly every case, for sev- nor indeed any other material,
ity level. Investigators have not eral reasons rather than a single either natural or man-made, that
provided an adequate body of in- reason. Some of these reasons are: is entirely unchanging or everlast-
terpreted knowledge relating the (1)Failure of the owner to un- ing (Mather, 1966). In the real
effects of the requirements that derstand what he needed. world, all materials alter with time
can be imposed to the levels of rel- (2) Failure of the architect and and exposure, no matter how mild
evant properties that must be ob- engineer to understand the own- the exposure may be. Thus, for a
tained in the finished work, er’s needs and to translate these material such as concrete, when
needs into proper quality levels of one speaks of freedom from dete-
The result of this is t h a t too rioration, one necessarily speaks
often a contract is let in which it is relevant properties and into cor-
rect specification requirements for not in an absolute sense but in a
required that the contractor do relative sense. It is not necessary
things that, if not done, or if done the work.
(3) Failure of all concerned with to avoid all change, however mi-
in a less costly way or with less nor, for an infinite length of time;
costly materials, will not detract establishment of specifications to
include only what was needed and i t is only necessary t o avoid
from the suitability of the con- changes of a nature and degree
crete for its purpose. In the same exclude what was not needed.
(4)Failure to require uniform such as to impair the ability of the
way, the contract may fail to re- concrete properly to serve its de-
quire that .the contractor do other compliance by the contractor with
all requirements of the contract. sired purpose for a period of time
things t h a t must be done if the appropriate to the intended ser-
proper concrete for the purpose is (5) Failure by the contractor to
comply with all requirements of vice life of the structure of which
to be obtained. it is a part.
the contract.
Good specifications In 1964 it was estimated that a Service life
The only good specification is ton of concrete was being pro- Different structures have differ-
t h a t which requires only those duced each year for every living ent intended service lives-in mili-
things t h a t need to be done to human being in the world (Mather, tary operations the service life
make the concrete suitable for its 1964a). Roger Corbetta (1964) es- may be days or weeks; structures
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
purpose. A good specification con- timated that 5 percent of all the at a World’s Fair may need to re-
tains no requirements that can be money spent t o buy concrete is main serviceable for as long as one
ignored or slighted and is one that spent to buy ‘(bad” concrete. By or two years; a dam or a seawall
omits no requirements that must “bad” concrete, he meant con- may, in some cases, be expected to
be met. It is not possible to write crete t h a t is below the proper endure indefinitely. Similarly,
such a specification; it is only pos- quality level. It was my opinion, in changes that impair the ability of
sible to try to do so. 1966, that more than a billion dol- concrete in one structure to serve
With a “good specification” nei- lars was wasted annually by set- its desired purpose would not nec-
ther the contractor nor the inspecting quality levels higher than they essarily impair t h a t in another
tor is in any doubt as to what must need to be set. I do not have a rea- structure to the same degree. Sur-
be done. With such a specification, son to revise this opinion now. face defects produced by changes
any part of the work that is not in Roger added: “It would appear after construction on a surface
accordance with the requirements t h a t we have reached a point with regard to which there was no
must be changed so that i t does where re-evaluation of custom, requirement for smoothness or es-
comply. The question of whether it tradition and procedure in the thetic quality during construction
is “good enough,” even though not building of concrete structures is may be of no concern; similar de-
as good as required by the con- indicated.” Part of this “re-evalu- fects on an architectural concrete
tract, will not arise. ation of custom, tradition, and facade may render it unservice-
10
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*3b
~~ ___ ~
** m O662949 ~~
0503772 5
~
~~ ~~
m
able unless repaired. Thus the ap- Crete at a point in a structure has ing t h a t current engineering
propriate quality level of concrete failed to maintain a satisfactory knowledge and practice, if prop-
is not that which will provide for degree of freedom from change erly applied, would have been in-
the complete Gbsence of change for a satisfactory period of time: adequate to prevent failure.?
and infinite durability. Differing either (a) the specifications under Lack of knowledge results from
quality levels for allowable de- which it was built were not com- the failure of research to have
grees of change over differing pe- plied with, or @) the specifications been carried out to produce the
riods of intended service free of were defective in failing to include needed kncwledge. This, in turn,
excessive change will be applica- one or more requirements t h a t results primarily from failure of
ble to concretes in differing struc- should have been included, or the government and industry ade-
tures. Thus the requirements for both. quately to support the research
concrete-concrete materials, con- Failure to comply with the re- t h a t needs to be done. Lack of
crete mixture proportions, and quirements of spekifications is knowledge, especially in the field
concrete construction practices- breach of contract, and remedial of construction practice, is also
should vary widely. More restric- action following such failure significantly contributed to by fail-
tive provisions-higher quality should be taken by those con- ure of those having such knowl-
levels- should be required the less cerned with legal and fiscal mat- edge to record and publish it.
the allowable change or the longer ters. The tendency for such failure Knowledge that has not been dis-
the required period of freedom to occur, however, is greatly in- seminated through publication is
from a given degree of change-or creased by the inclusion in specifi- knowledge that is unavailable for
both. cations of ambiguous, redundant, use by others.
There is the additional impor- unnecessary, impractical, or im-
possible provisions. Ideally the Failure to use available knowl-
tant factor of the difference in the edge results from failure of speci-
environment from place to place contractor should obtain appropri-
fication writers to read, under-
where concrete must manifest the ate positive ofîicial clarification of
stand, and apply the information
desired freedom from change for all ambiguities and removal of all
and conclusions given in the liter-
the intended period of time. I in- redundant, unnecessary, and im-
ature that is available. This failure
clude under the heading of the en- possible provisions before he is
is contributed to, at least to some
vironment not only those obvious confronted with the time in the
extent, by the failure of some
environmental factors such as conduct of the work when they ap-
writers to include with the report
weather and climate that affect ply. In practice, too often, this is
of their findings the sort of discus-
temperature extremes and rates not done, and such provisions are
sion and interpretation of these
of temperature change, relative merely ignored. On such a project
findings that will facilitate their
humidity, freezing and thawing, the likelihood is that some other
use by specification writers in set-
and wetting and drying, but also provision, one which must be com-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ting quality levels in specifica-
factors such as attack on concrete plied with if the intended service is
tions.
by natural or man-made agents or to be obtained, will also be ig-
agencies, both chemical and physi- nored through failure to appreci- We may then conclude that,
cal, including acids, salts, sulfates, ate its significance. while there are an infinite number
airborne corrosive gases, ter- Failure of the specifications to of varieties of concrete and an in-
mites, and marine borers. include al1 of the requirements finite range of requirements that
that must be met, if the desired concrete could be required to
Now that I have indicated the service is to be obtained, results meet, the concrete in any given
complexity of the situation with either from lack of knowledge point in a structure will be satis-
which concrete, and those who concerning what should be re- factory if t h e specifications in-
make i t and those who design, quired or from failure to use prop- clude the necessary requirements
build, and use structures com- erly the available knowledge. John and they a r e complied with.
posed wholly or in part of it, aie McLaughlin (1965) stated that ?if Greater assurance of compliance
confronted, I will t r y to suggest half the available knowledge on with necessary requirements of
how these complexities can be concrete was put into practice, 95 specifications will be promoted by
dealt with and how their poten- percent of the problems would exclusion from specifications of
tially undesirable consequences evaporate.? The report of a Royal ambiguity and unnecessary, re-
can be avoided by selecting proper Commission (1964) on the failure dundant, and impossible require-
levels of quality. I leave it to oth- of a bridge in 1964 stated, ?It is ments.
ers to indicate how by quality con- rare to find engineering disasters
trol methodology the proper levels which have been caused by factors Computerized specifications
of quality can be assured in the which were completely outside en- How many variations on a con-
work. gineering knowledge at the time of crete specification must a specifi-
There are only two ways in design. . . . The Commission cation writer have available to se-
which it can develop that the con- could find no ground for suppos- lect among in order to pick the
QUALITY ASSURANCE 11
A C 1 COMP*Lb ** W Ob62949 0503773 7 W
right one for any particular work?
Indeed, it might be asked if I am
advocating an infinite number of
.) t
PROPERTIES PROPORTIONS CONSTRUCTION
variations of concrete specifica- OF MATERIALS OF MATERIALS PRACTICES
tions! The answer is yes, I am ad- I
vocating an infinite number of dif-

ferent specifications! I suggest
that the time is coming, sooner
than many of us think, when spec-
ifications will be assembled by
SPECIFICATIONS
FOR WORK
I I
I I
I I
S E L E C T ~ G ~ T
WHAT TO SPECIFY
1
computers. One will feed into the
t
computer a wide range of infor-
mation concerning all the relevant
factors, including the desired ser-
+
PROPERTES OF PROPERTIES OF
t
vice life of the structure or the THE CONCRETE ENVIRONMENT
element of the structure; the kinds
and amounts of changes that can
be tolerated during the service +
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
life; the nature of the climate and
TENDENCY OF THE
the weather; the characteristics of CONCRETE TO UNDERGO
the site; the nature and severity of ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED
all other relevant agents and CRACKING
agencies whose attack must be re-
sisted and to what degree; a vari- Fig. 1 - Factors asfecting tendency of concrete to undergo environmen-
tally induced crackmg.
ety of structural data, including
thinness or thickness, orientation,
degree of restraint, thickness of
cover over steel, ability to drain, ing at appropriate quality levels properties of the environment be-
and so on; a wide variety of data only those things that need to be comes available, more precise
derived from tests of locally and required, all of them, and no more, specifications can be assembled
economically available materials and had assurance that we would that properly match the level of
and mixtures of materials; and, if get what we specified, we would, severity of service conditions and
necessary, other data from tests of of course, avoid the troubles that the quality level of concrete prop-
more exotic, less economical ma- confront us when concrete mani- erties to provide the most econom-
terials and mixtures; and finally fests more deterioration than an- ical concrete that can be guaran-
data on construction systems, ticipated during its specified life. teed to give the desired freedom
methods, practices, and schedules. from deterioration 'in the service
In this manner, the truly infinite Changes in concrete environment. Fig. 1, which is
number of alternatives concerning All concrete changes with the taken from a discussion of con-
combinations of materials and passage of time. Changes in concrete cracking (Mather, 1968a) il-
methods can be compared with the crete are not a matter of concern lustrates graphically the point that
equally truly infinite number of al- unless the changes are of a greater the tendency of a structure or a
ternatives regarding the service degree or a different type than material to undergo change in a
requirements for the concrete and were anticipated and expected and given environment is due to the
the environment in which these therefore would have been toler- interaction of the properties of the
requirements must be met so that ated in the time during which the material or the structure and the
the one proper solution t h a t is concrete had been in service. properties of t h e environment.
most economical can be selected, Changes of undesirable types or to Assuming that one cannot modify
indicated, and specified. Thus I an undesirable degree can be pre- the environment, it follows that
suggest that the concrete specifier vented by including in the con- one will therefore select for ser-
should have, in effect, an infinite struction specifications those pro- vice in that environment, the ma-
number of alternative specifica- visions which, if complied with, terial or structure that has those
tions and that only the best one will cause the concrete satisfactor- properties which, when they inter-
will actually ever need to be as- ily to resist the forces of change to act with those of the environment,
sembled for use in the advertise- an adequate degree for an appro- will produce only those changes
ment for bids on any given proj- priate period of time and by insur- that are desired or can be toler-
ect. ing that these provisions are com- ated. The selection of the appro-
If we today approached the plied with. As more precise quan- priate levels of relevant properties
question of obtaining proper con- titative knowledge of the relation- is what this diagram is about.
crete by this process, by specify- ship of concrete properties and From a knowledge of the proper-
12
AC1 COMPILATION
~~
A C 1 COflP*Lb
~ ~~
** ~~~
m O b b 2 ï V ï 0503774 9 W
~ ~ ~~~
ties of the environment, a selec- tended service and avoid exces- cially the role of critical saturation
tion is made of items that should sively high standards. in damage due t o freezing and
be specified-which a r e here There are a number of relatively thawing, has obscured and de-
shown to be classifed into three well-known mechanisms that can, layed proper appreciation of the
groups: properties of materials, under unfavorable conditions, pro- role of deicing chemicals in con-
proportions of materials, and con- duce premature deterioration of tributing to deterioration of con-
struction practices. Next is the se- concrete. The opportunity for the crete structures in service, espe-
lection of proper quality levels, the mechanism to operate at a rate cially bridge decks. When there
preparation of specifications. The that will cause premature deterio- was a dramatic increase in bridge
diagram then emphasizes that it is ration depends on the possession deck deterioration associated with
the interaction of the selected by the concrete of characteristics the great increase in the use of
quality levels and the enforcement that it should not have had in the deicing salts, many students of the
of the specification requirements particular environment and on the problem assumed that there must
that produce the properties with fact t h a t t h e environment had be a chemical attack of substances
which the material or the struc- properties that many other envi- such as calcium chloride on con-
ture is finally endowed-and by ronments do not possess. crete or that the growth of salt
means of which i t must interact crystals within the pores of the
with the environment to give the These mechanisms have been concrete exerted disruptive pres-
performance of which it is capa- classified by AC1 Committee 201 sures. In fact, the chemical action
ble. (1977) into five groups: (i)freez- of the chlorides in producing dete-
I t is perfectly possible to de- ing and thawing, (2) aggressive rioration is effectively limited to
velop quality control and quality chemical exposure, (3) abrasion, (4) the phenomena of steel corrosion
assurance methodology to go with corrosion of steel and other as has been well known for many
unreasonable and indeed stupid embedded materials, and (5) decades in marine exposures of
specification requirements. This is chemical reactions of aggregates. reinforced concrete, and the influ-
not the way to get good constiuc- To this list might be added fire ence of deicing salts on the deteri-
tion. The Highway Research and mechanical overloading. These oration of the concrete itself is es-
Board staff wrote (1965), ‘‘. . . causes of concrete deterioration sentially limited to the indirect ef-
specifications could be designed to have traditionally been discussed fects of ice melting.
meet specific needs rather than under headings of their own. Concrete will be immune to frost
consisting of a compilation of The specifier needs better infor- action, with or without the use of
more-or-less standardized termi- mation on the “properties of the deicing chemicals, if it remains be-
nology. . . . Specifications prop- environment” and how these con- low critical saturation. If i t be-
erly designed and implemented trol the needed levels of proper- comes critically saturated, it will
could have impact on socioeco- ties of the concrete. No precau- continue to be immune to frost ac-
nomic benefits.” tions whatever are needed to pre- tion if the aggregate and the paste
In subsequent discussions of vent deterioration of concrete by are frost resistant. The aggregate
concrete deterioration and its freezing and thawing if the envi- will be frost resistant if its pore
avoidance (Mather, 1979), I noted ronment in which the concrete will volume is small or if it is nearly
that concrete can possess values be used is one in which freezing impermeable and not critically
over a very wide range for many and thawing cannot occur. The saturated or both; a condition that
of its properties. It can have a unit specifier should, however, be can be tested readily in the labo-
weight anywhere from less than aware t h a t some precast pre- ratory using properly air-en-
800 to more than 4000 kg/m3 (50 stressed members made in loca- trained concrete. The paste will be
to more than 250 lbmlcu ft). It can tions where freezing has never frost resistant if it is sufficiently
have an ultimate compressive taken place in nature do get used mature when frozen in a saturated
strength from less than 1to more in plants where frozen foods are state, Le., the fractional volume of
than 140 MPa (100 to over 20,000 produced. The specifier should also freezable water at saturation is
pfsi). Its permeability to fluids can be aware that some floors in build- not too large; a condition that is
be from high to negligible. Its re- ings that will never freeze in ser- achieved when the compressive
sistance to frost action and var- vice may well freeze during the strength reaches about 24 MPa
ious forms of chemical attack can concrete’s most vulnerable stage, (3500 psi); and the air-void system
range from poor to excellent. But after hardening but before full is proper, a condition that is nor-
often the values approaching the strength has developed, during mally achieved when the bubble-
limits of these ranges can be as- construction. spacing factor is 0.20 mm (0.008
sured only by using materials and in.) or less, and the air-entraining
procedures which increase produc- Environmental influences material used meets applicable
tion costs. Thus, the specifier must The failure fully to appreciate specifications.
require levels of values for the the significance of environmental I believe we now know how gen-
properties needed for the in- influences on deterioration, espe- erally to assess the environmental
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
‘ A C 1 COMPPLb Y * m 0662747 0503775 O m
stresses that concrete must resist degree of deteriorating condi- from maintenance can soon offset
and to stipulate the appropriate tions, exposure, and circum- any minor extra costs for putting
levels of relevant properties con- stances. Presumably this would be concrete together the best we
crete must have to resist these expected to provide lifetime trou- know how, rather than something
stresses. We can then generally ble-free service, and, in some we think will be good enough, but
specify the levels of relevant prop- cases, only for a predetermined may not be in the long run. Dete-
erties of materials to be selected number of years. There was also riorating conditions can prove to
a s ingredients of the concrete the hint that there may be worth- be, or become, more severe than
mixture, we can specify the pro- while savings achieved by tailor- they were understood to be in the
portions of the mixture to be used, ing the concrete to have this just- beginning.”
and we can specify the construc- the-right resistance to deteriora- In my reply to this, I wrote
tion practices to be followed. Thus tion in each exposure condition, (Mather, 1980):
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
we can specify the concrete to be and no more, and for just the right “My paper was a p a r t of the
produced. Such a proper specifica- length of time, and no more. AC1 magazine in the same month,
tion need only be followed to pro- “But concrete is not like the fa- as was published in the AC1 JOUR-
duce concrete that does not dete- bled one-horse shay. Concrete can NAL, Adam Neville’s 1979 paper
riorate. However, the specifica- be very long lasting. It does not on ‘Essentials of Strength and
tion actually used may either not come to the end of its life and ser- Durability. . .’ in which he re-
be followed in some critical aspect viceability like turning off a light. marked that strength and durabil-
or it may be deficient in some crit- It must be performing its intended ity ‘is about all there is to say
ical feature. service right up to the end with- about concrete’ and then sug-
out threatening, creeping deterio- gested that ‘the issue is not good
Long lasting concrete ration. The only exception to this concrete but concrete which is
If the nature of the environment is when obsolescense brings a n good for the job in hand,’ adding:
in which the concrete is to serve is often untimely end to the usable ‘It is uneconomical to seek perfec-
known, the levels of the relevant value of an otherwise good struction, t o produce the best t h a t
properties t h a t concrete must ture. At the time of its building, money can buy; engineers should
have in that environment to yield who knows when this will be? see what is good enough for the
the desired performance may be given purpose at lowest cost.’
“When a large water project “Lew urges t h a t ‘we not at-
selected. When these levels of started 20 years ago, it was said to
these properties are known, speci- tempt to cut the cloth too close to
be designed and built for a life of the seam where there is any ques-
fications may be prepared to pro- 50 years; this was questioned,
duce concrete of these levels of tion of durability.’
pointing out that come 50 years, “In reflecting on what I said,
these properties. These require- everything would be expected of it
ments must cover, directly or in- what Adam Neville said, and what
little different from the first flow Lew Tuthill said, I find I agree
directly, the properties of the con- of water. Hence the agreed con-
stituent materials, the proportions with all of it:
clusion and policy became to build (1)We should do concrete work
to be used, and the construction it ‘the best we know how!’
methods. When the specifications as well as needed.
are properly prepared and com- “Such prospects of long contin- (2) We should do concrete work
plied with, the concrete will poss- uing necessity for service life the best we know how.
sess levels of relevant properties make evident the importance of (3) We should provide the best
such that, as it interacts with the building ‘the best we know how’ concrete work we can afford.
effects of the environment, it will and ‘the most durable we know (4)If we deliberately do less
not deteriorate. how.’ Each additional year of such than the best, we should know
When I said some of these trouble-free service makes the why we did it and what to expect
things previously, Lew Tuthill original small margin of extra cost as a result.
(1980), one of America’s greatest for this quality a better and better (5) We should not waste money
concrete technologists, wrote in investment, especially in view of doing better work than is justi-
part: current inflation. Of course we fied.”
“I applaud his endorsement of should not indulge in excessive
strength and cement content in References
very specific specifications and the
mass concrete where not required AC1 Committee 201, 1977, “Guide
strong support for their enforce- to Durable Concrete,” (AC1 201.2R-
ment, which too often is weak or for durability. Nor do we need to
77), American Concrete Institute, De-
lacking. My concern is that some- provide resistance to a nonexis- troit, 37 pp.
one may get the idea that it is fea- tent deteriorating influence. Corbetta, Roger H., 1964, “Respon-
sible to put a concrete together “So I urge that we not attempt sibility in Concrete,” AC1 JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 61,. No, 5, May, pp:
that would have a level of resis- to cut the cloth too close to the 481-486.
tance to deterioration just suffi- seam when there is any question Highway R e s e a r c h B o a r d Staff,
cient to offset a believed known of durability. The greater freedom 1965, “Foreword,” Development of
14
AC1 COMPILATION
~~
A C 1 COMP*3b
~ ~. ~~
**
~ ~
0662944 0 5 0 3 7 7 6 2 m
-~ ~~
Guidelines for Practical and Realistic Cracking in Concrete, SP-20, Ameri-

Cwnst?*uction Specqications, NCHRP can Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp.
Report No. 17, 2 pp. 67-72.
Mather, Bryant, 1964, “The Best Mather, Bryant, 1979, “Concrete
Concrete Job for the Purpose,” News- Need N o t Deteriorate,” Concrete In-
letter, AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. ternational: Design & Construction, V.
61, No. 9, Sept., pp. 1-2. 1,No. 9, Sept., pp. 32-37.
Mather, Bryant, 1964a, “Research Mather, Bryant, 1980, Author’s Clo-
on Plain Concrete,” T & A M Report sure to Lewis H. Tuthill’s discussion of
No. 272, University of Illinois, Ur- “Concrete Need N o t Deteriorate,”
bana, Dec., pp. 5-16. Concrete Intemational: Design & Con-
Mather, Bryant, 1966, “Concrete st?.uction, V. 2, No. 7, July, p. 88.
Deterioration,” Enclosure to Techni- McLaughlin, John F., 1965, ‘‘View
cal Infoimation Letters No. 245 and f r o m t h e I v o r y T o w e r , ” Concrete
236, National Sand and Gravel Asso- Products, V. 68, No. 12, Dec., p. 24.
ciationlNationa1 Ready Mixed Con- Neville, A. M., 1979, ‘‘Essentials of
crete Association, Silver Spring, Mar., S t r e n g t h a n d Durability of Various
Types of Concrete with Special Refer- Bryant Mather i s chief, Structures
6 PP. ence t o Sulfur,” AC1 JOURNAL, Pro- Laboratory, Waterways Expel-intent
Mather, Bryant, 1966a, “Selecting Station, U. S. A r m y Corps of Engi-
ceedings - V. 76, No. 9, Sept., pp. 973-
Appropriate Levels of Quality,” Pro- 996. neers, Vicksburg, Miss., and has been
ceedings, National Conference on Sta- Royal Commission, 1964, “Report of with that federal u 5 e m sime 1941. He
tistical Quality Control Methodology in i s a n HonoTary Memjer and a past
the Royal Commission on the Failure president of AGI and i s a member of
Highway a n d Airfield Construction, of King’s Bridge, Melbourne,” Engi-
University of Virginia, Charlottes- several technical committees. He i s
neering (London), May 1, p. 610. m r w n t l y chaimnan of Committee 116,
ville, pp. 165-180. Also, Miscellaneous Tuthill, Lewis H., 1980, Discussion
Paper No. 6-833 (NTIS No. AD 742- N o t a t i o n and Nomenclature. His
of “Concrete Need Not Deteriorate” awards and honors inclzcde ACI’s
270), U S . Army Engineer Wateiways by Bryant Mather, Concrete Intema- Hen?-y C. TU?.^ Medal .in recognition
Experiment Station. tional: Design & Construction, V. 2, of “his m a n y years in improving the
Mather, Bryant, 1968, “Cracking No. 7, July, p. 88. quality of concrete work . ..
and for
Induced by Environmental Effects,” Received and reviewed under Institute publica- his vigorous personal efforts both in-
Causes, Mechanism, and Control of tion policies. side and outszde of that assignment. ”
THE SMALL BOOK THAT SAVES IN A

--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
**
I
A C 1 COMP*KLb O b h Z q y ï 0503777 4
Recent failures throughout the woi-ld high quality concrete
have called i n t o question the reputa-
tion of concrete as a reliable, durable,
maintenancefree material. The causes
can be produced worldwide
of these doubts range f r o m ever-chaw- using well-known
ing social demands and expectations,
t o developments in m a t e r i a l s and common sense techniques
methods of construction, to economic
pressures. Improvements will only be
achieved when there i s a proper appre-
ciation of the realities of today’s con-
crete construction techntques; the m l y
chan es necessaqy are in the attitudes
of alfconcewed. The authw concludes
uvith a radicallg simple proposition fw
improving the quality of concrete
everywhere.
Common Quality
in
Concrete
Construction
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
by Ken Newman
Concrete is still the most impor- ture of the construction industry internal disruption of concrete
tant single material on earth for and in the methods of concrete from alkali-silica reaction, and
building and civil engineering. The production and use, and finally strength reductions due to the
word concrete has always been from considerable social and eco- conversion of high alumina ce-
used as a synonym for something nomic pressures following the first ment Concrete; and
that is solid, reliable, immovable; a oil crisis and t h e more recent the occurrence of non-structural
durable maintenance-free material recession. cracks during setting and hard-
with an almost infinite service-life. Recent problems o r failures, ening due to moisture and ther-
However, several recent well-pub- that have done much to tarnish the mal effects.’
licized failures throughout t h e image of concrete, include: These problems range from the
world have caused not only the annoying or worrying (as with
corrosion of reinforcing steel
public at large, but also the indus- early-age plastic shrinkage crack-
either due t o the inclusion of
try itself, to question this defini- ing) to the financially cata-
calcium chloride or other salts
tion. strophic, where major disruption
from admixtures or aggregates,
What has happened? The main may result in costly repairs, many
or externally from deicing salts,
areas of concern stem first from a times the initial construction cost
or in marine structures above
variety of concrete failures, from as, for example, with bridge decks
the high tide zone;
significant changes in the struc- in the U.S. and Europe or balcony
poor, hurried construction tech- slabs in Sweden.2 This has re-
Keywords; acceptability; concrete con- niques, especially in the Middle sulted in such descriptions in the
struction; economics; quality assurance; East where ground salts con- press as “crumble-Crete,” “rot-
quality control; responsibility; serviceabil-
ity. taminate aggregates and water; Crete,” and “the concrete can-
16 AC1 COMPILATION
COMPtLb t t
A C 1 ~-
~~~~
= 0bb2949 0503778 b
ces”. These problems are no terials, products, components,
longer merely national or interna- It is a truism that good and standards of workmanship.
tional, they are intercontinental. quality concrete is made This is the task of the contrac-
It is a truism that good quality from cement, sand, tor under the supervision of the
reinforced concrete is made from aggregates, water, and engineer.
cement, sand, aggregates, water, reinforcement-and so is Perform satisfactorily in use,
and reinforcement - and so is bad bad quality concrete. So i.e., it will be strong and struc-
quality concrete. So what has hap- what has happened? turally sound; resist fire, earth-
pened? There is, of course, no sim- quake, flood, and other natural
ple answer, but major contribut- hazards; be weather resistant
ing factors include: and durable; and retain its ap-
greater planning restrictions on pearance with low maintenance
Over the years, the specifier and cement and aggregate material costs. This is the task of the de-
contractor have had to cope processing and pressure to use sign engineer and the contrac-
with major changes in methods such by-products as pulverized tor.
of concrete construction. There fuel ash (PFA), ground granu- Give value for the money, i.e.,
is ever-increasing difficulty in lated slag, and silica fume, often provide a reasonable return on
finding staff with the necessary of unknown and variable qual- the initial capital investment
skill and experience, who are ity. Again the lack of experi- and subsequent repairs and
willing to carry out concreting ence, proper understanding, and maintenance costs over the
operations onsite. Computer- control over the use of these planned life of the structure.
ized design methods are remov- materials can lead to problems. This is the task of the whole
ing the engineer even further What can be done to overcome construction team.
from practical realities. It is still these problems and restore con- How are these objectives
easier to assess and test mate- crete to its rightful place as the achieved in practice today? In
rials and products than it is con- most cases the user is provided
preeminent construction material?
struction practices. with a “just finished” structure:
Failures are certain to continue
In developed countries, engi- designed and constructed in ac-
unless there is a major reappraisal
neers now face a situation cordance with national building
of the whole process of concep-
where 25 percent of all concrete regulations, and using materials,
tion, design, construction, and fi-
is precast and over two-thirds of products, and components that es-
nal use of reinforced concrete
site-placed concrete is ready- perience has shown to be suitable
structures. The solutions proposed
mixed. Unlike the early days, for the purpose. The degree to
a r e not revolutionary. They re-
this means that most concrete which the “just finished” struc-
quire only a marked change of at-
today is manufactured off the ture will perform satisfactorily in
titude; an acceptance by all par-
job site and away from the di- use and yield economic value de-
ties of their fair and proper re-
rect control of the engineer. sponsibility, of the limitations of pends upon the extent to which
This has produced another con- each of the separate parties in-
our resources, and of the need to
tractual and communications involved (Le., the client, designer,
use, in a realistic way, the benefits
terf ace where misunder stand- of modern computerized technol- contractor, materials or compo-
ings and mistakes can occur. nents producer, and the eventual
The continuing worldwide eco- om. user) discharge properly their sep-
nomic recession, with little real The aim of the construction arate responsibilities (see Fig. 1).
sign of a return to the demand process The client receives assurance
levels of even five years ago, Any user, whether government, t h a t his enterprise will be prop-
has forced all sectors of the con- public authority, or private com- erly constructed through national
struction industry to cut costs pany, requires assurance that his systems of building control. Al-
and t o look for savings from building or structure or works will: though these differ from country
other suppliers. A third of the to country, their basic aim is to
U.S. cement industry is now Be suitable for his purpose, ie., safeguard public safety and health
European owned. Construction that it will do the job he wants through the establishment and en-
materials, including ready- and provide him with all the fa- forcement of statutory laws and
mixed concrete, are being deliv- cilities he requires. This is the regulations. They involve proce-
ered daily across European bor- task of the architect and de- dures for granting permits, ap-
ders. signer. proving plans, regular inspection
Coupled with this economic Be properly constructed, Le., of works, checks on quality of ma-
pressure has been demands for that it will be designed and built terials and components, and final
environmental protection and in accordance with the building certifîcation. Building control pro-
energy saving that have led to regulations, using suitable ma- cedures naturally reflect each
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
. A C 1 COMP*Lb * t O662949 0 5 0 1 7 7 9 ô M
country’s constitutional and legal “Quality Assurance and Quality The process starts with the user,
system. Those in Europe have Control for Concrete Struc- because the main aim of the con-
been the subject of a separate t u r e ~ . ”This
~ report, which is re- struction process is to satisfy his
study.3 quired reading, brings out the needs, and i t ends with the user
point that quality assurance must because the project is for his ben-
Achieving assurance of cover, not only the particular efit. Complete satisfaction of as-
quality characteristics of the concrete surance of quality for the user re-
The concepts of quality control construction industry, but the rel- quires the integration of effort of
and assurance in construction evance of the human factor and all the different parties involved.
have become the subject of in- the responsibilities of the different Components of quality assur-
creased study in the past two dec- parties involved. ance. Quality assurance has been
ades. In a n important Interna- The construction process team. defined as:
tional Union of Testing and Re- Fig. 1 shows, diagrammatically, Planned and systematic ac-
search Laboratories for Materials the five main stages or activities tions necessary to provide
& Structures (RILEM) Sympo- of the construction process. The adequate confidence that an
sium organized by Professor S. five different parties involved each item or facility will perform
Bergstrom and his excellent team has their own responsibility: satisfactorily in service.
at the Swedish Cement and Con- The total quality assurance sys-
crete Research Institute-Ce- Client/
promoter -promotion of proj- tem will comprise, for each of the
ment-och betong institutet (CBI)
five activities and parties, the fol-
Stockholm in 1979, the quality ectlstructure
lowing components:
control of concrete structures and Designer -design and speci-
the properties achieved in practice fication a) Standards or specifications de-
in finished structures, were exam- Producfr -supply of mate- fining the most important crite-
ined in detaiL2 rials, components ria, method of assessment or
Recently the Comité Euro-Inter- Contractor -construction, exe- testing, and levels of accep-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
national duBéton (CEB), as part of cution of works tance to satisfy the user’s re-
its comprehensive program of de- Userlowner -use of finished quirements. Whenever possible
fining rules and guidelines cover- projectlstructure, these should be expressed in
ing all aspects of concrete design subsequent re- performance terms to insure
and construction, published its In- pair, mainte- fitness for purpose and perfor-
formation Bulletin No. 157 on nance. mance in use.
z Z
G?
a
W
Eo
n 3
[I:
QUALITY
I-
2O % ASSURANCE
o
\
SYSTEM
whole process
\
Fig. i-Each of the parties involved in the constructiqn process Fig. 2-The various components of the quality assurance sys-
must properly discharge their responsibilities in order for the tem (across the top) apply to each of thepve activities in the
struct&e to perform satisfactorily. constructionprocess.
18
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*3b ** m Ob62949 0 5 0 3 7 8 0 4 m
b) Production or internal control Client or promoter. This, the
procedures carried out by the . . . complete assurance of first stage of the construction pro-
party, firm, or company in- quality and reliability can cess, involves the basic decisions
volved in each of the five activ- only be achieved when to build and the definition of the
ities, to confirm that its own design, materials, and corresponding performance re-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
personnel and operations are construction are not quirements. The many different
conforming to its own quality considered in isolation from types of clients and projects
control standards. This is nor- use and maintenance. The means, inevitably, that there are
mally carried out regularly by whole process is few standardized procedures for
the person responsible for the interdependent. this activity.
particular operation, preferably A more systematic approach
supported by occasional inde- would enable many problems to be
pendent internal control. overcome, including:
In the United Kingdom, the a) The lack of standards defining
d) Definition of tasks, functions,
new British Standard, BS 5750, what has to be fulfilled at the
and responsibilities of each
Quality Systems, defines, in promotion stage, both for pri-
party and activity. Tasks and
framework terms, the elements vate work, including housing
functions should include the
of internal quality control sys- and industrial building, and
scope and limitations of techni-
tems t h a t cover the design, public and civil works.
cal and organizational aspects.
manufactuse, installation, final b)The lack of standards or gen-
However, the definition of re-
inspection, and testing of prod- eral guidelines outlining proce-
sponsibilities is linked with the
ucts or components. dures t o be adopted and the
legal and regulatory aspects.
c) Compliance or acceptance con- conditions to be fulfilled when
Since, when taken together,
trol procedures carried out by defining the project for the de-
they determine the contract for
the person who receives the re- signer.
the whole construction process,
sultant product of the previous e) The lack of awareness of clients
they form one of the corner-
activity. In certain cases this of the need for a complete defi-
stones of quality assurance.
can be done by an independent nition of their performance re-
e) Guarantees for user, including
authorized body. Although the liabilities for faults, are covered quirements and of the time re-
public authority or building con- by the contract and in certain quired to prepare detailed de-
trol system should be making cases by the building control signs.
checks of all the activities (see system. For example, in France d) In the public field, the conflicts
Fig. i), it is particularly inter- the dominant influence on that can arise resulting from
ested at the points of transfer building control is liability of political pressures on the engi-
between activities. architects, designers, and con- neer to produce designs and fin-
Production and compliance tractors to the building owner. ished constructions within un-
control is an area where prod- Under the civil code (Code Na- realistic financial and time lim-
uct certification and approval, poleon) dating from 1804, the its.
and certification schemes can building owner is given a guar- Designer. In the past, engineers
play an important role. CER- antee for ten years against all have concentrated on the three in-
TICO, the International Orga- major structural defects, and termediate stages of the construc-
nization for Standardization’s two years against lesser de- tion process: design, materials,
(ISO) committee on certifica- fects. Insurance coverage is and construction. Almost all codes
tion, has assessed the various obligatory, which is why French and standards for construction are
product certification schemes insurance companies a r e so divided among these three activi-
operated by standards organi- closely involved in fiaming the ties.
zations throughout the necessary technical miles. It is becoming apparent t h a t
The European Economic Com- When taken together, these complete assusance of quality and
munity (EEC) draft directive on components of quality assusance reliability can only be achieved
construction products,6 has at- add up to a complete system that when these three stages a r e not
tempted to formulate a com- applies to each of the five activi- considered in isolation from the
mon basis for product certifica- ties and parties (see Fig. 2). other two of promoting, and use
tion including type approval, and maintenance. The whole pro-
type examination, and self-cer- Quality assurance systems in cess is interdependent. Although
tification. In many European practice quality control procedures are ap-
countries, third party ceitifica- How far have quality assurance plied rigorously to materials and
tion schemes are officially rec- systems been developed for the construction, they are rarely ap-
ognized as part of the building five activities in the construction plied t o design. Design quality
control ~ y s t e m . ~ process? control systems: should check
Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSURANCE 19

whether the designed structure
has the safety, serviceability, and sive standards or guidelines t h é skills and abilities of the
durability required for the use for covering production control available staff. In many con-
which it is intended; should con- rules or the quality systems to tracting companies, production
firm that the technical require- be operated by the producer. control does not exist,
ments of the relevant codes are e) The need for greater confidence d) Many construction activities are
achieved; and should insure that that companies actually do op- ill-defined, which negates the
the required structure is clearly erate production control sys- establishment of trades and
defined in the drawings and speci- tems without having this to be clearly defined lines of promo-
fication. confirmed by third parties. tion. The introduction of the job
d) The operation of compliance cri- activity approach would help
Common problems that would
teria by the designer without here. In this, the skill and expe-
benefit from a more systematic
proper account being taken of rience in each activity is clearly
approach include:
information available from pro- defined, which provides a clear
a) Lack of coordination between duction control tests. standard against which person-
designers of different parts of e) The need for improvements in nel can be judged.
the project. testing methods to remove any e) Good and mediocre work are
b) Lack of consultation and discus- doubts concerning the validity often certified and paid for at
sion between designers and of test results. the same price, which forces
contractors. f) A clear statement to be made of down both the level of quality
e) Inadequate consideration given the courses of action to be fol- and future tender prices.
to durability and the influence lowed when materials or com-
of the environment on design ponents are found not to com- Owner or user. In the use of a
details, selection of materials, ply with the specification. building or structure, two parties
and methods of construction. are involved: the owner and the
d) Design executed by staff with Contractor. The construction user. As the one who owns the
insufficient skill and experi- stage is inevitably an intermittent building in the legal sense, the
ence. process with many different Oper- owner is often also the user.
e) Errors in calculations and con- ations and people involved, and it Although the construction codes
struction details, or insufficient is here that systems of quality as- both in United Kingdom, CPl10,7
and incomplete drawings. surance are most difficult to ap- and United States, AC1 318,8 are
f) Errors resulting from computer ply. Since, during the execution of legal documents covering the con-
calculations, including errors the project, i t is the contractor struction of a building, neither
from inputs, program, and who is carrying the greatest finan- make reference to the responsibil-
wrong interpretation of input or cial risk, he undertakes the re- ities of the owner regarding the
output data. sponsibility of carrying out both use and maintenance of struc-
production and compliance con- tures. The preparation of codes for
It would be interesting to know trol. In practice, compliance con- use and maintenance is essential if
how many design practices truly trol becomes the main duty of the the quality assurance circle is to be
operate a strict form of internal manager of the construction site. completed. Such codes should
control in their offices. make reference to:
Difficulties that occur and that
Producer. Because they lend could be improved by a more sys- a) The carrying out of periodical
themselves readily to assessment tematic approach, include: inspections to ascertain the
and testing, the control of mate- need for maintenance and re-
rials is t h e most developed and a)The lack of professional and pair, and t o check t h a t no
widely used application of quality technical qualifications of con- changes in the use of the struc- --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
assurance techniques in the construction workers, with many ture have been introduced. The
struction field. Nevertheless, there countries having no legal re- CEB Model Codeg suggests
are many areas in materials qual- quirements for contractors to that, for the information of
ity control t h a t need improve- substantiate their technical abil- users, plates should be fixed to
ment, including: ity. the structure indicating a maxi-
a)The need for the designer to b) The peripatetic nature of the in- mum authorized loading and
differentiate between the quali- dustry resulting in a consider- that, during the life of the
ties of materials and products able turnover of staff at all lev- structure, the user should be re-
requiring a specific “perfor- els, making it difficult to estab- quired to check that these loads
mance in use,” in contrast to lish true teamwork. are not exceeded.
specified requirements t h a t e) Although general guidance on b) The intervals between inspec-
should be in terms of “perfor- construction standards and tions, for moderately aggres-
mance against standard tests.” workmanship are given in codes sive environments and usage,
20
Copyright American Concrete Institute AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*36
~~
** m O662949 0 5 0 3 7 8 2 8
~~
m
suggested by the CEB Model Crete of suitable quality is recog-
Code, are: . . . the engineer must nized by interrelating these re-
Dwellings-10 yr become more aware of the quirements in one table for var-
Industrial structures-5 t o need to specify in ious conditions of exposure. (see
10 yr measurable parameters and Table 1)
Road bridges-1 to 4 yr of his responsibility to check Concrete mixes, properties, and
Rail bridges-1 to 2 yr that his requirements are, in pedormance. The other main les-
f a t , satisfied. son to be drawn from recent prob-
e) The user’s responsibility for ob- lems is that the engineer must be-
serving the owner’s rules and come more aware of the need to
conditions of use. specify what he needs in terms of
ture attitudes and economic un- measurable parameters and of his
Definition of life certainties. responsibility for checking that his
In economic terms, the quality- requirements are, in fact, satis-
to-cost ratio of a building should Specifications for concrete fied. This assurance of quality in
be expressed in terms of initial Definitionsof concrete uses. One construction can be achieved if he
cost plus maintenance costs, not of the main problems with con- adopts an overall system involving
just the initial. A major deficiency crete is its great versatility. This is performance-based specifications
in building codes is their unwill- reflected, not only in its many dif- and quality systems.
ingness to give any indication of ferent uses for all types of build- With concrete, the performance
the expected life of the building or ings and civil engineering works, characteristics required are work-
structure. In fact, as Fagerlund but also in the considerable variability for placing, and strength
has shown,1° prediction of service ety of materials and methods of and durability in use. Workability
life is now possible with regard t o construction which are used. This and strength are easily defined
steel corrosion, frost, and acid at- results in an enormous number of and tested, but with durability we
tack. As yet this information has standards, codes, and specifica- are concerned with performance
not been incorporated in concrete tions for concrete, each implying over a number of years. Durability
codes. Normally, structural con- that there is something rather requirements are often expressed
crete should be expected to re- special in this particular use which in terms of limits on cement con-
main fully serviceable for at least requires a unique solution. Give tent or water-cement ratio, but, as
30 to 50 yr. In practice, the work- me a concrete specification and I yet, there are still no simple rapid
ing life of a concrete structure will give you 100 engineers who tests for these. That is why there
may be limited either by visible will rewrite it to take account of has been a joint proposal in the
signs of deterioration of the sur- their own particular foibles and United Kingdom by the British
face or, more seriously, by loss of prejudices. Ready-Mixed Concrete Associa-
service or function or of structural To try to overcome the unneces- tion (BRMCA), the Cement &
integrity. sary and meaningless multiplicity Concrete Association (C&CA), and
of specifications, current efforts in the Cement Makers’ Federation
In his introductory note to a re- the United Kingdom are aimed at for national grades for durability.
cent symposium on durability,ll establishing a catalogue of uses of Strength grades a r e defined
CEB President Ferry Borges concrete covered by all the na- which, with the materials avail-
asked the question, when consid- tional architectural, building, and able in the United Kingdom, give
ering investing in more durable civil engineering specifications. assurance that the concrete sup-
structures, how to split the total Then against each of these uses plied will satisfy the requirements
life cycle costs into initial costs will be given recommended grades for cement and water-cement ra-
and costs concerned with mainte- of concrete which will satisfy the tiO.12
nance and repair? He showed how particular purpose and environ- The philosophy here is, “If you
cost effect comparisons can be mental condition. The question can’t measure it, don’t specify it.”
made on the basis of discounted then remains: How should these It is vital that the required prop-
values over various periods of time suitable mixes be specified? erties a r e expressed in terms
and that for a discount of 6 per- which can be measured by simple,
cent, maintenance costs after fifty The current revision of CP 110, routine methods. Even if “perfor-
years can be practically disre- soon to be published, will show the mance in use” cannot be defined,
garded. The problem of such anal- way. It recognizes, for the first the engineer’s requirements
yses, of course, is that not only do time, a limit state for durability in should be defined by “perfor-
we lack the information to predict addition t o those for ultimate mance against standard tests.”
durability but also to define posi- strength and serviceability. The The basic tests which are used for
tively the practical life of a build- combined importance of adequate concrete both in North America
ing which is so dependent on fu- cover to reinforcement and con- and the United Kingdom are the
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
slump for workability, and the cyl- It is obvious that, if he is to be mixed concrete. This, again, is a
inder or cube test for strength. able to supply concrete of uniform framework standard and, in many
The proposed developments in the quality in compliance with a per- countries throughout Europe, the
United Kingdom are that all conformance specification, the con- ready-mixed concrete industry op-
crete should be able to be ex- crete producer must have infor- erates quality control schemes
pressed in terms of these parame- mation on t h e quality and uni- that comply with, and are ampli-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ters. Of course there will be addi- formity of all raw materials, ce- fications of, the ERMCO Code.
tional requirements such as spe- ment, aggregates, additions, and Quality manual. In order that
cial types of cement for chemical admixtures. The available raw ma- checks can be made easily that a
attack or the use of air entrain- terials and concrete requirements company's plant is operating a
ment to combat freezeIthaw ef- in, say, Stockholm or Helsinki, are suitable quality control system,
fects. very different from those in Rome each company should keep a qual-
An examination of all the con- or Madrid. For this reason, the ity manual. This manual covers all
crete mixes used in the United draft European Standards for Ce- aspects of inspection, production,
Kingdom at the moment has con- ment (CENITC 51) and Concrete maintenance, and control, to-
firmed that most requirements can (CENITC 104) are frameworks gether with an indication of those
be satisfied by a total of five within which each country can de- people who are responsible for the
strength grades as given in Table cide the quality levels most suited various operations. Many of the
1. When taken together with the to its own requirements. certification schemes for ready-
basic three consistencies required, mixed concrete in Europe require
Production and compliance
Le., dry [slump O to 1in. (O to 25 company staff to keep up quality
control systems
mm)], medium [slum 2 to 4 in. (50 manuals that are provided by the
to 100 mm)], and wet [slump 5 to 8 As previously indicated, the sec- authorizing body.
in. (125 to 200 mm)], this gives a ond and third most important Third party assessment. In all
total of fifteen concrete mixes, components of quality assurance countries, the implementation of
which should satisfy most require- are that the manufacturer operate
building legislation involves de-
ments throughout t h e United production or internal control pro- tailed inspection of the design,
Kingdom. cedures, and that the contractor, materials, and workmanship
Materials. With the perfor- designer, or public authority adopt
against specific standards. To fa-
mance approach, any limits on compliance or acceptance control
cilitate this work, various product
types of materials used and mix procedures,
certification and approval schemes
proportions should be kept to the Production control. Within the have been built up. The important
absolute minimum. The user of framework of the basic quality role of material or product certifi-
any material, however, needs to be control system, each industry sec- cation is that it provides assur-
assured of its quality and uniform- tor must establish its own stan- ance to the user and avoids unnec-
ity, especially with by-products dards of good practice for the pro- essary and often useless compli-
such as pulverized fuel ash and duction and control of products. ance testing.
slag. That is why the revised CP This has been done by the ready- A large number of schemes cer-
110 permits the use of these ma- mixed concrete industry in Eu- tifying standards of production
terials, provided they comply with rope. ERMCO, in 1977, produced and quality control have been set
the new standards. The perfor- its Code of Good Practice13for the up by industry groups in order to
mance-based specification reproduction and control of ready- establish recognized standards of
quires information on all mate-
rials. As a result of recent discus-
sions, the European Ready Mixed
-
TABLE 1 Concrete cover required for various exposure
conditions on various grades of concrete (CP 110 Rev. February
Concrete Organization (ERMCO) 1984).
has agreed with Cembureau, the Concrete
European cement association, that
there should be an exchange of in-
formation on a private basis be- lowest concr& grade I C30 I C36 I C40 I c45 I C50
tween individual cement suppliers I
and ready mixed concrete produc-

Exposure I Nominal cover (mm)
ers. This information, additional to mild 25 20 20 20 20
that contained in the European or
moderate - 35 30 25 20
severe - - 40 30 25
national standards, relates to very severe - - 50' 40' 30
those characteristics of cement extreme - - - 60 50
which can have a significant infiu- 'Normal weight aggregates, 20 mm (0.8 in.) maximum size.
ence on the properties of fresh and +Airentrainment
kg/m3x 1.69 = lb/yd3
hardened concrete. mm x 0.04 = in.
22
A C 1 COMP*lh
~~
** 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0501784 1
~ ~ ~~~
- Ï Ï Ï
reliability and performance of sonnel. It would be interesting to

their products. In several coun- Accurate repeatable testing learn of the success of this ven-
tries, the various industry quality in accordunce with ture. Clearly the operation of pro-
control organizations are officially prescribed standards is a duction control systems by con-
authorized as part of the building fundamental requirement tractors is one of the key points in
control system. The most widely for all types of production providing overall quality assur-
accepted schemes are those oper- and compliance control. ance.
ated by a third party certification Testing laboratories. Accurate
body that is completely indepen- repeatable testing in accordance
dent of the manufacturer, user, with prescribed standards is a fun-
seller, or buyer. Obviously, the damental requirement for all types
value of any third party certifica- The objective of compliance con- of production and compliance con-
tion scheme depends on the status trol is to insure, with the least trol. Where quality schemes re-
of the authorizing body in t h a t margin of error, that the agreed quire independent supervision, in-
particular quality has been achieved. On the spection, and control, the manu-
Compliance control. Even other hand, the aim of production facturer’s internal controls and
though the products being sup- control is to produce the agreed testing equipment will be sub-
plied for a building may have gen- quality at minimum cost. Never- jected to external control checks
eral approval or certification, theless, both systems have the by the authorized control organi-
there is still the question of common goal of achieving quality zation.
whether individual items comply and together make up the total Several countries have national
with the specified requirements. quality control system, as Fig. 3 testing establishments. The Fed-
Compliance testing involves the shows. The degree to which they eral Materials Testing Establish-
sampling and testing of products overlap differs from country to ment (BAM) not only issues Ger-
t o a plan t h a t defines the num- country and in the extreme, either man Agrément certificates, but is
ber of tests representative of a production or compliance control also responsible for authorizing all
batch, the rate of sampling, and may exist alone. Clearly a control other testing laboratories con-
compliance criteria for assessing system which satisfies both pro- cerned with approval, certifica-
results against acceptable quality duction and compliance purposes tion, and control testing.
levels expressed in statistical is the most effective and economi- It is only recently that the need
terms. Concrete cylinder and cube Cal. for such an accreditation scheme
results lend themselves to this for test houses was recognized in
form of assessment and in recent Workmanship control. As has the United Kingdom. Following
years changes in codes of practice been said, the quality of any struc- discussions with all sides of indus-
for concrete have raised this sub- ture, product, or component de- try, the Department of Industry
ject almost to the level of an art pends on the appropriate contri- introduced its National Testing
form. bution from the designer, prod- Laboratory Accreditation Scheme
When compliance testing is ex- ucts manufacturer, and contrac- (NATLAS). To avoid duplication
amined against the definition for tor, each of which, ideally should of effort, NATLAS recognized
quality assurance, several defi- comply with separate, but equally schemes operated by the Ministry
ciencies are revealed, including: stringent, quality control systems. of Defense, the British Standards
the large number of test sam- Any product or component can Institute, Lloyd’s Register of
ples needed to make confident only perform satisfactorily if it is Shipping, and the British Ready-
decisions on the acceptance or properly installed in the building. Mixed Concrete Association’s
rejection of the batch repre- This poses the question of work- Register of Test Houses for con-
sented by the tests, and manship on site which, as yet, ap- crete cube testing. BRMCA engi-
the complications of true “per- pears to have received little atten- neers act as NATLAS assessors
formance in use” specifications tion. and the scheme has been extended
and the necessary degree of so- While there are several schemes to a wide range of construction
phistication of the methods of in being for concrete products, as products.
assessment and testing, which yet few systems define quality re-
are available in only a few labo- quirements for workmanship. It is Assurance of concrete quality
understood that several years ago, in structures
ratories.
In practice, batch or consign- a U.S. national board of accredita- Having discussed the principles
ment testing is a most imprecise tion in concrete construction in- of quality assurance, methods of
and ineffective means of achieving troduced such a certification specification, types of concrete,
assurance that the products rep- scheme covering standards of site and control systems, it is now use-
resented by the batch comply with workmanship under controlled ful to examine how the building
the specification. conditions by suitably trained per- owner can be assured t h a t the
QUALITY ASSURANCE
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
23
concrete in his finished structure parisons made with the design the functional requirements for
will perform satisfactorily in use. strength. This subject and the dif- durability if:
ference between “lab-Crete” and i t has a dense cement paste
The functional requirements to “real-Crete” has been developed structure with low permeabil-
obtain the required performance e1~ewhere.l~ ity ;
can be defined as: it contains entrained air to re-
Adequate strength of concrete Maturation of in situ concrete.
The hydration of cement (or com- sist frost;
in the finished structure, both it is made with strong, dense,
on completion of the building binations of cement and other ma-
terials) is a relatively slow pro- clean, inert aggregates; and
and throughout the life of the the materials contain a mini-
building. cess. With normal curing meth-
ods, the complete hydration (i.e., mum of impurities such as chlo-
Adequate durability of the con- rides, alkalis, and sulphates.
crete in the finished structure, full maturity) of in situ concrete
takes many years and may, in fact, In recent years, there has been
in terms o f a growing number of occurrences
a) the ability to stand up to the never be achieved. Since in situ
concrete contains unhydrated ce- of steel corrosion due to new types
external environment (tem- of construction and uses includ-
perature variations, wetting ment particles, engineers tend to
assume that concrete will always ing:
and drying, abrasion, and bridge decks from deicing salts,
chemical attack), and still gain strength and become more
stable. Therefore, it could be ad- structures in the Middle East
maintain a good appearance. where ground salts contaminate
b) the internal structure of the visable to make measurements of
the amount of unhydrated cement aggregates and water,
concrete for chemical stabil- buildings where calcium chlo-
ity (degree of hydration, al- in the structure throughout its life.
The need to conserve energy, ride has been used in the con-
kali-aggregate reaction, and crete, and
calcium aluminate conver- however, will mean that greater
use will be made in the future of marine structures above the
sion), and paste-pore struc- high tide zone.
ture (permeability, and poros- mixtures of cement clinker and
ity), and such partially cementitious mate- The mechanisms and rate pro-
rials as blast furnace slag and pul- cesses governing the initiation pe-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
e) the ability to resist corrosion
of the reinforcing steel. verized fuel ash. With such combi- riod and subsequent rate of steel
nations, there is often little or no corrosion have been the subject of
These functional requirements strength gain after one to two numerous studies in recent
can be defined in terms of a wide months and there may not be the years.l0J1J5The following discus-
range of performance criteria, same reservoir of unhydrated ma- sion summarizes a recent paper by
standards, and methods of test- terial and therefore little need for Browne. l5
ing. The following are proposed as continued testing. There are two distinct phases in
the most convenient and appropri- Corrosion of reinforcing steel. the mechanism of attack, as shown
ate tests for measuring the actual Provided suitable cement and ag- in Fig. 4: an initiation period (to),
properties and potential perfor- gregate materials are chosen re- which is the time for penetration
mance of concrete in the struc- lated to its use, a finished con- of deleterious substances into the
ture. crete structure will normally meet concrete to cause activation of the
In situ strength of concrete. Eu-
ropean codes of practice for struc-
t u a l concrete give design recom- QUALITY CONTROL Q C
mendations based on the charac- QC = PC + CC
teristic strength of the material
and a partial safety factor ynt,For
concrete strength, yn, is taken as
1.5 to account for differences be-
tween the strength in the struc-
t u r e and t h e strength derived PRODUCTION
from standard specimens. Fig. 3-Both
CONTROL
Clearly, structural designs could production control
be more rigorous if the in situ and compliance
strength was known. It is pro- control haue the
posed, therefore, that, measure- common goal of
achieving quality
ments should be taken of the ac- and together they
?HIS COMMON ZONE MAY
tual concrete strength using cores make up the quality
VARY FROM O TO 100%
and pulse-velocity tests and com- control system.
24 AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMPtlb t t m Obb2îLi9 05017Bb 5 ~~
~~
=
deterioration mechanism; and a tures, a family of curves has been
propagation period (tl) before loss
of serviceability, or other require- . . . the engineer should drawn (See Fig. 6). This chart al-
lows us to input chloride drillings
ments, prevents the structure's decide which are the critical data and estimate the time to ac-
continued use. parts of a structure and tivation (to) for a structure or
concentrate his structural component. This time is
Four conditons must be met for measurements of quality in determined using estimates of Co,
reinforcement corrosion to occur: these areas. D, and the depth of cover. Using
the same chart, it is also possible
a) Chloride or CO, penetration to select a depth of cover required
through the cover zone t o the to meet a design life, given an as-
reinforcement destroys the nat- tates the time to activation of the sumed surface chloride level and
ural passivity provided by alkali steel (to)and the time from activa- diffusion coefficient for the con-
protection of free lime in hy- tion to damage (il). crete.
drated cement.
b) Low concrete resistivity allows Fig. 5 shows a typical chloride Specification for adequate du-
electrolytic cells to be estab- distribution measured on a struc- rability. Since the propagation
lished at the steel surface. ture by taking drillings at discrete time (tJ is too sensitive to random
e) Oxygen must penetrate through depths into the cover. Generally, a factors, it is proposed that only
the cover to fuel the corrosion level of 0.4 percent C1- by weight the time to activate the steel (to)
process. The corrosion products of cement is required at the rein- should be considered when design-
so formed occupy two to four forcement before activation can ing concrete for a specific life.
times the volume of metal re- begin. Hence, the best-fit curve
placed, causing damage to the through the results can be com- Chloride protection must be
concrete cover. pared to the critical level. This provided by the design since the
d) The quality of the concrete curve also provides the diffusion rate of penetration of chloride is
cover controls the diffusion coefficient, D,and an estimate of greater than that of CO,. Thus, if
rates of COz, oxygen, and chlo- the chloride level at the surface a structure is to be subjected to a
ride ions. (Co).
marine atmosphere, salt water
wash down, or contact with deic-
It is the inter-relationship be- Having obtained estimates of D ing salts, the following conditions
tween these variables t h a t dic- and C for a range of actual stiwc- must be met:
c 1-
I
('/o w t cement)
Deterior at ion
DAMAGE
\/ -- Rebar
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-I= A-
-= O*k0/0
1 to
t, Age i0
Cover
20 30 40
Depth ( m m )
50 60
Fig. 4-The stages of chloride-induced corrosion of reinforced Fig. 5-Measured variation in the chloride level with depthfrom
concrete: t, is the time taken by the chloride or CO, to reach and the surface of a concrete structure exposed to a marine afmo-
initiate deterioration; t, is the time before signflcant damage to sphere or deicing salts. (mm x 0.04 = in.)
the concrete cover occurs.

A C 1 COMP*Lb ** W 0bb2949 0501787 7 W
SURFACE CHLORIDE LEVEL
- concrete crualitu and cover reauirements to produce a desired life under chloride expo-
Fig. 6-A graphical method.for determining A v
sure conditions
i)low chloride diffusivity (water- CO2Protection can be provided for the ?mild? exposure situa-
cement ratio of 0.4 and high ce- by cover requirements and con- tions. For example, in the interior
mentitious content), crete quality that is lower than of centrally heated ?buildings,? CO2
2) extended wet curing, and that required for chloride protec- penetration may be high and thus
3) cover of at least 60 mm (2.4 in.). tion, but not such that penetration could prove to be a major problem
If these conditions are not read- occurs within the required life. Al- in the future, particularly where a
ily achievable, then serious consid- though the interaction of the fac- cover of only 15 mm (0.6 in.) is
eration should be given to the fol- tors influencing penetration have specified.
lowing alternatives: not been quantified sufficiently,
Browne believes15 that to achieve Corrective action. When tests
i)coating the concrete with a low a 50 year life, requires: on in situ concrete raise doubts
chloride penetration coating, concerning the actual and poten-
2) using coated reinforcing bars i)low CO, diffusivity concrete tial quality of concrete, what ac-
(e.g., epoxy coated), (water-cement ratio of 0.5 or tion should be taken?
3) using corrosion inhibiting ad- less with a moderate cement
content), For the range of concrete ele-
mixtures (e.g., calcium nitrite), ments in question, the engineer
or 2) wet curing of the surface, and
3) cover of at least 25 mm (i in.). must first establish acceptable lim-
4) cathodically protecting the rein-
its for in situ strength, and the
forcement, Again, in-service monitoring of
various performance criteria for
In hot climates, it is even more CO, penetration is easy to under- durability. He must determine the
imperative to consider combina- take and will identify whether ad-
type and number of tests required
tions of these alternatives if a long ditional protection is required be-
and define clear acceptance rules,
life is required, say 50 years. Also fore damage occurs. which may involve different safety
in-service monitoring of chloride In the recently revised draft of factors for different elements.
penetration is essential to identify CP110, the durability recommen- Whenever possible, he should de-
whether the protection is ade- dations (See Table i) generally cide which are the critical parts of
quate, so that extra protection can comply with the above require- a structure and concentrate his
be applied, if necessary, before ments. Of some concern, however, test measurements of actual and
damage occurs. is the uncertainty of CO, attack potential quality in these areas.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
26
Provided by IHS under license with ACI AC1 COMPILATION
Licensee=Fluor Corp no FPPPV per administrator /2110503106, User=MacKenzie, Ala
A C 1 COMP*lb ** m 0bb2949 0501788 9 m ~ ~~~
The action will depend very operating manual is provided in

much on the particular situation, . . . onepagedatasheets which there is usually a trouble-
but the following factors should be should be prepared for all shooting checklist. The time is
kept in mind: known concrete problem long overdue for a similar ap-
The design rules for reinforced
and stored in proach with concrete. With the re-
concrete are extremely conser-
microcomputers for ready cent explosion in home and per-
vative with relatively high
access. This should be the sonal microprocessors of ever-in-
safety factors compared with
main task of ACI and the creasing capacity and ever-de-
other materials. There have
Concrete Society in the next creasing size and cost, it should be
&Cade. possible to store all the data sheet
been few, if any, structural fail-
ures of in situ concrete. information for all known con-
Concrete t h a t is built into a crete problems for ready access
structure is very costly to re- whether in the office, on site, or
move and difficult to replace. But there is so much informa- on the production floor.
Alternative actions to the com- tion already available on the limits This should be the main task of
plete removal of concrete should of performance of concrete under the American Concrete Institute
always be considered. different environments. This is and the Concrete Society in the
Any reparation costs should be buried in the towering and ever- next decade.
compared with future repair growing files of international re-
and maintenance costs. search reports on concrete, dating
I t is more the interfaces be- back.to the beginning of the cen- Concluding remarks
tween materials and compo- tury. If all these reports were Concrete has been used as a
nents t h a t a r e the probable piled on end, and they reached structural material since Roman
causes of failures than it is the higher than the Hancock Building, times but it is only within the last
basic materials or components I would not be at all surprised! As century that the complexities of
themselves. I have suggested elsewhere, new- this deceptively simple, prosaic
comers t o concrete research material have come to be appreci-
should not be encouraged to tackle ated. If concrete is to maintain its
Information retrieval imaginary problems on “lab-Crete” position as the basic material for
It has been proposed that, by but to go out to the biggest labo- building and civil engineering, its
examining the in situ concrete ratory of all, the construction site, reputation as a solid, reliable ma-
throughout the construction, the and there examine the real prob- terial must be restored.
engineer can satisfy to the build- lems on “ r e a l - ~ r e t e . ” ~ ~
ing owner, that his “just finished” At the same time, if I had my Despite the fact that concrete
structure is satisfactory. Results way, any further research work on does not lend itself t o modern
of in situ tests give a measure of concrete would be stopped tomor- technological improvements, we
the “state of health” of the build- row. Every research worker and do have the knowledge to produce
ing “at birth” which can then be concrete specialist would be re- a foolproof concrete, one which is
checked during its “life” by fur- quired to choose, from a compre- easily handled, is self-compacting
ther regular routine tests. The hensive catalogue of subjects, one and self-curing, and capable of
performance criteria for in situ topic on which he would be re- producing the required properties
concrete described previously in- quired to prepare a one page data to resist any environment to which
dicate the extent of the changes in sheet preferably composed mainly it is subjected.
current practice that this philoso- of illustrations, which would:
phy would bring about. The prob- a) Define the problem. But when will this be achieved?
lems of developing simple, rapid b) Provide the solution. Bryant MatheP has already asked
tests and reliable limits of perfor- c) Give guidance on action to be “When will the concrete industry
mance for in situ concrete shodd taken when things go wrong. enter the 20th century?” Let us all
not be underestimated and much With almost every product, es- hope that it will happen before the
work still needs to be done. pecially in the consumer field, an Zlst!
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
27
A C 1 COMP*Lb ** W 0 6 6 2 9 ~ 90503789 O W
References 9. CEB-FIP Model Code f o r Concrete Received and reviewed under Institute
Structures, 3rd Edition, Comité Euro-In- publication policies.
1. “Non-Structural Cracks in Concrete,”
Technical Report No. 22, The Concrete So- ternational du BétonlFédération Interna-
ciety, London, Dec. 1982, 38 pp. tionale de la Précontrainte, Paris, 1978,
2. R I L E M Symposium on Quality Con- 348 pp.
trol of Concrete S t i w t u r e s , Swedish Ce- 10. Fagerlund, Göran, “Service Life of
ment and Concrete Research Institute, Structures: General Report,” Proceedings,
Stockholm, 1979, V. 1, 310 pp., V. 2, 318 RILEM Symposium on Quality Control of
pp., and Proceedings, 312 pp. Concrete Structures, Swedish Cement and
3. Newman, Ken, “Achieving Assurance Concrete Research Institute, Stockholm,
of Concrete Quality in Finished Struc- 1979, pp. 199-215.
tures,” Proceedings, RILEM Symposium 11.Durability of Concrete Structures
on Quality Control of Concrete Structures, (CEB-RILEM International Workshop, AC1 member Ken
Swedish Cement and Concrete Research Copenhagen, May 1983), Technical Univer- Newman is secre-
Institute, Stockholm, 1979, pp. 38-56. sity of Denmark, Lyngby, 1983, 432 pp. tary-general of the
4. “Quality Control and Quality Assur- 12. Deacon, Colin, and Dewar, Joe, European Ready-
ance for Concrete Structures,” Bulletin “Concrete Durability-Specifying More Mixed Concrete As-
d’InfÒrmation No. 157, Comité Euro-Inter- Simply and Surely by Strength,” Concrete sociation, Shepper-
national du Béton, Lausanne, Mar. 1983,98 (London), V. 16, No. 3, Feb. 1982, pp. 19- ton, England. After
PP. 21. initial experience as
5. “Certification Systems Today-Princi- 13. “ERMCO Code of Good Practice for a concrete site enai-
ples and Practice,” ISOICERTICO Hand- Ready-Mixed Concrete,” European Ready
book, International Organization for Stan- Mixed Concrete Organization, Shepperton, neer, Mr. Newman spent twelve years at
dardization, Geneva, June 1976. 1977. Imperial College. In 1967, he joined the
6. “Proposals for a Council Directive Re- 14. Newman, Ken, “The Ready Mixed British Ready Mixed Concrete Associa-
lating to construction Products,” COM(78) Concrete Producers’ View of In SitdNDT tion where he established a cerfijcation
Final, Commission of the European Com- Testing,” In SitulNondestructive Testing of scheme that has recently been extended
munities, Brussels, Nov. 1978. Concrete, SP-82, American Concrete Insti- in the even more strict Quality Scheme
7. “Structural Use of Concrete. Code of tute, Detroit, 1984, pp. 479-499. for Ready Mixed Concrete. In 1983, he
Practice for Design and Construction,” (BS 15. Browne, R. D., “Design for Durabil- was appointed secretary-general of the
8110 Part 1 1985), British Standards Insti- ity,” S y m p o s i u m o n Durable Concrete, European Ready-Mixed Concrete Organi-
tution, London, 1985. Replaces CP 110 ERMCO 83, European Ready Mixed Con-
1972. crete Organization, Shepperton, May 1983. zation. Author of numerous technical
8. AC1 Committee 318, “Building Code 16. Mather, Bryant, “When Will Con- papers, books, and articles, he has
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete crete Enter the 20th Century?” Concrete served on a wide range of British, Euro-
(AC1 318-83),” American Concrete Insti- I n h m t i o n a l : Design & Construction, V. 4, pean, and international standards and
tute, Detroit, 1983, 111pp. No. 1,Jan. 1982, pp. 25-28. advisory committees on concrete.
SP-4, FORMWORK FOR GONtRETE

The fifth edition of SP-4, Formwork for Concrete, vrill provide answers to the questions
that designers, contractors, engineers and architects ask most.
In addition to dealing with fundamentals of form design and construction, Formwork for
Concrete presents chapters devoted l o specialized problems of architectural concrete,
mass concrete, shell structures, underground structures and special construction
techniques. The fifth edition has a completely revised section on slipformin and an
entirely new section on segmental box glrder bridges, plus a listing of new profucts and
processes throughout. Design tables are all recalculated to follow the latest changes in
lumber design standards.
The updated text of SP-4 reflects the latest provisions of AC1 347R-88, Gufde to
Formwork for Concrete, and the 1988 revisions in OSHA safety standards. Both 347R-88
and OSHA’s 1988 regulations for concrete and masonry construction are reprinted in full
in the appendix. Also in theap endix are building code provisions for formwork from the
new AC1 318-89, BuildingCod! Requirementsfor Reinforced Concrete.
Throughout Formwork for Concrete, the term “formwork” is employed in its broadest
sense to include lhe total system of support for the freshly placed concrete-form lining
and sheathing plus all necessary supporting members, hardware and bracing. The
entire publication is dedicated to the premise that the form builders primary
objectives are: quality, safety and economy.
With more than 475 pages, and over 550 photogra hs and line drawings,
you cannot afford to be without lhe latest formwor! information.
Order your copy today!
SP-4, Formwork for Concrete, fifth edition, 1989, hardbound, 475
pages.
AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

P.O. Box 19150
313532-2600
Detroit, MI 48219-0150
FAX313533-4747
5 EDITION
OF SP-4
TH
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
28 AC1 COMPILATION
Point of View
Future Trends
W henever the construction

budget must be cut, qual-
ity control (QC) is usu-
ally the first thing to get
the ax. It is always easier to reduce
a service rather than construction.
and upheld by the courts that the
contractor is not relieved of respon-
sibility when defects are uncovered
later. Also, concrete is manufac-
tured during construction and must
be tested a t this point t o verify
Sequence of erection and connec-
tions of precast members.
Tensioning of prestressing ten-
dons.
Any significant contruction load-
ing on completed floors, mem-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The inevitable result is a reduction quality. There have been many bers or walls.
in construction quality. cases where concrete deteriorated General progress of work.
A few years ago a Department of later in years when the contractor Also when the ambient temperature
Transportation had the answer to was long gone. For example: falls below 40 F (4.4 C) or rises
quality concrete construction: they Cooling towers deteriorated be- above 95 F (35 C) a complete rec-
required a one year guarantee for cause sulfate resistant cement was ord shall be kept of concrete tem-
all concrete structures. They conse- not used; it is extremely difficult perature and of protection given to
quently reduced inspections and to prove that the proper type of concrete during placement.
tests by state inspectors. There was cement was not used. These are very specific require-
a transfer of all testing to the con- Roads and sidewalk deteriorate; ments that take the form of legal
tractor, and state inspectors merely it is extremely difficult to prove requirements when cities or states
witnessed some testing. Alas, better poor curing and high w/c. invoke the AC1 Building Code.
quality of concrete structures did Slabs crack and settlement oc- Non-compliance can not only be
not happen (it usually takes longer curs; it is extremely difficult to unlawful but leave the engineer and
than one year before defects approve poor curing, high w/c, and owner in a weak position in the
pear). As a result of continued fail- proper subgrade compaction. event of any litigation.
ure, major revisions have been Concrete cracks; it is difficult to
taken and primary QC is now as- prove incorrect rebar placement.
sumed by the engineers. Low in-place concrete strengths History of QC
There is a common misconcep- exist; it is difficult to know how Concrete QC has had a very shaky
tion by some owners that QC must much of the factor of safety has history. The requirements of in-
be performed by the contractor in been compromised. spection by the engineer have been
order to hold the contractor re- We are now getting back to the in the Code for many years, but the
sponsible for any deficiencies found original requirements of AC1 318, process deteriorated to merely hav-
later. It is clearly stated in the Code that concrete construction shall be ing a few cylinders made, which in
inspected throughout the various many cases was not even represen-
work stages by a competent engi- tative of the quality placed. On
neer or architect or by a competent many projects, the concrete cylin-
representative responsible to that ders were made on a stiff mix and
POINT OF VIEW This article was engineer or architect, and that rec- then the balance of the concrete
selected for reader interest by the ords be maintained of: would be placed with high slumps.
editors; however, the opinions Quality and proportions of con- For various reasons the state
expressed by the author are not crete materials. agencies and the Corp of Engineers
necessarily those of the American
Construction and removal of attempted to transfer the responsi-
Concrete Institute. The editors
invite comments from our readers forms, reshoring. bility of QC to contractors. They
about the personal views given in Placement of reinforcement. enacted procedures whereby con-
this article. Mixing, placing and curing of tractors were required to provide
concrete. inspectors and perform testing. The
Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSU RANCE 29

If has become a common practice, parficularly in
some sfafes, fhaf lawyers are assembled as
consfrucfion sfarfs fo prepare for lifigafion of
consfrucfion claims. A good QC system will
minimize these problems.
required tests and inspections were fications. The mix design should be er’s direction.
detailed and comprehensive in established in accordance with AC1 There have been considerable im-
scope. The agencies then merely 318 by trial mixes, proven mix de- provements in concrete QC in re-
overviewed the contractor’s QC. signs, or w/c limits. The proven mix cent years. This has resulted from a
This system has finally been ac- designs should be verified by proper greater awareness within the con-
knowledged as ineffective and the statistical evaluation of recent test struction industry, and may have
agencies are abandoning this results. been expedited by the large shadow
method. It demonstrates the fact Establishment of comprehensive of litigation that has formed due to
that if you don’t do the tests and inspection and test programs and recent proliferation of construction
inspections you probably will not designation of responsibilities. The lawsuits. It has become a common
get the quality you paid for. selection of the testing agency practice, particularly in some states,
The Nuclear Regulatory Com- should be made by the owner/engi- that lawyers are assembled as con-
mission tried to assure quality in neer. The laboratory shall meet the struction starts to prepare for liti-
other ways. Their original intent requirements of ASTM C-1077 gation of construction claims. A
was to explicitly follow the Code. “Standard Practice for Laborato- good QC system will minimize these
They later succumbed to a proce- ries Testing Concrete and Concrete problems. Following are some of
dure that allowed contractors to Aggregates for Use in Construction the new practices that have pro-
perform all of the QC with an audit and Criteria For Laboratory Evalu- moted better quality control.
of the QC by engineers. This re- ation.” The laboratory shall submit
sulted in a considerable amount of proof of Certification by AASHTO Certified technicians
duplication and excessive overhead or National Voluntary Laboratory AC1 Committee E 902, Certifica-
and costs. With the most recent Accreditation Program. tion, has developed several pro-
construction of nuclear power proj- Detailed inspections should be grams with requirements for testing
ects, however, owners were encour- performed to verify: and certification of concrete con-
aged to perform the QC for greater Correct location of forms and struction personnel. AC1 chapters
effectiveness and economy. reinforcing steel. and other concrete industry groups
There are detailed recommenda- Proper batch plant operations. sponsor programs to certify indi-
tions in AC1 311 “Guide for Con- Correct mixing, placing, and cur- viduals who meet specific educa-
crete Inspection.” Other standards ing of concrete tion, work experience, training, and
have been developed such as ANSI/ Use of the proper mix. examination requirements. AC1
ASME NQA “Quality Assurance w/c control by free water deter- Certification as a Concrete Field
Requirements for Installation, In- minations and water additions. Testing Technician-Grade I is re-
spection, and Testing of Structural Field testing of concrete for air quired for compliance with ASTM
Concrete,” which contains the types entrainment, slump, tempera- C-94, “Structural Specifications for
of tests and frequency required to ture, and compressive strength. Ready Mixed Concrete,” and AC1
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
assure concrete quality. Correct precast connections and 301, “Specifications for Structural
In most major commercial and prestressing operations. Concrete for Buildings.’’
industrial projects, a viable QC General loading of finished con-
program will include: struction (for conformance with Certified inspectors
Preliminary testing of concrete specifications). Many states and agenices have re-
material and mix design develop- Nonconformance conditions shall quired certified inspectors for con-
ment and approval. The supplier be reported to the engineers, and crete construction.
should submit current test results to reports shall be submitted as re- The state of Florida requires a
verify conformance with the speci- quired by the City Code and own- Threshold Inspector for concrete
30
A C 1 COMP*KLb ** 0662749 0503792 O
inspection to conform to the State Laboratory of the NIST, the Amer- occur in the field. The field inspec-
Building Code. The Threshold In- ican Association for Laboratory tor must be sure that concrete with
spector must be a professional en- Accreditation, or the Concrete Ma- serious loss of slump from trucks
gineer and experienced in concrete terials Engineering Council to check that are excessively delayed must be
inspection. This requirement was testing procedures and equipment. rejected and not re-tempered.
mandated because of catastrophic It also requires that the laboratory Field tests of air content and slump
concrete contruction failures due to maintain a quality assurance (QA) Testing of initial truck loads fol-
faulty constructions. program that includes: lowed by periodic tests must be
The state of California requires Organization chart done to assure that only concrete
concrete inspectors to be certified Laboratory facility and scope of with proper air and slump is used.
by the state to assure that capable services Compressive strength tests
inspectors are utilized on concrete Duties of key personnel These should include early age
construction, The reduced damage Personnel training procedures strength tests to establish a correla-
to concrete structures from the ef- Personnel competency assurance tion t o 28-day strengths. This
fects of recent earthquakes is a tes- Test equipment inventory, Cali- should be continuously monitored.
timonial to the higher quality of brations, verification and main- Whenever the normal margin is not
concrete construction. tenance practices achieved, corrective action should
The city of Cleveland requires Specimen handling, control and be taken before a rash of low
certification by the testing agency identification strengths develop.
that it has performed the detailed Actions concerning damaged Curing verified by compressive
concrete tests and inspections and specimens strength tests
construction conforms with the Data handling and reporting It is a Code requirement that field-
specifications before an occupancy Actions when variations in test cured cylinders must be made to
permit is issued. data indicate a problem exists confirm the adequacy of the curing
The Corps of Engineers, Federal The laboratory must also participate i n both h o t weather a n d cold
Energy Commission, Federal Bu- in a concrete reference sample pro- weather concreting. Reliance on
reau of Public Roads, and some gram. The testing results of each only laboratory-cured cylinders can
state highway departments have im- laboratory are compared with the easily result in defective concrete in
proved the quality of concrete con- national average and standard de- place.
struction by requiring that the viations of these values are devel- We have entered a new era of
ownedengineer be directly respon- oped; one standard deviation indi- concrete quality control. The driv-
sible for inspection. Less reliance is cates excellent laboratory perfor- ing force has been enforcement of
placed on the contractor’s QC. The mance. A specific laboratory’s the Code and the need for quality to
detailed concrete inspections and results will indicate the level of pro- satisfy the higher structural quality
tests are performed by the represen- ficiency. The accreditation program requirements and to avoid recent
tative of the ownedengineer. offers an excellent measure of the catastrophic failures. We are finally
The Nuclear Regulatory Com- capabilities of a testing agency. A witnessing the proper enforcement
mission (NRC) requires direct in- review of the accreditation reports of the AC1 318 requirement that in-
volvement by the owner and strict reveals the adequacy of equipment, spection and testing shall be per-
compliance to all applicable AC1 performance of personnel, calibra- formed by the engineer or his rep-
standards. Detailed inspection, tests tion of equipment, and validity of resentative. The contractor is not an
and reports must be made to verify testing performance. acceptable representative.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
that all specifications have been Some of the most important ele-
met. Intensive audits by the NRC
are made to assure compliance be-
ments in an effective concrete qual-
ity control program include:
AC1 member JO-
seph F. Artuso is
rz
fore a license to operate is granted. Water-cement ratio control president of Con- j
Inspection and tests to verify that struction Engineer- .
proper proportions are maintained ing Consultants,
and specified w / c is not exceeded. Inc., of Pittsburgh,
Laboratory accreditation This means that the amount of wa- Pa.: Cleveland.
ter added and amount of free water Ohio; and Oviedo;
Laboratory accreditation as de- Fia. He is a mem-
scribed in ASTM C-1077 is being is designated so that field personnel ber of AC1 Committee 31 1, Inspection
required by engineers and public will know the amount of water that of Concrete; Joint ACI-ASCE Commit-
agencies. Conformance requires can be added in the field. tee 359, Concrete for Nuclear Reac-
biannual inspection by an indepen- Field control of mixing and use tors; and AC1 Subcommittee E902-E,
dent evaluation authority such as A major source of concrete prob- Certification of Concrete Construction
the Cement and Concrete Reference lems is the re-tempering that can Inspector-Level III.

U
L
I
ecause of the concentration respond similarly to attract federal isting vehicle size and weight re-
of engineering activity and funds by conciously managing their quirements to minimize their mate-
political recognition associ- total inventory of facilities. The re- rial costs. The lack of forethought
ated with the construction sulting management of facilities in shown by the failure to accommo-
of new facilities in government and this case is a natural extension of a date foreseeable increases in vehicle
corporate enterprise, the engineer- need to identify the priorities and size and weight in design vehicle se-
ing profession centers its efforts needs for maintenance and replace- lection has resulted in limited life
mostly around its design and con- ment of facilities which would at- expectancy and service levels. Con-
struction services. As a result, the tract federal funding. sidering that substantial increases in
advancement of engineering tech- vehicle size and weight capacity in
The key word and need expressed bridges can be obtained at a small
nology in the facets of design and thus far is “management.” Man-
construction have excelled while increase in cost, this lack of under-
agement is the ultimate responsibil- standing and management between
operations and maintenance tech- ity and service the engineering
nology are generally neglected. the design and operations functions
profession provides relative to con- for highways is unfortunate.
The motivation for the imbalance structed facilities. The engineering Multi-story parking facilties have
of interest and development is, of technology required to execute the been built with minimum floor-to-
course, the greater glory and mone- management responsibility of the ceiling height requirements to mini-
tary profits. Engineers in the design profession is essential to appropri- mally reduce material costs. They
and construction services are now ate interpretation of needs and de- cannot accommodate conversions to
independently seeking techniques to cision making. Life cycle manage- alternate uses where HVAC equip-
extend the service life of con- ment is the singular most important ment and lighting are needed and
structed facilities in the design and consideration for providing contin- floor-to-ceiling height requirements
construction phases through efforts uous, reliable service levels over the
service life of a facility. This cannot are greater.
such as the development of service
life design concepts and qualtiy as- be accomplished through design and Flexibility is not costly to provide
surance programs. construction services alone. in initial construction compared
with the premature loss of an entire
Until recent years, governments Facility performance and service facility, but its absence often leads
with ownership and custodial re- life expectancy is predicated upon to premature demolition. While it is
sponsibility for the facilities in their the four basic engineering services: not forgiveable to overlook future
inventory neglected the service life design, construction, operation, and needs, overriding constraints in time
aspects of these facilities. This was maintenance. None of these ser- or financing can result in decisions
reflected in the caliber of people, vices can be effectively provided and choices without which a facility
funding, and engineers placed in without consideration of the others. could not be initially financed or
maintenance and operations. With Facilities must be continuously built, but which cause added long-
the advent of the federal bridge re- managed from inception to the end term costs for maintenance and op-
placement program, state govern- of their service lives with a strate- eration and possibly added cost of
ments were forced to consider man- gem that assesses the time and re- construction.
aging their inventory of highway sources (financing and manpower) It is important, if not imperative,
bridges to a much greater extent. available to achieve the ultimate notwithstanding overriding con-
goal-reliable and economical facil- straints, that a new facility be
Now, with the recognition of the ities.
problems associated with a planned in the design phase .not
long-neglected inventory of facili- Conflicts often arise between ini- only for constructability but for
ties along with highway bridges, tial design cost and future needs. length of service life, interim main-
popularly dubbed the “infrastruc- Traditionally, highway facilities tenance and operations require-
ture,” governments will most likely have been built to accommodate ex- ments, and possible alternate uses.
AC1 COMPILATION
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
32
A C 1 COMP*lb ~~
**
~~~~
m~-
Obb2949 0503794 4 W
~ ~~~ ~~~~~
Significant features anticipating the anticipated levels of perfor- will only retard efforts to deal with
maintenance and operations needs mance and reliability over the ser- service life aspects. A significant ef-
can often be provided with little or vice life anticipated in the design fort could be most productively
no significant increase in initial phase. mounted to advance the technolo-
construction and design cost. Ser- It would even appear desirable gies of facility maintenance and op-
vice life cannot be effectively esti- that a historical log of the mainte- erations, then merge conceptual
mated at the design stage without nance and operations of every facil- thinking into the life cycle manage-
anticipating maintenance and oper- ity be maintained by its owner or ment of facilities through the coop-
ations activities in a facility’s fu- custodian. Permitting agencies erative efforts of the design, con-
ture, and it cannot be assured with- should require it by ordinance based struction, operations and mainte-
out management of both over a fa- on the potential for enhanced pub- nance phases. To do less would be
cility’s service life. lic safety. Insurance companies to continue to ignore the evidence
should be interested in this histori- of a history of failure in this area
The unsophisticated owner with- resulting in the much publicized and
out in-house operations and main- cal log for determining premiums.
The original plans, plans for ensu- largely unanticipated infrastructure
tenance engineering capability and crisis.
the private sector owner who may ing rehabilitation or maintenance,
not own a facility over its total ser- the historical log of inspections,
maintenance and operations should AC1 m e m b e r
vice life require special considera- James C. Porter is
tion at the conclusion of the design be developed and maintained by the
owner and considered as important an engineer with
and construction services. Much as the Louisiana De-
the automobile industry provides as the deed for property transfers partment of Trans-
the owner of a new vehicle with an and occupancy permits. portation and De-
owner’s manual outlining its oper- Because the technology of design velopment, Baton
ating limits and maintenance rec- and construction has progressed Rouge, La. He has
ommendations, the design engineer well beyond that of operations and 22 years experi-
or contractor should provide the ence in the plan detveloprnent, struc-
maintenance for engineered facili-
tural inspection and rating and reha-
owner with a similar manual. Such ties, evaluation of service life as- bilitation of highway bridges, and has
a manual should incorporate rec- pects in design and construction also been involved with the design,
ommendations for regular mainte- only is neither practical nor appro- evaluation and restoration of buildings
nance, inspection, and stated limits priate. Continued neglect of opera- and the design of highway sign struc-
for operations required to maintain tions and maintenance technology tures.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
** =
~
A C 1 COMPULb Ob62949 0 5 0 3 7 9 5 b
You can make money with

quality control
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
P r o p e r l y organized, a quality Costs of quality construction Testing incoming materials,

control program increases a con- In broad terms, the cost of qual- vendor inspection, the costs
tractor’s profits by reducing the ity includes: of test personnel, supervision
amount of money needed to cor- 1. Failure2prevention cost and clerical support
rect poor workmanship or replace 2. Appraisal cost Cost to verify tolerances, con-
substandard materials. 3. Failure or rework costs crete strengths, t h e place-
Philip Crosby1 estimates t h a t The total cost of quality is the ment of joints, inserts, block-
business spends as much as 15 to sum of these three costs. The po- outs, and reinforcing steel
20 percent of gross income to cor- tential profit for your company is Any field test procedures
rect or rework products to an ac- the dollar difference between the
Quality failure costs:
ceptable level of quality. modest cost of quality control and
Costs of replacing work, ma-
Whether you have a quality con- the substantial savings possible as
terials, and rejected products
trol program or not, every project defects are eliminated or reduced.
Troubleshooting on noncon-
has a quality cost component. Quality does create profits.
forming materials and prod-
Every contractor has a choice as Some typical components of
ucts
to when he will pay that cost. He the above three cost categories are
Complaint costs, including
can pay t h e controlled cost of listed below.
meetings and price adjust-
quality control during construc-
Failure prevention costs: ments
tion, or h e can pay the uncon-
Running your company’s pro- Correcting surface imperfec-
trolled cost of correcting defective
gram to improve workman- tions
workmanship and materials later.
ship and eliminate substan- Replacing unacceptable work
The benefits far outweigh the
dard materials including demolition and dis-
costs of quality control. Building
Solving quality problems as position of rejected products,
the job right the first time can in-
they arise and adjusting the trucking new materials to the
crease a contractor’s profits-and
&/C plan for future savings site-hauling rejected mate-
future business.
Management audits to make rials away
Quality builds future business.
sure the system functions Equipment and labor costs
Some contractors feel that a low
Quality control measurement while awaiting decisions on
price generates more business
equipment repairs or corrections
than high quality. But it is a rare
Training programs for work- Backcharges by others for tol-
buyer who accepts poor quality be- erance problems in your work
ers and supervisors
cause it was a bargain. Those con-
tractors who build it right the first Quality appraisal costs: Need for balance in quality
time are more often favored with These are the costs to measure control
a seat at the planning table for fu- t h e degree of conformance to Ideally, a balance should exist
ture projects. quality requirements. between the cost of quality control
34
A C 1 COMP*&b
~~
** = Ob62949 0 5 0 3 7 7 6 ~~ ~~~
ô W
-~
and the cost of failure to produce You can decide whether it is bet-
quality, as shown in schematic ter to pay the planned costs for
form3in Fig. 1. prevention than the greater cost
There is some basic construc- of repair, replacement, structure
strengthening, or litigation. Re-
tion cost for each project, as
member-an outside law firm al-
shown in Fig. 1 by a straight
ways costs more than quality con-
line
trol.
And there is a hypothetical
Quality is marketing strategy
failure cost curve t h a t in-
that builds future business. Con-
creases upward to the left as
tractors with a reputation for
the percentage of defective
“building it right the first time”
work increases. have an edge over those whose
A similar curve for the cost of
poor workmanship habitually
prevention and appraisal in- causes delays and problems.
creases gently upward t o the
right, and then dramatically
upward as defects approach
zero. The intersection of 50% OY ‘Crosby, Philip B., Q ~ ~ d iist Fyee,
y Mentor Books,
PERCENTAGE O F DEFECTIVE WORK bfodeim Executive Library, New York, 1980.
these two curves is the opti- Taiiure can be defmed as ranging £rom failKe to
mum point. Fig. I-Effects of quality control on total provide an acceptable level of craftsmanship to
cost ofproject replacing substantial material, to structural fail-
In the total cost curve in the ure.
upper righthand corner (Fig. ber the cost of quality control is <Ada ted from: Campanella, Jack, and Corcoïan,
i), the least cost (or maxi- FranK J., “Principles of Quality Cost,” ASQC
managed cost where dollars saved Congms Z’~anssactzurzs,Detroit, 1982.
mum addition to profits) oc- are dollars earned.
curs above the optimum Abstracted with permission from “Management
Summary Report” April 1986, published by American Soci-
point. To summarize, quality control
ety for Concrete Construction. ASCC is a na-
tional organization of professional contractors
creates profits. But first a com- and related companies that work with concrete.
Ideally, you should have a cost Its goals are to educate and improve the quality
accounting system that will help pany must understand that quality and efficiency of the concrete professional and are
complementary to the technical contributions
find the optimum point. Remem- construction has inescapable costs. made by the American Concrete Institute
FIBER
Thin-Section Fiber Reinforced
Concrete and Ferrocement REINFORCEMENT
Thin-sectionfiberreinforced concrete is portland
cement concrete or mortar reinforced with
dispersed, randomly oriented discrete fibers.
Fibers can be metal, mineral, synthetic organic,
or natural organic. This symposium volume is a
collection of 21 papers. The papers are divided
into four parts: (Part one) synthetic fibers,
(Part two)glass fibers, (Part three) steel fibers,
and (Part four) ferrocement and other thin-
section composites.
To order:
ThinSection Fiber, Reinforced Concrete and
Ferrocement, SP-124, 1990, 448 pages, soft
cover.
American Concrmt. Institute

Member/ciriitomersenicesDept.
P.O. Box 19150
Detroit, Michigan 48219-0150
(313) 532-2600 FAX (313) 5336747
~ ~ ~~
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A C 1 COMP$Lb 8 % m Obb2949 0 5 0 3 7 9 7 T m
An abstract of the Committee 121 report
Quality Assurance Systems

for Concrete Construction
This report offers guidelines for the Keywords: acceptability; evaluation; con- Owner-The organization finan-
development of a quality assurance crete construction; ins ection; quality as-
surance; quality contro8 structural design. cially responsible for the project
system for concrete construction proj- and bearing that ultimate respon-
ects. The system is intended to permit
the user latitude in judgment regard- sibility for the public health, wel-
Definitions fare, and safety. The owner also
ing the owner’s needs, the defined
quality goals, the importance of the Quality a s s u r a n c e system-An includes those organizations or in-
project, the project size and complez- administrative control system that dividuals (projectlconstruction
ity, und the skills of the involved proj- sets forth the commitments, poli- manager, engineer, quality consul-
ect organizations. The following arti-
cle desci-ibes the highlights of a report cies, designated responsibilities, tant) who may be designated by
prepared by Committee 121. and requirements of the owner, the owner to perform certain ac-
which are documented in a QA tivities.
The development of a quality as- plan and implemented through QA
surance (QA) system involves programs to provide a means of Administrative aspects in
identifying quality objectives and controlling quality-affecting activ- developing a QA program
incorporating them into a project ities to predetermined require- QA system
QA plan which is implemented by ments.
project organizations through QA The owner is responsible for
Quality assurance plan-A writ- quality planning and overall man-
programs. The guide prepared by ten guideline for a project, devel-
Committee 121 is intended to be agement which includes selecting
oped by t h e owner, perhaps in
flexible since i t will be used on competent organizations and indi-
conjunction with a quality consul-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
projects which vary in size, com- viduals and establishing a QA sys-

tant or the engineer, which con- tem that will meet the owner’s ob-
plexity, and the number of organi- tains the owner’s policy statement
zations involved. jectives. An organization or indi-
and describes the scope of the
vidual should be designated to
Scope work, organizational relation-
perform those functions where the
The purpose of the guide is to ships, and the quality objectives
owner lacks the skills required to
assist the owner in developing for the project.
fulfill his responsibilities.
plans to meet the desired level of Q u a l i t y assurance program-A
quality for a specific project. Rec- document that describes the poli- Developing a QA system
ommendations are provided for cies, practices, and procedures to Table 1 indicates the various
the development and inplementa- comply with quality requirements stages of a project and how the
tion of a QA system applicable to and contract documents. overall QAsystem is developed. It
the design and construction of also indicates which organizations
concrete structures (exclusive of should develop the QA plan and
those addressed in AC1 349, Code ThefuU text of the ACI Corm programs and recommends which
Requirements for Nuclear Safety mittee 121 report, ACI 121R- organizations are responsible for
Related Concrete Structures; and 85, “Quality A s s u r a n c e Sys- reviewing and approving the &A
AC1 359, Code for Concrete Reac- t e m s f o r Concrete Construc- plan and other organizations’ QA
tor Vessels and Containments) to tion,” was p u b l i s h e d in the
programs. The table is intended to
J u l y - A u g u s t 1985 ACI Jour-
assure functional fitness; environ- be a guide and may be modified to
nal.. It i s also available as a
mental and economic acceptabil- separate publication f r o m fit the specific organizational ar-
ity; and the safeguarding of public ACI. rangements and quality objectives
health, welfare, and safety. for the project.
36
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*Lb ** 0bb29V9 0501798 1
~ ~ ~~~ ~
QA program
Contents of the Full Report Organizational responsibilities
The QA program should define
Chapter 1-Scope and Definitions Chapter 5-Quality Assurance the organizational structure within
1.1Scope Program which the QA program is t o be
1.2 Definitions 5.1 Organizational responsibili- planned and implemented and
Chapter 2-Administrative As- ties should clearly delineate the re-
pects in the Development of a 5.2 Control of design sponsibility and authority of the
Quality Assurance System 5.3 Material control various personnel and organiza-
2.1 &A system 5.4 Inspection tions involved, including designa-
2.2 Developing a QA system 5.5 Testing and evaluation tion of the person or organization
Chapter 3-Quality Assurance 5.6 Identification and resolution responsible for the QA program
Plan of noncomplying conditions management and direction.
Chapter 4-Quality Assurance 5.7 Records To facilitate communication be-
Program Elements tween project organizations on
4.1 QA program Chapter 6-References various matters, the identifica-
4.2 QA program elements for Exhibit I-Owner’s Policy State- tion, responsibility, and authority
project participants ment (Example) of on-site and off-site interfacing
Exhibit II-Guide for Organiza- personnel should be established.
tional Responsibilities (Example) Control of design
The design organization should
follow established procedures and
QA Plan QA program elements document its design to the level of
The project QA plan documents An example of QA program ele- detail necessary t o permit the de-
the owner’s quality objectives and ments to be addressed by each or- sign to be developed correctly and
should be developed at the earliest ganization is shown in Table 2. A to permit a qualified person to un-
practicable time in the develop- similar table should be developed derstand and verify final design
ment of the project. The following by the owner or his designee in the documents.
elements should be included in the project QA plan based on contrac- Design basis such as codes, stan-
project QA plan: tural relationships and quality ob- dards, assumptions, and other re-
owner’s policy statement; jectives for the specific project. quirements should be identified.
quality objectives;
scope of work under the QA Table 1-Development of a quality assurance system
plan;
Source of QA
organizational relationships requirements, Responsible review
and interfaces; reference, and organization and
authority and responsibilities Project stage QA system stage euidance action
of various organizations and con- Planning Owner* develops Owner, manager, Owner review and
tractors; project QA plan consultant, engineer- approval is required
ing, and this guide if project QA plan
a description of the overall was developed by an-
quality assurance system to be other organization
employed on the project should Design Engineer develops Owner’s project QA Owner, manager, or
also indicate which organizations design QA program plan and this guide quality consultant re-
are required to establish and im- and submits to the views and approves
owner for review engineer’s QA pro-
plement QA programs. prior to start of de- gram
In developing the project QA
plan, it should be recognized that Selection of Owner, manager,
a project progresses through many material and consultant, or engi-
stages such as conceptual design, services program plan, contract docu- neer reviews sup-
plier’s QA program
design, procurement of materials,
construction, and inspection prior Consti-uction Construction con- Any combination of Owner, manager,
tractors develop and owner’s project QA consultant, or engi-
to owner acceptance of the fin- submit contractor QA plan, contract docu- neer reviews contrac-
ished product. Therefore, a good program ments. and this mide tor’s or &A promam
QA system needs to develop and Material Material testing labo- Any combination of Owner, manager,
mature as the project progresses. testing ratory develops and owner’s project QA consultant, or engi-
The owner or his designee should submits a material plan, contract docu- neer reviews mate-
testing laboratory ments, and this guide rial testing labora-
also periodically review and if nec- 0 A promam tory’s QA program
essary update the QA plan during
the life of the project. *Indicates owner or engineer, or quality consultant.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
37
A C 1 COMP*Lb ** Obb29Yî 0 5 0 3 7 9 9 3
Calculations should be docu- TABLE 2-Important aspects of a quality assurance program

mented, checked, and approved.
Drawings should be reviewed and
approved for correct incorpora-
tion of design calculations, mate-
rials, processes, and constructibil-
ity by the organization originating
the design drawings. Responsibil-
ity for overall coordination and
verification of all required reviews
and approvals should be explicitly
provided for in the QA program.
Design changes, including field
changes, should be subjected to
the same control measures as used
in the original design.
The design organization should
establish interface with other proj- X indicates that the organization should have a section in their QA program addressing the applicable
QA program element (eg. organizational responsibilities, etc.).
ect organizations. Assigned re-
sponsibilities might include:
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
c l a r m n g design intent where quirements of the contract docu- tion, and damage; review of re-
necessary; ments prior to use. Established quired supporting documentation;
review and approval of field controls may include supplier eval- acceptance of material by inspec-
changes; uation and selection, procurement tion or test; and segregation and
control of drawings, specifica- documents, receiving inspection, handling of rejected material to
tions, etc.; storage and handling of material, prevent its inadvertent use.
distribution of revised design material qualifications, and rec- Storage and handling of mate-
documents; ords. r i a l - Where specific storage,
review of contractor procure- Supplier evaluation and selec- maintenance, and handling meth-
ment documents; tion-The selection of a supplier ods are specified, verification ac-
review of contractor methods; may be based on an evaluation of tivities should be conducted in ac-
resolution of nonconforming the supplier's capability to fabri- cordance with written standards
items; cate materials in accordance with to assure the adequacy and main-
other duties as deemed neces- the 'requirements of contract doc- tenance of storage facilities and
sary. uments and to deliver the mate- handling techniques.
Records pertinent to the de- rials at a rate consistent with the
project schedule, Upon selection of Material qualifications-Tests
sign organization include: should be performed and results
design basis which supports a supplier, a mechanism should be
established for the submittal of evaluated prior to use for compli-
final design; ance with contract documents.
final design documents (draw- quality records which verify mate-
rial compliance in accordance with The specific tests to be performed
ings, specifications, and calcula- and the qualitative requirements
tions); contract documents.
Procurement docurnents-These should be established in the con-
records of contractor perfor- tract documents.
mance; documents should specify the
field sketches and working scope of work to be performed; the Reccurds-Qualif!ying records for
drawings; technical and material require- materials t h a t may be required
field change documents; ments including applicable codes, should be identified. Such identifi-
contractor quality procedures specifications, drawings, and stan- cation may include mill test re-
and verification documents; dards; right of access to contrac- ports and certificates of compli-
technical reports and photos; tor facilities and records for in- ance, delivery slips for aggregates
as-built drawings. spection; and the documentation and admixtures, material tests and
required t h a t needs to be pre- inspection reports, and qualifica-
Material control pared andlor submitted to the re- tions of personnel.
Controls should be established sponsible organization for review,
for concrete constituent materials approval, or historical record. Inspection
and other materials integral to the Receiving inspection-For mate- An inspection program should
concrete structure to assure that rial and cost control, a receiving be established and implemented to
materials, within the recognized inspection should include inspec- assure that concrete construction
product variability, meet the re- tion for completeness, identifica- and materials meet the require-
38
A C 1 COMP*lb ** m ~
O b b 2 ï q ï 0501800 b m
ments of the contract documents. signature and company affiliation, should be promptly identified and
The inspection program should and ambient conditions. evaluated for implementation of
contain provisions for the specific corrective action. Interface be-
verification and acceptability of Testing and evaluation tween the engineer and other
implemented field changes. A program for sampling and project organizations may be nec-
Inspection personnel-Inspec- testing concrete and concrete con- essary to determine whether a
tions should be performed by qual- stiuction materials and evaluating specific condition is to be accepted
ified individuals other than those the results should be established as is, repaired, reworked, or re-
who performed or directly super- and implemented. The purpose of jected. These dispositions should
vised the activity being inspected. this program is to produce reliable be documented along with the sig-
The inspector qualifications or data from which the completed natures of concurring individuals
qualification program should be structure can be evaluated. and the specific instructions to ac-
approved by the engineer and The testing program should in- complish the repair or rework.
should meet the requirements of clude the qualification of all mate-
the AC1 concrete certification pro- rials used to produce the concrete, Noncomplying conditions-Sig-
grams or the equivalent. the concrete mix proportioning, nificant noncomplying conditions
are those of a recurring nature or
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Inspection program-The in- and physical properties of the
spection program should include plastic and hardened concrete. The conditions that could adversely af-
written checklists for items of extent to which these areas are fect the satisfactory performance
construction and quantitative OF addressed depends on the in- or appearance of the structure,
qualitative criteria for acceptance tended use of the structure, the should they remain uncorrected.
in accordance with the project environment in which the struc- Determining the cause of such
documents. The program should ture will function, and the assur- conditions, as well as the appro-
prescribe minimum requirements ance the engineer deems neces- priate corrective actions, should
for inspection of all structures sary. Other factors, such as cost preclude future similar noncom-
within its scope and follow the and time, also may be considered plying conditions and unnecessary
guidance of AC1 311.4R. Such when developing the testing pro- expenditures.
minimum requirements may in- gram. Nonconfoymances-Repaired os
clude inspection of the formwork The evaluation of test results reworked items should be rein-
system, proper installation of rein- should be performed at the com- spected. Since repaired items may
forcing steel, concrete quality as pletion of the testing operation by not comply with the original re-
evidenced by required tests, con- a qualified person using accep- quirements, criteria for the ac-
crete placement, and curing. Other tance criteria established by the ceptability of the repair should be
considerations that could be in- project documents. Any noncon- furnished to the individual or or-
cluded are form removal require- forming test results should be im- ganization performing the rein-
ments, repair work, core drilling, mediately brought to the attention spection. Reworked items should
sampling and testing, weather of the engineer and the contrac- be reinspected in accordance with
conditions, foundations bedding, tor. the original requirements.
bonding and jointing, leveling and The records of all acceptance
alignment operations, finishing tests performed should be made
operations, grouting operations, available to the applicable agency
and protective coating operations. during the progress of the job and Records
Photographs documenting con- thereafter in accordance with the Each organization generating
struction sequence, job progress, contract documents. The organi- records or documents that furnish
and construction details are desir- zation responsible for the test rec- evidence of the quality of mate-
able. ord should document the date of rials, equipment, or activities
Inspection records-Inspection test, area or system where the should be responsible for their
records are required to be kept material is used, test method, test technical content and accuracy.
available to the applicable agency results, acceptance criteria, state- Records or documents also should
during the progress of the work ment of compliance or noncompli- be signed or otherwise authenti-
and thereafter as required by the ance, remarks, and testing per- cated and dated by a responsible
project documents. The inspection sonnel signature and company af- individual from the organization
records should document the date filiation. initiating the records. The owner
of inspection, area or system in- or designee should implement a
spected, item inspected, inspec- Identification and resolution of program for ongoing review of
tion results, acceptance criteria, noncomplying conditions records and reserve the right of
statement of compliance or non- Materials or processes that do access to all applicable records and
compliance, remarks, inspector’s not meet project requirements documents.
QUALITY ASSU RANCE

Contractors
Through cooperation, constructive changes in

specifications can be brought about
T he ultimate goal of a qual-

ity assurance program is to
build a pavement that will
have good serviceability
during its anticipated life and result
in minimum overall costs.
Surviving in a competitive
industry
In the past, agencies have tended
to overspecify equipment and pro-
cesses in an attempt to obtain qual-
ity in a finished product. This type
many problems in the field as at-
tempts are made to use new meth-
ods, new materials, and new equip-
ment.
For instance, it too’k 15 years to
obtain nationwide acceptance of
However, in a competitive indus- of approach has generally resulted slipform paving and several years to
try such as that of construction, this in increased cost without improving obtain reduced mixing time on cen-
is not always an easy goal to quality. Moreover, in the past few tral mix plants. These developments
achieve. Moreover, achievement of years, contractors have experienced were mainly responsible for keeping
this goal is complicated by the rapid rapid escalation of costs for mate- concrete pavement costs down even
changes in technology occurring in rials, labor, equipment, and fuel with increases in the costs of labor
the highway construction industry. needed to achieve the required and materials. Those agencies that
Nevertheless, quality control proce- quality, ultimately reducing con- were slow in adopting these ad-
dures attempt to ensure quality tractor profits, vances in paving technology did not
through statistical quality control. The construction industry is a realize the benefits or cost savings
Although it is recognized that spec- competitive industry; contractors during the period when their speci-
ifications do not guarantee quality, must remain compet,itiveto survive. fications restricted use of these pro-
they can be used to help ensure a To be competitive, a contractor’s cesses.
As mentioned earlier, overspeci-
fying equipment, processes, and
even the end result does not guar-
Specifications do not guarantee quality, but they can antee quality in the finished prod-
be used to help ensure a high=qualityend product uct. It does, however, place the
specifying agency in a position
through control of variations. where it may be legally responsible
for the quality of the finished prod-
uct because all materials, methods,
equipment, and so forth, are de-
high-quality end product through basic philosophy must be that tailed in the specification. Giving
control of the variations in mate- “there is a better way.’’ The suc- contractors more leeway in the
rials, operations, procedures, and cessful contractor must continually management of their business
processes. Specifications and their use his ingenuity to develop better through proper specifications will
relation to costs and statistical and more economical ways to ac- result in quality pavements at a
uuality control will be discussed comtdish work. lower cost. Specifications that do
furthe;, as will be the reasons for not interfere with the contractor’s
the changes taking place in perfor- Advancing technology right to manage his resources (peo-
mance specifications. complicates contractors’ ple, machinery, and methods) are in
work
In most cases, highway construc-
Keywords: contractors; costs: pavements; quality
*M.Lee Powell III is president of the Highway/ tion faster control: serviceability: specifications: statistical
Heavy Company, Ballenger Group, Inc. than do specifications, which causes analysis.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
40
A C 1 COMP*Lb ** m 0bb2949 0 5 0 1 8 0 2 T m
the best interest of the one who is causes-the small deviations in ma- having tried to control concrete
paying the bills-the taxpayer. terials or in the process itself and production for the contractor, the
errors of sampling and testing. engineer still believes that he has the
Decision making on quality The quality control program is right to blame resulting difficulties
control procedures then designed to detect, locate, and or problems on the contractor.
correct more serious deviations re- Moreover, many current specifica-
The establishment of quality consulting from assignable causes. tions state, in effect, that the engi-
trol procedures for paving concrete neer?s approval does not remove the
involves two types of decisions: en- Contractors versus responsibility from the shoulders of
gineering and statistical. engineers the contractor.
Engineering decisions involve the As we move into the quality as- The contractor has always been
following: surance type of specification, con- responsible under the terms of the
The desired properties of the fin- tractors are held responsible for the contract for the quality of the work
ished product (strength, thick- end product. The big question is: and for conformity with the plans
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ness, mix content, etc.) Who controls concrete production? and specifications. A contractor
The level of these properties that Logically the contractor should self-inspection requirement does not
is to be achieved. control production. Unfortunately, change anything in this respect or
The tests that will most practi- through the years it has been be- produce higher quality work. If the
cally estimate these properties. lieved that not all contractors can be contractor inspection clause is
The volume of pavement or ma-
terials that can be economically
represented by a given sample.
Statistical decisions involve the
following: Specifications that do not interfere with the
Traditional specifications have set contractor?sright to manage his resources are in the
forth their requirements in a lan- best interest of the taxpayers.
guage implying absolute con-
formity. The fact that absolute
conformity cannot be achieved
has only recently been recognized
in specifications; the principle of trusted to do this. aimed at those few contractors who
reasonably close conformity has Operating under a method speci- may be inclined to cut corners to
thus been adopted. fication, that is, specifications that the detriment of the work, this re-
In defining reasonably close con- are very specific (cookbook type), quirement will probably not bring
formity, the statistical concept is a the contractor has not risen to the about any cessation of such prac-
helpful tool. The statistical concept challenge of setting up adequate tices. The only cure is better quality
is a rational method of setting nu- control. In the absence of control assurance by capable personnel of
merical limits so that the average by the contractor, there is left a the specifying agency.
quality of all construction will be vacuum that the engineer has found Progressive contractors have set
satisfactory. Under this concept, the necessary to fill for the protection up controls and have trained or em-
specification limits take into ac- of the owner. ployed technically qualified people
count the normal variations in test After having usurped the con- to assist them in maintaining the
results that occur from random tractor?s right to run the work and desired quality. At the same time,
QUALITY ASSURANCE
A C 1 COMP*3b ** W Obb2949 0 5 0 3 8 0 3 L W
engineers are beginning to realize difficult task; however, there are By the very words, “substantial
that the contractor should be left principles that will help improve compliance,” we are hedging.
alone and held responsible for the present-day specifications and put A single test does not indicate the
final product. them on a more rational and equi- true nature of material measure.
In concrete construction, cooper- table basis. Also, it is presumed that Statistical procedures cannot re-
ation is needed on both sides be- specifications will be interpreted place effective inspection. It is im-
cause there is no clear-cut line of fairly because no written words can practical to test all of a material or
demarcation; this is because some possibly mean exactly the same all of an end product-there would
of the problems that arise with con- thing to everyone who reads them. be nothing left. Statistical tech-
crete do not become evident for Producing concrete requires more niques including random sampling
many years. The only way the than aggregate, cement, water, and can be used to describe the proba-
owner can protect himself is to see admixtures. A necessary factor in bility that the properties tested will
to it that accepted materials and tying the process together and mak- be within a desired range. Specifi-
procedures are used, thus ensuring ing it function is the attitude of cations must recognize variability
a high probability that future prob- management. Does the contractor and be written on a probability ba-
lems will not develop. However, en- care what he produces? Is he inter- sis rather than on an absolute basis.
suring that the contractor’s mate- ested in just getting by and making The necessary level of quality must
rials and work meet specification a living? Or is he interested in pro- be considered-perhaps we cannot
requirements is one thing, but run- ducing concrete to meet contractual afford the highest quality product
ning the work is something else. obligations most efficiently, at least that we might like to have,
cost, and with as little waste as pos- One of the most important re-
Specifications do not sible? The results will depend on quirements in the probability ap-
guarantee quality these attitudes. proach is that both the specifier or
Certainly neither party to a con- buyer and the contractor or seller
tract wants deficient work to be have a clear understanding of how
Translating statistical measurements will be made, when
constructed. To prevent such occur-
rences, it must be remembered that specifications into quality and how samples will be taken, and
people control quality-specifica- control how the results will be interpreted.
tions are just one of the tools that The terms “substantial compli- The specification limits and accep-
people use in this activity. No spec- ance” and “reasonably close con- tance plans must be designed so that
ification will guarantee an end re- formity” are probably familiar a conscientious contractor applying
sult. Even the best of statistical end- ones. But what do they actually normally good control procedures
result types of specifications can mean? to produce his product will run a
yield deficient construction if all There are those who say that the minimum risk of having material
parties involved do not carry out work will be acceptable it if is in that is acceptable to him rejected.
their duties and responsibilities ef- substantial conformance with the Likewise, the plans must be such
fectively. Therefore, the contrac- specification provisions. The idea is that the specifier can make an eco-
nomical number of tests with assur-
ance that little risk exists that the
material accepted is outside the tol-
erance specified.
Thus, although by using the
Statistical quality control does not create variability words “substantial compliance” we
in materials and construction but makes it possible are hedging, statistical quality con-
to define the variability. trol will define what is meant.
Statistical quality control --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Properly engineered concrete is

tor’s production and quality con- that a few of the strength tests can not obtained unless the contractor
trol personnel as well as the own- be below what is specified but if one wants such a result and attempts to
er’s inspection forces must have the believes that the whole picture is ensure that he will get it through
information, motivation, and abil- substantially as intended, the work control. Control for the contractor
ity to produce good quality work. can be said to meet specifications. means the controlling of the varia-
When there is a breakdown in the The only trouble with this is that tions in materials, operations, pro-
quality assurance system due to the what is substantial conformance to cedures, and processes in a manner
actions or inactions of either party one person may not be so to an- that will result in a finished product
to the contract, it can lead to costly other. Therefore, this approach has each unit of which is, within a pre-
reworking or replacement of com- a built-in assurance that there will determined probability, a duplicate
pleted contract items. be disagreements, arguments, of the unit that precedes it and fol-
Writing a good specification is a claims, and perhaps even lawsuits. lows it. In other words, the con-
42
A C 1 CONP*Lb ** W Ob62949 0 5 0 3 8 0 4 3 W
tractor wants statistical quality con- nonconformance of a contract item. variation in many quality measure-
trol. Although a properly developed ments; thus, it appears to be illogi-
The term “statistical quality con- price adjustment system can do cal that the payment determination
trol” is an unfortunate use of the much to improve the relationship should depend on the abilities of in-
word “statistical” and has misled between the highway agency and the dividual field inspectors. By allow-
many people. Statistics will not en- contractor, it must be kept in mind ing the contractor’s technician to
sure the production of a high-qual- that a price adjustment system is perform acceptance tests (with an
ity or a superior product as many only as good as the specifications occasional independent test per-
people believe. It is merely a that encompass it. If the specifica- formed by agency central labora-
method for establishing, before the tions are confusing or ambiguous, it tory personnel), a contractor has
fact, reasonable limits on which to cannot be hoped that the price ad- only himself to blame if penalties
bid and be paid. justment system will provide equi- occur as a result of incompetence
To control before the fact, one table treatment for all contractors. on the part of his technician.
must be able to forecast what is Similarly, if the specifications are Another hurdle to the implemen-
likely to be obtained under certain not enforced uniformly, it cannot tation of statistically based specifi-
conditions. Statistics is a tool that be hoped that the price adjustment cations appears to be the fear of in-
can be used to provide a reasonable system will provide impartiality. For creased legal complications result-
prediction of future performance this reason, the uniform interpreta- ing from the enforcement of the
from the analysis of past perfor- tion and enforcement of statisti- price adjustment system. It is antic-
mance. To study past performance cally based specifications contain- ipated that conflicts will arise not
in order to predict future probabili- ing price adjustment systems is only between the highway agency
ties, one must sample, test, and more critical than it is under the and the contractor, but also be-
measure, then chart and analyze the conventional materials and meth- tween the contractor and his sub-
findings. ods type of specifications contain- contractors and suppliers. A con-
Statistical quality control is more ing price adjustment systems and tractor who is assigned a sizeable
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
related to the conduct of the busi- should force highway agencies to price reduction is likely to seek ac-
ness of the highway industry than to improve various areas that have tion. It may be that the apparent
engineering design. The role of sta- been overlooked in the past. inferior quality was not the fault of
tistical quality control begins only Although it is generally agreed the contractor.
after the product desired has been that quality control tests should be The contractor’s point of view
delineated. The statistical approach performed by the contractor when must be considered. Is the price ad-
does not create variability in mate- statistically based specifications are justment system placing the con-
rials and construction-such varia- implemented, the question of which tractor in a situation that will create
bility was always present. It is the party is to perform acceptance tests numerous legal entanglements? It is
statistical approach that makes it is the subject of differing opinions. clear that better and more binding
possible to define the variability. It is reasoned by some that because contractual agreements will have to
In the past, whenever an accep- the highway agency is responsible be developed between the contrac-
tance cylinder test indicated a
strength lower than the minimum
specified, the need to perform an
engineering analysis was avoided in
some cases by a more or less arbi-
trary ruling that the sample was not Only those who actually do the work can control the
properly taken or the specimen was quality of construction. The contractor then inspects
not properly made. In other cases the work so he can comply with the contract.
the blame was placed on the con-
tractor, who was required to core
the pavement to prove that it was
sound. In many cases, he was even
required to tear the concrete out for acceptance of the product, the tor and his suppliers. However, the
and replace it-when actually the highway agency should perform all type of price adjustment can also do
low test might have been a perfectly acceptance tests. This is acceptable much to improve the situation. The
normal and justified indication of reasoning only when the highway acceptance characteristics that are
the variation in this particular agency uses a central laboratory to used should not be those that have
product. This has led to many perform all acceptance tests. When the potential to create conflicts.
problems, lawsuits, and official in- individual field inspectors perform The price adjustment system can-
vestigations. the acceptance tests, the same sub- not be successful unless all parties
mitted material will not necessarily are satisfied. The recommendations
Price adjustment have the same probability of accep- and comments of contractors and
A price adjustment system is a tance. It has been found that test- suppliers should be investigated.
graduated system of payment for ing error can be a major source of The initial system that is imple-

-___
’ A C 1 COMP*3b ** W Obb2949 0 5 0 3 8 0 5 5 W
mented will probably have limita- that when operating properly, a course, none of us likes penalties.
tions that will be discovered under contractor will realize economies Bonus clauses can be effective for
contract conditions. Because of because he will obtain less varia- completion of a project but only if
constantly changing construction tion, reducing the number of rejec- they are equal to the penalty im-
conditions, the effectiveness of the tions and improving efficiency. posed for over the same time pe-
price adjustment system is also sub- Usually, this alone should pay for riod. A bonus for quality of prod-
ject to change. With new develop- the contractor’s share of the pro- uct is questionable. If you want a
ments in testing and construction gram. The cost benefits should be certain degree of quality-then
procedures as well as changes in reflected in bidding. The agency specify that degree and see that you
prices, the desirability of the price operating under minimal inspection get it. Remember that the degree of
adjustment system will need to be and testing will save its share in the quality is directly related to the
reevaluated periodically. The high- acceptance operation. cost-you pay for what you spec-
way agency must therefore demon- ify. The industry may not be able to
strate flexibility to correct apparent Testing. The necessity for rapid
afford the highest quality, but then
inequities that arise during the im- testing procedures and equipment
again, maybe it only needs 95 per-
plementation of the price adjust- has kept pace with construction
cent of it.
ment system. production. Recognizing that im- FHWA demonstration projects
It is my opinion that only those provement of quality is the ultimate
goal, major emphasis should be are determining what is being built
who actually do the work can con- and how current construction will
trol the quality of construction. The placed on instruments and testing fit into statistical end-result specifi-
contractor must go through a nor- procedures that can give timely re- cations. Increased production rates
mal inspection and testing program sults in keeping with current pro- raise an important question: How
to control the work so that he can duction rates. may test information be made
comply with his contract. Va I ue engineer ing; pena Ity timely and available for effective
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and bonus clauses. In discussing control of materials and workman-

Other factors in quality quality assurance, it is important to ship? Modern quality assurance
assurance mention value engineering and pen- techniques combined with modern
Training. Historically, changes alty and bonus clauses. test equipment and more rapid test
in procedures for highway depart- Value engineering is a concept methods as demonstrated on these
ments and contractors have not whereby the contractor and engi- projects are promising tools.
come easily. Training is thus an in- neer can share in the proposed sav-
ings of a particular item or method Summary
tegral part of the quality assurance
program. This point cannot be em- in a project not specified in the Let us go back to the opening
phasized too strongly; indeed, it original plan or specifications. I sentence of this article: “The ulti-
must be the first item in any imple- thoroughly endorse value engineer- mate goal of a quality assurance
mentation plan. Without adequate ing and congratulate the FHWA for program is to build a pavement that
training of all parties, implementa- their recent policy on this subject. will have good serviceability during
tion will be haphazard. In order to work, it has to be ad- its anticipated life and result in
Only if the private enterprise seg-
ment (contractors and suppliers) of
the highway industry is equipped to
discuss statistical matters will they A bonus for quality is a questionable practice. If you
have an opportunity to influence want a certain quality then specify that quality and
the type of specification under
which they will be operating. Train- see that you get it.
ing will enable contractors to un-
derstand and cope with these new
specifications so they can bid more
intelligently. Putting into practice vantageous to the contractor. I minimum overall costs.” It is
the appropriate tools of quality would caution the use of value en- through continued cooperation be-
control will enable the contractor gineering when it comes to the type tween contractors and owners that
and producer to tighten up on their of material in the mainline pave- constructive changes in specifica-
operations and reduce their stan- ment. This decision should be made tions are brought about. The world
dard deviation. Consequently, this by the designer. However, there hates change, but without it pro-
will give the contractor greater op- may be justification to consider gress is impossible.
portunity to produce a more eco- value engineering for material in
nomical product within the desired other areas of the pavement struc- This article is reprinted by permission of
specifications and without fear of ture. the Transportation Research Board, Na-
unreasonable penalty. There is a considerable amount of tional Research Council. It was originally
published in the November-December 1986
Costs. One objective of this type disagreement within the industry on issue of Ti7 News as part of its “Point of
of quality assurance specification is penalty and bonus clauses. Of View” series.
44
Quality Control by the Contractor
by Charles W. Mayer
The challenge of the future for the concrete inspection.” A uniform spec-
construction industry is the develop- ification document which states the
ment of the construction team with quality standard expected would be
the contractor included as a contrib- beneficial to the project team.
uting member. Optimum quality is ob-
tained in a friendly environment when Keywords: concrete construction: concrete
the focus is on product control rather products: construction costs: construction
than on cost control. This creates a equipment; inspection; quality control;
~~
need for a new ‘ktandard practice for tests.

--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
T h e challenge of the future for for a contractor’s estimate is a ten policy describing the method
the construction industry is the fractional portion of the time re- used for implementing procedures.
development of the construction quired to complete plans and spec- Inspection could use a standard-
team with the contractor included ifications. Contractors must have ized publication or a tailored doc-
as a contributing member. The multiple standard organization ument geared to satisfying a spe-
terms quality assurance and qual- plans available consistent with the cific requirement. The most impor-
ity control are being used in con- usual accelerated schedule for ac- tant ingredients of the written
struction specifications without complishing the control inspection document is that it is long enough
uniformity of understanding and activity. Many levels of product to be understood, wide enough to
implementation. The contractor control from simple to complex re- cover the topic, and deep enough
controls the quality of the product quire many levels of technical com- to satisfy the requirements by the
within the established specifica- petence, T h e prime contractor majority of the people using the
tion limits. Optimum quality is ob- supplies the resources either in document for product control. The
tained in a friendIy environment house or by subcontractor to sat- craftsmen must be aware of estab-
when the focus is on product con- isfy the technical requirements. lished limit prior to any owner’s
trol rather than on cost control. Overall responsibility for product acceptance inspection. Every con-
Quality assurance actions such as control is retained by the prime tract is unique even though re-
surveillance, product acceptance contractor regardless of work del- quirements could be similar and
testing, acceptance inspection, or egated. Inspection of subcon- the personnel assigned have the
audits cannot improve the quality tracted work prior to owner’s ac- qualifications and experience nec-
built into the product. These acceptance inspection remains with essary. Technical competence is
tions can only determine the reli- the prime contractor. One of the not assured by qualifications and
ability of the contractor’s control essential management measures is experience. Activity should be
of the product quality. The pro- organizational freedom to provide proceduralized so that communi-
posed teamwork should prevent verification of contract compliance cation is controlled consistently
the possible duplication of effort by t h e contractor’s inspectors with its importance to the accep-
that could exist. without the time or cost justifica- tance inspection function. Manage-
tions used by production person- ment of each team function should
Organization nel. The contractor’s inspectors regularly review the status and
The formation of an organization should have the experience and adequacy of the program in order
is unique for every project. Plan- ability to identify quality problems to make the periodic adjustments
ning for organization is based on and verify the preventative and as required in staff or procedure.
what is to be accomplished. The corrective solutions to those prob- Indoctrination, training, and re-
product control budget is estab- lems made by responsible manage- training as necessary are the con-
lished in the estimate based on the ment decision makers. tractor’s obligation to assure re-
contractor’s interpretation of the quired control is achieved and
level of quality defined in the spec- Inspection program maintained for product accep-
ifications. The usual time allotted The program should have writ- tance.
A C 1 COMP*lib ** H
O b b 2 î Y 9 0501807 9
resulting from installing an infe- be accomplished with a common
“The contractor assumes rior product by t h e contractor standard used by all entities of a
specification compliance pro- could be self defeating. Successful project. Regular established equip-
vides the owner with the construction firms are built on re- ment maintenance to assure the
product he intended.” peat business, construction knowl- accuracy within necessary limits
edge, experience, reputation, and should be a project necessity. The
Specification past satisfactory performance. benefits will be realized in the cost
The number of specifications are control reports from controlling
Inspection and tests the waste. Uniform results also
directly proportional to the num- Contractors formulate the daily could indicate that mix propor-
ber of designers andlor owners. plan for construction based on ob- tions could be adjusted for more
Each designer has a different taining acceptance of the product.
method but similar intent t o economical use of materials, One
The daily schedule implies that of the prerequisites for uniform re-
achieve a suitable product. Uni- other team members perform sults is accuracy of measurement.
formity is desirable for quality their delegated inspections and
control costs to be similar for all tests as required. The largest an- Noncon formances
bidders. Management and super- ticipated delaying factor on a proj- Nonconformances should also be
vision have the obligation to in- ect is lack of approval. Standards in written form. Violations of pro-
form the craftsmen of the general, suggest daily inspection and tests cedure should be anticipated. An
special, and specific requirements. on the essential variables. Con- important help is the knowledge
It is doubtful t h a t very many tractors must daily evaluate the generated by the designer’s re-
craftsmen of the industry have variations and discrepancies to evaluation and the communication
read the specification governing make the necessary adjustments transmitted. No specification can
the work being performed. Stan- for control. The acceptance of spe- be so detailed that all conditions
dards of the industry are generally cified inspections and tests re- are always fully covered. Coverup
known. When exceptions or devia- sults is the contractor’s obligation of a questionable condition can
tions a r e discovered either by associated with his product control cause disastrous results. The con-
product control or at the accep- prior to submission for acceptance tractor by requesting a designer
tance inspection, the craftsmen inspection according to the speci- decision on a questionable noncon-
are then aware of the exact con- fications, Concrete is not a perfect formance can suggest a corrective
tent of specifications. More stan- product made to a precise formula action that is mutually beneficial.
dardization or supplemental train- and violations of in-process criteria Rather than deal in generalities
ing of grass root craftsmen is nec- do exist. The goal of the contrac- the designer can be specific re-
essary to assure project specifica- tor is uniform results in the fin- garding the corrective action and
tions are being followed. This task ished product. This can only be ob- supply the contractor the knowl-
requires the teamwork of the in- tained by controlled adjustments edge for a preventative action
dustry to achieve uniformity. A to the characteristics of the con- whereby the nonconformance may
contractor assumes only that a crete work. This includes accep- never occur again. The designer’s
product meets the product speci- tance inspection and tests of sub- decision may well be a rework or
fication and is ready for accep- contracted work and services of “use as is” because the noncon-
tance inspection by the owner’s the suppliers and vendors of conformance does not effect the fin-
representative, The contractor as- crete constituents. The contractor ished product. Contractors should
sumes specification compliance should have the ability to evaluate usually accept the designers deci-
provides the owner with the prod- the validity of any sample, inspec- sion of “reject” and dispose of un-
uct he intended. tion, or test results of the constit- suitable materials rather than risk
Purchased materials uents of the product. a good reputation or the long term
ramifications of using nonconform-
Procurement of materials and Measuring and test equipment
ing materials
services are usually ordered in ac- The greatest incentive for a con-
cordance with plans and specifica- tractor to have adequate and cor- Records
tions. The specifications and ne- rect equipment is the prevention The best proof of quality con-
gotiations define schedule, excep- of waste. Reliability should be es- struction is a written record to re-
tions, and delivery. The past per- tablished that the variations de- produce t h e inspection history
formance of supplying a quality tected by test are not a function of during progress of the work. The
product is equally as important as the equipment. Calibrations should record requirements could range
the current price. The future ex-
pectation of supplying a quality “The contractor’s inspectors should have the experience and
product is equally important as de- ability to identify quality problems and verify the preven-
livery on schedule. A supplier’s tative and corrective solutions to those problems made by
unsatisfactory reputation on past
performance and the ramifications
responsible management decision makers.”
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
46 AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*lb ** m O b b 2 9 4 9 0503808 O
== ~
mandatory guidance on each of the

=
“Generaliy, written product control requirements me com-

specification requirements. The
plex for the contractor and a lack of understanding could re-
committee on inspection could
sult in high project bids to the owners.” then prepare a “Standard Practice
from simple notations in a daily in- The purpose of an audit might be Checklist” for certification of facil-
spection diary to a complicated tai- accreditation or certificatior. of an ities for the .quality standard es-
lored “Quality Control Record organization. The main benefit of a tablished on a project. The day-to-
Form” for each work activity such standard practice is the attempt day inspection function would be
as acceptance of formwork, rein- for uniformity of industry imple- according to established criterion
forcing steel placement, concrete mentation of the project plans and activity uniform in the industry.
placement, curing, etc. The value specifications. The nuclear concrete industry has
of the written record is that the many documents available for ref-
Conclusion erence. Some knowledgeable ex-
reevaluations are possible when all
the ingredients can be analyzed There is a trend by specification perts comment, “too many.” This
from test data. Retrieval is just as writers in the construction indus- is a valid comment and supports
important as keeping good rec- try to use the term “Quality As- need for a standard practice for in-
ords. The use of a file index, tables surance.” This creates a need spection.
of contents, or logS.for record lo- for a new “standard practice for
cation identification is advisable. concrete inspection.” Many profes-
During construction, many meet- sional organizations have written
ings are held both informally and similar quality program require-
formally and the importance of ments. Generaliy, ‘written product
any meeting is the written record control requirements are complex
of what transpired. It is amazing for the contractor and such lack of
how many people attend the same understanding could result in
meeting with multiple mental higher bids to the owners. Most
opinions of the same events. The standards use the term “docu-
meeting minutes should be writ- mented.” Historically, day-to-day
ten, distributed, and reviewed by product control has been oral and
the participants to obtain concur- not in written form or documented
rence. The primary purpose for by the contractor. Contractors
records is the documented verifi- have a wide range of product con-
cation of the quality level speci- trol measures that range from sim-
fied. The records may also provide ple to complex. The most complex
the support for a claim. Mainte- have the highest control cost per
nance of sufficient records to fur- unit of work. The most complex ACI member Charles W. Mayer is
also have some unnecessary dupli- quality assurance administrator, Gust
nish evidence of qualities and ac- K. Newberg Construction Co., Chi-
tivities will often determine re- cation between product control cago, Ill. A graduate of the Illinois In-
sponsibility and result in prompt and acceptance inspection. A uni- stitute of Technology, he is a member
form specification document which of ACI Committee 311, Inspection of
settlement of any potential claim. Concrete. His experience has been in
states the quality standard ex- concrete construction projects and
“The best proof of quality pected would be beneficial to the during the last six years has been in-
construction is a written rec- project team. volved in numerous nuclear power
It is the writer’s opinion that plant undertakings.
ord to reproduce the inspec-
tion history during progress the first consideration should be a
of the work.” “Quality Assurance Program Re-
quirements Specification Stan-
Audits dard” written in the most basic
Many industries use the audit and simple terms. The second con-
process to evaluate status and sideration should be supplemen-
progress of projects. Management tary information on each of the
requires this process in order to specification requirements. The
be factually able to verify compli- third consideration should be non-
ance with all aspects of the speci-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fications. Involvement by manage- “A uniform specification doc-

ment also varies from simple to ument which states the qual-
complex formats. The audit should ity standard expected would
be comprehensive and planned be beneficial to the project
either in house, by consultants, or
some other industry organization.
team.”
by Edward A. Abdun-Nur*
Inspection is not an end in itself, but INTRODUCTION ing elements beyond their scope of
a subsystem of the quality assurance work.
system. Inspection is not an end in itself.
It is usually either part of the pro- It is an important part or subsys- Fortunately, society’s expecta-
ducer or contractor quality control tem of an overall plan to attain the tions of engineers have been
process, or part of the owner accept- quality desired in a product - evolving in the past 20 or 30 years.
ance procedure. In either case, the ac- Today the engineer must be re-
tivity of inspection is the same but for known as the QUALITY ASSUR-
different purposes - either quality ANCE SYSTEM.’ For this reason, sponsive to new social needs as
control or acceptance. it is logical to briefly outline the well as to new technical opportu-
Inspectors have not been, in gen- nities. There appears to be a grow-
eral, adequately trained or paid, have Quality Assurance System and see
been asked to work long, hard hours how inspection fits in. ing need for truly innovative tech-
under adverse conditions, and have Quality Assurance has come to nical approaches that satisfy eco-
been at the bottom of the totem pole mean different things to different nomic and social issues to an un-
in the technical area of construction. precedented extent. The above
More o f t e n than not, the w o r k e r people and frequently has been
whose work they are inspecting is paid confused with Quality Control. definition fits well into these new
better and has better benefits than the One of the clearest differentiations expectations of society.
inspector. between the two is given by Kei- From this we have a simple def-
. Maybe we need a course with a de- inition of Quality Assurance:
gree in inspection. fer.2 Basically, Quality Assurance
In quality control, the inspector consists in the procedures that QUALITY ASSURANCE is a
needs the support of the superinten- tend to answer the question: “Are total overall system that deals
dent and foreman who can do a lot to we doing the right things?,” while with the planning and obtaining
inspect the work themselves. In a of the quality level needed for
proper quality atmosphere, the Quality Control consists of the
worker should be responsible for in- steps taken to answer the ques- the finished product to perform
specting a lot of his work so as to de- tion: “Are we doing these things t h e functions and service
velop pride and find the work more right?” The former is involved in needed for a particular situa-
enjoyable - compensations over and tion.
above mere dollars. the decision making process and
how one can be sure that these de- Fig. 1gives some of the most sa-
cisions are properly executed. The lient and important factors or sub-
latter is involved in the production systems in the overall system. To
or execution of these items to as- simplify this discussion, it is to be
sure the producer or contractor noted that the chart divides the
that he will wind up with the qual- overall system into two main sub-
ity that will meet the contract systems, namely, i) the SOCIAL
specification requirements. Thus FACTORS and 2) the TECHNI-
Quality Control is a subsystem of CAL FACTORS, the bigger outer
the Quality Assurance System. polygon part of the chart repre-
Keywords: concrete construction: inspec- senting the area in which the en-
tion: quality control; specifications: struc- QUALITY ASSURANCE
tural design. gineer has been more involved in
General the past. But it must be kept in
What do we understand by the mind that in these technical sub-
word quality? Simply and broadly systems there are many nontech-
it may be defined as follows: nical factors because the work is
QUALITY is the ability of a fin- done by people, and they are the
ished product to serve its in- most unpredictable of nontechnical
tended purpose for society: factors. The engineer, for the most
physically, functionally, emo- part, has not involved himself in
tionally, environmentally, and social factors in the past, so he has
economically. inherited decisions in which he has
*Consulting .Engineer, Denver, Colo- This may strike engineers, who had no input. Sometimes such de-
rado. Picture and biographical infor- are trained to think in terms of cisions make it impossible for him
mation appear on p. 24.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- technical matters only, as involv- to do his work properly. He must
48
AC1
~.
~
~~~ ~
learn to get involved in the social specifications that will realistically tudes, and established procedures
aspects enumerated in the chart attain this balance point and at the seem to play a bigger role in spec-
and provide his input into the mix, same time reduce or eliminate the ifications and coiistruction than in
to produce a consensus that pro- adversary relationship between design. It is a riddle that is diffi-
vides him with better decisions the various parties in the construc- cult to understand, and society
with which to carry out his work. tion process, particularly between pays a high price in failures that
Fig. 1 is self-explanatory and is the owner and the contractor. A not only may damage structures,
discussed in more detail in Refer- team effort will result that will re- but at times kill people.
ence.' It is, however, worthwhile duce cost and time of completion Quality assurance in this phase
to call attention to the fact that and usually maintain b~dgets.~.*.~ of the work must develop detailed
quality control procedures should and properly formalized proce-
be instituted in the design office, Quality Assurance in the Bidding dures to insure that proper rec-
the specification writing, and the Process ords a r e kept and t h a t proper
bidding process, as well as in var- If the bid is to be realistic and measures are established to signal
ious construction activities and in avoid surprises during the execu- pending serious deviations in qual-
feedback. tion of construction, it must also ity before they get out of hand.
have formalized procedures t o Such procedures must also provide
Quality Assurance in Design and make sure that the plan of execu- for immediate actions to rectify er-
Specifications tion is proper (quality assurance) rors so as to minimize delays and
In the design and specification and t h a t no items have been increased costs. Details of these
stage, quality assurance and qual- missed (quality control). procedures are not warranted in
ity control consist essentially of this paper. But to be effective,
formalized procedures to make Quality Assurance During such quality assurance procedures
sure that the design concepts fit Construction must be designed specifically for
the need of the project and checks Construction is the area where the job in hand, even through
and cross-checks to assure one the payoff from quality assurance there is a general philosophy and
that there have been no omissions and quality control is perhaps the overall plan behind the final qual-
and to catch up with errors and greatest. With the best designs ity assurance product.
correct them. This is essential in and specifications, one can still Quality control gets its most in-
both drawings and specifications have a poor structure if things go tensive application in the con-
through which the engineer ex- wrong in the field. The practice is struction phase. Here all suppliers
presses the needs of the project to to concentrate and bring in top- need a reliable quality control
satisfy his charge. notch design teams, and then use group, and the contractor needs
The tendency is t o gloss over canned specifications and indiffer- one for his own activities as well
these areas of quality assurance ent quality assurance and quality as a quality assurance and accept-
and quality control, but they are control measures during construc- ance system to assure him that
essential and should be seriously tion. Politics, established atti- suppliers and subcontractors are
carried out and budgeted for. In
the long run, the added cost will
be more than repaid by a signifi- QUALITY EiSStiRANCE---A SYSTEM
cant reduction in errors and omis- OESIGNER
sions. (Sets L e v e l " Q u a li t y )
2l\
In specifications, we must add to
the above an awareness and appli-
cation of practical uses of the laws
of probability. The reason for this
is variability, a law of life that is
found in all materials processes C O N S T R U C T
CONTRACTOR
I O N
OUNER'S NON-TECHNICAL or I
RE PRESEIITATIY E --
SOCIAL FACTORS I
and operations. It cannot be com- N- 0
U i l I O F t h e PEOPLE DRAWINGS AND
pletely eliminated, but can be re- -

ROOUCT INSPECT I ON ACCEPTANCE INSPECT IO11 P o l i t i c a l LEAOERS
Planners G A r c h i t e c t s
SPEC I F I C A T I O H S
ONTROL (control) TESTIIIC (acceptance)
duced to manageable levels. The t - Economic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
Finaccing Problem f
lower t h e variability t h a t is
t Legal Problems
Hunan F a c t o r s f
reached, the higher the cost to at-
t Environmental Factors
Pressures F o r RUSH
f
(ORGAN I Z I N G /(ADVERTISE
tain it. There comes a point where t / F O R S )
the cost of reducing variability be- f

t f
comes greater than the advan- t (SUBMITTAL OF S I O S ) f
CONTRACTOR
tages of having it reduced. Then it -- c c c c c c c c c c ESTIHATES
;A;;;;; PRltES
does not pay to go further. How-
ever, variability can be taken ad-
vantage of to produce incentive
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 1 - Quality assurance consists of an overall system with subsystems.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
49
A C 1 COMP*Lb ** m Ob62949 O S O L B L L O m
performing properly and ade- ally expected to do the proper that he has to be a concrete ex-
quately. It should be stressed that sampling, to make the slump and pert, know what variables in the
the quality control team does not air content tests, make and take processing are acceptable or not,
cost the supplier or contractor, be- care of the concrete cylinders for know aggregate processing, ad-
cause it more than pays for itself strength testing, and see to it that mixtures, pozzolans in case the job
in increased efficiency and reduced these are properly protected and requires these, and have devel-
errors instead of having to redo delivered to the laboratory in the oped the skill and judgment to
work after errors are found - a best condition and on time. suspect errors at a glance so that
very costly procedure. Inspection Among the activities of inspec- he may check them out to see if,
is a most important facet of qual- tion are: in fact, they are errors. He has to
ity control at all stages during con- 1. To check plants both during be a diplomat and be able to deal
struction. aggregate production and batching with the contractor and get the
Quality Assurance in Feedback and mixing of the concrete. work done properly, know con-
Here again, the process must be 2. To check aggregates to see struction law, and know what he
formalized to bring back to the de- that they meet specification re- can and cannot do to get the job
signer, the specification writer, quirements. done, have all kinds of other skills
the bidding team, the construction 3. To examine forms to see that that cannot be outlined ahead of
quality assurance and quality con- they are properly constructed and time and which vary from job to
trol teams the items to be learned supported so that they do not open job, and be able to cope with un-
for future use (quality assurance), up or deflect under the concrete expected problems as they arise.6
and to make sure that all items are load. What is needed is a person with
recorded and become part of the 4. To examine the reinforcing to technical training - preferably a
feedback subsystem (quality con- see that it is the proper amount graduate engineer, who is also
trol). Otherwise, one hears only and properly bent and tied to- given field training and experience
from the gripers, and feedback be- gether and placed in the forms. before being left on his own to in-
comes destructive instead of con- 5. To see to it that the concrete spect. His work should be appre-
structive. is properly mixed and has t h e ciated, its importance stressed,
With this discussion of the over- proper consistency and air content and he should be made t o feel
all subject of quality assurance, we prior to placing. pride in his work. His pay should
now come to one of its most im- 6. To see that the concrete is be commensurate with the quali-
portant subsystems; namely, IN- properly placed, vibrated, pro- fications and responsibility re-
SPECTION. tected, and cured. quired.
INSPECTION 7. To attend to a myriad of mis- Where do we find these inspec-
The construction phase of the cellaneous details that are neces- tors? The answer is, in most cases,
Quality Assurance system is sary to make sure that the fin- they are to be developed over the
where inspection comes into its ished product meets the require- years, and jealously guarded in
own. It is here that the quality of ments of the plans and specifica- each organization that needs them.
inspection makes the difference tions - the details of these vary In Fig. 1;which shows the conven-
between a structure properly con- from job to job. tional relationships in large proj-
structed and one that is full of THE INSPECTOR ects, it is seen that inspection ap-
problems and, in extreme cases, a The inspector is t h e key t o pears both in the contractor activ-
failure. The activities of inspection proper inspection. Unfortunately, ity and in the owner's activity.
and the skills and qualifications of the importance of his role has not The former is for quality control,
the inspector are generally the been recognized, and he has not and the latter for acceptance. But
same whether he is part of the been given the credibility needed as stated above, the activities are,
quality control team of a producer for him to perform his job prop- per se, the same.
or contractor or part of the ac- erly. Until recently, he has been In a construction organization
ceptance team representing the looked a t as the bottom of the en- that has the proper quality control
owner. Therefore, the following gineering hierarchy, poorly paid procedures, the attitude for qual-
discussion applies to both situa- (very often less than the workman ity has to originate in the top ech-
tions. whose work he passes judgment elons of management. If manage-
In general terms, inspection con- upon), expected to work all hours, ment does not support quality,
sists of seeing that good construc- under all kinds of uncomfortable then the best quality control and
tion, in accordance with the plans conditions, and not given the train- inspection will fail. With proper at-
and specifications, is accomplished. ing needed. In short, he has been titudes, on the other hand, inspec-
Inspection is the detailed critical told to go and get the job done tors work in cooperation with and
examination of everything that is with little guidance and little pay are supported by superintendents
going on during construction that and yet expected to obtain results. and foremen, and the workers are
does not result in test numbers. In When we look a t what is really motivated to produce quality. In a
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
concrete, the inspector is also usu- needed in an inspector, we find sense, they become inspectors of
50
AC1 COMPILATION
~
A C 1 COMP*lb
~.
** m 0662949 0501812 2 m
their own work, as the first step of and the skills and duties and the noring what is said in the specifi-
the inspection activity. Under such proper function of the inspector cations.
conditions, the worker develops are the same. He is simply doing In such a team relationship, it is
pride in his work, and his work t h e inspection for any of t h e essential not only to have precon-
means a lot more than the pay- groups that employ him. My ex- struction conferences, but regu-
check - it will mean satisfaction perience indicates that except for larly scheduled meetings during
and pride, and pleasure of having very complicated process plants construction, with the inspectors,
done his job well - these are ad- where there are only a handful of superintendents, and foremen par-
ditional items of compensation on specialists capable of handling the ticipating. They should discuss the
top of the pay check. work, and where turnkey may be forthcoming work and how to take
Turnkey Type Operation advantageous, the conventional care of expected problems to
In the case of the turnkey type type of construction with the en- everyone’s satisfaction and in ac-
of construction where the design gineers doing the design and act- cordance with the specifications
and construction are done within ing as field supervisors for the and to do these on time.
the same organization, we usually owner, and the contractor doing
have an engineering group and a the actual construction, provides CONCLUSIONS
construction group, and the engi- the best results. There seems to The following conclusions may
neering group is usually charged be a trend away from this, which be drawn from the above discus-
with the inspection for acceptance. I deplore. The designer and con- sion:
The construction group functions struction supervision group should 1. Inspection is not an end in it-
the same as the contractor in the be the same, whether part of the self, but rather it is a part or sub-
conventional construction opera- owner’s organization or carried system of an overall Quality As-
tion. My experience with this has out through consulting. I see cases surance system.
been that it is not as desirable as where the owner has only super- 2. The overall Quality Assur-
the conventional type of construc- visory personnel, hires a design ance system starts with essential
tion, with separate engineering organization to do the design, then and overriding social parameters
representing the owner, and the another organization to do the con- that have to be considered and
contractor responsible for the construction management and inspec- met.
struction. There is an element of tion. Thus the continuity so nec- 3. The engineer should involve
conflict of interest in the turnkey essary for efficient team effort is himself in these so as to be able to
type of work, because the larger lost, particularly the designer’s in- provide his input to influence the
profit is usually made in the con- fluence during construction. When overall decisions.
struction area, and that group usu- changes are needed, the designer 4. Where the engineer is given
ally calls the shots. But inspection is not there to realize the need, the responsibility for design, he
here, where it operates properly, and thus some designs a r e provides his thinking as to what is
is similar to that under the con- changed without his knowledge, needed in the drawings and spec-
ventional construction procedures and tragedy may occur. ifications in order to provide the
of owners, engineers, and contrac- owner with the structure or plant
tors. There is a great need for the de- t h a t will perform t h e service
Construction-Manager Type velopment of a construction team needed at minimum cost consis-
Operation effort that will reduce or eliminate tent with the quality required.
In the case of a construction- the classical adversary relation- 5. Quality is more than quality
manager type of relationship, the ship between owner and contrac- of materials. It should be thought
construction-manager represents tor. To achieve this, it is necessary of as the quality of the finished
the owner and performs the ac- to start with the proper attitudes project judged by how well i t
ceptance inspection. The contrac- spelled out in the specifications, serves society: physically, func-
tor functions the same as in the especially in the General Provi- tionally, emotionally, environmen-
conventional construction opera- sions section, and to have realistic tally, and economically.
tion. The weakness is that if the technical provisions that are in 6. Specifications should be in
construction-manager is not also tune with nature’s variability. 0th- tune with nature and designed to
the designer, then t h e r e is a erwise they become impossible to provide clear requirements that
chance of poor communications meet, and all kinds of infighting can be met by reasonable men
and lack of proper interpretation and shenanegans have to be re- trying to do the work.
of the designs. sorted to in order to show in the 7. Inspection comes into its own
record that specifications have during the construction phase or
DISCUSSION been met, when in fact they have subsystem. There are three basic
But irrespective of the type of not been complied with because approaches to conducting the con-
relationship, conventional con- they ignore nature’s laws. Nature struction operations:
struction, turnkey, or construc- does not read specifications, but la) Conventional construction
tion-manager, the act of inspection goes on blithely with its laws, ig- where the owner is represented
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
by the engineer and a contractor be practical, be a diplomat, be a REFERENCES
does the work - still t h e best ap- team player, and be knowledge- 1. Abdun-Nur, Edward A., “What is
proach in most situations; able in construction law, so that he t h e Quality A s s u r a n c e S y s t e m ? , ”
Ib) Turnkey type of construc- may not overstep his authority. Transporta tion Research Record No.
tion, most useful in very compli- 12. We have expected all these 613, Transportation Research Board,
cated and highly technical and spe- 1976, pp. 51-55.
qualities but have not insisted on
cialized facilities; 2. Keifer, Oswin, Jr., “Control
proper training and attitudes, and C h a r t s Catch Changes, Can C u t
(c) Construction-manager ap- have not been willing to pay ade-
proach in which tihe owner dele- Costs,” Concrete International: Design
quately for this most important ac- & Construction,V. 3 , No. 11, Nov.
gates the managing of the con- tivity. It is time that proper train- 1981, pp. 12-16.
struction phase to a construction ing be required and commensurate 3. Abdun-Nur, Edward A., “Incen-
manager, who may be different pay be allowed for this work. tive Specifications for Concrete,” Con-
than the design organization, with Maybe a practical school with a de- crete International: Design & Con-
a contractor doing the actual work gree in inspection can find a place struction, V . 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp.
- lack of continuity. in our educational systems. 20-24.
8. Quality Control by the var- 4. Abdun-Nur, Edward A., “Con-
ious producers or contractor re- 13. Communication is the most tractual Relationships, An Essential
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
quires inspection as well as inspec- essential element in inspection. Ingredient of the Quality Assurance
tion for acceptance by whoever Preconctruction conferences, and System,” Transportation Research
represents the owner. regular meetings during construc- Record No. 792, Transportation Re-
tion between all parties are essen- search Board, 1981, pp. 1-2.
9. Inspection is, therefore, a key
element in the construction phase. tial to get the work done properly 5. Abdun-Nur, Edward A., “Design-
and expeditiously, to eliminate ad- ing Specifications - A Challenge,”
10. Inspection is seeing t h a t
versary relationships, and to main- Proceedings, ASCE, V . 91, Col, May
good construction in accordance 1965, pp. 29-44.
with the plans and specifications is tain a team effort.
6. Abdun-Nur, Edward A., “Inspec-
accomplished. 14. The inspector should be tion, and Product Control,” Proceed-
11. The inspector has to be tech- proud of his work and be a full- ings, Sixth Annual Concrete Confer-
nically knowledgeable in the field fledged member of the engineer- ence, Utah State University, Logan,
of inspection he is charged with, ing team. Mar. 1964.
BE PREPARED FOR FIELD AC1 references cover concrete admixtures;

measuring, mixing, transporting and
PROBLEMS. placing concrete; pumping concrete; hot
CARRY THE CONTRACTOR’S weather concreting; cold weather concret-
ON SITE / ON-HAND ing; curing; consolidation of concrete; and
recommended practice for formwork.
REFERENCE MANUAL, TO ASTM references include the standard
SPECIFICATIONS FOR specification for ready-mixed concrete
STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (C94) and test methods for making and
FOR BUILDINGS curing concrete test specimens in the field;
measuring unit weight, yield, air content
An indispensablereference tool, SP-15(89) and slump; and sampling of fresh concrete.
includes the newly revised AC1 301-89 - SP-15(89) Field Reference Manual, 1990,
Speciíïcationsfor Structural Concrete for soft cover, 7” x 10“ format, 326 pages.
Buildings - and selected AC1 and ASTM
references listed in the AC1 301 specifi-
cation.
If your job specs reference AC1 301-89,you American Concrete Institute, P.O. Box
must have the AC1 Field Reference Manual 19150, Detroit, MI 48219-0150, Telephone
SP-15 in your field office to be in com- (313) 532-2600, FAX (313) 533-4747
pliance with the specification. Don’t get
caught short.
The book contains 10 AC1 references and AM E R ICAN
8 ASTM references. CONCRETE
INSTITUTE
52
A C 1 COMP*3b ** m Ob62747 0 5 0 3 8 3 4 b m
Product Control and Acceptance Inspection
as Viewed by the Owner and Designer
by Bertold E. Weinberg w h e n considering acceptance inspection as viewed
by the owner and the designer of a new facility, we
realize that they have many common interests. But
based on personal experience of many years working
in each of these two roles, it appears that these in-
When considering acceptance inspection as viewed b y the terests do not always totally coincide. They each have
owner and the designer of a new facility, both have many
common interests. It appears these interests do not always their own economic interests and sometimes these do
coincide. The organiza tion required for proper acceptance conflict. But with that said, let us remember that for
inspection can be variable. A definite inspection program both the owner and designer, acceptance inspection
is needed, and detailed specifications must be followed b y is one of the methods used to assure both that the
all parties. Proper inspection and acceptance of materials,
services, testing programs and equipment, maintaining facility being constructed is built in accordance with
proper records, and avoiding nonconformance are dis- the contract documents. Please note that this does
cussed. not say that acceptance inspection is one of the meth-
ods used t o assure the owner of a safe and usable
facility. For that, proper construction is only half of
the equation. The other half, of course, is proper de-
Keywords: acceptability; concrete construction; inspection; quality sign.
control: specifications: standards; structural design: tests.
Organization
The organization required for proper acceptance in-
spection can be as varied as the nature of the project
and the types of owners and designers. Many large
Durability of Concrete
To order:
Durability of Concrete Durability of Concrete-
Second International Conference,
Second Inteinational Conference SP-126, 1991,2 volumes,
Montreal, Canada 1991
1370pages, soft cover.
American Concrete Institute

Member/CustomerServices Dept.
P.O. Box 19150
Vhl. Moihoira -aB (313) 532-2600
Edim Volume II SP-126
FAX (313) 533-4747
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
The inspector must be alert to unwarranted changes
by other trades. The plumber who cut this reinforce-
ment to make space for his pipe probably did not re- Precast concrete elements are stored after removal
alize that safety and structural design are in jeop- from the molds. These units should be inspected in
ardy. the yard before shipping to the job site.
owners (both corporate and government) have their project, but also the one party who will have to live
own design staffs and lor quality assurance personnel. the longest, with the completed facility, and, there-
My agency is so heavily involved in managing the de- fore, has the most at stake in the entire venture, he
sign and construction of major building programs cannot afford to be just an interested bystander. He
that it has an Engineering Services Division for trou- must be involved enough to know what is going on.
bleshooting on all of its projects, to alert all its per- The designer, whether architect or engineer, must
sonnel and design consultants to problems occurring have personnel who are familiar with quality of ma-
on any of its projects (both during construction and terials and products, their availability, construction
during use of the facility), to keep staff and consul- methods, inspection procedures, and the impact of all
tants informed about technical developments, to spell of these on the design drawings and specifications.
out agency requirements which may be stricter than Are the materials to be used readily available on the
applicable codes, and to be of assistance to its clients local scene? Are qualified workers readily available?
as needed. But the bulk of all construction in this The designer must have personnel who know the an-
country is done for owners who are not large enough swers to these questions.
to have any design or construction related staff. This But when all of this is said and done, what the
kind of owner typically hires a designer and a builder. owner and the designer must always remember is
It is this type of arrangement to which this article is that no inspection program, be it acceptance inspec-
addressed. With some adaptation, many of the items tion by the owner or designer, or quality control by
covered can be applied to other owner-designer- the builder, can overcome the effect of improper or
builder relationships. impractical design. The owner must pay, both in time
Let us look at the organization which owners and and in money, for a proper and practical design, and
designers should have for proper acceptance inspec- the designer must provide it. The cost of having a
tion. No doubt, much that is said here about organi- faulty or impractical design far exceeds the cost of a
zation may appear somewhat idealized. It is, and it proper one. The least costly problems are always the
will not always be achieved. However, the closer both ones which are avoided.
the owner and the designer come to achieving the ob- Let us look at a few examples. If precast concrete
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
jectives t h a t will be mentioned, t h e b e t t e r the is going to be used for a structure, the connections
chances are that acceptance inspection will be a use- must not only work structurally but they must be
ful tool in bringing a project to successful completion. connections with which the local labor force is famil-
First of all, the owner must have personnel in his iar. Also, they must be suitable for the type of use
own organization who understand what it is that the and exposure of the facility in which they are going
owner needs in a new facility; who can work knowl- to be used. If concrete, cast-in-place or precast, is to
edgeably with the design architects and engineers for be exposed to the elements, are the types of aggre-
the project; and who can give the necessary guidance gates to be specified and used ones that have with-
and make the required decisions. This may sound stood the elements in the area where the facility will
like preaching motherhood. True, but most of us be erected? Are the specifications tight enough so
are familiar with the effects of not having the above. that only aggregates that have withstood the appro-
The owner, of course, needs guidance from his de- priate tests will be used? No amount of inspection can
signers. Since he is the one who is not only going overcome the effects of negative answers to this type
to be paying the bill for all parties involved in the of question.
54
Conducting compression tests of t h e concrete cylin- A proper inspection program includes in-plant in-
ders. Proper equipment m u s t be used, and standard spection where aggregates and other materials to be
procedures m u s t be followed. used on t h e particular project are properly stored.
Inspection Program For a successful acceptance inspection program,
The ultimate responsibility for a proper acceptance the designer must understand materials and con-
inspection program .lies with the owner and his de- struction, which, unfortunately, is not always the
signer /consultant, not with the testing laboratory or case. The designer must also know what the critical
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
any other consultants they use for that purpose. The items are that must be inspected for both safety and
owner must make adequate resources available for quality. He must be thoroughly familiar with inspec-
the hiring of a competent inspection team by the de- tion and testing techniques. Then he must use all of
signer. This team should include personnel both from his knowledge to lay out a proper testing and in-
the designer's own office as well as people from the spection program, one that will be suitable for the
testing laboratory. From an owner's point of view, it particular design that he has used. He should call
is highly desirable that the people in a design office only for such tests as serve a useful purpose for the
who were working on the design of a particular proj- specific project and design a t hand, including, of
ect and in the preparation of the specifications be the course, all the ones that may be called for by law.
people who are also involved in this project during There is no point in calling for a test which tells noth-
construction. Unfortunately, often the tendency in ing about the project a t hand just because that test
design offices is to have people who were not in- was used on another project at another time. These
volved with the project during design stages involved tests must be performed a t times and locations where
with the project during construction. Oftentimes, the they are most significant and, to the extent possible,
designer of the project is already deeply involved cause the least possible interruption to the construc-
with the design of the next project during the con- tion process. Acceptance inspection for precast prod-
struction of any particular facility. Yet, he or she is ucts should be performed in the precast yard. Ready-
the one who is most qualified to resolve the many mixed concrete must be inspected a t the batch plant.
problems and questions which invariably arise on any Specifications
project. Furthermore, there is nothing like living
with and learning from your own mistakes, and be- Let us go on to specifications. As much as possible,
coming a better designer in the process. It is one of the designer should use standard specifications such
the best ways of assuring that these mistakes are not as ASTM, ACI, AISC, etc. However, the single big-
repeated. gest consideration of the inspection portion of any
specifications, as with any other part of the specifi-
Also, the owner is usually better served if testing cations, is the nature of the project, its characteris-
laboratories are not hired on a competitive basis, as tics, the materials used, standards of workmanship,
the risk of inadequate personnel is too great. If the legal requirements, etc. The specifications for no two
sole criterion in selecting a testing laboratory is cost, projects can be the same, and the same applies to the
the risk of inspectors being underpaid and unqualified inspection portion. Therefore, all standardized speci-
is very real. It can well be said that while adequate fications used m u s t be reviewed in detail, and modi-
fees and salaries will not assure adequately qualified fied as appropriate. Furthermore, many standards
personnel, inadequate fees and resultant salaries will are suggestive rather than prescriptive. Therefore,
definitely assure unqualified personnel. Too many mere reference to them may be useless a t best and
owners and designers complain about poor testing confusing at worst. Detailed requirements must be
laboratory services, yet bid out these services as they included in the specifications for their implementation
would for a keg of nails. This is not to say that cost for any project. (AC1 guides for hot and cold weather
is not an important consideration, any more in the concreting are good examples.)
hiring of a testing laboratory than in the hiring of the The specifications must be sufficiently clear so that
architect or engineer. all parties involved - the owner, the designer, the
QUALITY ASSURANCE
55
A C 1 COMP*16 **
m 0662949 0501817 1 m
contractor, the supplier, the testing laboratory - where one or more of these items were overlooked
know exactly what constitutes acceptable materials or neglected, with unfortunate and questionable re-
and workmanship. They should also spell out the sults. The best way of avoiding these types of prob-
standards or other criteria used to determine the ac- lems, usually, is to hold a conference at the beginning
ceptability of both materials and workmanship. Fur- of a project between the designer, the testing labo-
thermore, it is also helpful for the contractor and sup- ratory, the contractor, and subcontractors or vendors
plier to know what inspections and tests will be per- where appropriate. At this meeting the acceptance
formed by or on behalf of the owner, and at what inspection procedures which the designer will employ
stage of the construction process they will be per- are outlined and discussed in detail. Many errors that
formed. However, the owner and the designer must, normally creep into these procedures are not through
at all times, be free to conduct other tests or inspec- any deliberate attempt to do things incorrectly or to
tions as they deem advisable. The specifications must ?pull a fast one,? but really are a matter of negligence
be clear on what certifications must be provided by or oversight. This applies not only to field inspection
the contractor and the supplier. Finally, the specifi- but also to laboratory testing of samples and speci-
cations should not restrict the owner or the designer mens. In all of these, the designer must make sure
in performing whatever tests they consider to be ad- that requirements of both the designated standards
visable in case there is any question about the suit- (ASTM, etc.) and t h e project specifications a r e
ability of the material or work already included in the strictly followed. Otherwise, the results may not only
project on the basis of negative test results. For ex- be of poor value but may inspire a false sense of se-
ample, we have all seen specifications which call for curity. For example, one common error seen only too
a load test in case the 28-day cylinder strengths do frequently is carrying out a 28-day cylinder strength
not come up to specifications. If the structure then test where three cylinders are made and tested.
withstands the load test, that is considered evidence ASTM specifically calls for the average of two cyl-
that the concrete is acceptable after all. And, yet in inders for a 28-day strength test. Rejecting or ques-
many instances, the load test will tell us very little tioning the concrete strength based on the average
about the quality of the concrete. Rather, it tells us of three cylinders for a 28-day strength test may well
that at the time of the test there was enough rein- leave the results open to challenge by the contractor
forcing steel in place to keep the structure from col- or ready-mixed supplier as not having been arrived
lapsing under the applied test load. Not only does the at in accordance with the specified standard.
load test in many instances tell u s nothing about the If certification of personnel is appropriate, it should
strength of the concrete, it tells u s even less about be required and monitored. In many areas, testing
its durability. laboratory personnel are now certified. In fact, this
is an area AC1 is getting into very heavily.
Purchased Materials and Services
Measuring and Test Equipment
It is usually in the owner?s interest to have the po-
tential sources of materials and services as wide open For laboratory equipment, the designer should re-
as possible, limited only by economics, suitability, and quire that the laboratory be inspected regularly by
legal requirements. The designer will have to advise the Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory
the owner what inspections and tests must be per- (CCRL). The latest CCRL report should be studied
formed, where and when, to assure the owner that and a check should be made that any deficiencies
all requirements of suitability and legality are met in noted in the report have been corrected. CCRL does
proper and timely fashion. The designer, with his not pass or fail laboratories. It does, however, make
own personnel or that of a hired testing laboratory, a complete report of its findings.
must be prepared to visit sources of new materials For production equipment (i.e., batch plants) con-
or fabricated products to provide the owner with the formance with appropriate industry standards and
above assurances. If standardized certifications (like manufacturers? recommendations should be checked.
ASTM for reinforcing steel or tensioning cables) fur- Field equipment must be checked for conformance
nished by the manufacturer are to be accepted, the
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
designer must assure himself of the basis on which

the certifications are issued. This may involve in-
plant checks.
Inspection and Tests

The designer, on behalf of the owner, must monitor
four aspects of construction testing, be this with his
own personnel or those of a testing laboratory. These
four aspects are: timeliness, procedures being used,
qualifications of the personnel involved, and adequacy J __ --___ __..= - -I
of the equipment being used. The above may sound ASTM test method contains detailed instructions for
trite, but most engineers have known instances proper testing of air content in the field.
56
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*Lb ** W O b b 2 ï Y ï 050LBLB 3
with appropriate standards and for cleanliness. Kea- However, these methods should result in consider-
suring equipment (gages, etc.) should be checked reg- ably less unacceptable concrete being placed than
ularly against a known quantity. awaiting results of 28-day tests,
Records
Nonconformance
Complete reports must be prepared for all inspec-
The best way of solving the problem of noncon-
tions and tests. The forms to be used must be pre-
formance is avoidance. Raw materials (cement, ag-
pared in advance, to make sure that all necessary in-
gregates, etc,) which do not meet specified require-
formation is called for. It is important that the re-
ments should not be included in the manufacturing
ports be prepared promptly, at the end of each test
process (batch plant, precast factory, etc.). This
or day, as appropriate. A space for recording com-
points up the importance of including the manufac-
ments or unusual events should be part of each re-
turing and batch plants in the acceptance inspection
port form. Also, it is important not only that proper
program. Improperly manufactured products such as
records be kept but that they be promptly sent to all
ready-mixed concrete, reinforcing steel, precast con-
parties concerned (designer, owner, contractor, ven-
crete, etc., should not be included in the work. Any
dor, government agency, financing agency, etc.).
tests which show improper material or products
Even the best inspection and test reports are of no
should result in the immediate rejection and removal
use unless they are promptly: (1)distributed to all
from the site of the material or products involved.
concerned parties, and (2) read by these parties. In-
And, again, if tests show the material to be improper
spection and test reports have a negative time value,
and these tests have been conducted in the plant,
rapidly losing their usefulness with time. Owner, de-
that material (e.g., a precast concrete member)
signer, contractor, ready-mixed supplier, laboratory
should not be permitted to be shipped to the site.
personnel, and others concerned, must read inspec-
If nonconforming material has already been in-
tion and test reports promptly to: (1)analyze them,
cluded in the work, the procedures to be followed
(2) correlate them with reports of earlier inspections
must depend on the situation. Corrective action
and tests, and ,(3) take prompt corrective action as
should be taken where possible (i.e., improperly
needed. Inspections and tests are not an end in them-
placed or secured reinforcing steel). Nonconforming
selves, only a means to an end. If this is overlooked,
test results of material already in place (i.e., 28-day
the process rather than the product becomes the im-
cylinder tests of cast-in-place concrete) should be fol-
portant thing. This may well lead to a misleading and
lowed by an engineering analysis of the areas in-
potentially dangerous false sense of security.
volved to determine appropriate corrective action, a
review of construction procedures to avoid repetition, Summary
and a review of the design mix (materials and pro- Acceptance inspection is one of the tools available
portions) and possible adjustments. to the owner and designer to insure that a structure
The engineering analysis may include some in-place being built is built soundly and is properly service-
nondestructive tests, such as core tests, load tests, able for the owner. Acceptance inspection cannot and
Windsor probes, etc. However, these tests should be should not be expected to overcome the effects of an
used as part of, not in lieu of, an engineering analysis. improper and incorrect design. It cannot and should
(The caution about the use of load tests noted above not be expected to take the place of quality control
under the heading “Specifications” should be kept in by the contractor and material producer. It cannot
mind.) and should not be used in an adversary position vis-
As was said before, it is best to avoid nonconform- a-vis either the contractor or the producer. If prop-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ance. Two years ago, at another symposium on in- erly used, acceptance inspection can be an important
spection sponsored by Committee 311 and held at the tool in achieving better and more economical facili-
AC1 Las Vegas convention, Oswin Keifer from the ties.
Corps of Engineers presented an excellent paper on
control charts. This paper, together with the other
symposium papers, was published in the November
Bertold E. Weinberg,FA CI, is proj-
1981 issue of Concrete International. Mr. Keifer ect manager (Special Projects) for the
pointed out that by keeping control charts of test re- Dormitory Authority of the State of
sults up-to-date, sudden variations from the normal New York, Elsmere, Nerv York. He
range of test results that are being experienced on has had extensive design and con-
struction experience in the private
any job (even within allowable limits) can be easily sector in addition to administering
and quickly spotted. If the reasons for such variation public building programs. Currently
are promptly determined and corrective action taken, chairman of Committee E-901 and a
even greater variations which would result in non- member of Committees 311, 348, 362,
and E-902, he is a former member of
conforming tests could be avoided before they occur. the ACI Board of Direction and former
By the same token, keeping track of 7-day results or chairman of Committees 311 and 348.
using accelerated strength tests, will not remove un-
satisfactory concrete which has already been placed.
Committee Report AC1 311.5R-88
Field Testing of
Roger E. Wilson, Chairman Claude E. Jaycox,* Secretary
Edward A. Abdun-Nur Robert L. Henry Ralph O. Lane James L. Trujillo

Joseph F. Artuso Thomas A. Johnson Charles W. Mayer Stanley E. Turney
Russell J. Burley Francis W. Joyce Jay R. Piestera* Lewis H. Tuthill
Donald E. Dixon Oswin Keifer, Jr. Michael T. Russell Bertold E. Weinberg
This report provides recommended minimum requirements

when specifications require batch plant inspection of ready
Chapter 2 -
Field inspection of ready
mixed concrete production and field testing of readymixed mixed concrete
concrete at the project site. It is intended to be used by 2.1-Introduction and scope
specifiers, architects, engineers, owners, or other groups
who are interested in monitoring the readymixed concrete 2.2-Qualifications
producer’s or contractor’s activities through the use of an 2.3-Testing laboratory
independent inspection agency. 2.4-Duties
The user is cautioned that this report is intended for use in 2.5-Reports
establishing the basic duties and reports required of
inspection personnel. It can be used for all types and sizes of Chapter 3 - References
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
projects but should be supplementedwith additional 3.1-Specified references
inspection requirements when the complexity of the project
so dictates. Refer to “Guide for Concrete Inspection 3.L-Additional references
Programs (AC1 311.4R)” for guidance on additional
requirements. -
Chapter 1 Batch plant inspection of
Keywords: field tests; inspection; laboratories; mixing plants; quality control; readymixed concrete
ready-mixed concrete; tests.
1.1 -Introduction and scope
Contents This report provides recommended minimum re-
quirements for inspection at the batch plant when re-
Chapter 1 -
Batch plant inspection of quired by specifications. It is intended for use by spe-
cifiers, architects, engineers, owners or other groups
readymixed concrete interested in monitoring the ready-mixed concrete pro-
1.1-Introduction and scope ducers’ activities at the batch plant through the use of
1.2-Qualifications an independent inspection agency. This report also es-
1.3-Duties tablishes recommended minimum inspector qualifica-
1.4-Reports tions, duties and reports.
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and Pertinent discussion of the full report will be published in March, 1989 issue of
Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, Concrete Iniernational if received by October 1, 1988.
executing, or inspecting construction and in preparing Copyright O 1988, American Concrete Institute.
specifications. Reference to these documents shall not be made All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by
in the Project Documents. If items found in these documents are any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by elec-
tronic or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound
desired to be part of the Project Documents they should be or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or de-
phrased in mandatory language and incorporated into the vice, unless permission in yriting is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
Project Documents. This committee wishes to recognize the contribution of the following Associate
Members: Mario Diaz, Chaman Grover, Mark E. Vincent, Terre11 R. Harper,
*Subcommittee members who developed this report and Julian G. Consuega
58
Obb2949 0 5 O I I B Z O II ~ ~~ ~ ~~
m
1.3.7 The inspector should determine that the batch
plant is furnishing to the purchaser with each batch of
concrete, a delivery ticket with the following informa-
tion:
1.3.7.1 Name of batch plant
1.3.7.2 Serial number of ticket
1.2-Inspector 1.3.7.3 Date
1.3.7.4 Truck number
The inspector should be qualified by education, 1.3.7.5 Name of purchaser
training, and experience to perform the minimum du- 1.3.7.6 Project designation
ties set forth in this report. The inspector should have 1.3.7.7 Class or designation of concrete
a technical understanding of the principles involved in 1.3.7.8 Amount of concrete batched
concrete batching and should know the basic operating 1.3.7.9 Time batched
sequence of the concrete batch plant. The inspector
should be able to provide evidence of such training and 1.4- Reports
experience. The inspector should also be furnished with 1.4.1 The inspector should sign the delivery ticket or
and become familiar with published standards set forth supply other evidence that the concrete batching has
by this guide and with project specification require- been inspected.
ments. 1.4.2 The inspector should issue a daily inspection
report showing all test results and documenting obser-
vations made during the day.
I.ô-Duties
1.3.1 The inspector should observe that the facilities,
Chapter 2-Guide for field testing of ready
scales, and truck mixers meet the specified project re- mixed concrete
quirements. The provisions of at least one of the fol- 2.1 -Introduction and scope
lowing documents are normally incorporated in the
project specification: This report provides recommended minimum re-
1.3.1.1 AC1 304R, “Recommended Practice for quirements for testing of ready-mixed concrete at the
Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Con- project site when required by specifications. It includes
crete.” follow-up curing and testing of strength specimens and
1.3.1.2 ASTM C 94, “Standard Specification for testing laboratory qualifications. This document is in-
Ready-Mixed Concrete” tended for use by specifiers, architects, engineers, own-
1.3.1.3 Plant qualification in accordance with the ers or other groups interested in monitoring the con-
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA) tractors’ concreting activities at the project site through
plant certification checklist for certification of ready- the use of an independent inspection agency.
mixed concrete production facilities 2.2-Qualifications
1.3.1.4 Various state or federal department of trans- The field testing technician should be qualified by
portation requirements education, training, and experience to perform the
1.3.2 The inspector should be physically present at minimum duties set forth in this report. The technician
the batching console during the first batch and should should have a technical understanding of the principles
periodically (at least once per hour) observe that the involved in ready-mixed concrete and should know how
specified type and amount of materials conforming to to conduct the basic quality tests required. The techni-
the design mixture proportions are batched. Batch cian should be able to provide evidence of such train-
weights should fall within the allowable tolerances set ing and experience. AC1 certification as a Concrete
forth by the project specifications. Field Testing Technician-Grade I meets this require-
1.3.3 The inspector should, when not witnessing op- ment. The technician should also be furnished with and
eration, conduct or witness the performance by the become familiar with published standards as set forth
concrete producer of the following tests at least once in this report and with project specification require-
daily: ments.
1.3.3.1 Moisture content determination on fine and
coarse aggregates in accordance with ASTM C 566 2.3-Testing laboratory
1.3.3.2 Aggregate gradations, fine and coarse, in ac- All required laboratory acceptance tests (Le. labora-
cordance with ASTM C 136 tory curing and compressive strength of concrete cylin-
1.3.4 Aggregate test results should then be compared ders) should be performed by an independent testing
to the project specifications for compliance. Usually laboratory. The laboratory selected should meet the
ASTM C 33 is specified as the gradation requirement concrete inspection and testing section requirements of
for both fine and coarse aggregates. ASTM C 1077. The laboratory should provide evidence
1.3.5 The inspector should observe that the concrete to the architect/engineer that its facilities have been in-
producer is making adjustments to the approved mix- spected by an independent agency within the last three
ture proportion batch quantities allowing for free years, and show that any deficiencies mentioned in the
moisture contained in the fine and coarse aggregates. report of that inspection have been corrected.
1.3.6 The inspector should determine that the trucks
are in good operating condition and not loaded beyond 2.4-Duties
their mixedagitator plate capacities. 2.4.1 If batch plant inspection is required by the
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSU RANCE

A C 1 COMP*lib * t = 0bb2949 050Lô21i 3
project specifications, the field technician should note specimens during the initial curing period (the first 16
in a daily written report if the arriving concrete has or to 48 hours after molding). Specimens should be stored
has not been inspected at the batch plant. Immediate under conditions that maintain the temperature imme-
verbal notification should be given in the case of a de- diately adjacent to the specimens in the range of 60 to
ficient item. 80 F (16 to 27 C) and prevent loss of moisture from the
2.4.2 If batch plant inspection is not required by the specimens. Initial curing should meet the requirement
project specifications, the field technician should deter- of ASTM C 31, “Making and Curing of Concrete Test
mine that truck mixers are not loaded in excess of mixer Specimens in the Field.”
plate capacity, that concrete is adequately mixed prior 2.4.12 The testing laboratory should pick up com-
to discharge at the project site, that concrete delivery pressive strength test specimens from the project site
falls within the time constraints of the project specifi- within 16 to 48 hours and store in a moist condition at
cations, and that all data required by ASTM C 94 is in- 73.4-i-3 F (23 f 1.7 C) until the moment of test in ac-
cluded on the delivery ticket. cordance with ASTM C 31, “Making and Curing of
2.4.3 The technician should make at least one series Concrete Test Specimens in the Field.”
of control tests (slump, air content, unit weight, tem- 2.4.13 The testing laboratory should test compressive
perature and cast compressive strength specimens) for strength specimens in accordance with ASTM C 39,
each 100 yd3 (76 m3), or fraction thereof, of each mix- “Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Speci-
ture class of concrete placed in any one day or as di- mens.” Two specimens should be tested at 28 days for
rected by the project specifications. Care should be acceptance and two should be tested at 7 days for in-
taken when sampling to obtain a random sample re- formation. The acceptance test results should be the
flecting true project conditions. The time and truck average of the strengths of the two specimens tested at
number should be reported when the samples are se- 28 days.
cured.
2.4.4 It is usually desirable to test the first truck load 2.5- Reports
2.5.1 The technician should issue a daily inspection
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of concrete for slump, temperature, and air content so
appropriate adjustments can be made at the batch plant report of all field test results and document observa-
to bring concrete within specifications. tions made during the day. Items not conforming to
2.4.5 The technician shall secure composite samples specifications should be reported immediately to the
of concrete delivered to the project site in accordance technician’s supervisor.
with ASTM C 172, “Sampling Freshly Mixed Con- 2.5.2 The technician should complete a concrete data
crete.” report for each set of concrete compressive strength
2.4.6 The technician should determine slump of the specimen results to be reported by the testing iabora-
composite concrete sample for each strength test, and tory, showing all related quality test results.
whenever consistency of concrete appears to vary, in 2.5.3 The testing laboratory should issue timely re-
accordance with ASTM C 143, “Slump of Portland ports with the following information:
Cement Concrete.’’ 2.5.3.1 Project name
2.4.7 The technician should determine air content 2.5.3.2 Client
and unit weight of the normal weight composite con- 2.5.3.3 Concrete supplier
crete samples for each strength test in accordance with 2.5.3.4 Date sampled
one of the following test methods: 2.5.3.5 Sampled by (with certification number, if ap-
2.4.7.1 ASTM C 173, “Air Content of Freshly Mixed plicable)
Concrete by the Volumetric Method,” or 2.5.3.6 Truck number and/or ticket number
2.4.7.2 ASTM C 231, “Air Content of Freshly Mixed 2.5.3.7 Time batched and time sampled
Concrete by the Pressure Method,” and 2.5.3.8 Air temperature and concrete temperature at
2.4.7.3 ASTM C 138, “Unit Weight, Yield, and Air time of sampling
Content (Gravimetric) of Concrete” 2.5.3.9 Slump and air content
2.5.3.10 28-day compressive strength requirement f,‘
2.4.8 The technician should determine air content 2.5.3.11 Concrete mix designation
and unit weight of structural lightweight composite 2.5.3.12 Location of placement and location of sam-
concrete samples for each strength test in accordance ple batch
with the following test methods:
2.5.3.13 Date tested, concrete age, and compressive
2.4.8.1 ASTM C 173, “Air Content of Freshly Mixed strength results
Concrete by the Volumetric Method” 2.5.3.14 Any remarks that may effect concrete qual-
2.4.8.2 ASTM C 567, “Unit Weight of Structural ity, such as water added at the project site, elapsed time
Lightweight Concrete” between start of mixing to completion of placement,
2.4.9 The technician should determine the ambient and any variation in curing requirements.
air temperature and the composite concrete sample
temperature at the time of sampling for each strength
test in accordance with ASTM C 1064. Chapter 3- References
2.4.10 The technician should make four compressive
strength specimens from each composite concrete sam- 3.1 -Specified references
ple in accordance with ASTM C 31, “Making and Cur- The documents of the various standards-producing
ing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field.” organizations referred to in this document are listed
2.4.11 The contractor should provide an area or con- below with their serial designation, including year of
tainer for storage of the concrete compression test adoption or revision. The documents listed were the
60
A C 1 COMP*lb ** W Ob62949 O503822 5 W
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
latest effort at the time this document was written (re- 3.2-Additional references
vised). Since some of these documents are revised fre-
quently, generally in minor detail only, the user of this American Concrete Institute
document should check directly with the sponsoring AC1 Manual of Concrete
group if it is desired to refer to the latest revision. SP-2
Inspection (7th Edition) 1981
116R-85 Cement and Concrete
Terminology
304R-85 Guide for Measuring, Mixing, 301-84 Specifications for Structural
Transporting and Placing Concrete (Revised 1987) Concrete for Buildings
31 1.4R-88 Guide for Concrete Inspection 304.5R-82 Batching, Mixing and Job
Programs Control of Lightweight Concrete
305R-77 Hot Weather Concreting
ASTM (Revised 1982)
C 31-87a Standard Practice for Making and 306R-78 Cold Weather Concreting
Curing Concrete Test Specimens in (Revised 1983)
the Field 318-83 Building Code Requirements for
C 33-86 Standard Specification for Concrete (Revised 1986) Reinforced Concrete
Aggregates 3 18.1-83 Building Code Requirements for
C 39-86 Standard Test Method for (Revised 1987) Structural Plain Concrete
Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens ASTM
C 94-86a Standard Specification for Ready- C 70-79 Standard Test Method for Surface
Mixed Concrete (Reapproved 1985) Moisture in Fine Aggregate
C 136-84a Standard Method for Sieve Analysis C 125-86 Standard Definitions of Terms
of Fine and Coarse Aggregates Relating to Concrete and
C 138-81 Standard Test Method for Unit Concrete Aggregates
Weight, Yield, and Air Content C 127-84 Standard Test Method for
(Gravimetric) of Concrete Specific Gravity and Absorption
C 143-78 Standard Test Method for Slump of of Coarse Aggregate
Portland Cement Concrete C 128-84 Standard Test Method for
C 173-78 Standard Test Method for Air Specific Gravity and Absorption
Content of Freshly Mixed Concrete of Fine Aggregate
by the Volumetric Method C 150-86 Standard Specification for
C 231-82 Standard Test Method for Air Portland Cement
Content of Concrete by the Pressure 172-82 Standard Method of Sampling
Method Freshly Mixed Concrete
C 566-84 Standard Test Method for Total C494-86 Standard Specifications for
Moisture Content of Aggregate by Chemical Admixtures for
Drying Concrete
C 567-85 Standard Test Method for Unit D 75-82 Standard Practice for Sampling
Weight of Structural Lightweight Aggregates
Concrete
C 1064-86 Standard Test Method for
Temperature of Freshly Mixed National Ready Mixed Concrete Association
Portland-Cement Concrete
C 1077-87 Standard Practice for Testing Quality Control Manual, Section l-Ready-Mixed
Concrete and Concrete Aggregates Concrete Quality
for Use in Construction and Criteria Control Guide
for Laboratory Evaluation Quality Control Manual, Section 2-Ready-Mixed
Concrete Quality
Control Checklist
The above publications may be obtained from the
following organizations: Quality Control Manual, Section 3-Certification of
Ready Mixed
P.O. Box 19150
Concrete
Production
Facilities
ASTM
1916 Race Street This report was submitted to letter ballot of the committee and was approved
Philadelphia, PA 19103 in accordance with AC1 balloting procedures.

A C 1 COMPt36 t t m 0bb2949 0503823 7 m
Qualitv Control and Accentance

Inspection as Viewed by the
Testing Laboratory
by Robert L. Henry
The quality control and acceptance

inspection/testing b y an independent
materials engineering laboratory is a
part of the owner/architect/engineer
team effort. This service will help in-
sure that the owner is getting what he
is paying for and that the project is
built in accordance with the specifica-
tions and drawings. The qualifications
of an engineering laboratory are most
important in that they tell the client
and the associated professionals the
services they are receiving are in com-
pliance with ASTM, ACI, AISC, A WS,
NVLAP, NBS, etc. The inspection pro-
gram as described in the specifica-
tions, the actual inspection and test-
ing, and the reporting for the quality
of materials and of workmanship rep-
resent the contribution made by the
independent engineering ma terials
laboratory to the overall success of the Testing compressive strength of cylinders.
project.
uate the materials and workman- by assuring quality materials and
Keywords: acceptability; concretes: inspec-
ship being incorporated into the workmanship as intended in their
tion: laboratories; quality control; specifi- project. A candid and productive designs and project specifications.
cations: tests. relationship between the prime The laboratory’s performance can
professional, the owner, the labo- mitigate the effect of unexpected
ratory, and the contractor is desir- conditions on the structural integ-
Organ izat ion able. The responsible chain of com- rity of the completed project.
The services are professional in mand for laboratory inspection is The laboratory assists the con-
nature, requiring specialized edu- usually to the owner or his repre- struction contractor and his sup-
cation and a high level of profes- sentative - an architect or an en- pliers in maintaining high stan-
sional and technical competence. gineer - but can also be to the dards for materials and workman-
The importance of qualifications contractor. ship. The laboratory may serve
and experience on the part of the The purpose of inspection and the design professionals, the con-
materials engineering laboratory testing is to assure the project tractor, the material suppliers,
offering services to the public is owner that he is receiving the and the material producers as well
recognized by law. Examination type of workmanship and mate- as the project owner. The prime
and licensing procedures are re- rials which he contracted to re- function of the inspection and test-
quired for the materials engineer ceive. This is accomplished by in- ing agency is to serve the project
who supervises, directs, and is re- specting and testing of materials owner in quality assurance and to
sponsible for the specially trained and practices off and on the site to serve the others for quality con-
technicians who normally perform determine whether or not their trol.
most tests and inspections used to characteristics and qualities, as The laboratory representative
monitor materials quality and con- used in construction, comply with should attend prebid and precon-
struction performance. the contract documents. struction conferences with t h e
On practically every construc- In addition, the material engi- owner, designer, engineer, project
tion project, the laboratory has a neering laboratory services are manager, general contractor, and
vital function to monitor and eval- helpful to the design professionals materials suppliers to coordinate
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
62
Provided by IHS under license with ACI
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*lb ** W 0662947 0501824 9 W
~~
Field test of concrete slump. Adjusting of slump during field inspection.
the materials inspection and test- sional team. The quality of the ma- and project specifications in the
ing rquirements with the planned terials and workmanship must be United States.
construction schedule. The labora- verified in the field for an ade- Selection of t h e laboratory
tory should participate in such quately designed structure t o should be based primarily on the
conferences throughout the course function properly. The personnel qualifications of its staff to be as-
of the project. providing the inspection and test- signed to the project, its capabili-
ing services must have a thorough ties to conduct the tests, and its
Qualification knowledge of the engineering fun- credentials - not on its lower
The materials engineering labo- damentals involved with construc- fees. The client should approve the
ratory has a staff madeup of com- tion materials and their perfor- selection with the same attitude
petent professional engineers mance. that would apply to other profes-
(knowledgeable in the fields of con- The standard ASTM E329, ti- sional team members, such as the
crete and construction), scientists, tled “Inspection and Testing Agen- engineer or the architect.
and technical personnel. It has a cies for Concrete, Steel, and Bitu- The laboratory’s credentials are
range of testing equipment and fa- minous Materials as Used in Con- represented by its participation in
cilities available to inspect, test, struction,” is a recommended prac- certifying and inspecting pro-
evaluate, and monitor materials tice standard which establishes grams. The laboratory should sub-
used in construction. minimum requirements for person- scribe to the standards not only of
Inspection and testing of con- nel and equipment of laboratories the Cement and Concrete Refer-
struction materials should be un- engaged in inspection and testing ence Laboratory (CCRL) but also
der t h e direct supervision of of concrete and steel used in con- National Bureau of Standards
professional engineers. Proper en- struction. This standard’s engi- (NBS), Institute for the Certifica-
gineering training, experience, neering responsibility, which es- tion of Engineering Technicians
and licensing are prerequisites to tablishes the degree of profes- (ICET), National Voluntary Labo-
adequate and thorough quality sional control needed to obtain the ratory Accreditation Program
control for the protection of life, desired requirements for construc- (NVLAP), American Association
health, and property. tion workmanship and materials, for Laboratory Accreditation
Quality control services are sup- has made ASTM E329 an intricate (AALA), American Welding Soci-
plemental to the design profes- part of numerous building codes ety (AWS), American Institute of
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
’ A C 1 COMP*3b ** m 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0503825 O m
Steel Construction (AISC), and quired of the materials engineer-
now AC1 E 902 Certification of ing laboratory. This section should
Concrete Field Testing Techni- state the tests to be conducted,
cians, Level 1. Further details of number and frequency of tests,
these programs will be presented and references for the tests. It
later. shall also state how the test shall
be reported and t o whom. So
Inspection program often, these are not clearly stated
The materials engineering lab- in specifications, but it is highly
oratory certainly can minimize recommended that the test partic-
problems because it is assertive in ulars be specified.
aiding the engineer, the owner,
and the contractor regarding ma- Purchase of materials and
terials being considered in the services
quest for construction quality. The materials engineering labo-
The materials engineering ser- ratory is either requested or re-
vices, comprised of inspection and quired (usually by the contractor)
testing, are conducted in accord- to sample, test, and evaluate ma-
ance with recognized designated terials to be used in the construc-
standards whenever possible. The tion phases of the project. The lab-
services performed should be in oratory will determine, in ad- Inspection o f reinforcing s t e e l f o r
accordance with the basic require- vance, if the materials are accept- structural concrete.
ments of ASTM E329. The tech- able or not. This would include proposed for the project and re-
nicians who perform most of the such materials as concrete aggre- port on the tests.
inspection and testing must be ad- gates (rock and sand), cements, ad-
equately trained in the perfor- 4. The laboratory may inspect
mixtures, reinforcing bars, pre- batch plant facilities proposed for
mance of the inspection or test, stressing strains, curing agents,
and must be provided with proper use in the work and report inspec-
etc. Usually a laboratory is not tion results to the proper author-
and adequate technical and profes- asked to evaluate service of work-
sional engineering supervision and ity. Batch plant facilities should be
manship provided by others ex-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
direction. approved before the start of con-

cept inspecting and reporting of creting operations. This inspec-
The performance of these ser- bar placement, of post-tensioning
vices by the laboratory does not tion, in general, follows the pro-
of concrete, and of precast con- cedure outlined by the National
abridge any of the duties, respon- crete operations.
sibilities, or authority with regard Ready-Mixed Concrete Association
to the project as are customarily and includes inspection of batch
vested in the project architects, Inspection and testing plant operations and equipment,
design engineers, or other agen- During the construction phase truck mixers, scales, stockpile
cies that deal with design and con- of a project, the materials engi- placement, material storage, and
struction. The laboratory is not au- neering laboratory provides field admixture dispensers.
thorized to revoke, alter, relax, en- inspection and testing using vi- 5. The laboratory will assign a
large, or release any requirements sual, destructive, and nondestruc- technician with t h e necessary
of the project specifications or tive methods. The laboratory also equipment to each scheduled con-
other contract documents or to ap- provides in-lab testing to measure crete placement. The technician
prove or accept any portion of the those pertinent engineering prop- may initiate the inspection a t the
work. The laboratory does not erties of the materials as defined. batch plant, then proceed to the
have the right of rejection or the 1. Tests are made of the pro- project site with the first truck-
right to stop the work, except for posed aggregates as required by load of concrete to continue to in-
such reasonable periods as may be the project specifications for gra- spect the mix at the point of dis-
required to conduct sampling, test- dation, soundness, cleanliness, etc. charge. The technician remains at
ing, or inspection. 2. Portland cement is usually the job site to inspect the mix for
The laboratory should endeavor, taken a t its acceptable quality if the required consistency for the
through inspection, testing, and coming from a known supplier, but duration . of the concrete place-
other specialized technical ser- tests may be run for its compati- ment.
vices, to guard the project owner bility with the aggregates and ad-
against defects and deficiences in 6, The inspector a t the job site
mixtures. This is most important during t h e concrete placement
construction. since there can be undesirable re- should see that:
actions among some ingredients.
Specifications 3. The laboratory may review a. The plastic concrete is in-
Specifications should contain a and check the contractor’s mix spected on arrival at the job site
section entitled “Testing and Lab- proportions for each class of con- and adjusted as necessary (if al-
oratory Control’’ (usually 01400) in crete required by the project spec- lowed or instructed by specifica-
which are described the qualifica- ifications, and may conduct trial tions) to obtain the proper consis-
tions, duties, responsiblities, and batch tests of mixes using aggre- tency or is rejected if beyond spec-
specific testing and inspection re- gates, admixtures, and cement ifications tolerances.
64
-~
A C 1 COMP*KLb 8% W Ob62949 05OLB2b 2 ~
plant when required by specifica- Records

tions or by owner. The records generated by the
8. The laboratory should provide materials engineering laboratory
both testing of the reinforcing will be composed of individual and
bars for physical properties and in- accumulative test results reported
spection of the proper placement shortly after the test or inspection
of the bars as required by specifi- was performed. Copies of all re-
cations and drawings. ports go to those on the distribu-
tion list as stated in the specifica-
Measuring and testing tions or as instructed by the proj-
equipment used by the ect owner. Files and records are
laboratory generally retained by the labora-
The materials engineering labo- tory for 5 years.
ratory should have, at regular in-
tervals and as required, inspec- Audits
tions, check samples, and calibra- Individual and accumulative test
tions conducted by standards reports are reviewed by the labo-
agencies such as NBS to insure ratory inspector responsible for a
Laboratory testing of aggregate.
confidence t h a t t h e equipment particular project. All reports are
being used is giving acceptable re- reviewed by the laboratory de-
b. Compressive strength cylin- sults. organizations such as partment head andlor project co-
ders of fresh concrete are made at CCRL, NVLAP, and AALA pro- ordinator before distributed.
the recommended frequency (often vide services to which a laboratory
3 cylinders per 50 CU yd for struc- Conclusion
should subscribe. Internal &A and
tural concrete). QC of the laboratory for equip- In summary, quality control and
c. A record of all field tests, in- ment, personnel, and procedures acceptance inspectionltesting by
cluding slump, air content, unit should be certified by NVLAP an independent materials engi-
weight, and ambient and concrete (Dept. of Commerce) in conjunc- neering laboratory is part of the
temperature, is entered each time tion with CCRL and NBS. Al- owner Iarchitectlengineer team
strength cylinders a r e made. though it is voluntary, it is highly effort. This service will help insure
Other information collected should recommended. that the owner is getting what he
include location of placement, age is paying for and that the project
of testing, mix specification Nonconformance is built in accordance with the
strength required, mix propor- When it appears that the mate- specifications and drawings. The
tions, admixtures and dosage used rials tested or inspected do not qualifications of an engineering
as required, water added at the comply with the project require- laboratory are most important in
batch plant after initial batching, ments, the results of the test or in- that they tell the client and the as-
water added at job site to bring spection should be reported im- sociated professionals that the ser-
concrete to proper slump on truck vices they are receiving are in
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mediately to those persons desig-

arrival, and other pertinent infor- nated by the project owner andior compliance with ASTM, ACI,
mation. to the contractor when the owner AISC, AWS, NVLAP, NBS, etc.
d. Test specimens are trans- is not represented at the site. This The inspection program as de-
ported to the laboratory at the may be by word-of-mouth at the scribed in the specifications, the
proper time (normally 20 to 24 hrs) site, by telephone, andior in writ- actual inspection and testing, and
to initiate standard curing and ing (probably all three). In the case the reporting for the quality of
testing procedures. of a dispute between the labora- materials and of workmanship rep-
tory representatives and the con- resent the contribution made by
e. The laboratory cures speci- the independent engineering ma-
mens under standard moisture and tractor as to the materials fur-
nished, the laboratory representa- terials laboratory to the overall
temperature conditions. success of the project.
tive, in order to prevent irrevoca-
f . The concrete compressive ble entry of materials that appear
strength cylinders are tested in ac- not to be in compliance, should
cordance with the method of test Robert L. Henry is chief engineer of
have the authority to reject such Texas Testing Laboratories, Inc., Dal-
for compressive s t r e n g t h of materials or suspend the work un- las, Tex., a registered professional en-
molded concrete cylinders. til the question can be referred to gineer in 6 s t a t e s , and currently
g. Reports of all test results are serves as chairman of ACI Committee
the project owner or his architect1 116, Notation and Nomenclature. For-
promptly mailed to the proper au- engineer team. merly associate professor and assis-
thorities, If noncomplance is determined tant dean of engineering at the Uni-
7. The laboratory should provide after the fact, such as with the versity of Mississippi, he holds a PhD
a technician with the necessary compressive strength of concrete from North Carolina State University.
equipment if he is the materials in- cylinders, the written report shall The author of numerous technical pub-
spector at the precast concrete lications, he is also a member of Com-
be “flagged” to call it to the read- mittees 121, Quality Assurance Sys-
plant (prestressed or reinforced). er’s attention. A telephone call to tems for Concrete; 123, Research; 311,
This technician will provide contin- the appropriate person would be Inspection of Concrete; and E 902,
uous inspection a t t h e casting in order. Certification.
Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITYASSURANCE 65

Guidance in the Establishment
of an Inspection Program
by Claude E. Jaycox
How do we successfully implement the erly placed. How could this hap- so someone in authority did know
inspection and testing requirements of pen? Didn’t the contractor check about and document this occur-
the specifications? It is not enough to
just reference them. We must set up the placement prior to concreting? rence?
a coherent written program for the No, he didn’t. He depended on
No they didn’t. The inspector
guidance of the inspectors. Several the owner’s acceptance inspection
ways to do this are described. verbally reported the lack of ap-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to provide his quality control. He
proved drawings to his superior.
Keywords: concrete construction: in- also had an inexperienced crew
Not realizing what the inspector
spection; quality control; specifica- placing the steel. Didn’t the own-
tions: tests. was actually using to check the
er’s representative (the engineer
steel, the superior told him to do
in this case) check the steel and
the best he could with what he
sign it off as ready for concreting?
had. All documentation, and great
D o e s effective, workable, inspec- Yes, he did, but he used draw-
flurry of activity, occurred after
tion, and testing just happen on a ings that were not checked and ap-
the failure. What resulted from
project? No! It doesn’t. We must proved, and that were not detailed
the failure?
plan for it. enough to show actual placement.
Not thinking about it doesn’t Why did he do that? Because the The owner’s project was de-
make it go away either. We can’t job was behind schedule and layed due to testing for other de-
even get around it by expecting everything was being pushed. Oh, fective beams and repairs. He also
the specifications to adequately
handle it. They usually don’t.
It is foolishness to totally rely
on the competency of your inspec-
tion personnel for the success of
your program. If they are compe-
tent and experienced, you will a t
least receive a “best effort” at-
tempt to satisfy the intent of the
specifications. If they are not com-
petent, or are inexperienced, .you
will get botched inspections and
tests, indecision, missed items,
and delays. In either case, you will
be receiving uneven, “ad libbed,”
inspection. It will also be virtually
impossible to supervise and check
the work of your inspector. What
do you check it against?
Consider a case to illustrate the
point: a supporting beam on an el-
evated transit station slab de-
flected and cracked when t h e
shores were removed. The subse- The slump test is made on a smooth nonabsorbent surface, such as a sheet of
quent investigation revealed that metal. The surface should be isolated from jarring b y nearby equipment. The
the reinforcing steel was improp- slump cone should be held down with two feet.
66
~~
A C 1 COMP*lb
~~
** m Obb29Liï 050l828 b m
~-
incurred added investigation costs. tion, or, (3) lost revenue when un- the project, and where the support
The engineer was embarrassed, to scheduled repairs were necessary. of his decisions will come from. In
say the least. The contractor in- Good examples of the conversion quality control situations, the re-
curred multithousand dollar repair to enlightened ownership are the ports should be to someone not di-
costs and delays in his construc- utility companies. Their levels of rectly involved in the production
tion schedule. He was also embar- inspection, testing, and quality process. If they are not, conflicts
rassed. control have soared as their costs of interest will influence decisions.
Did the inspection improve? You have skyrocketed. The duties of the personnel now
can bet it did! From what viewpoint will our have to be set forth. We will spec-
How do we do it right in the program operate? Will we be ify what tests and inspections are
first place? We can establish a working for the owner (engineer) to be done. What procedure or
written coherent inspection pro- and providing quality acceptance standard to be used is also listed.
gram. What items do we have to inspection? Or, will we be an ex- The voIume and frequency of in-
consider before we set up the pro- tension of the contractor's forces spection and testing is set forth.
gram? Our intent is to provide a and provide quality control to his What testing equipment to be
framework to guide the inspection production process? used is specified. Any necessary
and testing personnel in the per- The quality acceptance inspec- field calibration procedures, to as-
formance of their duties. The pro- tion is geared t o provide t h e sure test reliability, are included
gram must be capable of guiding owner with final result testing and in this section. Calibration of pro-
the inspectors even under the ex- inspection. If the product is "as duction equipment would also be
treme pressure and duress that specified" the owner will pay for covered here.
crisis situations cause. it.
Quality control should be con- It is extremely important to in-
Specifications, results cerned with the ingredients as clude the procedures to be fol-
well as with the final product. The lowed to handle deviations from
What is required by the specifica- the requirements. One of the most
tions? We have to find out the testing and inspection will be more
detailed, in order to keep the con- difficult things for an inspector to
type and number of tests speci- do is to try to make fair and tech-
fied: also the frequency of testing tractor's production process under
control. nically correct decisions under
must be determined. Are inspec- stressful conditions. And you can
tions required? What kinds and be sure, the rejection of a truck-
when? Is the format of the reports O peration
load of concrete will bring down
specified? If not, we will have to Who will actually operate the in- the wrath of multitudes on the in-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
decide what will be reported. spection and testing program? spector's head.
Secondly, we must determine Will in-house personnel be used?
what results we want to achieve. Or, will we engage a consultant? The inspector is now operating
How sure do we want to be that Once we know the above four efficiently, with guidance on how
the intent of the specifications was points we can proceed. The pro- we want the required duties per-
followed? gram must be written. Verbal pro- formed. Now, the information de-
The size of the project will influ- grams are subject to misunder- veloped from the inspections and
ence our thinking on this. Is it standings and deviations from the tests must be properly communi-
100,000, 10,000, o r 1 0 C U yd requirements. The basic thing to cated to be worth anything.
(76,460, 7646, or 7.6 kg/m3)? Ob- remember is that all the items nec- One of the most effective meth-
viously, a one-family residential essary to successfully implement ods of test communication is to dis-
building will not receive the same the program must be included. play it on control charts. It is ex-
type of inspection as will a 500- This will include responses to de- tremely difficult to adequately
unit apartment building. viations from specifications. evaluate test results from written
Unfortunately, regardless of First, we set up the amount of reports. Visual displays, on control
what is specified, the level of the personnel needed to adequately charts, greatly enhance the com-
inspection is usually determined cover the project and their quali- munication of information. Noth-
by what is mandated by the local fications. Common sense needs to ing else is anywhere near as effec-
building code. If nothing is re- be applied on qualifications. If the tive. Control charts should be pro-
quired, nothing is done. personnel are just running grada- vided for ail critical tests including
In some cases, enlightened own- tions, or casting cylinders, their cylinder tests, slumps, concrete
ers impose a minimum level of in- training can be minimal. If we're temperatures, air contents, and
spection and testing. An enlight- asking for inspection of reinforcing aggregate gradations.
ened owner is one who has previ- placement or formwork, we may The type and format of written
ously: (i)lost the use of his struc- need a trained graduate engineer. reports will conclude our inspec-
ture due to a construction error, Then we have to set up a chain tion program. Sample completed
(2) incurred vastly higher mainte- of responsibility. The inspector reports should be included as
nance costs due to poor construc- needs to know who to report to on guides. We should also specify
QUALITY ASSURANCE
A C 1 COMPWlb W t W Obb2949 0503829 8 W
w h o is to r e c e i v e copies of t h e re-
ports. T h r e e examples of inspec-
tion programs which i n c o r p o r a t e
t h e above i t e m s are included in
t h e appendixes to t h i s article.
R e m e m b e r , good inspection a n d
t e s t i n g d o e s not j u s t happen. It
must b e planned for. A written
p r o g r a m , to g u i d e t h e inspector,
will e n h a n c e t h e results of t e s t i n g
and inspection on a n y size project.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Appendix A
Sample Quality Control Manual
for Concrete Plant
For:
Project:
Procedures
1. The quality control functions for
this plant are assigned to (see attached
letter for names and qualifications).
2. The person(s) named will report to
-___ _-___ and be responsi-
ble to _c_ _-_-__.
3. A minimum of __ full time tech- In most cases, inspection of reinforcing steel should be inspected by a trained and
nician(s) will be used to implement the qualified engineer.
procedures in this manual.
4. Their duties will include, but not be (g) Sand specific gravity tests will 9. Implementation of corrective mea-
limited to: be run a t least twice weekly. sures. I n addition to the items above,
(a) Making sure the approved design (h) Check materials tickets (aggre- actions will be initiated as follows:
mix and materials are used by the gates and cement) to insure that the (A) When gradations deviate from
plant Oper ator. materials received a t the plant are production tolerances by no more than
(b) Monitoring recordation tapes. those specified on the design. Maintain 1 percent and a) t h e control charts on
Explaining any abnormalities. an orderly accessible file on these tick- previous tests show compliance and b)
(c)Maintaining mix control. ets. the material visually looks acceptable
íd) Making a minimum of two gra- 5. The quality control technicians shall - retest the material and adjust pro-
dation analyses from the batching bins be in attendance full time during all portioning if necessary.
per lot of material. Form “D” will be production and report directly t o the (€3) When gradations deviate from
used to record the data. If the grada- manager. The technician shall have production tolerances by more than 1
tion exceeds the production toler- the authority to suspend production as percent or two consecutive tests (on
ances, immediate action will be taken necessary to insure the production of the same control sieves specified in
to correct the problem. A retest will the specified materials. #8), suspend production until cause is
be taken to confirm the remedial ac- 6.The owner’s representative is wel- found and corrected.
tion. This will not count as one of the 10. The quality control procedures will
come to monitor any of the quality
minimum two analyses since it de- control technician’s functions. A copy be considered acceptable if the gra-
viates from the random sampling proof all tests will be given to the owner’s dation as shown on the control charts
gram. If the retest is outside of the representative as soon as they are fin- remains substantially within the pro-
limits: (1)additional tests will be taken ished. duction tolerances.
immediately; (2) if the deviation is ad- 11. Plant operation: (a) The plant will
versely affecting the strength proper- 7. Constant visual observation of plant be kept in as continuous operation as
ties, production shall cease immedi- operations will be maintained by the possible, and (b) Positive communica-
ately until it is corrected. Determina- plant operator. He will have been in- tions (intercom, etc.) will be main-
tion of moisture content will be re- structed in all matters concerning contained between the plant and the qual-
quired a t least twice each day and trol of quality. Plant production will be ity control laboratory.
additionally as often as necessary. terminated should such observation in- 12. Ali calibrations will be accom-
(e) Individual stockpile aggregate dicate an obvious deficiency in the plished in accordance with t h e sepa-
samples will also be taken a t least mix. The technician and engineer’s rate procedure manual attached to this
once per week. Should substantial de- representative will be immediately no- manual. All items will be calibrated a t
viations become apparent, additional tified. the start of production and as follows:
samples will be run immediately. If 8. Control charts will be maintained on (a) The master and slave scales will
the results exceed the specifications, the %”, #4,#50, and #200 sieves. Each be verified initially and every 90 cal-
the stockpile acceptance will be re- individual test will be plotted. The endar days thereafter. A full calibra-
scinded. charts will contain action limits and tion of the automation panel and tol-
(f) The bin aggregate and stockpile production suspension limits. All erances shall be run initially and then
gradation samples will be taken ran- charts will be posted in full view and every 90 calendar days.
domly in accordance with the proce- will be accessible to the engineer’s (b) The truck scale shall be cali-
dure outlined in Appendix ‘E’ representative a t all times. brated every 90 calendar days.
68
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COflP*:Lb
~~
** Ob62949 050Lö30 4 W
(c)The zero set shall be checked
daily and adjusted as necessary. The
plant shall not be run unless the scales
start and return to zero after each
weighing operation.
Appendix B
Quality Acceptance Program
* for Concrete Plant
1. The number of personnel assigned
will vary in accordance with the type
and volume of the mixes being pro-
duced, A minimum of one technician
will be assigned full time. In general,
a t least two technicians will be re-
quired when the expected work ex-
ceeds 1500 yd per day.
2. The technician will be full time and
will be on-site during all production
and reiated testing.
3. The technician’s duties wilI include:
(a) Reviewing plant’s certification
(b) Monitoring contractor’s quality
control functions to verify that all
items called for in their manual are
being satisfactorily performed.
(c) Verifying that the approved de- Inspection of proper formwork. With true, tight, well-braced forms having sur-
sign mix and the proper batch weights faces coated or wetted to prevent sticking, the concrete can be made pleasing in
are being used. appearance without special decorative treatment and will avoid costly repairs.
(d) Verifying that the moisture con-
tent of the aggregate has been deter- (C) Plant scales: Batch scale - at For: (client)
mined by test and that the proper cor- least once per 90 calendar days and as Project:
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
rection is dialed into the paneI. Record necessary. The scale shall be checked
time, moisture content and dial setting for accuracy in a t last five points rang- Procedures
on your report. ing from 500 lb to the full rated ca- 1.The quality control functions for
(e) Inspecting recordation tapes and pacity. The scale shall be accurate to t h i s p r o j e c t a r e a s s i g n e d to:
obtaining an explanation for any ab- +. 0.1 percent of the test weight being -
normalities shown therein. Record ex- applied. 2. The persons(s) named will report to:
planations on the tape (if contractor’s 5. Acceptance requirements: to be ac- and be respon-
quality control has not already done ceptable, the mixes must have been
batched within the weigh tolerances.
sible to - _.
so) and on your daily report. 3. A minimum of ~~full time
(f) Monitoring gradations and initial Mixes not within tolerances are not to inspector(s) will be used to implement
contractor’s reports if they are satis- be accepted. the procedures in this manual.
factory. Make sure that t h e required 6. Production suspension: 4. The field inspector will report a t t h e
volume of testing is done. (a) As necessary, with the resident assigned time with the following:
(g) Monitoring the quality control engineer’s prior approval, to maintain ( a ) A copy of the approved design
charts maintained by contractor and an acceptable product. mix
making sure the appropriate actions (b) The contractor has the responsi- (b) Concrete and air thermometers
are taken. The charts are to be up- bility of suspending production if the (cl Slump cone, rod, cylinder molds,
dated after each test and be posted in values shown in their quality control scoop, bucket, ruler, and report forms
your full view. manual - items 7 and 8 - are ex- (d) Air meter, if required
(h) Visually inspect plant and load- ceeded. Action to suspend production (e) Unit weight bucket and scale, if
ing operations a t least once per pro- wil1 only be necessary in the event required (always necessary for light-
duction hour. Record times of check on there is default on responsibility. weight concrete)
your report. 7. Equipment malfunction or break- (fìASTM and AC1 standards and
4. Tests: down: immediately report to the resi- specifications
(A) Aggregate specific gravity and dent engineer for his decision on how 5. The specific test requirements for
absorption tests: (once per week in ac- to proceed. this project are:
cordance with ASTM C127 and C128. 8. Reports: (a) A set of four cylinders will be
The tests are to be compared to the (a) Daily and as required in items 1 cast for each 50 yd placed. Two cyl-
values recorded on the design mix. through 7. inders will be tested at 7 days and 2
Deviations o v e r -r- 0.02 a r e t o b e (b) Typical forms attached at 28 days.
flagged and verbally reported to your (cl All reports are to be signed (b) The specified maximum slump is
office. 9. Deviations are to be reported im- 4 in. A tolerance of +1 in. will be al-
(BlCement: Obtain A 1 q t sample mediately to the supervisor and noted lowed.
for each lot or one week’s production, on your reports. (c) The specified air content is 6 per-
whichever is more, if specified. For- cent. A tolerance of f l-% percent will
ward to the laboratory for compliance be allowed.
testing. The contractor is to furnish a Appendix C (d) Concrete temperatures between
certified test report for each load of Quality Control Manual 50 F and 90 F are specified. A toler-
cement received. Concrete Field Inspection ance of +. 5 F is allowable.
Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSU RANCE 69

(e)Time limit for mixed concrete: 1
hr. Tolerance + ‘12 hr. concrete over this tolerance -unless sufficient vibrators on the job.
6. The inspector’s duties will include: specifically directed to. Our office (n) Make sure the vibrating crew is
(a) Check all trucks for inspection must be immediately notified of any following proper procedure. If neces-
tickets (if plant inspected) and check such directive and you must also note sary, instruct them in t h e method to
tickets for proper mix before allowing it on your written report. The slump be used.
to dump. Do not allow to unload if test is ineffective when slump exceeds (o)Make sure the vertical drop of
they do not have inspection ticket: call 7-% to 8 in. the concrete from the conveying ve-
plant inspector. If not plant inspected, (g) Concrete test cylinders - the hicle into the forms is within specifi-
check dispatch tickets t o make sure following procedure is to be followed cation limits. Expect t o use windows
you h a v e c o r r e c t s t r e n g t h mix on when casting test cylinders. No devia- or elephant trunks on wall placements
truck (3,000 psi, 4,000 psi, etc.). Check tion without informing our office. Sam- to control t h e height of the drop.
for admixtures if required (air entrain- pie concrete from two or more regu- (p) Report any deviations immedi-
ing agents, retarders, etc.). Make sure larly spaced intervals during the un- ately to the supervising engineer and
truck is only loaded t o mixer capacity. loading of the truck (Example: Y3 and our office.
Inform driver of slump required on ‘Iz point of truck). Interrupt the full (q) See attachment “A” for specifics.
job. discharge stream of the chute when 7. Inspector’s authority:
(b) Make sure truck is mixed before obtaining sample. Move concrete to (a) The inspector will record each
allowing to unload. Lumps, nonuni- the curing box. If no curing box has and every deviation on his report.
form mixture, changes in slump all in- been provided you must call our office, (b) In the event that the slump, tem-
dicate insufficient mixing (or a defec- Remix concrete at curing box and take perature, or time limits are exceeded,
tive mixer). The specifications require slump test and air content if neces- the inspector will stop the placement
a minimum mix of 70 revolutions of sary. Cast cylinders and check con- of the concrete and notify the job su-
the drum. Rule of thumb: mix one min crete temperature. Place cylinders in pervisor. Said supervisor will decide
for each cubic yard of concrete: when curing box and cover each cylinder whether to accept the concrete. The
adding water to adjust slump, mix VZ with a plastic bag. Make sure tag is decision will be recorded on the field
min per yd. When unloading, check legible and not covered with concrete. report.
concerte for proper size and type of Your concrete data sheet must indi- 8. The following reports will be re-
coarse aggregate. (If the mix calls for cate exactly where t h e tested load of quired:
1 in. gravel, make sure you don’t have concrete was placed. (Example: south (a) Field report
1 in. stone). Don’t allow contractor t o foundation wall between columns C1 (bì Concrete data sheet
make hasty additions of water a t the and E3 a t elevation 20 t o 26). Also in- (c) Plant/field inspection tickets
beginning of the load. Make sure mix clude slump test, truck number and samples are included a s appendix “A”,
is uniform before adding water. time, concrete temperature, unit “B”, “C”
(c) Under no circumstances a r e you weight and air test (if taken), and gen- 9. All reports are t o be signed.
t o allow more than l-lh h r from the eral location of placement (south foun-
time the initial water is added t o the dation wall between columns A to R).
finishing of t h e unloading, without in- (h) In the wintertime, the cylinder
forming your supervisor. Most plants temperatures must be maintained be-
are adding the water a t the plant so tween 60 and 80 F for the first 24 hr.
their time starts a t the plant. If the Cover the test cylinders with salt, hay,
truck goes out without water in the or place a lightbulb in the curing box
drum, the time starts when concrete is to maintain the required temperature.
mixed on the job. Trucks over the Use a minimum-maximum thermome-
time limit a r e to be rejected unless the ter to verify curing temperature.
specifications are waived. Our office (i) Reinforced concrete must be vi-
must be notified immediately of any brated. Make sure contractor has the
deviations. proper equipment available before the
(d) If t h e concrete is air entrained, placement starts. Thin slabs without
check for air content a t least twice a reinforcing or with wire mesh do not
day. If lightweight concrete, check air have to be vibrated.
and unit weight a t least twice a day, (j)The fresh concrete must be pro-
Concrete not meeting specs is not t o tected from rain and cold. Note what
be used. protective measures are taken on your
(e)Check concrete temperatures on field report. Claude E. Jaycox, heads Municipal
every truck, if possible. You must (k) Fill out your reports before leav- Testing Laboratory, Inc., an engineer-
check the temperature when making ing the job. Submit them immediately ing materials inspection and testing
test cylinders. unless you are instructed otherwise. agency in Hicksville, N.Y.His experi-
(f) Slump control is to b e exercised
ence in construction inspection and
on every load. A t least two slump
testing dates from 1960. He is secre-
On projects where we have tary of ACI Committee 311, Inspection
tests are to be taken each day. Visual placement of Concrete, and a member of Com-
control can be used for the rest of the responsibility mittee 348, Structurai Safety. He is
concrete, if possible. In cases of dis- also a member of several ASTM com-
pute, you must make t h e test. The (1) Check with the engineer t o see if mittees including C-9, Concrete and
contractor is allowed a tolerance of + he has approved the forms and t h e Concrete Aggregates, and 0 - 4 , Road
1 in- on the specified slump. You do placement of the reinforcing. and Paving Materials.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
70
A statistically based specification for
portland cement concrete, recently High-quàIity concrete yields^bonuses
adopted by the N e w Jersey Depart-
ment of Transportation, contaim s ~ - for New Jersey contractors
eral innovative features including a
bonus clause f o r supe.I.ior quality. Two
years of experience with the new speci-
fication have produced quality levels
f a r exceeding anything the agenczj has
received in the past. Assuring
concrete
aualitv
by Richard M. Weed
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
h k e many other state highway most of the responsibility for con- The estimated percent defective
agencies, the New Jersey Depart- trol of the work in the hands of the PD is obtained from statistical ta-
ment of Transportation (NJDOT) contractor, while the highway bles such as Table l after first
. has used statistical acceptance agency retains the responsibility computing the quality index Q in
procedures for highway construc- for final acceptance, accordance with Eq. (2).
tion for several years. Typically, Like most modern day end-re-
K -L
specifications of this type award
100-percent payment for satisfac-
sult specifications, there are some
remnants of method specifications
Q =
(2) s
tory quality and pay progressively in the form of minimum cement
less as the quality falls below the factors, maximum water-cement in which
desired level. ratios, and so forth. Slump and air
Recently, to make this approach entrainment are routinely mea- Q quality index
=
fairer and more effective, the sured, and may be used to reject x mean of N tests for the lot
=
NJDOT developed a statistical trucks at the job site, but final ac- (4 < N < 6 for most appli-
specification for portland cement ceptance is based on 28-day com- cations)
concrete that awards bonus pay pressive strength. L = specification limit
factors up to a maximum of 102 More specifically, pay adjust- S = . standard deviation of the N
percent for quality that is substan- ments are based on the percent- tests for the lot
tially in excess of the required age of material estimated to have
1evel.l Positive incentive provi- compressive strengths lower than It is both impractical and unnec-
sions of this type have been sup- the specified design strength, essary to require the percent de-
ported for many years by the Fed- computed in accordance with es- fective to be zero. Experience has
eral Highway Administration on tablished variables acceptance shown that small amounts of per-
a n experimental basis under procedures. The adjusted pay cent defective can be tolerated
N E E P Project 24. In 1984, this schedule is given by the following without detracting from the ser-
approach was removed from the equation: viceability of a construction item.
experimental category and is now AC1 Standard 214, for example,
considered a valid and proven PF = 102 - 0.2 PD (1) discusses the philosophy of per-
method. mitting small percentages of con-
in which crete to have compressive
New Jersey specification strengths below the specified de-
The NJDOT specification is of PF = pay factor (percent) sign strength.2
the end-result type which places PD = percent defective, the per-
centage of t h e lot esti- For the NJDOT specification, it
Keywords: acceptability; concretes; costs; qual- mated t o be below the can be seen that a percent defec-
ity assurance; specifications; statistical analy-
SIS. specification limit tive level of PD = 10 is considered
QUALITY ASSURANCE
-
Table 1-Typical table for estimation of percent defective.
(2 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 50.00 49.64 49.29 48.93 48.58 48.22 47.86 47.51 ‘lï.13 46.80
0.1 46.44 46.09 45.73 45.38 45.02 44.67 44.31 43.96 93.60 43.25
0.2 42.90 42.54 42.19 41.84 41.48 41.13 40.78 40.43 40.08 39.72
0.3 39.37 39.02 38.67 38.32 37.97 37-62 37.28 36.93 36.58 36.23
0.4 35.88 35.54 35s9 34.85 34.50 34.16 33.81 33.47 33.12 32.78
O.5 32.44 32.10 31.76 31.42 31.08 30.14 30.40 80.IJ6 29.73 29.39
0.6 29.05 28.72 28.39 28.05 27.72 27.39 27.06 26.73 26.40 26.07
0.7 25.74 25.41 25.09 24.76 24.44 24.11 23.75 23.47 13.15 22.83
0.8 22.51 22.19 21.87 21.56 21.24 20.93 20.m 20.81 20.00 19.B9
0.9 19.38 19.07 18.77 18.46 18.15 17.86 17.55 17.25 16.96 16.66
1.0 16.36 16.07 15.78 15.48 15.19 14.91 14.62 14.33 14.05 13.76
1.1 13.48 13.20 12.93 12.65 12.37 12.10 11.83 11.56 11.29 11.o2
1.2 10.76 10.50 10.23 9.97 9.72 9.46 9.21 8.96 8.71 8.46
1.3 8.21 7.97 7.73 7.49 7.25 7.02 6.79 6.56 6.33 6.10
1.4 5.88 5.66 5.44 5.23 5.02 4.81 -1.60 4.39 4.19 8.99
1.5 3.80 3.61 3.42 3.23 3.06 2.87 2.69 2.52 2.35 2.19
1.6 2.03 1.87 1.72 1.57 1.42 1.28 1.15 1.02 0.89 0.77
- 1.7 0.66 0.55 0.45 0.36 0.27 0.19 0.12 O.OR

Numbers in the t i d y of ilic table are estimatcs of lot pcrcent defective corresponding to specific \ d u c s of 0, the t u J i t index-. 1;iw v a l u ~ * td
0.02 0.00
s (2 fii’c.;ito‘ tli;in 101’
equal to zero, the cstimatc of pcrcent tlefectivc is read directly froni ilic table. For v;ilues of í) less tli:iii xcro. t \ i i i t h c value uiiist lie ~ l ) t i u c i e iiiwm
l 11111.
Variability-unknown procetlurc; sample size, 5; standard dcviation metliotl.
acceptable because, when substi- of paying 100 percent in the long smooth progression of payment as
tuted in Eq. (i), this corresponds run for work that is t i d y accept- quality varies and, consequently,
to 100 percent payment. able. Unless handled properly, this this potential problem is avoided.
can impose a serious hardship on In order to accommodate differ-
As the estimated percent defec- concrete producers.
tive drops below PD = 10, Eq. (1) ent design requirements and dif-
awards pay factors greater than ferent degrees of criticality, the
Although pay shedules can also NJDOT specification defines four
100 percent, up to a maximum of
102 percent for a percent-defec- be constructed in the form of dis- different classes of concrete as de-
crete steps, with a series of described in Table 2.
tive level of zero, representing the
highest quality obtainable. Al- creasing pay factors associated The structural design strength
though this feature is desireable in with progressively lower ranges of ff refers to the 28-day compressive
that it creates an incentive for the quality parameter (percent defec- strength required by the designer
contractor to provide higher levels tive), there is a distinct advantage to assure structural integrity. The
of quality, i t was adopted f o r a associated with t h e continuous class design strength is a higher
quite different reason. form given by Eq. (1). level of strength t h a t has been
specified to obtain other benefits,
Whenever an acceptance proce- With a stepped pay schedule, such as impermeability, durability,
dure is based on the percent-de- unless the discrete intervals are and abrasion resistance, normally
fective parameter, and a quality very small, the difference in pay associated with stronger concrete.
level other than zero-percent de- between two successive steps may
fective is stated (or implied) to be For acceptance purposes, qual-
be fairly substantial. Whenever ity is defined in terms of percent
acceptable, pay factors in excess the true lot quality happens to fall defective below the class design
of 100 percent are required if the close to a boundary in a stepped strength. An average strength
specification is to perform fairly. pay schedule, it is almost entirely higher than the class design
a matter of chance whether the strength is required to achieve the
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
When the contractor consis-

tently supplies work that is close smaller or larger pay factor will be acceptable quality level of 10 per-
to the acceptable quality level, ap- assigned. Although this tends to cent defective.
proximately half the sample esti- balance out in the long run, it can
mates will be of lower quality appear quite harsh to the contrac-
while the remainder will be higher. tor who has just missed the next
Unless the higher quality esti- higher pay level and may lead to Implementation
mates receive pay factors greater disputes over measurement preci- In 1983, after several simulated
than 100 percent to offset the pay sion, round-off rules, and so forth. field trials and numerous refine-
reductions resulting from the ments suggested both by NJDOT
lower quality estimates, the accep- With a continuous (equation- and construction industry repre-
tance procedure will be incapable type) pay schedule, there is a sentatives, the specification was
72
~~ ~
implemented for the first time Table 2-The four classes of concrete as defined in the NJDOT
with the adjusted payment provi- specification.
sion in effect. Structural
In order to give contractors and Class design design
producers a chance to become Class of strength strength Number of
comfortable with the new specifi- concrete Twical use tests aer lot
cation, it was decided that all pay Prestressed beams
adjustments would be reduced by 28.96 20.68 Bridge decks
25.51 20.68 Pavement
half for the first two projects on Foundations
which the specification was used.
To accomplish this, the pay sched-
ule given by Eq. (1)was temporar-
ily replaced with Eq. (3). As a re-
sult, the maximum pay factor ob- what arrangements were made to It is fairer than earlier ap-
tainable on t.he first two jobs was share either the bonuses or any proaches in t h a t (a) i t properly
101 percent. potential pay reductions. It is be- pays 100 percent in the long run
lieved that the producer charged a when the quality is at the level
PF = 101 - 0.1PD (3) higher unit price for concrete gov- that has been defined to be accept-
erned by this specification al- able and (b) it shares with the con-
For the first project, there were though the exact amount has not tractor some of the monetary-ben-
approximately 10,000 yd3 (7646 been divulged. The bid for the efit associated with superior qual-
m3) of concrete, consisting of both project as a whole was still below ity. It is hoped that this will foster
pavement and structures, with a the anticipated cost for the work. a spirit of teamwork rather than
total in-place value of about $3 the adversaria1 attitude that often
million. The successful bidder sub- Construction on a second proj- exists when specifications are de-
contracted the concrete produc- ect using this same specification signed only to penalize poor qual-
tion to a transit mix producer but with a different contractor and ity.
whose plant had recently been producer has recently com-
equipped with automatic batching menced. Although this project is
controls. only about half completed, similar
high levels of quality a r e being References
Several different mix propor- achieved. 1.Weed, R. M., “Statistical Specification
tions were prepared and tested Development,” Report No. 83-007-7771,
Assessment of results New Jersey Department of Transporta-
prior to the start of construction tion, Trenton, 1982, Chapter 10.
to demonstrate the plant’s capa- It is presumed that the contrac- 2. AC1 Committee 214, “Recommended
bility of meeting the specification tor and producer are pleased with Practice for Evaluation of Strength Test
Results of Concrete (AC1 214-
requirements. Because of the this result, not only for the mone- 77) (Reaffirmed 1983),” American Con-
careful preparation, and a consci- tary value of the bonus but also for crete Institute, Detroit, 1977, pp. 7-8.
entious effort by all concerned - the recognition associated with 3. Weed, R. M., “Adjusted Pay Sched-
ules: New Concepts and Provisions,”
contractor, producer, and high- such an outstanding achievement. TTaasporation RZsenPch Record KO.986,
way agency personnel - the qual- Transportaiton Research Board, 1984, pp.
ity remained extremely high The NJDOT design staff is well 32-38.
throughout the entire project. satisfied because it is believed that
more than comparable value has
The concrete compressive been received in terms of ex-
strength consistently averaged tended service lives of the pave- Received and reviewed
under Institute publication policies.
over 1000 psi (6.90 MPa) higher ment and structures built under
than would have been necessary to this specification. Because of its
achieve 100 percent payment. very successful performance t o
When evaluated statistically as date, the NJDOT is proceeding to
prescribed by the specification, the refine the specification further in Richard M. Weed
quality estimates were so high preparation for an increased use is a specialist in en-
gineering applica-
that virtually every lot received on future projects. tions of statistical
the maximum pay factor of 101 analysis for the Neu;
percent, thus enabling the con- In addition to the tangible bene- Jersey Department
tractor to earn bonus payments fit of improved quality, another of Transportation, 1 i
Trenton, New Jer-
totaling approximately $30,000.
The relationship between the
potential benefit is the positive
phsychological effect the incentive sey. He has been in- h:- ;\ && ’.;”’
volved in implementing many new and
contractor and the producer was clause may have on the construc- innovative quaiity assurance procedures
proprietary and it is not known tion industry. and has published widely on this topic.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
AI Muthanna
by Osama E.K. Daoud

and Shafik K. Hamdani
Concrete Quality Control

in the Arabian Gulf
The QAIQC programfor the largest comm~rciallresidential
complex in Kuwait i s descrzbed. Analysts of concrete test
results indicates thut.the program successfully overcame the
problems of harsh clzmate, unsuztable matemals, congested
location, and a non-homogeneous work-force. Successful
completion of the project proved that an effectzve QAIQC
program zs both posszble and cost-efectzve z n the Arabzan
Gulf region.
I n developed countries, concrete technology has Many owners, engineers and contractors are un-
evolved through continual upgrading of construction aware of the importance and advantages of adopting
practices and specifications based on experience and effectively implementing QA/QC programs. This
gained with local materials, climatic conditions, and lack of awareness has produced a local construction
technical expertise, In the oil-producing countries of industry beset by conflicts, delays, claims, counter-
the Arabian Gulf, the recent economic and construc- claims and low quality work.' It contributed to the
tion boom gave no opportunity for such a gradual ev- construction of concrete buildings that are showing
olution to occur. alarming degrees of deterioration within the short
Most of the concrete technology and specifications span of 10 to 15 years.
had to be transferred wholly. Not much considera- In a recent condition survey of concrete structures
tion was given to the incompatibility that would in- in the area,2 rapid deterioration was traced in many
evitably arise due to the harsher climate, the short- cases to failure to adopt sound design and construc-
age of suitable materials and skilled manpower, and tion practices, especially in terms of concrete quality.
defective construction practices. Under such con- By specifying a lower concrete strength, local engi-
straints, quality assurance (QA) and quality control neers believe that QC will become less important and
(QC) should be expected to play an important role in failures can be avoided. This is particularly the case
concrete construction. Unfortunately this is not the for small to medium size buildings, for which site in-
spection by the architectlengineer and QC by the
Keywords: compressive strength; concrete construction; costs; contractor are minimal.
""liti assurance; quality control; ready-mixed concrete; stan-
ard eviation: strength. In the Gulf region the traditional conflicts between
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*lh ** O662949 0501836 5
construction contract parties are magnified by cul-

122
tural and communication problems. The resulting (50) !!i
%
lack of cooperation and teamwork is a primary factor
0
in the poor quality of concrete construction in the 104 1.6 E

c
area.1,3-4 u. (40) 40)

? .-C
The construction environment in Kuwait c
o 86 1.2 'o
In Kuwait, many factors related to climate, mate-
i (30) (30) 5
.-a
c
rials, and manpower, have serious negative influ- .-

--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I- 68 0.8
ences on the construction of concrete. The major cli- (20)
I\ (20)
I
matic factors include intense solar radiation, ex- I
treme temperatures and very high humidity. 50 0.4
(10) (10)
Kuwait is situated on the northern part of the Ara- I
\' I
bian peninsula, which has the highest intensity of sun I I I !--, I , 1 ,
I l
UI
radiation in the world. Sunshine averages nine hours E
per day and there are 233 days of clear sky in a year. - .-
ln
Actinograph records show maximum energy during a 5 60 30
typical summer day reaching 1.08 kw/m2/hr and a >i
.-
L
0
v)
total of 9 kwhr/m2 in the course of a day. [In the E .-

C
U.K. the average daily solar radiation during the 5 40 20 E

.-
I c
hottest month on record (June, 1975) was only 4.83 a¡ .-oL

.-
>
kwhr/m2.]
Ambient temperatures equal to or greater than 104
;i 2c
c
10 :O
O
a
C
F (40 C) continue for 9 hours daily in July and 8 hours 4
C O
daily in August. The shade temperature in summer J F M A Y J J A S O W O
can occasionally reach 122 F (50 C) while the daily Months
temperature range frequently exceeds 68 F (20 C),
and sometimes reaches 86 F (30 C). Fig. 1shows the Fig. i - Monthly variations of climaticfactors in Kuwait.
monthly variation of some climatic factors in Kuwait. tion plants along the coast and wells in the interior.
These levels of radiation and temperature ad- Water therefore has to be used economically during
versely affect concrete in a number of ways,5includ- aggregate processing and concrete curing.
ing: Another important factor influencing concrete
Difficulty in obtaining effective curing and conse- quality is the characteristics of the work force. Con-
quently higher potential for shrinkage cracking. flicts and communication problems during supervi-
Premature setting resulting in loss of workability. sion are more likely t o occur in an environment
Tendency for using a higher water-cement ratio where a multiplicity of languages and cultural back-
than specified to compensate for rapid evaporation grounds exist^.^^^ In Kuwait, the work force during
and to improve workability. 1980 represented about 60 percent of the total popu-
Because Kuwait borders the Arabian Gulf, the rel- lation. More than three quarters of this force was im-
ative humidity can rise to 90 percent or more during ported, with 60 percent coming from different Arab
some periods (Fig. i).In the summer season, high countries and 38 percent from Asian countries. In the
humidity combined with high temperatures can cause field of building construction, almost all the work
increased fatigue and heat stroke in laborers, and force was i m p ~ r t e d . ~
consequently a significant drop in working efficiency Because the work force is admitted into the coun-
and productivity.6 This should be considered when try only on a temporary basis, the availability and
establishing a QAIQC program. cost of certain skills depends to a large extent on how
Dust storms are more frequent during June and well the immigration policies are observed. This con-
July (Fig. 1).The average annual rate of dust fall out stitutes an additional risk to contractors performing
is 119 ton/sq.km. Fine dust can contribute to the con- construction contracts of long duration. Starting late
tamination of concrete materials and depending on 1982, the rules of stay were enforced after a period
its salt content can cause corrosion damage in com- of relaxation. Consequently a large number of work-
pleted structures.2J ers with expired work visas were repatriated on
Problems associated with the local materials in- short notice. This caused a sudden drop in the supply
clude lack of good quality aggregates, contamination of skilled labor and raised its cost. (The daily rate for
of aggregates with harmful proportions of chlorides a formwork carpenter, foi- example, increased from
and sulphates, poorly-graded sand with high fines $28 to $53.)
content, and variability in the properties of aggre-
gates as well as variability of the locally produced ce- AI Muthanna project
ment.5~8 Water is generally more scarce than in tem- The one hundred million dollar Al Muthanna com-
perate regions, its only sources being the desalina- plex is one of the largest projects constructed in Ku-
Provided by IHS under license with ACI QUALITY ASSURANCE Licensee=Fluor Corp no FPPPV per administrator /2110503106, User=MacKenzie, Ala
75
Obb2949 0 5 0 3 8 3 7 7 W
60 I I Crete supplier realized the importance of maintaining

a friendly environment and a one-team approach to
insure a proper application of the QA/QC program
50
I set forth in the project specifications. This approach
has for a long time been requested by all those in-
volved in the construction industry on both national
40 .
I
I and international contracts.10J1A friendly environ-
*-
Y I
I
ment focused on product control rather than cost
c
. control is more advantageous than relying solely on
2 30
D.
.> surveillance and acceptance tests.'O To facilitate com-
Y
Li
munication and understanding, the key personnel ap-
20 - pointed were Arabic-speaking.
-
Measures taken by the A/E
10
i
The specifications called for concrete to be sup-
I \
plied by a specialized ready-mix producer. Although
O I I I this is common practice in many developed countries,
4060 4641 5221 5800 6380 it has only recently started to compete seriously with
(28) (32) (36) (40) (44)
C o n c r e t s Comprsrslvs S t r a n p t h p s i [ M P a l site batch plants in the Gulf area.
A well-trained construction contract administra-
Fig. 2 - Frequency distribution and normal distribution curue tion team was employed on a full-time basis to insure
for concrete strength test results.
no slow down or stoppage of work resulted from de-
wait. Its 184,472 ft2 (17,138 m2) site is located in the lays in inspection. This eliminated a major cause of
heart of Kuwait City, at the intersection of two very the conventional conflict between the contractor and
busy streets. It is a multi-purpose complex with three the A/E,l' and the contractor and the owner.I2
distinct zones: three basements for parking and me- The project specifications requested that the
chanical/electrical services, tri-level shopping mall contractor submit to the A/E a proposed manpower
(both zones covering the entire plan), and a set of organization chart showing the qualifications of the
seven high rise residential towers. The total built-up key personnel responsible for concreting operations
area is 1,550,000 ft2 (144,000 m2). The building con- at the batch plant and at the job site.
tract started on January 1982 and ended on time in The project specifications demanded that the
March 1985. contractor submit a well organized site layout plan
The concrete structure consists basically of three showing the proposed locations of tower cranes, con-
building systems. The raft foundation is made of concrete pumps, parking spaces for the transit mixers,
crete using sulphate-resistant ASTM C150 Type II and other temporary facilities. The A/E reviewed the
cement, varying in thickness between 5.9 f t (1.8 m) plan at the site staff level and at the managerial
under the towers and 4.9 f t (1.5 m) elsewhere..The level.
skeleton consists of retaining walls of the same Because of the large quantities of concrete in-
type of concrete as the raft, while columns, core walls volved and the transportation limitations, the AIE
and slabs are made of concrete using ASTM C150 insisted on locating the testing laboratory a t the site,
Type I cement. All were cast-in-place. The third mainly for curing and testing concrete cylinders. The
building system is the envelope which includes cast- QC program benefitted from the quick acquisition of
in-place white concrete. A total volume of 124,000 yd3 strength test results, avoidance of mixing of samples
(95,000 m3) of concrete was placed, all of which had a and damage during transportation, direct control of
specified design strength of 4060 psi (28 MPa). the testing, and reduced costs to Contractor.
During construction, the hot climate and the busy The above measures are those required to produce
location imposed a number of restrictions on con- on a site over a long period of time concrete with ex-
crete operations. The limited space of the site per- ceptionally high standards of quality and uniformity.
mitted no storage area for construction materials.
Traffic regulations allowed no trucks or concrete
Measures taken by the contractor
transit mixers to enter the city business district dur-
ing the busy hours of the day. Since the building site The contractor maintained effective coordina-
faces a five star hotel and is surrounded by presti- tion between site activities and batch plant opera-
gious office buildings, measures had to be taken to tions. This involved developing an organized routine
control dust and noise, maintain accessibility to the for placing concrete. One person was appointed at
site, avoid traffic interruptions, and minimize the the site to liase with the supplier and to be responsi-.
nuisance to the neighbourhood. ble for ordering concrete. The coordinator informed
the supplier 24 hours in advance of the volume of
Quality assurance/quality control programs concrete required, the starting time of placing, and
The architectlengineer, the contractor and the con- --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the expected time between loads.
76
Provided by IHS under license with ACI AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*ltb
~~~~ ~~
** -~
m
The risk of initial setting was therefore avoided be-
cause no transit mixers had to wait long before dis- 39
charge. Long periods of waiting are not permitted in
Kuwait since wet batching is always used, even in
summer, because of the utilization of washed sand
and for better control of the water content.
35 -
&
I
The contractor, aware of the wide variability in 31

the properties of locally produced white cement, re-
quested that the owner and the AIE replace most of
27
the sand-blasted cast-in-place structural white-con-
Crete facades with sand-blasted precast cladding. 4
Since this would not alter the final architectural fea-
tures of the project, the owner and the AIE agreed
readily to the proposal. Consequently potential de-
lays caused by rejection of white concrete failing to
3 -
-
I
meet the required strength were eliminated. 2

Such delays occurred often on other projects con-
structed with white concrete during the same period
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I I I I I I I I I I 1
as Al Muthanna. Furthermore, using precast instead I I I I I I I I I ~
of in-situ concrete minimized problems such as cold 7

POOR
joints and honeycombing which are normally associ-

ated with the latter in hot climates. The decision also
proved to be more economical although in the begin-
ning the cost appeared high to the Contractor.
Measures taken by the ready-mix concrete

supplier
The supplier took direct responsibility for all
technical matters related to batch plant operations Fig. 3 - Monthly uariation of statistical parameters of
and QC. concrete strength IASTM C150 Type i cernent).
He fully cooperated with the contractor’s coor-
dinator by planning the batch plant activities to meet contained three to six cylinders and a total of 1208
the site requirements for timing and quantities of cylinders were included in the analysis. The results of
concrete. the analysis are summarized in Fig. 2 and represent
The moving average of the mean strength values one complete year of sampling and approximately 60
and the standard deviation were monitored to pro- percent of the duration of concreting. The SD of 375
vide an early warning of any drop in quality. When psi (2.59 MPa) is smaller than the standard for “ex-
the moving average of strength dropped signifi- cellent” [400 psi (2.76 MPa)] in AC1 214-77.14
cantly, t h e cement content was immediately in- The mean strength, SD, and within-test coefficient
creased as recommended in AC1 318-83. This mea- of variation (Con for the concrete in each month are
sure allowed work to continue while the plant was in- shown in Fig. 3. Within-test COV is normally used to
spected for probable causes for the drop. indicate the variability in specimens taken from the
The standard deviation ( S D ) of strength was same batch of concrete, and reflects the standard of
kept low [around 420 psi (3 MPa)] by continually control in making, curing and testing cylinders. It
checking all of the local factors likely to cause varia- was calculated according to the procedure described
bility. Emphasis was placed on quality of the sand in article 3.4.1 of AC1 214-77. The standard limits for
and aggregate, particularly the percent passing sieve concrete control stipulated in this document were su-
No. 200, and the properties of cement, especially perimposed on Fig. 3 for comparison.
those of white cement. The compressive strength was consistent through-
A plasticizer-retarder admixture with dosage ad- out the year and complied with the values in the proj-
justed primarily for temperature and humidity im- ect specifications IfC,. = 1.3fé = 5323 psi (36.7 MPa)]
proved workability and reduced shrinkage cracking. and in article 4.3.2.2. of AC1 318-83 [5294 psi (36.5
An average slump of 3 in. (75 mm) was maintained MPa)]. Most of the monthly values of SD were in the
with an average admixture dose of 0.6 percent of ce- “excellent” range.
ment weight in winter and 0.8 percent in summer. During the hottest month of the year (August) the
SD reached the limit fixed by the supplier, which re-
Analysis of compressive strength fest results quired immediate corrective measures t o be taken.
A total of 301 28-day tests carried out according to One additional bag of cement per cubic meter of con-
ASTM C39 on gray concrete made using an ASTM crete was added throughout September and October,
C150 Type I cement were analyzed, Each sample resulting in a noticeable increase in strength. The
A C 1 COMP*lJb ** m 0 b b 2 9 4 9 050LB39 O m
For Al Muthanna project, the 7-day to 28-day
strength ratio for field prepared samples (Fig, 4) was
reasonably constant throughout the year, with aver-
ages of 75 percent and 80 percent for the gray and
white concretes respectively. The ratio varies over a
10 percent range between the average upper and the
average lower monthly limits. This is considered a
reasonably narrow range compared with that ob-
tained in other projects in the area with higher SDs.
Two major projects (Salhia Tower and the Kidney
Centre at Sabah Hospital) were constructed not far
from Al Muthanna during the same period, using the
same concrete specifications and the same AIE. The
SDs for concrete strength were 831 psi (5.73 MPa)
and 489 psi (3.37 MPa) and the ranges between the
average upper and the average lower limits of the
strength ratio were 23 percent and 20 percent.
A further analysis was conducted on the test re-
sults of the white concrete, which was made from lo-
cally produced cement. The analysis was limited to
mean strength and within-test COV for the white
concrete produced during one year, and included a
L I I
total of 120 tests, involving 360 specimens (Fig. 5).
The mean strength varied widely compared to that
for grey concrete.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
A consistent drop in strength was observed from
the beginning of summer, and the concrete supplier
finally resorted to adding a superplasticizer to in-
J F M A M J J A S O N D
crease strength by reducing water content without
loss of workability. The superplasticizer was replaced
Months
by a retarder-plasticizer when the temperature
Fig. 4 - Monthly uariation of 7-day to 28-day strength ratio. dropped during autumn. The within-test COV ranged
cause of the increase in SD was eventually identified between “very good” and “good” which is somewhat
as increased fines in the natural and crushed sands better than that for the gray concrete made with
used in the concrete. This is a common occurrence in Type I cement.
Kuwait during the summer and is caused by frequent
dust storms in June and July and reduced efficiency Cost of QC program
of the aggregate washing plants. The original ce- The total cost of controlling the quality of the proj-
ment content of eight bags per cubic meter was re- ect’s 124,000 yd3 (95,000 m3) of concrete was
stored when the problem was resolved. $269,000 ($212,000 for personnel and $57,000 for
According to ASTM C917-82 the 7-day to 28-day laboratory equipment). This is equivalent to $2.17 per
strength ratio ranges between 67 and 75 percent for cubic yard ($2.83 per cubic meter) of concrete, which
concrete using American Type I cements. It can be represents about two percent of the unit cost of con-
used to predict the 28-day strength from the ’7-day crete before casting and only 0.6 percent of the unit
results and allows prompt decisions to be made re- cost of fabricated concrete, as listed in the project’s
garding stoppage of further concreting or the re- bills of quantities.
moval of concrete of unacceptable quality. The cost of the QC program should be compared
In Kuwait, because of the prevailing lower stan- with the expenses that would have been incurred by
dard QC, this ratio varies over the wider range of 50 the contractor in the absence of quality control. A
to 100 percent. The prediction of 28-day strength, typical dispute over acceptance of a reinforced con-
which is the binding value in the contract, is there- crete element takes six to eight weeks to settle. This
fore unreliable. Contractors are encouraged to con- period will be particularly costly if the rejected ele-
test the 7- day strength results whenever these indi- ment lies on the critical path of the project time
cate suspicious quality, and prefer to continue site schedule.
works while waiting for the 28-day results rather The average value of overhead and profit per day
than take immediate corrective action such as re- for the project was around $28,900 and the liqui-
moving defective concrete. If the 28-day results fail dated damages which the contractor would have to
to meet the specifications, the project can be signifi- pay for each day of delay was $35,460. Only one week
cantly delayed because removal of defective concrete of delay (due to one single case of concrete rejection)
at this later stage is much more difficult. can cost the contractor in liquidated damages alone
78
AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*lb
~ ~~~
**
~~~
more than the total cost of the QC program. QC, in

the long run, is a wise and demonstrably the most
profitable investment the contractor can make.
Conclusion
The successful completion in Kuwait of its largest
residentiallcommercial complex demonstrated that
the difficult construction environment in the Gulf re-
gion can be overcome. Good QC can be achieved if a
well-prepared QA program is strictly observed, and if
a one-team approach to work in a friendly atmo- I I I I t 1 , I
I
I
I
I
I
POOR
sphere is maintained without violating the profes- 7 -
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sional liability of any party.
The two most critical factors influencing the sup-
ply of ready-mixed concrete in Kuwait appear to be:
Maintaining a continuous control of the fines con-
tent in the sand arriving at the plant.
Maintaining good coordination between batch plant
activities and site operations.
Higher SDs appeared to be correlated with wider
ranges in the 7-day to 28-day strength ratio. This Fig. 5 - Monthly variation of statistical parameters of
should be taken into account during construction to concrete strength (white cement).
avoid errors in concrete strength prediction.
Structural engineers should realise that it is futile 13. Moksnes, Jan, “Quality Assurance for Concrete Platforms in
to specify lower concrete strength in the hope that North Sea Oil Fields,” Concrete hiteixational: Desigit & Corist.r.iic-
concrete problems and failures will be avoided. An tion, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 13-19.
effective application of a program of QC is necessary 14. AC1 Committee 214, “Recommended Practice for Evalua-
tion of Strength Test Results of Concrete (AC1 214-77XReaffirmed
regardless of the specified strength. 1983),” American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1977, 14 pp.
Owners should be urged to accept paying for well-
trained full-time inspection teams if their projects are
to be completed on time with good quality and with a Credits
minimum of claims. Owner : Kuwait Finance House
Architect/Engineer : Kuwaiti Engineer’s Office
References Contractor ~ : M.A. Kharafi Contracting Co.
Concrete Supplier : Kuwaiti British Ready MIX
1. Al-Jarallah, Mohammed, “Construction Industry in Saudi
Arabia,” J o w n a l of Coiisti*i&ioTi Enginewing und Munagement,
ASCE, V. 109, No. 4, Dec. 1983, pp. 355-368.
2. Rasheeduzzafar; Dakhil, Fahd H.; and Al-Gahtani, Ahmad
Saad, “Deterioration of Concrete Structures in the Environment Osama E. K,Daoud is Deputy Director
of the Middle East,” AC1 JOURNAL, Pmceediws V. 81, No. 1,Jan.- of the Administration of Construction
Feb. 1984, pp. 13-20. Contracts Department in the Kuwaiti
3. Malonev. William F.. “Suaervisorv Problems in International Engineer’s Office. He received his B.Sc.
Construction;” fioceedings, LSCE, V: 108, C03, Sept. 1982, pp. from Ain Shames University, Egypt, in
406-418. 1972, and taught concrete technology and
4. Rabbat, Orfan, and Harris, Robert B., “Managing Employee strength of materials a t the same
Conflict in the Middle East,” Proceedings, ASCE, V. 108, C02, university until 1975. He received his
June 1982, pp. 219-225. Ph.D. from the University of
5. “Concrete in Hot Countries,” STWO (Dutch member, FIP), Southampton, Enaland, in 1978, and then joined the Roads
the Netherlands, 67 pp. Researchcenter, kuwait, as a senior research engineer. In
6. Koehn, Enno, and Brown, Gerald, “Climatic Effects on Con- 1982 he joined the Kuwaiti Engineer’s Office as structural
struction,” J o w n a l of Co-nstriiction Engineer.ing und iWunuge- resident engineer. His current duties include standardizing
?nerit, ASCE, V. 111, No. 2, June 1985, pp. 129-137. and implementing quality control procedures for the Office. He
7. “The CIRIA Guide to Concrete Construction in the Gulf Re- is also involved in research related to the application of
gion,” Special Publication No. 31, Construction Industry Re- fracture mechanics theories to reinforced concrete, and he has
search & Information Association, London, 1984, 95 pp. published several papers in this field.
8. “A Study of Concrete in the Middle East Using Local Aggre-
gates and Hellenic Portland Cement,” SRI International, Califor-
nia, Aug. 1979, 123 pp.
9. “Annual Statistical Abstract,” 22nd Edition, Ministry of Shafik K,Hamdani is a senior research
Planning, Central Statistical Office, State of Ihvait, 1985, 376 pp. engineer in the Department of
10. Mayer, Charles W., “Quality Control by the Contractor,” Laboratories and Research Division,
Concrete Intemutional: Design & Co?istmctiwi, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. Ministry of Public Works, Kuwait. He
1982, pp. 72-74. graduated from the University of
11.Jeanes, Joe W.; Love, George C.; and Hastings, Robert, “The Baghdad, Iraq, in 1967 and until 1973
Role of the Materials Engineering Laboratory,” Conci-ete Intemu- worked in Iraq and Saudi Arabia on the
tiofid: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 35-40. design and supervision of various civil
12. Kirschenman, Merlin D., “Impact of Inspector’s Experience engineering structures. He received a n
on Owner’s Liability,” Proceedeags, ASCE, V. 108, C02, June iersity of Surrey, England, in 1974, and a
1982, pp. 314-320. Ph.D.yrom the University of Leeds, England, in 1978.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
A C 1 COMPWLb WX 9 O b b 2 9 g î O S O L B Y L 9
construction qualiiy management

on a major Saudi Arabian project
For Quality
A standardized Quality ControllQual-
i t y Assurance program was developed
and implemented on one of Saudi Ara-
bia’s largest construction projects.
This program was based o n the con-
There Is No cept of Construction Quality Manage-

ment. O n a vast constmetion project,
successful Construction Quality Man-
agement c a n only be achieved with
care u l l y planned and coordinated
t‘
Quitting Time Qua zty Control by the contractw and
Quality Assu.r’ance by the owner.
Keywords: construction; construction

management; contractors; quality assur-
by Maher F. Wissa ance; quality control.
T h e rapid increase in the number ity desired by the user and estab- must cooperate with each other so
of heavy construction projects in lished in t h e project specifications. that the desired results can be ob-
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, CQM encompasses two important tained - neither can work alone.
combined with the diversification aspects: Quality Control (QC) and To visualize this balanced effort,
of multinational contractors on a Quality Assurance (&A). a new CQM concept was estab-
single project, made it necessary lished based on a two-sided bar
In most contracts for construc-
to establish a standard Construc- chart. Fig. 2 illustrates the phe-
tion projects, the contractor is re-
tion Quality Management (CQM) nomenon of ideal (100 percent)
quired to perform the QC func-
program. Implementation of this CQM consisting of two portions:
program allows contractors to tion, and the construction man-
the left portion representing 50
provide the decennial warranty
ager (CM) (as the owner’s repre- percent CQM which is equal to 100
sentative) is required to perform
required by the Kingdom’s Royal percent QC and the right portion
the QA function. Fulfillment of
Decreel. To make such a program representing the remaining 50
CQM by both the contractor and
successful, the owner and the con- percent of CQM which is equal to
tractor must mutually understand the construction manager means
100 percent QA. Note t h a t the
that, ideally, the project is built as
the fundamentals of CQM and given percentage of the CQM in
designed.
must be committed to implement- this approach merely indicates
ing the program. Fig, 1 shows a simplification of that QC and QA contributions to
this concept. When the sides are the CQM are equally important.
Fundamentals balanced (each fulfilling his spe- To implement an effective CQM
Construction Quality Manage- cific tasks and obligations) the system, a clear understanding of
ment is defined2 a s a system in- common goal is reached. If one quality, control, and assurance is
volving the joint, but independent, side fails, the resulting off-balance required. Quality is defined as
efforts of the contractor and the seriously hampers CQM. The con- conformance to requirements;
owner to achieve the level of qual- tractor and construction manager control is to regulate; and assur-
- 100% CONSTRUCTION QUALITY MANAGEMENT ( C Q M )
CM CONSTRUCTION Gap Represenling Deficiency in C O M

(OWNER) QUALITY MANAGEMENT t+ L
CM QUALITY ASSURANCE
50% CQM = 100% Q C 50 ‘A CQM = 100 % Q A
BY CONTRACTOR BY C M
Fig. 1-Fundamentais of construction qualify management, Fig. 2-Construction qualify management philosophy.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
80Concrete Institute
Copyright American AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COMP*3b ** M O M
0662749 0 5 0 3 8 4 2~- ~~
may direct, at the place of manu-

facture or fabrication, or on-site,
or both. In simple words, the con-
tractor’s QC is the first line of in-
spection.
Construction Manager’s B A .
Quality Assurance is defined as
establishing criteria, and then as-
sessing the confidence t h a t the
quality control performed for any
specific job is adequate for the re-
quired quality level. Therefore, the
MATERIAL/EWIPMENT MATEWAL/EWIPMENT
construction manager’s QA func-
O Coxe Inspeciian e Swrcelnspctim tion is to:
*Onsite Inspection O ui site Inspection
v e r e that the contractor’s QC
WORKhWNSHIP INCF?
BY DICCIPLINE
Moten’dTesfinq
OSuveyinq
O Cwil/Mech./Elecl.
OComt. Mtl. Gnlrd
O 0 AMtls.TestirqLab
O Q A Field Survey
WOflKhU”IPINSP.
DISCIPLINE
O MolerialTestino I function is being adequately
performed; and
~
OPHO Punch,Lisls
OConst. Arecis
OConst.Ha&va
insure that the results of each
O DemmstmlionT&s ODemomlmtion %IS
AS-WILT DRAWINGS AS-BUILT DRAWINGS completed task comply with the
MAINTENANCE MANULS h4AINTENANCEW A L S project specifications and de-
OMFULL
CONTRACTOR O C
PERFORMANCE
*I
O A AUDITING 8
REPORTING
OCIOAPRXRAM
AUDITING PFOJECT
I3 CONTRACTOR’S
CONFORMANCE
TO Q C PLAN
K
AUDITING
a REPORTING
y)
sign requirements.
In order for the construction
manager’s QA t o function, the
contractor must initially perform
- w
I
I and complete the QC procedures.
f 4 This leads to the common under-
FACILITY HANWVER
COMPLETE
standing that QA is the second line
WCUMENTATION of inspection. In the writer’s opin-
ion, however, this interpretation is
erroneous, since inspection is
solely related to QC. The term QA
Fig. 3-Project QCIQA program control chart.
check is more appropriate. The QA
check is performed randomly. The
ance is confidence. Therefore, t o the quality of the selected ma- degree of checking can vary from
achieve quality, control, and as- terial and equipment; and extensive to minor, based on the
surance for any specified quality the quality of workmanship. degree of confidence in the con-
level, two functions are required: In order for txe contractor to es- tractor’s QC performance and the
the contractor’s QC and the con- tablish an acceptable quality con- criticality of the checked item. The
struction manager’s QA. trol system, however, his regula- QA check frequency will also vary
Contractor’s QC. Quality Con- tory procedures must be in ac- between project^.^
trol is described3as the regulatory cordance with the job contract re-
process where a measurement is quirements. In general, these are Requirements for s u c c e s s
made of the actual quality perfor- contained in the contract docu- A successful CQM program can
mance, compared to the requirements which consist of: 1)Supple- be achieved by establishing:
ments, and the difference is acted mental Agreement, 2) General Ob- i) a standard project QCIQA pro-
upon. Based on the construction ligations, 3) Job Specifications, gram;
requirements, or quality level, and 4)Design Documents. 2) standard contractor QC plan,
specified in the technical specifi- Contracts, in their General Obli- program, and procedures;
cations, the contractor establishes gations, indicate the requirements 3) QA plan, program, and proce-
a QC system. This system pro- for QC for materials and work- dures; and
vides the means to regulate, test, manship, contractor inspection 4) contractor QC /construction
and inspect all phases of construc- team, inspection procedures, and manager QA interface.
tion activity in order to insure that inspection work. For example, the Project QC/QA program. One
the end product is in compliance requirements for materials and important function the construc-
with the design and with contract workmanship are that they shall tion manager can provide in a con-
requirements. be of the respective kinds de- struction project with multina-
The Contractor’s inspection en- scribed in the contract technical tional contractors is establishment
ables him to check: specifications, and shall be sub- of a standard project QCIQA pro-
the adequacy of his construction jected from time to time to such gram. Such a program should in-
procedures; tests as the construction manager clude the entire process and inter-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
**
-_I _I_
A C 1 COMP*36 m 0662949 0503843 2 m

face of QCIQA, starting with the inspection, outlining his du- veloped to include all construction
contract and specifications, and ties and responsibilities, and management departments that are
ending with turnover of the proj- signed by a responsible offi- engaged in &A. A typical con-
ect to the owner. An example of a cer of the firm. struction manager's QA organiza-
project QCIQA program control 3) The contractor's QC manage- tion is shown in Fig. 4.
chart is shown in Fig. 3 . In this ment is to meet with the con- The Project Director is in charge
chart, the contractor's QC plan in- struction manager's QA man- of this organization. The QA Man-
cludes the requirements of shop agement in order to establish a ager is his primary advisor on
drawings, material submittals, and mutual understanding of the de- matters concerning quality, and in
field QC function. tails of the QC plan, prior to its establishing policy, procedures,
Fig. 3 shows that the first step development. and programs.
in the project QCIQA program is 4)No construction work can start As shown in Fig. 4,the QA or-
the development of the contract until the contractor's QC plan is ganization consists of several de-
documents, including the technical approved by the construction partments: Quality Assurance,
specifications. Therefore, it is im- manager. Engineering, Project Control,
perative that QC requirements be Standard contractor QC plan. In Contract Administration, and
specified in the tendered docu- a project with multinational con- Construction. These departments
ments. The minimum require- tractors, development of a stan- all contribute to the construction
ments for QC are: dard QC plan by the construction manager's QA program:
i)The contractor is responsible manager is a vital tool that can be The QualityAssurance Depart-
for providing QC for the inspec- used by all contractors in the de- ment assumes all central QA ac-
tion and testing of materials velopment of a QC plan for their tivities for the project, includ-
and workmanship. specific contract. ing auditing and reporting,
2) The contractor must provide an This standard QC plan must in- source inspection, field survey,
acceptable QC plan within 30 clude: precast production, material
days after receipt of the Notice 1)standardized format for QC or- testing, and material control.
to Proceed. The contractor's QC ganization; Fig. 5 depicts a simplified orga-
plan includes the procedures, 2) standardized project QC forms nization chart for the QA De-
instructions, and reports to be including construction activi- partment. The Auditing and Re-
used. The QC plan includes, as a ties, such as civil, electrical, and porting Section is considered
minimum: mechanical works; the core for assessing the con-
the QC inspection organiza- 3) standardized procedures for tractor's compliance to the ap-
tion; contractor QC and construction proved QC plan.
number and qualifications of manager QA interface;
4)standardized letter of direction; The Engineering Department
inspectors; assumes the QA function for the
authority and responsibility of 5) standardized transmittals for
obtaining the construction man- project engineering activities.
inspectors;
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ager's approval on shop draw- This includes reviewing the con-
methods of inspection, includ- tractor's design and construc-
ing the subcontractor's work; ings and material submittals.
Construction manager QA plan.
tion drawings, and material and
test methods including, if re- equipment submittals to insure
quired, the name of a quali- To develop a successful QA plan
(including the plan, program, and their compliance with the stan-
fied testing laboratory; dard design codes and specifica-
QC forms for documenting procedures), t h e construction
manager's QA organization must tions.
inspection and testing; and
a copy of a letter of direction be established first. The Project Control Department
to the contractor's represen- The construction manager's QA checks the contractor's compli-
tative responsible for the QC organization chart should be de- ance with t h e approved con-
+
DEPARTMENT
MANAGER
SUPPORT 8 REPORTING

A C 1 COMPULb ** Ob62949 05018114 4
Fig, 6-Project ac- list of project activities covered by

Instruminlation
tivities covered by standard QC Forms). The QC
standard QC
Mech. Inspection forms. Form should include references to
drawings, specifications, transmit-
tals, or any other design docu-
ments listing acceptance criteria.
These forms will become an im-
S u r c a Inspection
Elast. Inrpclion
portant asset in evaluating prob-
lems that may appear after con-
struction is finished.
struction schedule, including: i)provide for central QA activi- Assessment of contractor QC

transmittals of engineering doc- ties; performance
uments, construction drawings, 2) establish QA standard operat- The contractor’s QC perfor-
and material and equipment ing procedures; mance should be assessed periodi-
sbumittals; checking the Con- 3) establish project QA policy; cally to determine his compliance
tractor’s productivity rate and 4)establish acceptance criteria for with all aspects of the approved
manpower against the approved the contractor’s QC plan; QC plan and other contract obli-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
construction schedule; and re- 5) conduct frequent QA audits of gations.
questing the contractor to pro- the contractor’s QC perfor- This assessment is conducted in
vide corrective action in case of mance and the construction the form of an audit. The primary
any delay. manager’s QA organization per- objective of the audit is to identify
The Construction Department, formance; potential problems and deficien-
on a large project, is usually re- 6) conduct seminars and training cies in the contractor’s implemen-
sponsible for more than one programs for QA personnel; tation of his QC plan so t h a t a
construction area. The division 7) assess end product problems re- prompt corrective action can be
of the construction areas and lating to engineering, construc- taken. The audit includes a field
responsibilities can be based on tion, or operations; and QA assessment of the quality of
either the geographical loca- 8) Develop standard project QC construction activities in progress
tions of the different facilities in forms. or completed, QC inspection and
the project, or on the construc- testing records, and other con-
tion discipline. The main func- QC/QA interface. To achieve struction documents such as draw-
tion of this department and its 100 percent CQM, the contractor ings, submittals, etc.
divisions is daily QA surveil- QC and the construction manager An audit checklist for each au-
lance of the contractor’s daily QA interface should be estab- dited activity is reviewed during
QC activities. lished. The QC Forms play a ma- the audit. The list includes con-
The Contract Administration jor role in providing the interface struction documentation (draw-
Department’s &A function is between the QC inspection and the ings and submittals), QC docu-
concentrated on checking the &A check. The contractor’s QC in- ments (test reports, procedures,
contractor’s fulfillment of his spection action is marked on the and inspections), and workman-
contract obligations in imple- form before its submission to the ship quality.
menting the approved QC plan construction manager’s QA repre- A final assessment rating of the
and providing quality of the end sentative. Upon receiving this contractor’s QC performance for
product. This department’s ap- form, the construction manager’s each of the audited activities, and
proval of the contractor’s representative verifies the ade- for the overall function, should be
monthly payment certificates is quacy of the constractor’s QC in- given as either adequate or inade-
related to the adequacy of the spection action. The contractor is quate. Audit interviews, findings,
contractor’s QC performance. then notified if the inspection was conclusions, and recommendations
This is considered one of the acceptable and any corrective ac- are documented and presented in
strongest areas of QA author- tion necessary can then be taken. a QA Assessment Report which is
it^.^ The inspection action is then re- reviewed with the contractor’s QC
The construction manager’s checked by the construction man- Manager in an exit interview for
QA plan should be structured to ager’s representative prior t o his prompt implementation of the
cover all QA activities required to commencement of the work. appropriate action. Fig. 7 shows
monitor the contractor’s QC activ- Standardizing the format of QC the audit procedures flow chart.
ities, and to provide technical ser- Forms is vital for all project con-
vices for resolving engineering, tractors and construction man- Conclusion and
construction, os operations prob- ager QA personnel. It is essential recommendations
lems related t o quality. The QA to have a QC Form for each con- This article has emphasized the
plan should: struction activity, (see Fig. 6 for a importance, by the project own-
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Copyright American Concrete Institute a3
A C 1 COMPt3b t t Obb2949 0503845 b
ers, designers, or construction

(Elr-
(-J
Interview
managers, of establishing the con-
tract requirements for Construc-
tion Quality Management. The
owner’s understanding and full
Issue Audit
Schedules
0Engi-W
Disciplines
A seciii
.Constructan
1 FY;
ASSESSMENT
I With:
OCM-O A
OConlmctw
I I ISSUE
OA
ASSESSMENT
REPORT
AUDIT
support of the fundamentals of

CQM, dedication of the construc-
tion management staff towards
A U L Activities
&A, and the contractor’s commit-

ment t o implementing QC in all
stages of construction, are re-
f itek Q A Auditing 8 Reporting
H
”ztz .verify Contractor‘s
quired t o achieve successful re- Action is Corrective Action
OIssue Ammendment to
sults. Performed
Q A Assessment Report
It is recommended that all ef- - 1
forts be made towards establish- Fig. 7-Procedureflowchart for QA audit of contractor QC performance.
ing a standard CQM program for
implementation by the project au- Received and reviewed under Institute
ment Purchases and Execution of its Proj-
thority and the construction con- ects and Works’ Law,” English Transla- publication policies.
tractor in order to insure durable tion, 5 Jamad Awal 1397, Riyadh, Saudi
and safe construction. A comput- Arabia, 1977, pp. 14-19. ACI member
2. Scanlon, John M., “Quality Control Maher F. Wksa
erized approach t o CQM will pro- During Hot and Cold Weather,” Concrete i s the quality as-
vide an important tool to the proj- Internatimal: Design & Constmctim, V. 1, surance manager
ect management in assessing the No. 9, Sept. 1979, pp. 58-65. for the ioint ven- -* t
3. Jurai, J. M.,Quality Conhol Hand- >Ure if SaiAdi
project quality a t any and all book, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Arabia% PursoPm
times. New York, 1974, pp. 2-11. L t d . and Daniel
4. Fisk, Edward R., Constmction Project International (S. A.) Ltd., Jeddah,
References A&ríinistyation, 2nd Edition, John Wiiey & S a u d i Arabia. Wissa holds degrees
1. Karam, N. H.‘, “Kingdom of Saudi Sons, New York, 1982, p. 356. f r o m Cairo University and the Uni-
Arabia-Ministry of Finance and National
Economy, Special Bureau-Implementing
Regulations to Procurement of Govern-
5. Kavanagh, Thomas C., Con’onstiwtion
Management, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, 1978, p. 361.
L
versity o Louisville. He has experi-
ence in s i p , const?wtion, and con-
struction management.
Earthquake-Resistant Concrete Structures -

Inelastic Response and Deslgn
“Economical building design with -Resist~t C a n d e Shncîmw -
enhanced seismic safety best describes k h t k R c g a a c e Ud Dcdfp cows the areas
results attainable aíter utilizing the Of:
contents of this special publication.” Description of earthquake ground motion
Earthquake-Resistant Concrete * Performance of systems and components in past
Structures - Inelastic Response and earthquakes
Design (SP-127) was developed for use as a * Experimentally observed inelastic behavior of
guide by those wishing to familiarize systems and components
themselves with relatively new tools that * Modeling hysteretic response of concrete
permit t h e utilization of an inelasticity in
structural members subject to t h e effects
of intense seismic excitation.
1 -
5% damping
I Late 6Ed
- membea
Inelastic analysis
* Deformability of structural components
2 Trms;/:m Seismic design
- 3 Fbm q m d * Seismic detailing
Earthquake-Resistant Concrete 0.8
Structures - Inelastic Response and

1976 Code
1985 Emergency
Also included are SI (Metric) tables and an index.
Design will be of interest to engineers not ~“.b/ons Economical new buildings with enhanced
only in regions of high seismicity, but also seismic safety. Order your copy of Earthquake-
in areas that have been assigned a higher Resistant Concrete Structures -Inelastic Response
seismic risk through recent changes in and D e s i today!
seismic zoning maps in model codes and To Order.
other related documents. It makes current Earthquake-Mint Concrete Structures -
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
research results available to design I ~ l a s t i eR e s p ~ n ~and

e Design, SP-127,1991,566
professionals in a convenient form. This pages, soft cover.
publication will enable them to design new
buildings with enchanted seismic safety a t
no increase in cost. it will also facilitate
more accurate evaluation of the seismic
safety of existing buildings in regions of
moderate to high seismicity. Period, sec
I t is intended as a comprehensive update

of many topics discussed in the landmark AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
3-volume Droceedines of a workshoo o n Members/Customer SeMces Department
Earthqua<e-ResistaG Reinforced Cincrete P.O. Box 19150 0 Detroit. MI 48219-0150
Building Construction (ERCBC) sponsored (313) 532-2600; FAX (313)533-4747
by t h e National Science Foundation.
a4
AC1 COMPILATION
Gurí Dam
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- Venezuela
The quality assurance program for the

concrete used in the final stage of the
&tri D a m in Venezuela was based o n
a well-t.rained inspection and testinq
force and good cömmunications be-
Quality Assurance
tween inspection and contyactor per-
sonnel. Systems were developed to in-
suye effective materials acceptance
testing, concrete production inspection
and testing, and concyete constmction
inspection. The use of ice as CL coolant
in concrete yt*oductionmade the moni-
in Concrete
toring of aggregate moisture content a
critical part of the program. by Luis H. Diaz and William O’Donnell
QUALITY ASSURANCE a5
A C 1 COMP*3b ** m O b b 2 î Y ï 0503847 T m
Time of setting of cement was determined using the Vicat Blaine air permeabiíittj apparatus was used for testing
needle. jìneness of cement.
Approximately 6,500,000 m3 work to continue while problems the concrete plants.. The results
(8,500,000 yd3) of concrete were were solved before they became indicated a uniform good quality.
required for completion of the fi- concrete.
nal stage of the Guri Dam in Ven- Coarse aggregate. The feed
ezuela. Stage I was completed from the quarry to the primary
with a crest 220 m (722 ft) above Skill development. Skill in in- and secondary crushers was
datum and a power capacity of spection and testing is valuable to checked by observation. Most
2000 Mw. The final stage raised t h e work contract. When acted samples were taken from access
the dam to a crest 272 m (892 ft) upon promptly, skilled observation chutes in the weigh hoppers in the
above datum and increased the helps avoid the processing of ma- concrete plants. Samples were also
power capacity to 10,000 Mw. terials unsuitable for the specifi- taken for testing by the aggregate
cations. A skilled observation is contractor at the feed belts to the
faster than a test, and when the stockpiles, and additional samples
observer is experienced the test were taken under the gates in the
Objectives usually confirms the first report. reclaim tunnel below the stock-
Conformance. The primary ob- piles.
jective of the quality assurance The coarse aggregate provided
program a t Guri Dam was to ver- Materials for concrete production was tested
ify the conformance to specifica- Cement. A Type II cement was during each twelve hour shift. Ap-
tions of the materials used. An es- delivered to the dam site at Guri proximately four plant hopper
sential part of the program was via ship and cement truck. As each samples of each size were tested
the early detection of unsatisfac- ship was loaded, the cement sup- daily for gradation, specific grav-
tory materials, equipment, and plier took fourteen random sam- ity, and absorption. Hardness, in
processes as far upstream as pos- ples and tested two for physical the abrasion test, was tested
sible, before they could affect the and chemical characteristics. The weekly. Particle shape was
concrete. results were reported to the owner checked monthly.
at Guri. The remaining twelve The coarse aggregate was dura-
samples were retained in case ad- ble, well graded, had a specific
ditional testing was required. gravity t h a t varied very little
Efficient communication. Good
around 2.68, and had a particle
communication between the in- shape that was generally cubical.
spection personnel and the con- Each month the cement testing
tractor personnel responsible for section of the concrete laboratory
concrete and concrete materials at Guri conducted physical tests on
provided cooperation rather than approximately twelve samples Keywords: concrete dams; evaluation; in-
spection; mix proportioning; quality assur-
confrontation, This enabled the taken a t random from the silos in ance; quality control.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
86
manufacture of these products
was offsite. Control testing was
geared to sampling each shipment
and the plants’ day tanks for sol-
ids content.
Concrete production
Concrete was produced from
three plants using four 3 m3 (4yd3)
mixers, and a fourth plant using
two 3 m3 (4yd3) mixers. Most con-
crete was discharged from the
plants into 6 m3 (8 yd3) buckets
placed on trains running under the
plants, but some was delivered by
mixer and tip-Crete trucks.
Concrete mix adjustments. The

concrete mixes designed by the
The sand was first sampled after it had passed through the classifiers. laboratory were adjusted for the
free moisture content of the
coarse aggregate and sand before
being placed into the mix selectors
for each plant. The moisture on
Fine aggregate. The sand a t laboratory with a minimum of two the coarse aggregates rarely
Gui-i dam was manufactured from samples of sand from the plant changed enough to require weight
the same quarry material as the silos. These samples were tested adjustments.
coarse aggregate and was there- for gradation, specific gravity, ab-
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fore harsh. The fineness modulus sorption, free moisture, and pres-
stayed in a narrow band around ence of organics. Less frequently, Adjustments were made for the
2.90, which is close to the top of tests were made for sand equiva- free moisture on the sand using an
the scale for concrete sand. Sam- lent and material passing 75 pm automatic compensator in the
ples were first taken from the (No. 200) sieve. plant batching equipment. This al-
drainage pile belt, after the sand lowed the plant operator to use
had passed through the classifiers, Water. The water from Lake the same sand batch weights in
and later from the weigh hoppers Guri was of good quality and suit- each mix selected, thereby main-
during concrete production. able for use in concrete produc- taining the simplicity of uniform
tion. batch weights. The compensator
transferred the set percentage of
The free moisture content of the
moisture t o the water scale dial
sand was an important factor in Ice. Ice used in concrete produc- and onto the plant graphic scroll.
the control of slump and concrete tion must have sufficient particle This is the only water which ap-
temperature, because it placed a separation to flow easily through
limit on the amount of ice which pears since only ice was added to
the plant into the mixer. Without the mix.
could be added for a given slump. particle separation, clumps of ice
A three-pile drainage system was form which may not always break
used and a minimum of twenty down in the mix. Air entrainment. Use of air en-
four hours was required for each The contractor installed ther- trainment in the concrete at Guri
pile t o lose enough moisture to mometers in each of the ice plants was important for almost every
send it into covered storage. Mon- to monitor the ambient tempera- reason except freeze-thaw protec-
itoring the moisture content of the ture. An ice plant ambient tem- tion. A coarse sand with a fine-
sand required more attention than perature between -4 and -7 C ness modulus of around 2.90 and a
any other control point in the sys- (25 and 19 F) delivered ice which set retardation of approximately
tem. could flow in regular production. six hours encouraged profuse
bleeding. Each inspection shift su-
Concrete plant inspectors took Chemical admixtures. Admix- pervisor had the responsibility and
moisture readings using a rapid tures were required for air en- the authority t o modify the
device employing carbide powder. trainment, water reduction, and amount of air entraining agent
In addition, each of the twelve- retardation; a retarding super- used in order to maintain the de-
hour shifts provided the concrete plasticizer was also used. The sired air content.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
A C 1 COMP*lb ** m Obb23119 05018119 3 m
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Temperature of fresh concrete was regularly checked. Concrete samples were wet-screened.
Retardation. Setting time was pared favorably with other proj- Concrete plant inspection.
controlled through the use of a ects around the world using simi- There were three levels of inspec-
water-reducing retarder. The con- lar concrete. tion in the four concrete plants op-
crete at Guri Dam had to remain The workability for the 76 mm erating at Guri Dam: the control
workable through two shift (3 in.) msa concrete surrounding room, the mixer level where the
changes each day and through the penstocks was a special prob- freshly mixed concrete could be
normally expected delays and lem. The specifications required closely observed, and the mobile
breakdowns. Any change in the no-slump concrete, but this con- team which was mostly involved in
dosage of the water-reducing re- crete would not consolidate in crit- sampling.
tarder and the retarding super- ical areas and even at a measur-
plasticizer required the approval of able slump of 2.0 cm (0.8 in.) could Control room inspection verified
t h e chief of laboratories and not be properly placed. that the correct mix had been put
plants. Field experience indicated A retarding superplasticizer was into the plant selector mechanism
that in selected placements suffi- used, which enabled placement by the plant operator and that the
cient delay of setting time and with less water than a no-slump proper admixtures had been acti-
otherwise satisfactory strength mix and with sufficient workabil- vated. The progress of all batch-
performance were achieved using ity t o consolidate the concrete. ing was observed on the dial scales
a dosage exactly one-half of the The water reduction from t h e and the calibrated sight bottles of
mean recommendation of t h e standard mix also allowed a ce- the admixtures, and was recorded
manufacturer. ment reduction to 170 kg/m3 (286 on the plant graphic scroll. When
lb/yd3). random samples of concrete pro-
duction were taken, this was noted
on the graph. Time, weights, and
Workability. Next to strength,
workability received primary at- mix could be correlated. The
Yield. Use of the same materials
weights shown on the dials were
tention in order to achieve contin- in each of the four concrete plants
sent to the concrete laboratory so
uous and satisfactory placement of aided the control of yield. Al-
t h a t this essential information
the concrete. No pozzolan or fly though each of the plants had its
could accompany the sample
ash was used, and good workabil- own production characteristics,
through testing.
ity and consolidation of the 152 use of the same materials pro-
mm (6 in.) msa (maximum size ag- vided a control comparison. Sam- Control room inspection was
gregate) concrete and the 76 mm ples for yield determination were also responsible for making the in-
(3 in.) msa concrete could only be identified by plant, and mix de- plant sand moisture determina-
achieved by using more cement signs were changed if the yield tions, and adjusting slump and ad-
than the amount needed to satisfy varied by more than 2 percent or mixture dosage as directed.
minimum strength requirements. when a mix consistently produced
Nevertheless, the cement effi- a yield error less than but close to Mixer level inspection sent their
ciency achieved at Guri Dam com- 2 percent. visual observations on slump to
88
~~~~
0662949 0503850 T~ ~ ~ -
Ten to fourteen concrete samples were taken daily. The concrete curing facility contained almost 6000 cylinders.
t h e control room inspector and Testing additional dimension in strength

generally advised on the uniform- Materials. The testing reported determination provided another
ity of concrete production. Mixer in the section on materials was tool for quality assurance.
level inspection had access to the done by concrete laboratory per- Accelerated curing is a useful
fresh concrete and regularly sonnel. Quick tests for moisture tool for projecting later age
checked the concrete tempera- were done by the control room in- strengths with reasonable accu-
ture. spection group and tests men- racy. However, the one-day
The mobile team took random tioned in the aggregate produc- strength determinations may
samples of cement, aggregates, tion area were performed by the stand on their own as a measure of
admixtures, and concrete from the contractor and observed by the the quality of the concrete the
operating plants and delivered owner’s inspection personnel. samples represent.
these to the concrete laboratory.
Fresh concrete. The concrete Compressive strength. Approxi-
All samples carried identification
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
showing where and when they laboratory was within 150 m (164 mately ten to fourteen concrete
yd) of three of the concrete plants. samples were taken daily at Guri
were taken. In the case of fresh
The fourth was not as close and its Dam. The concrete curing facility
concrete it also showed where the
samples took ten to fifteen min- contained almost six thousand cyl-
batch was placed.
utes longer for transportation. inders and the laboratory tested
The mobile team was also re- about fifty of these cylinders each
sponsible for regular inspection of Nevertheless, it is better to have
all the testing done by fewer per- day.
the plants and reporting on essen- Three Tinius Olsen testing ma-
tial equipment condition. sonnel in a more controlled envi-
ronment using the same cali- chines were used in the labora-
Calibration of the concrete tory: one was set up for testing in
plants was observed by the inspec- brated equipment.
The samples of fresh concrete tension, one for compression test-
tion shift supervisor and the in- ing of concrete cylinders, and one
spector assigned to that plant. The were tested for slump, unit
weight, and air content. Test cyl- for compression testing of cement
accuracy of the calibration had to cubes.
be approved by this team before inders were cast in 15 cm x 30 cm
(6 in. x 12 in.) steel molds and Evaluation
the contractor was permitted to
resume production from a plant. compression tests performed at 7,
28, 90, and 365 days. The mass of data produced by
Calibration of each concrete the quality assurance program at
plant was scheduled for every Accelerated curing. The boiling Guri Dam required an evaluation
50,000 m3 (65,000 yd5) of produc- water method of determining the system which would trigger ap-
tion, or each six weeks, whichever strength of concrete at an early propriate action at the right time,
came first. In addition to the reg- age was used in the Guri Dam sometimes immediately. Extraor-
ular calibration of the plants, ce- project from August 1981 on- dinary events were reported at
ment scales were randomly wards. Specifications contained a once via radio, telephone, or in
checked. 28-day strength criterion but this person.
. A C 1 COMP*Lb *et Ob62949 O C O L B S L L W
Color coding. The laboratory tests on cement listed the mean of AC1 member William O'Donnell ispeld
data was color coded to illuminate each characteristic, plus maximum concrete consultant for HaJZa Interna-
tional Engineering Company on the Guri
discrepancies. Acceptable ranges and minimum results defining the Dam Hydroelectric Project in Venezuela,
were applied to all data reported. range, The monthly summary of where he is responsible for development
For example, a slump report for a coarse aggregate grading included and implementation of concrete quality
control and quality assurance proce-
mix established at 5 cm (2 in.) mean, standard deviation, and dures. He was previously a contractor
would receive a yellow strip a t 8 coefficient of variation for each and concrete construcíion consultant in
cm (3 in.) and a red strip at 10 cm screen size. the New York City area and was also af-
jiiiated with Master Builders New York
(4in.). The lower end was self-en- Individual concrete plants were officefor over 15 years.
forcing, the field radios becoming tracked daily for the compressive
very active at slumps of 2 cm (0.8 strength of each concrete mix pro-
in.) and below. Yellow was a cau- duced. The monthly report, how-
tionary color applied to data which ever, presented the mean
approached specified limits. Red strengths of the mixes for the en- AC1 member Luis H. Diaz is chief of
was applied t o out-of-limits retire project. The standard devia- concrete íaboratories and plants for
sults. The system permitted a tion and the coefficient of varia- C.V.G. Eiectrflcation Del Caroni C.A. on
rapid evaluation of a large quan- tion were presented for the the Guri Dam Hydroelectric Project in
Venezuela, where he is responsible for
tity of numerical data. strength results at 28 days. In ad- supervision of aggregate and batch plant
dition, a computer generated his- inspection and laboratory testing associ-
Statistics. The daily and weekly trogram enabled comparison of ated with the quality control of all con-
crete produced for the project. He is a
data were summarized in a these results with the normal dis- member of AC1 Committee 207, Mass
monthly performance report which tribution curve. Concrete.
listed means for yield, water de-
mand, air content, slump, and I
compressive strength. The data Credits
from t h e chemical and physical Owner/Planner : Corporation Venezolana de Guayana -
Electrlficaclon del Caroni, Caracas, Venezuela
Designer/Consuitant : Harza Engineering Company, Chicago, Illinois
Cement supplier : Pertigalete Cement Company, Puerto La Cruz,
Venezuela
Received and reviewed under Institute
publication policies. I
Evaluation and Rehabilitation

of Concrete Structures and
Innovations in Design
In December 199 1, leading world experts met in Hong Kong to
participate in the American Concrete Institute Conference on
Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures and
Innovations in Design. The specific purpose of the Conference
was to disseminate technical information on emerging concrete
technology in the Pacific rim region.
The results of this timely event are covered in a two volume
document comprised of 9 0 technical papers. Volume i contains
papers dealing with materials. Topics include: highly elastic
surface coating, concrete deterioration in high chloride and
sulfate environment, nondestructive testing, impact-echo
technique; fiber reinforcement, injectable cementitious
materials, and case studies. Volume II is comprised of papers
pertaining to design aspects. Topics include: concrete for
offshore structures, performance of structural repairs, design of
high-strength and reinforced concrete structures, design of
beams and columns, and case studies.
Add this timely publication to your business or personal library.
Demand for this insightful document is expected to be strong.
Avoid backorder delays. Order your copy today1
AC1 International Conference on "Evaluationand
I Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures and Innovations in
Design"
SP-128, 1991, hard cover, 2 volumes, 1504 pages

P.O. Box 19150
Detroit, MI 482 19-0150
Tel. (313) 532-2600
FAX 313-533-4747
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Copyright American90
Concrete Institute AC1 COMPILATION
A C 1 COflP*36 ** W Obb2îYï 0503852 3 W
Quality Assurance for

Concrete Platforms in
North Sea Oil Fields
by Jan Moksnes*
D u r i n g the 1970s. large con-

crete structures for the petroleum Since 1971, 15 concrete gravity platforms have been built for the North Sea oil
industry in the North Sea have fields. These very large structures are designed and built according to rigorous
specifications and quality requirements. The main concrete construction proce-
been among the more spectacular dures and the corresponding quality assurance/quality control (QA/QCI programs
developments in the field of con- and results are described in this article. The concrete quality that has been ob-
crete construction. tained has been very acceptable and the service records so far are satisfactory.
So far, a total of 15 concrete Keywords: concrete construction; offshore structures: quality control.
platforms have been ordered for
the North Sea, each designed and
built to endure, for 30 years or Typical features of each project Quality assurance
more, a very hostile marine envi- are large-scale slipforming, exten- QA in a broad sense embraces
ronment in water depths ranging sive prestressing, short construc- all systematic efforts which are
from 230-492 f t (70-150 m).' tion periods, and very stringent necessary to insure that quality is
The platforms are built partly in requirements for quality and doc- planned and obtained. Concrete
a dry dock and partly in a floating umentation. The quality require- offshore platforms are large inte-
position (Fig. 1). Typical dimen- ments for offshore concrete struc- grated structures incorporating
sions are a bottom diameter of tures are today given in a number complex mechanical systems and
295-459 ft (90-140 m), a height of of national and international stan- facilities for drilling, production,
295-558 ft (90-170 m), and concrete dards and codes of practi~e.'.~ and accommodation. This article
volume of 65,400-183,100 CU yd The requirements focus on addresses only QA in relation to
(50,000-140,000 ma). strength and durability. Typical the civil engineering aspects of
Fig. 2 shows the Statfjorä B factors are: high cube strengths construction in general and the
platform shortly before tow-out to [7246 psi (50 MPa) or morel; low production of concrete in particu-
the oil field in the Summer of 1981. water-cement ratios (0.40-0.45); lar.
The total height of the concrete high workability t o insure proper For a given project, the relation-
structure itself is 568 ft (173 m), of compaction; absence of cracks or ship between QAIQC, manage-
which some 443 f t (135 m) is sub- imperfections; and adequate cover ment, and production is shown in
merged at this stage of the oper- [2 in. (50 mm) or morel for rein- Fig. 3. An essential feature is &A/
ation. A list of the concrete plat- forcing steel. Briefly, the essence QC's organizational independence
forms ordered so far is given in is good quality concrete and from production.
Table 1. It should be noted that proper attention to workmanship Typical QAIQC organization is
the total concrete volume is about throughout all stages of construc- shown in Fig. 4. The team consists
1,700,000 CU yd (1,300,000 m31. tion. of senior staff and discipline in-
*QA/QC Manager, Norwegian Contractors (a joint venture of Ing. Thor Furuholmen AIS-AIS Hoyer-Ellefsen - Ing. F.
Selmer A/S). --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
Fig. 1 - Construction yard in Stavanger.
spectors covering all activities and All QA/QC activities are con- Construction procedures
shifts. The size of the team is gen- ducted according to manuals which The base of a platform genera.lly
erally 20-30 people. are subject to scrutiny and accep- consists of steel and concrete
The main activities of the &Al tance by the client and the author- skirts designed to penetrate the
QC organization in relation to civil ities. It should be emphasized that sea floor and a base slab, or a num-
works are: it is the contractor’s responsibility ber of cylindrical domes, which
-scrutiny and interpretation of to exercise the necessary quality constitute the base of the large
drawings and specifications control and provide relevant doc- storage cells.
-liaison with design and engi- umentation, while the client in- The base is constructed in a dry
neering volvement is generally limited to dock and is subdivided into con-
-evaluation of materials and observation only. venient sections which are rein-
plant
-preparation of construction pro-
cedures TABLE 1 - Concrete platforms in the North Sea.
-inspection and approval of con- Concrete volume
Designer/ Construction
struction joints, formwork, re- Platform contractor site Delivered CU yd m3
inforcement, prestressing,
Ekofisk I DorislSelmer-Hoyer Stavanger 1973 104,600 80,000
embedments, mechanical sys- Beryl A Norw.Contractors Stavanger 1975 68,000 52,000
tems, and geometry Brent B Norw.Contractors Stavanger 1975 83,700 64,000
-releasing sections of the struc- Frigg CDP 1 Howard Doris/
Norw.Contractors Andalsnes 1975 78,500 60,000
ture for concreting Brent O Norw.Contractors Stavanger 1976 89,000 68,000
-supervision of concrete produc- Frigg MP 2 Howard Doris!
tion, placing, and curing Skanska Doris Stromstad 1976 78,500 60,000
Frigg TP 1 Sea TanklMC Alpine Ardyne Point 1976 64,000 49,000
-materials testing Statfjord A Norw.Contractors Stavanger 1977 113,800 87,000
- preparation of documentation Frigg TCP 2 Norw.Contractors Andalsnes 1977 85,400 50,000
for client approval, including Dunlin A Andoc Rotterdam 1977 117,700 90,000
Brent C Sea Tank/MC Alpine Ardyne Point 1978 137,300 105,000
“as-built” drawings Cormorant A Sea Tank/MC Alpine Ardyne Point 1978 157,000 120,000
The above list demonstrates the Ninian Central Howard Doris Loch Kishorn 1978 183,000 140,000
close relationship to engineering Statfjord B Norw.Contractors Stavanger 1981 183,000 140,000
Statfjord C Norw.Contractors Stavanger (1984) 170,000 130,000
and production which is essential
Sum = 1,700,000 1,300,000
to obtain maximum benefit.
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
92
~
A C I COflP*:Lb
_ ~
** m
_
Ob62949 0501854 7
~
m
forced, concreted, and prestressed
in a repetitive sequence. Each ac-
tivity is inspected, approved, and
documented. The most difficult
construction involves areas with
dense reinforcement, the prepara-
tion of large areas of construction
joints (laitance removal by surface
retarder and water jetting), grout-
ing of long prestressing cables [up
to 558 (170 m) in length], and the
installation of complex mechanical
systems.
The slipforming of the main cais-
son (or the cylindrical storage
cells) is a more spectacular opera-
tion. This is done in a floating po-
sition and, in the case of Statfjord
B, involved the construction of 24,
75 f t (23 m) diameter cells slip-
formed as one unit. The total
length of the slipform was 4298 f t
(1310 m) and a total of 73,241 CU yd
(56,000 m3) of concrete was pro-
duced over a period of 28 days.
The slipform climbed at an aver-
age rate of 4.6 f t (1.4 m) per day.
The concrete was produced on
three floating batch plants moored
alongside the structure, with a
peak production rate of 1308 CU yd
(1000 m3) in an 8-hr shift. These
large slipforming operations re-
quire careful control of the con-
crete setting time to suit the pro-
duction rate and insure complete Fig. 2 - Statfjord B ready for tow-out in July 1981.
absence of cold joints or lifting
cracks, and are performed accord-
ing to detailed and approved pro-
cedures. During these operations,
QA/QC is particularly concerned
with the continuous supply o£ ac-
ceptable materials and relevant
production and contingency pro-
cedures.
Following the closing of the up-
per domes on the storage cells, an-
7
other spectacular operation is the
slipforming of the shafts support-
ing the deck. On Statfjord B the
four shafts of varying wall thick-
ness L2.1-3.3 ft (0.65-1.0 m)] and di-
ameter [39-72 ft (12-22 m)] were
slipformed together to their full
height of 361 ft (110 m) in 44 days:
Le., at an average rate of 8.2 f t (2.5
I
I
I
I
I
m) per day. In addition to the plac-
ing of some 20,926 CU yd (16,000
m3) of concrete and 4500 tons of
reinforcing steel, 648 vertical pre- Fig. 3 - Project organizationd chart, --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
QUALITY ASSURANCE
~-
A C 1 COflP*i<Lb ** 0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0501855 9 13
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I 1
PRL~uciiun
I
I I Civil Mechanical
PROOUCTIOli
MECH
I Construction procedures
II CIVILp I
,, , , , , ,
I Mix design I I
I I
Lb CONC. TECHN.
L
I I
I
R 91 10.1 11.1 121 I 131 141

CONCR. PRESTRESS, REINFORCEM. GEOMETRY CORROSION NOT INSPECTION
PRODUCTION GROUTING EMBEOM. AS BUILT PROTEC. MAT. TESTING
I 8 PLACING
REPAIRS
-Steel Struct.
- Equipm
- Elec.
-1nitr.
Fig. 4 - QA/QC organizational chart.
stressing cables, 5000 embedment used. Each operation, through cessfully grouted by these meth-
plates, and numerous sleeves, ducting, threading, stressing, ods.
manholes, and pipelines were ac- grouting and sealing, is carefully Prior to grouting, the force in
curately installed. The geometry planned and monitored. Grouting each cable is checked by elonga-
of the shafts was critical. To main- is possibly the most critical single tion measurements, then the ac-
tain tight tolerances, two laser operation, and a satisfactory result tual results are compared to the-
beams accurately controlled the is completely dependent upon oretical values. Friction coeffi-
vertical alignment. sound procedures and skilled cients and elastic properties are
These figures from the Statfjord workmanship. Long vertical cables verified by special test programs.
B project further illustrate the a r e particularly vulnerable to
magnitude of construction: con- Concrete technology
problems. Procedures employing
crete volume - 183,100 C U yd special low-bleed grouts, extended Concrete mix proportions play
(140,000 m3); reinforcing steel - ducts to permit bleeding and allow an important role in these projects
37,000 tons; prestressing steel - settlement to take place above the due to the demanding strengths,
3000 tons. outlet, and special topping-up tech- durability, and workability re-
Prestressing and grouting are niques are used to insure complete quirements, the magnitude of the
also major activities for offshore protection of the cables and an- structures, and the rate of con-
concrete platforms. Horizontal, chorages. Vertical cables up to 515 struction.
vertical, and hooped cables are all ft (157 m) in length have been suc- Strengths in the order of 8700
psi (60 MPa) are not always easily
TABLE 2 - Cement properties achieved with natural aggregates
and ordinary portland cement
Cement
(OPC), bearing in mind that high
Property SP-30 SP 30 4A
workabilities [slump > 7.9 in. (200
fineness (Blaine) 3000 3100 mm)] are often required. Further-
setting time, min. initial 135 135
final 180 200
more, curing temperatures and
compr. strength psi (MPa) 3 day 4348 (30) 3623 (25) thermal gradients must be re-
7 day 5362 (37) 5072 (35) stricted to avoid cracks. The most
28 day 6667 (46) 7826 (54)
mineral comp.% C2S 18 25
efficient means of reducing curing
c3s 55 52 temperatures is to use low cement
C3A 8 5.5 content. For durability reasons a
CdAF 9 9
low water-cement ratio is desir-
94
A C 1 COMP*36
~
** m 0 6 6 2 î L i î 0503856 O m
able: 0.40 is commonly recom-
mended. 70
I
STATFJORD A
Determining the right mix is a CONCRETE GRADE C 50
process of selecting suitable and
compatible constituents and find-
ing the optimum balance of cement
content for strength, temperature,
and water-cement ratio. Admix-
tures become essential in this pro-
cess: water reducers, workability
agents, set retarders. (for slipform-
ing), and air entrainers (splash
zone).
With one possible exception,
OPC has been used for all t h e
North Sea platforms. Properties of
the cement adopted in Norway are
given in Table 2. Typical cement
contents have been 25-28 lb/cu f t
(400-450 kg/m3). In one instance
(Ninian Central) flyash was used
as partial replacement of the ce-
ment (in a ratio of 1 part flyash: 4
parts cement). One interesting re-
cent development in Norway is the
production of a "tailor-made" ce-
ment (SP30-4A) to provide im- Fig. 5 - Histogram of 28-day cube strengths.
proved strength and slightly re-
duced heat of hydration.
Natural aggregates from glacio- 1.1
fluvial deposits have been used for
all t h e Norwegian projects. In
some instances strengths in excess 1.3
of 7246 psi (50 MPa) have proved
to be near the "ceiling" for these
aggregates. In one such example a 1.2
coarse sand (FM = 4.1) was found

to yield a 10 percent increase in
1.1
strength by simply mixing into the
stockpiles 8 percent of a fine-
grained sand, modifying the FM to 1.0
3.8. For the current Statfjord C
project in Stavanger, the sand is v)
œ
split into 8 fractions and recom- o 0.9
l-
bined at the quarry to the desired u
IUL
grading, thus giving optimal
w 0.8
strength and uniform and predict- a
4
able workability.
An estimated 1.3-1.6 million gal. 0.7
(5-6 million liters) of admixtures
have gone into the platforms built
so far. Prior to 1978, water-reduc- O. 6
ing admixtures of the lignosulfon-

ate (LP) type were used in dosages
0.5
of 0.25-1.5 percent by weight of
the cement. One sometimes-unde-
sirable side effect in high dosages O. L
3D 70 28 D 9OD 18OD 1YR 2YR
was a significant retardation of the
AGE
setting time. A t other times this
effect was used deliberately to
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Fig. 6 - Age factors for different cementsand platfor&
QUALITY ASSURANCE
95
A C 1 COMP*Lb ** m 0662949 0503857 2 m
60 -
STATFJORD B -
SHAFTS
CONCRETE C 5 5
- CEMENT 400 kg/m3

50
BETOKEM P A I B I 5 1 / m 3
O
u
u
. 40
œ
I3
RINGBEAM, ELEV. 175, MAY 1980
ù
0- CENTRE OF BEAM 1500 x 2300
W
L 30 -
r
W
c
z SHAFTS, ELEV. 60.8, JAN.1900
w 20 -
K? 4 1000
œ
10
DAYS
TIME SINCE PLACING OF CONCRETE
Fig. 7 - Curing temperatures.
control the setting time of the con- For Statfjord E, an air content of concrete placing, compacting, and
crete during slipforming. 3-4 percent [and a spacing factor of curing.
The development of superplas- 0.008 in. (0.20 mm)] was obtained The North Sea platform projects
ticizers has enabled further refine- for the splash zone by using su- have demonstrated that concrete
ments to be made to mix propor- perplasticizer, vinsol resin, and a can be produced on site over long
tioning. A superplasticizer used modified batching sequence which periods of time to exceptionally
for Statfjord B gave improved per- delayed the entry of the super- high standards of quality and uni-
formance and strength, as shown plasticizer . formity, if the following require-
by the relative values in Table 3. Extensive trials were conducted ments are met:
For maximum effect, the batch- on site prior to adopting these new 1. high-quality constituent ma-
ing sequence was modified so that products and constitute essential terials
the superplasticizers entered the steps in the QA program. 2, efficient batching plants
mixing pan after the water. 3. qualified operators
Air entrainment has been a Concrete quality control 4. adequate supervision
problem on several projects due to Elaborate quality control pro- The most important results of
the inevitable strength loss and grams have been implemented on the concrete quality control for six
the high workabilities required. all the platform projects. These platforms built at the contractor’s
The added strength margin pro- have consisted of evaluation and yard in Stavanger are shown in
vided by the superplasticizers has routine testing of all the concrete Table 4. Similar results have been
eliminated some of these prob- constituents, continuous supervi- obtained a t other yards.
lems, but stable air in a superplas- sion at the batching plant, and lab- A typical histogram and normal
ticized mix is not easily achieved. oratory testing of the fresh and distribution curve (for t h e
hardened concrete. The quality Statfjord A 28-day cube results) is
control is the responsibility of the shown in Fig. 5. The values of
TABLE 3 -
Relative effect contractor and is conducted in ac- standard deviation are all accept-
of admixtures on concrete cordance with procedures or man- able and indicate a very uniform
properties uals approved by the client. production.
Admixture Strength w / c ratio Workmanship is, of course, a Tests have also been done at
none 100% 100% major factor governing concrete ages other than 28 days. Some re-
lignosulphonates 110% 94% quality. Quality control, therefore, sults are shown in Fig. 6 and sug-
superplasticizers 120-125% 88%
extends into the supervision of the
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`--- gest strength increases of 20-30
96
TABLE 4 - Q/C results from six platform projects
No. Mean 28-day Standard ~
Platform of tests strength psi (MPa) deviation psi (MPa)

Ekofisk I 429 7971 (55.0) 710 (4.9)
Beryl A 552 8116 (56.0) 594 (4.1)
Brent B 536 7826 (54.0) 565 (3.9)
Brent D 362 7986 (55.1) 420 (2.9)
Statfjord A 493 7957 (54.9) 464 (3.2)
Statfjord B
cell walls 287 9058 (62.5) 565 (3.91
shafts 137 9594 (66.2) 551 (3.8)
percent at 2 years. rule of thumb, temperature in- provements in project manage-

The in situ strength of the con- creases of 50-54 F (10-12 C) per 220 ment, construction procedures,
crete has, from time to time, been lb (100 kg) of cement have been and concrete technology.
tested by drilled-out cores. For the found to apply to large place- The end results of acceptable
slipformed walls where the con- ments. and uniform quality and timely de-
crete is placed in lifts which are vi- All other materials such as the livery and completion demonstrate
brated and revibrated into the reinforcing steel, prestressing that quality assurance is a valu-
subsequent lift by means of high- steel, grout, and cast-in-place able aid to the successful construc-
frequency poker vibrators, the ra- items are also subject to detailed tion of concrete platforms.
tio of core strength t o cube test programs. The geometry of Studies are now in progress to
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
strength has been found t o be the structure is carefully moni- extend the field for concrete plat-
very close to 1.0. tored and recorded in “as-built’’ forms into deeper and more re-
Revibration of the concrete is a dossiers. mote waters. O
technique which is also exten- The above comments relate to
sively applied to slabs to prevent production. It should be pointed
surface cracks due t o plastic out that extensive &A programs References
deformations. also apply to design and engineer- 1. Moksnes, Jan, “Concrete in Off-
The curing temperatures of the ing where independent review and shore Structures,” Concrete Struc-
concrete are regularly monitored verification procedures are imple- tures, Tapir Publishers, Trondheim,
on account of the stringent limi- mented both by the contractor and 1978, pp. 163-176.
tations imposed. For Statfjord C, the client. 2. “Recommendations for the Design
these were a maximum of 158 F and Construction of C o n c r e t e S e a
(70 C) and a maximum difference Conclusion Structures,” 3rd Edition, Federation
of 86 F (30 C) per 11.8 in. (300 mm) Quality assurance is an impor- Internationale de la Precontrainte,
Wexham Springs, 1977, 59 pp.
of thickness. tant aspect of the platform proj-
3. AC1 Committee 357, “Guide for
Some recorded temperature ects and one which the contractor the Design and Construction of Fixed
curves are shown in Fig. 7 and is obliged to perform and docu- Offshore Concrete Structures,’‘ (AC1
demonstrate the difference be- ment to the approval of the client 357R-78,) American Concrete Insti-
tween a slipformed member and a and the authorities. The require- tute, Detroit, 1978, 27 pp.
permanent shutter which insulates ments in this respect far surpass
the concrete. Maximum tempera- those which most civil engineering
tures have rarely exceeded 131 F contractors were accustomed to This article was based on material presented a t
(55 Cl in slipformed walls and 149 prior to the North Sea projects, the AC1 Convention, Quebec City, Canada. It has
been reviewed according to Institute publication
F (65 C) in large placements. As a and have led to noticeable im- policies.
Jan Moksnes is quality assurance

manager with Norwegian Contractors,
Stavanger, Norway. He has been in-
volved in the construction of North
Sea concrete platforms since 1971 and
has been responsible for concrete tech-
nology and quality control on all 9 con-
crete platforms built so far in Norway.
He is a member of the FIP Commis-
sion on Concrete Sea Structures.
QUALITY ASSURANCE
97
AC
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
98
Copyright American Concrete Institute COMPILATION
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

. A C 1 COMP*3b Y* m 0bb2949 0 5 0 3 8 6 3 4 m
NOTES
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1O0
_ = ..
I - -
..
-
Quality Assurance in Concrete Constructi
The AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE
was founded in 1'905 as a nonprofit membership organization dedicated to

public service and to representing user interests in the field of coricrete. It
gathers and distributes information on the improvement of design, construc-
tion, and maintenance of concrete products and structures. The work of the
Institute is done by individual tnembers and by volunteer committees.
The committees, as well as the Institute as a whole, operate under a
consensus format, which assures all members the right to have their views
considered. Committee activities include the development of building codes
and specification standards; analysis of research and developtment results;
presentation of construction and repair techniques; and education.
Anyone interested in the activities of the Institute is encouraged to seek
mernberchip. There are no educational or eniployment requirenietits. Eri-
gineers, architects, scientists, constructors, and representatives from a va-
riety of companies and organizations form the Institute membership.
All members are eligible arid etiesuraged to participate in committee ac-
tivities. that relate to their specific areas of interest. Membership information,
a publications catalog, and listings of educational activities are available.
american concrete institute

BOX 19160,REDFQRD STATION
DETROIT, MICHIGAN 48219
--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


Quality Assurance in Concrete Construction

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Quality Assurance in Concrete Construction

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

--```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Copyright American Concrete Institute

QUALITY ASSURANCE --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

The AC1 Compilation Series offers an opportunity to gather together

the sufficiency of quality in them. It has been suggested that such

AP”9EROCAK COPJCRETE UPJST!TUTE

nite number of alternatives can be

Selecting Relevant selected. Thus the proper levels of

Quality As I said, what is wanted in any

vocating an infinite number of dif-

Guidelines for Practical and Realistic Cracking in Concrete, SP-20, Ameri-

THE SMALL BOOK THAT SAVES IN A

Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSURANCE 19

and ready mixed concrete produc-

reliability and performance of sonnel. It would be interesting to

Copyright American Concrete Institute

SURFACE CHLORIDE LEVEL

The action will depend very operating manual is provided in

SP-4, FORMWORK FOR GONtRETE

AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

W henever the construction

Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSU RANCE 29

Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSURANCE 31

You can make money with

P r o p e r l y organized, a quality Costs of quality construction Testing incoming materials,

American Concrmt. Institute

An abstract of the Committee 121 report

Quality Assurance Systems

projects which vary in size, com- viduals and establishing a QA sys-

Calculations should be docu- TABLE 2-Important aspects of a quality assurance program

QUALITY ASSU RANCE

Through cooperation, constructive changes in

T he ultimate goal of a qual-

Statistical quality control --```,,`,`,`,`,,```,``,`````,,,,-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Properly engineered concrete is

Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSURANCE 43

and bonus clauses. In discussing control of materials and workman-

need for a new ‘ktandard practice for tests.

mandatory guidance on each of the

“Generaliy, written product control requirements me com-

fications. Involvement by manage- “A uniform specification doc-

pletely eliminated, but can be re- -

the cost of reducing variability be- f

BE PREPARED FOR FIELD AC1 references cover concrete admixtures;

American Concrete Institute

designer must assure himself of the basis on which

Inspection and Tests

Roger E. Wilson, Chairman Claude E. Jaycox,* Secretary

Edward A. Abdun-Nur Robert L. Henry Ralph O. Lane James L. Trujillo

This report provides recommended minimum requirements

QUALITY ASSU RANCE

Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSURANCE 61

Qualitv Control and Accentance

The quality control and acceptance

Field test of concrete slump. Adjusting of slump during field inspection.

direction. approved before the start of con-

A C 1 COMP*KLb 8% W Ob62949 05OLB2b 2 ~

plant when required by specifica- Records

mediately to those persons desig-

Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITYASSURANCE 65

Copyright American Concrete Institute QUALITY ASSU RANCE 69

- 1.7 0.66 0.55 0.45 0.36 0.27 0.19 0.12 O.OR

When the contractor consis-