What are Lichtenberg Figures, and how do we create them?

(Last updated 07/20/09)

Doubly Irradiated "Windblown Lightning" Sculpture

This Captured Lightning® sculpture was created by irradiating a block of clear acrylic with a beam
of electrons from a 5 million volt particle accelerator. The electron beam irradiated the left side,
the specimen was then rotated 180 degrees, and was irradiated once more on the opposite side.
This created two independent layers of electrical charge deep inside the specimen. The rightmost
charge layer was then manually discharged, creating a miniature "lightning storm" within the
layer above. Additional electrical discharges then grew between the right and left charge
layers, forming a beautiful 3D discharge pattern. This sculpture was lit from below by blue
light emitting diodes (LED's). Unlike common, low resolution laser crystal art, each of our
Captured Lightning® sculptures contain a unique, and incredibly detailed, natural fractal
discharge pattern. No two sculptures are identical. As they branch, the branching discharge
channels become increasingly finer and hairlike, ultimately disappearing at the tips. The
smallest discharges are thought to extend to the molecular level.
(Actual size: 3" x 3" x 2")
What Are Lichtenberg figures?
The scientific name for our Captured Lightning® sculptures are "Lichtenberg Figures". Lichtenberg
figures are branching, tree-like or fern-like patterns that are created by high voltage discharges on the
surface of, or within, electrical insulating materials (dielectrics). The first Lichtenberg figures were actually
2-dimensional patterns formed in dust on the surface of charged insulating plates in the laboratory of
their discoverer, German physicist Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (1742-1799. Professor Lichtenberg
made this observation in the late 1700's, demonstrating the phenomenon to his physics students and peers.
He reported his findings in his memoir: Super nova methodo naturam ac motum fluidi electrici
investigandi (Göttinger Novi Commentarii, Göttingen, 1777). The basic principles involved in the
formation of these electrostatic figures later evolved to become modern xerography and the science of
plasma physics. Lichtenberg used electrostatic devices to charge the surfaces of various insulating
materials such as resin, glass, or ebonite. He then sprinkled a mixture of finely powdered sulfur and red
lead (lead tetroxide) onto the surface. The powdered sulfur was attracted to the positively charged regions
and the red lead to negative regions, thus making the previously hidden regions of charge clearly visible.

Lichtenberg observed that the shapes of the positively and negatively charged figures were
significantly different. Positive figures tended to be star-like with long branches, while negative figures
tend to be shorter, and round or fan-like. By carefully pressing a piece of paper onto the dusted surface, he
was able to transfer these image onto the paper, demonstrating what was later to become the process
of Xerography. Drawings of positive and negative figures captured by Dr. Lichtenberg are shown below.

Positive Lichtenberg figure Negative Lichtenberg figure

Notable later researchers included Gaston Planté (mid 1850's), French artist and scientist Etienne
Leopold Trouvelot and Thomas Burton Kinraide (late 1800's), Dr. Carl Edward Magnusson, and Dr.
Arthur Von Hippel (1930's+). These later researchers used photographic film to directly capture the
light emitted by positive or negative high voltage discharges along dielectric surfaces. Dr. Von
Hippel discovered that Lichtenberg figures were actually created through complex interactions
between ionized gas (corona or electrical spark discharges) and the dielectric surface below. It was also
found that increasing the applied voltage or reducing the surrounding gas pressure caused the length of
the figures to increase. This property was used in klydonographs, special recording instruments
that photographically recorded the size and shape of Lichtenberg figures that appeared during
abnormal electrical surges on power lines. Klydonographs allowed lightning researchers and power
system designers to estimate the peak voltage and polarity of abnormal high voltage transients caused
when lightning struck power lines. A schematic diagram of the main parts of a klydonograph is shown on
the leftmost drawing below, along with examples of "klydonograms" from equal magnitude positive
and negative high voltage transients.
 Schematic view of a klydonograph showing the position of the From W.W. Lewis, "The Protection of Transmission Systems
photographic film and HV electrode. Light from high voltage Against Lightning", John Wiley & Sons, 1950
discharges creates a permanent photographic record of the event.

Lichtenberg figures are now known to occur during various electrical breakdown processes within most
gases, insulating liquids, and solid dielectrics. Lichtenberg figures can be created very quickly (tens
of nanoseconds) when dielectrics are heavily overstressed, or they can grow very slowly , through a series
of low energy partial discharges, evolving into partially conductive surface patterns or 3D "electrical trees".
Electrical trees often form on contaminated insulator surfaces, within dielectrics due to internal defects
or voids, or at points where an insulator has been physically damaged, and they can eventually cause
a flashover and electrical failure of the insulating material.

The first report of Lichtenberg figures being created inside clear plastic by the direct injection of electrons
was from physicists Arno Brasch and Fritz Lange in the late 1940's. Electrons are tiny, negatively
charged particles that orbit the nucleus of the atoms that make up all condensed matter. At their laboratory
at AEG (Berlin, Germany), they used a 2.4 million volt Marx Generator to provide high energy pulses to
drive an electron beam accelerator. An article about their research and the accelerator (which they called
a "Capacitron") appeared in the March 10, 1947 issue of LIFE Magazine. The Capacitron could deliver
a pulsed electron beam with a current of up to 100,000 amperes. The glowing region of ionized air created
by the beam of electrons resembled a bluish-violet rocket flame. A complete set of previously
unpublished pictures, including Lichtenberg figures inside a clear block of plastic, has recently
become available online.

Pioneering research on the detailed behavior of charge storage and movement within dielectrics was
first performed by Dr. Bernhard Gross in the early 1950's. Dr. Gross confirmed that internal
Lichtenberg figures could be created within a variety of polymers and glasses by injecting them with
high energy electrons using a linear accelerator (LINAC). The techniques that we use to make our
Lichtenberg figures build upon the theoretical work and techniques developed by Gross, Brasch, and
Lange. The resulting figures are sometimes called electrical trees, electron trees, beam trees, or spark
trees. We call ours Captured Lightning® sculptures.

How do we create our Captured Lightning® sculptures?

We have continued to develop and refine irradiation and material processes to create a truly unique line of
2D and 3D sculptures. We start with specially cut and polished specimens of a clear
polymer, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). This material is commonly known as acrylic, or by various
trade names such as Lucite, Plexiglas, or Perspex. PMMA has a unique combination of optical clarity
and superior electrical and mechanical properties. Although other clear polymers, such as polycarbonate
(PC), polystyrene (PS) , polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) will also work
to varying degrees, unfortunately most of these materials form dark gray or blackish trees instead of
the sparkling mirror-like fractures seen within acrylic.

We create our sculptures by injecting specimens with high velocity electrons using high power
particle accelerators. The energy of the accelerated electrons is measured in millions of electron Volts
(or MeV). The LINAC that we use accelerates electrons to a kinetic energy of between three and five
MeV. At these energies, electrons leaving the accelerator are traveling at relativistic velocities -
between 98.5% and 99.6% of the speed of light.

When a specimen is irradiated, relativistic electrons are driven deep inside. Penetration depth is determined
by the initial energy of the electron beam, the material's dielectric properties, and its atomic density.
The higher the initial electron beam energy, the deeper the electrons will penetrate. As the specimen
is irradiated, huge numbers of electrons accumulate inside, creating a cloud-like layer of excess
negative electrical charge called a space charge. Since acrylic is an excellent dielectric, the injected
electrons cannot escape. They accumulate under continued irradiation, forming a plane of negative
space charge inside the specimen. By carefully changing the orientation of the specimens and passing
them through the beam in two or more passes, or by rotating them as they are irradiated, complex
3-dimensional space charge regions can be produced.

As the space charge grows, the resulting electrical field also increases. Eventually, the immense
electrical stress overcomes the dielectric strength of the acrylic, and some of the chemical bonds that hold
the acrylic molecules together are ripped apart. This strips away additional free electrons (a process
called ionization). These newly-freed electrons are also accelerated by the electric field, ionizing even
more acrylic molecules, and creating additional free electrons in a runaway process. Within billionths of
a second, electrically conductive channels form within the acrylic as the material suddenly
undergoes dielectric breakdown. As breakdown occurs, the previously trapped charge suddenly rushes
out, accompanied by a loud bang(!), and thousands of electrically conductive branches feed current into
a main "lightning bolt" that exits the acrylic with a brilliant flash. Although pictures of the discharge seem
to suggest that we are injecting high voltage into the block, in reality we are removing the high voltage
charge that was previously trapped within the block. The dielectric breakdown process occurs within
an incredibly short amount of time. For example, the electrical discharge within a 2 inch square
specimens may only last for less than 60 billionths of a second! The following image shows a 4 inch
square specimen as it was being discharged:

(Photo courtesy of Theodore Gray)

The miniature lightning bolts leave their fingerprints in the acrylic, forming a complex, branching,
and permanent "lightning fossil" within. The current within the electrical discharge is typically hundreds,
or even thousands, of amperes. The hot plasma within the discharge causes the acrylic to melt and
fracture along each path, and higher current "roots" may even char the acrylic slightly. The exit point of
the discharge appears as a small crater on the surface of the acrylic. The discharge point is typically located
at a surface defect, or where a point of external mechanical stress has weakened the dielectric. The
defect concentrates the electric field, creating a weak link where the breakdown process can begin.
Although we inject a huge amount of negative charge into our specimens, the electrical breakdown
process actually originates from points which are more electrically positive (versus the space charge), so
our Captured Lightning® sculptures are actually "positive" Lichtenberg figures!

Actual discharge current measurements... and a paradox

During our 2007 production run, we were able to capture the shape of the current waveform as we
discharged a number of 4" x 4" x 3/4" specimens (similar to the specimen above). A special holding
fixture with copper foil plates made physical contact with the large surfaces of the charged acrylic
specimen. A heavily insulated wire connected the pair of foil plates to a sharp tool which was used
to discharge the specimen. This wire was also passed through the center of an Ion Physics 50 kA
wideband current transformer (CT). The CT transformed the discharge current pulse that flowed through
the wire into a voltage pulse that could be captured and stored within a high speed Tektronix digital
storage oscilloscope. The digitized waveform data was subsequently analyzed using an Excel spreadsheet
in order to recreate the following waveform.

We found that, for 4" x 4" specimens, the discharge lasted for only 120 billionths of a second. For
the specimen shown below, the peak current was almost 600 amperes, and consisted of four discrete
current peaks. Other specimens showed between three and seven peaks. This suggests that the electrical
trees may have propagated via a series of advancing waves, where each current peak reflected a surge
of newly conducting channels ("streamers" and "leaders"). New channels apparently blasted their way
into previously untapped reservoirs of charge within the acrylic, briefly paused, then surged again, etc.
The average discharge velocity was between 8.5 x 105 and 1.3 x 106 meters/second (526 and 790
miles/second, or around 0.3% the speed of light). However, pauses between successive current surges
suggest that the peak discharge velocity during growth phases was significantly faster. Surprisingly,
the average velocity within the specimen was actually 10-100 times faster than the velocity of
positive lightning leaders in air. This is thought to be due to the extremely high electrical field (estimated to
be ~10-20 million volts/cm) at the tips of the propagating discharges within the acrylic.

However, the high streamer velocity creates a paradox, since it is over 800 times the speed of sound
within PMMA. This is inconsistent with Griffith's theory of crack propagation within solids, which
predicts that the maximum crack propagation speed within a solid is limited to the Rayleigh speed (i.e.,
the speed of sound) or 1.614 km/second for PMMA. The current waveform clearly demonstrates that
the chains of cracks and gas channels developed at a speed that was almost three orders of magnitude
faster than it should be from classical materials theory. We suspect that that potential energy (from the
intense internal electrical field) causes "electronic breakdown" of the PMMA, generating a "detonation
wave" of microcracks that propagates through the charge layer at hypersonic speed. This is an area ripe
for future research. A Russian researcher, Yu N Vershinin, has termed the process of energy exchange between
the electrical field and propagating fractures as "electronic detonation". Not surprisingly, the discharge process
also generates a powerful shockwave (a loud BANG!), and a brilliant, miniature, blue-white "lightning" flash.

After the main discharge, there are often hundreds of smaller secondary electrical discharges as small
pockets of stranded charge redistribute themselves within the specimen. Larger figures often sparkle
and sizzle for tens of seconds afterwards, making a sound similar to frying bacon, and intermittent
sparking has been observed up to 30 minutes later. These smaller discharges often sting our fingers
when partially discharged specimens are handled. Click on the following image to see some high
resolution video taken during our November, 2007 production run showing primary and
secondary discharges.
 (Photo and video courtesy of Mike Walker and Theodore Gray)
Click on the Above image to see a video clip
of many Lichtenberg figures being discharged

Video clip of a huge 18" Lichtenberg figure being created:

Following is another video clip of an 18" x 18" x 1" specimen being discharged during our 2005
production run. Before discharging, the estimated potential of the internal charge plane was 2.2 million
volts. Because of it's size, this specimen had considerably more stored electrostatic energy, and the
discharge was quite loud and extremely bright! The actual discharge, although very brief, saturated the
video camera image sensor. A multitude of secondary discharges can also be observed after the
main discharge. (Video courtesy of Terry Blake. Specimen was owned, and discharged, by Jeff Larson.)

The rounded, crystalline flakes that make up the Lichtenberg Figure are actually chains of tiny
conchoidal fractures. These shell-shaped fractures are characteristic of the way noncrystalline
(amorphous) materials fracture when stressed beyond their breaking point. Since these tiny fractures
reflect light like tiny mirrors, illuminating the figures through the edges causes the entire figure to
glow brilliantly with the reflected color(s) of the external light source.

Lichtenberg figures are fractals

Lichtenberg figures exhibit branching patterns which tend to look similar at various scales of
magnification. This self-similar property suggests that Lichtenberg figures can be modeled using a branch
of mathematics called Fractal Geometry. Self similarity is a key property of fractals. Our Lichtenberg
Figures show a range of fractal patterns depending upon the magnitude of charge injected into the acrylic
and how and when the specimens is discharged. Branching figures are technically called "dendritic"
or "arborescent" (tree-like). If a large amount of electrical charge is injected into the specimens and it is
then immediately discharged, a very dense dendritic discharge is created, such as the leftmost figure
below. These dense discharges are quite similar in appearance to ferns or moss agate. If the level of charge
is reduced and the specimen manually discharged, a more classical, lightning-like or tree-like discharge
results as the center example below. If premature breakdown occurs as we are actively irradiating a
specimen, tangled "chaotic" discharges occur. Some specimens show fascinating and complex
combinations of these basic patterns.

(Click for larger image)

(Click for larger image) (Click for larger image)
Chaotic Discharges
Densely Dendritic Discharges Dendritic Discharges (prematurely discharged
(higher charge density) (lower charge density) while being irradiated)

Self similarity can easily be seen in the following sequence of zooms from a 12" x 12" Lichtenberg
Figure with nominal dendritic discharges. The branches become finer and hairlike, ultimately
disappearing. Similar fractal patterns are seen in aerial views of some rivers and their tributaries,
branching tree limbs, and the arteries, veins, and capillaries within your body.

It has recently been discovered that Lichtenberg figures can be modeled using a process called
"Diffusion Limited Aggregation" or DLA. A useful macroscopic model that combines an electric field
with DLA is called the Dielectric Breakdown Model or DBM. The dielectric breakdown model appears
to describe the branching growth that characterize the dielectric breakdown process within solids, liquids,
and gases.

Solarization, fluorescence, and birefringence:

During irradiation, the acrylic glows a brilliant blue-white color. Although radiation chemistry studies
suggest that this may be a combination of luminescence or Cherenkov radiation, the reason(s) are not
fully understood. You may also notice that our specimens have a discharge-free zone along all of the
outside edges. This is because acrylic is not a perfect insulator, so some of the internal charge "leaks away"
to the outside surfaces. This reduces the amount of stored charge along the perimeter to the point where
the electrical field is no longer sufficient to break down the acrylic.

You may also notice that a portion of the acrylic has an amber tint - this is called solarization. Solarization
is thought to be caused by the formation of structural changes and defects through electron collisions,
high energy x-rays, and the temporary trapping of ionic charges within the molecular structure of the
PMMA. Solarization usually occurs within the region between the surface that was irradiated by the
electron beam and the discharge layer. During irradiation, electrons are initially traveling at about 99% of
the speed of light. As they penetrate the specimen, they collide with acrylic molecules, rapidly coming to
a stop within a fraction of an inch. The electrons in the beam have a tremendous amount of kinetic energy,
and as they suddenly brake to a stop, they release this energy in the form of heat and very powerful
X-radiation. As the acrylic absorbs electrons and x-rays, various physical and chemical reactions occur
that may alter its physical and optical properties. Although the specific causes of solarization are not
fully understood, there is evidence that irradiation creates unstable, or longer-lived "metastable",
compounds that preferentially absorb light at the blue end of the spectrum (250 - 400 nm). This causes
some or all of the clear PMMA to turn green, brown, or amber. Some electrons may become trapped
for months, perhaps years, afterwards, creating color centers which may also contribute to the solarization.

Many irradiated specimens initially turn a bright lime green color which, over a period of minutes to
hours, fades to amber. The solarized region may take months, or even years, to fade away. Fading can
be accelerated by gently heating the block in the presence of oxygen, or by leaving the specimen in
sunlight for an extended period of time. As oxygen diffuses into the PMMA from the outside and
the discharge layer, it bleaches the solarized region, causing the solarized layer to gradually become
thinner and thinner, eventually disappearing altogether. Most older Lichtenberg figures become
completely bleached. Although they no longer show any solarization, some specimens may show
slight residual "fogging" from irradiation damage. Some specimens exhibit little initial solarization, while
a small number of specimens appear to permanently retain their amber color. Curiously, it has been found
that fully charged specimens will retain their green color for many days when kept at dry ice
temperatures. These specimens then change to amber after being discharged. There are clearly
several different processes that are associated with solarization.

Recently, it has also been discovered that the solarization layer may sometimes be fluorescent. An
amateur scientist from New Zealand, Daniel Rutter, discovered that monochromatic light from a green
laser pointer changes color when passed through the solarized layer of a Lichtenberg figure. More recently,
we discovered that the light from a near-ultraviolet source (such as a Blu-ray laser or even bright blue
LED's) sometimes causes the solarized region to glow with a brilliant yellow-green fluorescence. This
occurs on some specimens but not others, and as the solarization fades over time, so does the
mysterious fluorescence.

Most specimens also exhibit slight changes in refractive index near the Lichtenberg discharge region.
These behavioral differences are thought to be due to variations in the acrylic blends used by
various manufacturers, permanent irradiation-induced changes to the polymeric structure of the acrylic,
and residual mechanical stresses near the discharge fractures. Residual stresses near the Lichtenberg
figures can easily be seen as multicolored regions near the discharge plane when a sculpture is illuminated
by polarized light and then viewed through a second polarizing filter. When physically stressed,
PMMA exhibits a property called birefringence. When viewed through polarizing filters, stress-
induced birefringence causes changes in color that are related to the amount and distribution of
otherwise hidden stresses within the PMMA.

Natural Lichtenberg figures - fulgurites and lightning discharges

Occasionally, nature also creates "fossilized lightning". Called fulgurites, these are hollow and
sometimes branching tubes that are formed when the powerful electrical current from a lightning strike
creates underground discharge channels within poorly conducting sandy or sandy-clay soils. These
hollow channels were formed as the intensely hot channel from the lightning arc fused surrounding sand
and soil particles which then cooled to form a solid glassy tube. Some fulgurites also exhibit
fractal characteristics as they split into smaller diameter root-like branches at further distances from the site
of the main strike.

Lichtenberg figures, sometimes called "lightning flowers" or "skin feathering", are sometimes formed
beneath the skin of unfortunate humans who have been struck by lightning. The victim will often have one
or more reddish radiating feathery patterns that branch outward from the entry and exit points of the strike:
 (From "Lichtenberg Figures Due to a Lightning Strike" by Yves Domart, MD, and Emmanuel Garet, MD,
New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 343:1536, November 23, 2000

Medical terms for this phenomenon include arborescent lightning burn, arborescent erythema,
keraunographic markings or simply ferning patterns. Although the exact causes are subject to some
debate, they appear to be the result of damage to small capillaries under the skin, perhaps caused by the
flow of electrical current from the stroke, or by shock wave bruising from external flashovers just above
the skin. The arborescent (tree-like) reddish marks fade away over a period of hours or days. They
are recognized by forensic pathologists as clear evidence that a victim has been struck by lightning.
The patient above survived with no permanent injuries, and the lightning flowers completely faded within
two days. A small Lichtenberg figure has also been observed at the entry point where a high voltage
spark penetrated the skin of an unfortunate (but surviving) local electrical experimenter who took
an accidental "hit" from a homemade 60,000 volt Marx Generator.

A similar phenomenon is sometimes seen when lightning hits a grassy field, as in this picture where
lightning struck a flagpole, leaving this beautiful 25 foot Lichtenberg figure on the green of a golf course:

(From "Lightning and Lichtenberg Figures" by Cherington, Olson and Yarnell, Injury, Volume 34, Issue 5, May 2003)

Note how similar the above figure appears to the Lichtenberg figure within this specimen (lit from below
by blue LED's):
High voltage discharges to the surface of water can also create Lichtenberg figures. Some very
beautiful examples of both positive and negative Lichtenberg figures on water surfaces can be seen on
Dr. Colin Pounder's Lichtenberg figures web site.

Natural lightning sometimes creates transient "Lichtenberg Figures" in the sky. Air is an excellent
dielectric and, although the physical breakdown mechanisms for air and PMMA are considerably different,
the appearance of the branching discharges is quite similar. So it should not be surprising that the
branching forms of natural lightning also have fractal characteristics. This similarity can clearly be
observed during "anvil crawler" and horizontal "spider lightning". Spider lightning follows a thin,
positively charged cloud layer, and the slowly propagating discharges can crawl across the sky for 30-40
miles - literally spanning from horizon to horizon. On a much smaller scale, transient Lichtenberg
figures (often mistakenly called St. Elmo's Fire) often appear on the outer surface of cockpit windows
of airplanes as they fly within thunderstorms.

Similar branching fractal patterns also occur when thunderstorms generate electrically conductive leaders
that propagate downward from a charged cloud to the ground below. When one of these leaders connects
with an unfortunate object on the ground, a high current surge (called the return stroke) rushes back
upward through the completed path, resulting in Cloud-to-Ground (CG) lightning strike.
Exceptional examples of downward propagating positive leaders have been captured by South
Dakota lightning researcher, Tom Warner. Using high speed video imaging equipment, he was able to
capture the downward progression of leaders and the return stroke from a positive lightning bolt.
Positive lightning is a significantly rarer (and considerably more dangerous!) form of lightning than
negative lightning. The "slow motion" video (below) shows the air breaking down, forming
glowing conductive plasma paths (called leaders) that fan downward from a huge reserve of positive
charge within the cloud above. The brightly glowing tips of the positive leaders smoothly propagate,
unlike negative leaders which propagate in a series of discrete jumps (called stepped leaders). The
first descending leader to finally connect with the Earth below completes the circuit, resulting in a
powerful Positive Cloud-to-Ground (+CG) lightning discharge.

The video clip below was captured at 7200 frames/second (FPS), and the actual elapsed time for the clip
was only a little longer than three thousandths of a second. The speed of the propagating leaders was
between 3 x 104 and 6.5 x 105 meters/second. This clip even contains a single frame which captures
the beginning of the return stroke from the Earth going back up one of the leader channels. Even at
the majestic scale of natural lightning, you can clearly see similarities between the collection of
branching leaders and Lichtenberg Figures. Positive lightning also has a very long lasting "tail" of
follow-through current which typically lasts for several hundred milliseconds after the initial strike connects
to ground. The combination of long propagation distance (often many miles from the main storm), very
high current (up to 300,000 amperes), and long follow-through current make positive lightning
exceptionally dangerous. It tends to set fire or kill anything, or anyone, unfortunate enough to be in its
path. More of Tom Warner's fascinating videos can be seen on his page on YouTube.

Lichtenberg Figures can also be seen at some high energy pulsed power facilities, where deionized water
is sometimes used as a dielectric to briefly store large amounts of electrical energy. The famous photo
below is from Sandia National Laboratory's mighty Z Machine, the world's largest pulse generator. After
the completion of a high energy experiment, the water breaks down from the huge electrical stress,
becoming an electrical conductor that safely dissipates unwanted residual energy from the system.
The filamentary breakdown paths form Lichtenberg figures that dance across the water's surface. If you
look closely, you'll notice that many of the radial paths actually trace out high voltage electrical field
lines along the surface of the water. Although impressive, this display is only dissipating "left over"
energy, representing only a very small fraction (perhaps 5%) of the energy that was actually used during
the previous pulsed power experiment.

(Click for a higher resolution 840 x 554 pixel image, 561 kB)

Holding a Lichtenberg Figure is about the closest you can come to holding fossilized lightning in your hand
- Captured Lightning® is indeed an accurate description. Most of the Lichtenberg figures shown on our
web site were produced by irradiating various acrylic shapes using a 5 MeV Continuous Wave (CW)
research LINAC - a 150 kW high power electron beam accelerator called a Dynamitron. A few were
created using pulsed linear accelerators at significantly higher beam energies (10 - 15 MeV).
Lichtenberg figures are completely safe - they have been electrically discharged and have no
residual radioactivity or X-radiation. And, as with snowflakes, every Lichtenberg Figure is a one-of-a
kind treasure.

Following are a pair 3-D images that can be rotated 360 degrees so that you can fully enjoy the beauty of
our doubly-irradiated Lichtenberg figures. The irradiation process results in very complex discharges
within and between the two charge layers. Please wait for the images to completely download, then drag
your mouse to rotate the images for a full 360 degree view. (Warning: you'll need a high speed
Internet connection to view these since they are each ~6 MB files and will take quite some time to fully load.)

3D Rotatable Image
3D Rotatable Image

"Heavy Weather" "Windblown Lightning"

(Courtesy of Theodore Gray) (Courtesy of Theodore Gray)

Very few people have actually seen or held one of these rare objects, and far fewer have had the opportunity
to own one. Stoneridge Engineering is proud to be the world's most experienced provider for these
beautiful and rare treasures. We offer a wide selection of 2D and 3D figures ranging in size from affordable
2 inch specimens through museum quality figures as large as 24 inches by 36 inches. Please visit our
galleries to see the world's most beautiful Lichtenberg figures:
Gallery 1 Gallery 2 Special Eye Candy Page

Everyone is a genius at least once a year.

The real geniuses simply have their bright ideas closer together.
– G.C. Lichtenberg

Thunder is good; thunder is impressive. But it is the

lightning that does the work.
- Mark Twain

References and Further Reading:

1. Gross, Bernard, "Irradiation Effects in Plexiglas", Journal of Polymer Science, Volume 27, 1958, Issue 115, Pages 135 - 143
2. Hashishes. Yuzo, "Two Hundred Years of Lichtenberg Figures", Journal of Electrostatics, Volume 6, Issue 1 , February 1979, Pages 1-13
3. Chadwick, K. H., "The Effect of Light Exposure on the Optical Density of Irradiated Clear Polymethylmethacrylate", 1972 Phys. Med. Biol.
17, Pages 88-93
4. Chadwick, K. H., and Leenhouts, H. P., "Fading of radiation-induced optical density in polymethylmethacrylate on oxygen diffusion",
Phys. Med. Biol. 15 No 4 (October 1970), Pages 743-744
5. L. Niemeyer, L. Pietronero*, and H. J. Wiesmann, "Fractal Dimension of Dielectric Breakdown", Phys. Rev. Lett. 52, 1033–1036 (1984)
6. Gardner, Donald G., et. al., "Radiation-induced changes in the index of refraction, density, and dielectric constant of poly(methyl
methacrylate)", Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Volume 11, Issue 7, July 1967, Pages 1065-1078
7. Akishin, A.A.; Tseplyaev, L.I., "Edge effect in radiation-charge dielectric materials", Physics and Chemistry of Materials Treatment, v 31, n
1, Jan.-Feb. 1997, p 30-1. A similar paper is also contained within the book "Effects of Space Conditions on Materials", Akishin, A. I., Nova
Science Publishers, 2001, ISBN 1590330285
8. Fothergill, J.C.; Dissado, L.A.; Sweeney, P.J.J., "A discharge-avalanche theory for the propagation of electrical trees. A physical basis for
their voltage dependence", Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on, Volume 1, Issue 3 , June 1994, Pages 474 - 486
9. R. A. Galloway, T. F. Lisanti and M. R. Cleland, "A new 5 MeV –300 kW Dynamitron for radiation processing", Radiation Physics
and Chemistry, Volume 71, Issues 1-2, September-October 2004, Pages 551-553
10. Sessler, G.M.. "Charge distribution and transport in polymers", Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, IEEE Transactions on, Volume 4 , Issue
5 , Oct. 1997
Pages 614 - 628
11. Karczmarczuk, Jerzy, "Dendrites in Nature and in Computer", Foton 84/SPECIAL ISSUE, Spring 2006
12. C. M. Foust, General Electric Review: Instruments for Lightning Measurements (Includes Klydonograph and Lichtenberg Figures)
13. Watson, Alan and Dow, Julian, "Emission Processes Accompanying Megavolt Electron Irradiation of Dielectrics", Journal of Applied
Physics, December 1968, Volume 39, Issue 13, pp. 5935-5940
14. Fujimori, S., "Fractal properties of breakdowns", Properties and Applications of Dielectric Materials, 1988. Proceedings., Second
International Conference on Properties and Applications of , 12-16 Sept. 1988, Pages:519 - 522 vol.2
15. Domart, Yves, M. D., Garet, Emmanuel, M.D., "Lichtenberg Figures Due to a Lightning Strike", New England Journal of Medicine,
Volume 343:1536, November 23, 2000, Number 21, Images in Clinical Medicine
16. H. Hiraoka, "Radiation Chemistry of Poly(methacrylates)", Radiation Chemistry, March 1977
17. Brown, R. G., "Time and Temperature Dependence of Irradiation Effects in Solid Dielectrics", Journal of Applied Physics, September
1967, Volume 38, Issue 10, pp. 3904-3907
18. Yu. S. Deev, M. S. Kruglyi, V. K. Lyapidevskii and V. I. Serenkov, "Mechanism underlying the formation of dendritic or tree-like channels in
a dielectric irradiated with charged particles", Atomic Energy, Volume 29, Number 4, October, 1970
19. Ebert, Ute and Arrayas, Manuel, "Pattern Formation in Electric Discharges", p. 270 - 282 in: Coherent Structures in Complex Systems, eds.:
D. Reguera et al., Lecture Notes in Physics 567 (Springer, Berlin 2001)
20. Yu.N. Vershinin, S.V. Barakhvostov, "Electron Processes in the Pulse Breakdown of Solid Dielectrics", 3rd International Conference
on “Technical and Physical Problems in Power Engineering”, (TPE-2006), May 29-31, 2006 - Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey (detonation
theory of high field breakdown in solid dielectrics)
21. Vershinin, Yu. N., "Parameters of Electronic Detonation in Solid Dielectrics", Technical Physics, Vol. 47, No. 12, 2002, pp. 1524–
1528. Translated from Zhurnal TekhnicheskoÏ Fiziki, Vol. 72, No. 12, 2002, pp. 39–43, ISSN: 10637842
22. Theodore Gray, "Theo Gray's Mad Science: Experiments You Can Do At Home - But Probably Shouldn't", Black Dog & Leventhal
Publishers, 2009, ISBN 978-1579127916

Download a one-page condensed explanation (377 kB PDF file)

Download a one-page explanation in German (translated by Harry Meier)
Purchase your very own Captured Lightning specimen

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without written consent.
 What are Lichtenberg Figures and how are they produced?
Copyright Stoneridge Engineering, 1999-2006, Updated 9/28/07

Lichtenberg Figures are patterns that are formed on the surface or the interior of insulating materials by high voltage electrical discharges. The
first Lichtenberg Figures were actually two-dimensional patterns formed in dust on charged insulating plates in the laboratory of their
discoverer, Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (1742-1799). The basic principles involved in the formation of these early figures are also
fundamental to the operation of modern copy machines and laser printers. Using modern materials and powerful particle accelerators, 3-D
Lichtenberg Figures can now be created inside crystal clear acrylic, forming beautiful “Captured Lightning ™” sculptures.

We use acrylic (Polymethyl Methacrylate - PMMA) as the medium for our Lichtenberg Figures since it has an excellent combination of optical,
electrical, and mechanical properties. We also use a linear accelerator (LINAC) to create a beam of high-speed electrons. Electrons within the
beam are accelerated to up to 99.5% of the speed of light. The high speed (“relativistic”) electrons have acquired a very large amount of kinetic
energy, measured in Millions of electron Volts or MeV. Specially selected and prepared specimens of acrylic are placed in the path of the
electron beam. As the energetic electrons hit the surface of the acrylic, they don’t come to an immediate stop. Instead, they lose energy as they
collide with acrylic molecules, rapidly slowing down and coming to rest deep inside the acrylic specimen.

Under continued irradiation, electrons rapidly accumulate, forming a cloud-like layer of excess negative charge called a space charge. Since
acrylic is an excellent electrical insulator, these electrons become trapped within the space charge layer. A huge electrical field (up to 2 million
volts/cm) is developed inside the plastic, similar to the way that huge regions of excess charge develop within a thunderstorm. The tremendous
electrical stress finally overcomes the insulating strength of the plastic. Molecular bonds begin to break, and branching ionized (electrically
conductive) pathways rapidly form within the acrylic. The trapped charge violently surges out, accompanied by a brilliant blue-white flash and
a loud bang. The branching discharge paths look similar to a miniature lightning bolt. The high current main discharge may last for only 20 –
50 billionths of a second, but smaller discharges may occur for 30 seconds or more after the main discharge.

Electrical breakdown occurs on a much grander scale during a lightning flash as the powerful discharge drains highly charged regions within
storm clouds. However, unlike discharges in air, the discharge paths taken within the acrylic leave a permanent record of their passage as they
melt and fracture the plastic along the way. The exit point appears as a small hole or at the surface of the acrylic. If the block doesn’t self-
discharge, a discharge is triggered by poking the surface of the plastic with a sharp conductive tool. This concentrates the electrical field around
the tool’s tip, creating a weakened area that initiates the discharge. The rounded, crystalline flakes appearing within the figure are actually
small conchoidal fractures that were created by the hot electrical discharges as they forced their way through the scrylic. These fractures are
characteristic of the way that amorphous (non-crystalline) materials fracture when mechanically overstressed.

Like snowflakes, every Lichtenberg Figure is unique.Lichtenberg Figures exhibit tree-like or fern-like structures that possess a high degree of
self-similarity at various scales of magnification. As with many other phenomena in nature, the self-similar structure can be modeled by a
branch of mathematics called Fractal Geometry. The outer surfaces of the acrylic specimen and the surrounding air form an interface where
some of the excess space charge can leak away. This region of reduced charge causes the blank region seen along the perimeter of the block.
Most of our Lichtenberg Figures were created with electron beams having energies of 3 - 5 MeV. Beam parameters are adjusted to produce
well-developed figures.

Newer Lichtenberg Figures often have an amber or greenish tint, called solarization. Solarization appears on the side of the block that was
bombarded by the electron beam. It’s caused by the formation of defects, called color centers, within the structure of the acrylic as the acrylic
molecules absorb ionizing radiation or are modified via electron collisions. The ionizing radiation is not from the electron beam, but is actually
caused by powerful X-rays that are generated as the electrons are rapidly slowed down by the acrylic. Electrons within the beam are initially
traveling at close to the speed of light as they first hit the surface of the acrylic. As they collide with the molecules of the plastic, they rapidly
slow down, releasing their kinetic energy in the form of high energy X-rays, which are absorbed by the acrylic. This secondary X-radiation,
called Bremsstrahlung (or "braking") radiation, is what actually causes much of the solarization. Solarization usually fades with time. Applying
gentle heat will accelerate the fading process. “Fogging” sometimes occurs with older plastic formulations, forming a diffuse, slightly milky
layer within some specimens, and many specimens also show slight changes in the refractive index due to residual stresses near the discharge
fractures. More information about how our Captured Lightning™ sculptures are made can be found here: http://lichdesc.teslamania.com

Caring for your Lichtenberg Figure

With care, your Captured Lightning™ sculpture will remain beautiful for many years. Dust carefully using a dampened flannel cloth. Remove
fingerprints using mild detergent and water, then rinse well and blot using a damp flannel cloth. Never wipe your sculpture with dry paper
towels or Kleenex tissues, since these may scratch the surface. Never apply window cleaners containing ammonia, alcohol, solvents, or
scouring compounds, since these may permanently damage the surface of your sculpture. To restore your sculpture’s original luster, use a soft
cloth and a polish specifically made for acrylic, such as Novus #2 from Novus Plastic Polish, Ltd. If your specimen should develop heavier
scratches, use Novus #3 Heavy Scratch Remover first, then polish to a high luster using Novus #2.

Stoneridge Engineering is proud to offer the most beautiful 2D and 3D Lichtenberg Figures in the world

For more information, see http://www.teslamania.com To print another copy of this sheet, go to
http://lichpdf.teslamania.com