Question 1

A management information system (MIS) is a system or process that

provides information needed to manage organizations effectively [1].
Management information systems are regarded to be a subset of the
overall internal controls procedures in a business, which cover the
application of people, documents, technologies, and procedures used
by management accountants to solve business problems such as costing a
product, service or a business-wide strategy. Management information
systems are distinct from regular information systems in that they are used
to analyze other information systems applied in operational activities in the
organization.[2] Academically, the term is commonly used to refer to the
group of information management methods tied to the automation or
support of human decision making, e.g. Decision Support Systems, Expert
systems, and Executive information systems.

The term system in MIS implies ORDER, ARRANGEMENT, and PURPOSE.

The information can be used for various purposes,
-strategic planning
-delivering increased productivity
-reducing service cycles
-reducing product development cycles
-reducing marketing life cycles
-increasing the understanding of customers' needs
-facilitating business and process re-engineering.
MIS can also be used across the organization as an information
utility to
-support policy making
-meet regulatory and legislative requirements
-support research and development
-support consistent and rapid decision making
-enable effective and efficient utilization of resources
-provide evidence of business transactions
-identify and manage risks
-evaluate and document quality, performance and achievements.

Applications of MIS

With computers being as ubiquitous as they are today, there's hardly any
large business that does not rely extensively on their IT systems.
However, there are several specific fields in which MIS has become
invaluable.

* Strategy Support

While computers cannot create business strategies by themselves they can

assist management in understanding the effects of their strategies, and help
enable effective decision-making.

MIS systems can be used to transform data into information useful for
decision making. Computers can provide financial statements and
performance reports to assist in the planning, monitoring and
implementation of strategy.

MIS systems provide a valuable function in that they can collate into
coherent reports unmanageable volumes of data that would otherwise be
broadly useless to decision makers. By studying these reports decision-
makers can identify patterns and trends that would have remained unseen if
the raw data were consulted manually.

MIS systems can also use these raw data to run simulations – hypothetical
scenarios that answer a range of ‘what if’ questions regarding alterations in
strategy. For instance, MIS systems can provide predictions about the effect
on sales that an alteration in price would have on a product. These Decision
Support Systems (DSS) enable more informed decision making within an
enterprise than would be possible without MIS systems.

Management by Objectives

While MIS systems are extremely useful in generating statistical reports and
data analysis they can also be of use as a Management by Objectives (MBO)
tool.

MBO is a management process by which managers and subordinates agree

upon a series of objectives for the subordinate to attempt to achieve within a
set time frame. Objectives are set using the SMART ratio: that is, objectives
should be Specific, Measurable, Agreed, Realistic and Time-Specific.

The aim of these objectives is to provide a set of key performance indicators

by which an enterprise can judge the performance of an employee or project.
The success of any MBO objective depends upon the continuous tracking of
progress.

In tracking this performance it can be extremely useful to make use of an

MIS system. Since all SMART objectives are by definition measurable they
can be tracked through the generation of management reports to be
analysed by decision-makers.

Benefits of MIS

The field of MIS can deliver a great many benefits to enterprises in every
industry. Expert organisations such as the Institute of MIS along with peer
reviewed journals such as MIS Quarterly continue to find and report new
ways to use MIS to achieve business objectives.

Core Competencies

Every market leading enterprise will have at least one core competency –
that is, a function they perform better than their competition. By building an
exceptional management information system into the enterprise it is
possible to push out ahead of the competition. MIS systems provide the tools
necessary to gain a better understanding of the market as well as a better
understanding of the enterprise itself.

Enhance Supply Chain Management

Improved reporting of business processes leads inevitably to a more
streamlined production process. With better information on the production
process comes the ability to improve the management of the supply chain,
including everything from the sourcing of materials to the manufacturing and
distribution of the finished product.

Quick Reflexes
As a corollary to improved supply chain management comes an improved
ability to react to changes in the market. Better MIS systems enable an
enterprise to react more quickly to their environment, enabling them to push
out ahead of the competition and produce a better service and a larger piece
of the pie.
Limitations on Management Information Systems

A Management Information System (MIS) is a valuable tool company

management uses to gauge the effectiveness of their business operations.
The MIS can provide detailed insight to certain portions of a company and
also assist management with making critical business decisions. While the
style and format of the MIS has changed over the years, its use in
management decisions has increased greatly.

1.Highly sensitive and requires constant monitoring

2. Budgeting of Budgeting extremely difficult
3. Lack of flexibility to update itself
4. Lots of time required to construct or prepare MIS
5. Constant training required.
6. In depth study or required training has to be carried out
before designing the software.
7.Organizational change: Difficult to adapt in new settings for Human
resource i.e. Employees.
8. Quality and reliability of the available information.
9. The expense to create and implement an MIS,
10. Training time for employees,
11. Capturing wrong or incomplete information.
12.Sometimes when the information is wrong, it create chaos in
organisation.

The Facts
1. An MIS is one method a company uses to obtain reliable information
regarding its business operations. The MIS should not be concerned with
whether the information can be retrieved, but rather how and what
information should be retrieved so management can make effective
decisions. Once information is provided through the MIS, decisions can be
made regarding the effectiveness of business operations. Limitations do
exist with an MIS, such as the expense to create and implement an MIS,
training time for employees, lack of flexibility and capturing wrong or
incomplete information.
MIS Expense
2. MIS implementation can be very expensive for companies looking to
manage their operations more effectively. All divisions and processes
must be reviewed when determining what information management
wants extracted for decision purposes. The cost of this review followed by
the installation costs can be extremely expensive for large companies.
Additionally, new employee hiring or employee training related to the MIS
can also add to the implementation costs.
Employee Training
3. Properly trained employees are a critical part of an MIS. Employees are
at the front lines of business operations and create or manage the daily
activities of the company. If an MIS finds a system flaw or management
decides to change a process based on the MIS information, re-training
employees will usually be required. The length and depth of the training
may vary, making it difficult to estimate the cost of this training.
Management will also have to account for the lost productivity during this
training period.
MIS Flexibility
4. Once an MIS is created and installed in a company, it may prove to be
an inflexible system. Making changes quickly to reflect fluctuating
business operations may not be possible depending on the MIS style and
functionality. While correcting policies such as internal controls or
operating procedures may be easy, company-wide changes such as
service changes, production enhancements or marketing strategy may
not be simple. Major business changes will require major changes to the
MIS, leading to increased costs and downtime of information reporting.
Information Flaws
5. The MIS is designed to provide information to management so sound
decisions can be made regarding company operations. The biggest flaw
an MIS can have is pulling incorrect or inadequate information for
management. This problem results in wasted time and money for the
company, leading to another review of the MIS to correct the information
flaws.
Question 2

Overview of data modeling context: A data model provides the details of

information to be stored, and is of primary use when the final product is the
generation of computer software code for an application or the preparation
of a functional specification to aid a computer software make-or-buy
decision. The figure is an example of the interaction between process and
data models

data model in software engineering is an abstract model that describes how

data are represented and accessed. Data models formally define data
elements and relationships among data elements for a domain of interest.
According to Hoberman (2009), "A data model is a wayfinding tool for both
business and IT professionals, which uses a set of symbols and text to
precisely explain a subset of real information to improve communication
within the organization and thereby lead to a more flexible and stable
application environment."[2]

A data model explicitly determines the structure of data or structured data.

Typical applications of data models include database models, design of
information systems, and enabling exchange of data. Usually data models
are specified in a data modeling language.[3]

Communication and precision are the two key benefits that make a data
model important to applications that use and exchange data. A data model is
the medium which project team members from different backgrounds and
with different levels of experience can communicate with one another.
Precision means that the terms and rules on a data model can be interpreted
only one way and are not ambiguous.[2]

A data model can be sometimes referred to as a data structure, especially in

the context of programming languages. Data models are often
complemented by function models, especially in the context of enterprise
models.
WOMEN’S UNIVERSITY IN AFRICA

PROGRAMME: IT

INTAKE: 6

NAME: Salva Shuva

SUBJECT: EIS

CLASS: Evening

STUDENT ID NUMBER: w6080056

DUE DATE: 14 October