1.

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

 Adjectives
Adjectives describe nouns (things).

 My dog is slow.

Slow is an adjective since it describes the noun (my dog).

 How is my dog? Slow

 Adverbs
Adverbs describe verbs (actions).

 My dog eats slowly.

Slowly is an adverb since it describes the way my dog eats.

 How does my dog eat? Slowly.

Some adverbs are used to modify an adjective.

Adverbs that do this are: very, extremely, really, totally, absolutely,
quite, fairly, well. These are normally placed before the adjective.

 He is very rich.
 They are extremely happy.
 She was totally crazy.
 My dog is well trained.

 Adverbs and Adjectives with the same form

There are a number of adjectives / adverbs that take the same form. It
therefore depends on the sentence context as to whether it is an
adjective or an adverb.
The adjectives / adverbs that take the same form include:
fast, hard, early, late, high, low, right, wrong, straight and long.

 Adam has a fast car. (Adjective)

 Adam speaks fast. (Adverb)
  Good vs. Well
Good and Well are two words that tend to create confusion for
learners of English.
Good is an adjective
Well is an adverb.

 She is a good singer.

 She sings well.

Though sometimes we use well as an adjective when we are talking

about health and well-being.

 A: How are you today?

B: I'm well, thanks.

(I'm well is a better and more common answer to this question than
'Fine' or 'Good', although these are also reasonably common.)
 2. COMPARISON OF ADJETIVES AND ADVERBS

 Adjective – a word used to modify or describe a noun or

pronoun.
 Adverb – a word that is used to modify an adjective, verb, or
adverb.
There are three forms of adjectives and adverbs used to show varying
degrees of comparison: the positive, the comparative, and the
superlative.
The positive form is used when there is no direct comparison being
made to anything specific, but is used to offer a broad or general
comparison.
The comparative form is used when two things are being compared
with each other.
The superlative form is used when more than two things are being
compared with one another.
 Regular forms for one and two syllable words.
positive – no change (big, strong, long, etc.)
comparative – words end in "er" (bigger, stronger, longer, etc.)
superlative – words end in "est" (biggest, strongest, longest, etc.)
 Regular forms for three or more syllable words.
positive – no change (understandable, comfortable, etc.)
comparative – use "more" (more understandable, more comfortable,
etc.)
superlative – use "most" (most understandable, most comfortable, etc.)
Adverbs that end in "ly" always use "more" or "most", such as "more
quickly" or "most quickly"..
Remember that these are general rules and many adjectives and
adverbs have irregular forms.
Have a go and see how you do!
 3. OTHER TYPE OF COMPARATIVE

Adjectives can compare two things or more than two things. When we
make these comparisons, we use comparative and superlative forms of
adjectives.
 Comparatives
One way to describe nouns (people, objects, animals, etc.) is by
comparing them to something else. When comparing two things, you’re
likely to use adjectives like smaller, bigger, taller, more interesting, and
less expensive. Notice the -er ending, and the words more and less. A
mistake that both native speakers and non-native speakers make is
using incorrectly formed comparative adjectives. See the sentences
below for an illustration of this common error:
His cat is more large than my dog.
His cat is larger than my dog.
So what makes the first example wrong and the second right? There
are a few rules that explain this:

 For adjectives that are just one syllable, add -er to the end (this
explains the above example).
 For two-syllable adjectives not ending in -y and for all three-or-
more-syllable adjectives, use the form “more + adjective.”
 For two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, change the -y to -i and
add -er.

These simple rules make it easy to tell when you should add -er or -ier
and when you should use “more + adjective.”

 Here are a few more examples:

 This house is more exciting than ever.
 This house is excitinger than ever.
 Mike is funnier than Isaac.
  Mike is more funny than Isaac.

Notice the spelling change for adjectives ending in -y: the comparative
ends in -ier.

 This book is boringer than the last one.

 This book is more boring than the last one.
 Advertising pressures women to be more thin .
 Advertising pressures women to be thinner .

 Superlatives

When comparing more than two things, you’ll likely use words and
phrases like smallest, biggest, tallest, most interesting, and least
interesting. Notice the -est ending and the words most and least. Make
sure you use the proper ending or superlative adjective when forming
these superlatives. The examples below illustrate the correct form:

Martha is the elder of the four sisters.

If there were only two sisters, we could use the comparative elder here.
Because there are four sisters, we need a superlative.

 Martha is the eldest of the four sisters.

 Here are a couple of other examples:
I think his last book is his least interesting ; his third book was the most
interesting .
 That must be the weirdest play ever written.

Remember that adjectives ending in -y change their spelling when -est

is added. To form these superlatives, change the y to an i before adding
the -est ending, as illustrated below:
  That is the sleepyest puppy of the litter.
 That is the sleepiest puppy of the litter.

Forming Comparative and Superlatives of Irregular Adjectives

It’s important to note that there are irregular adjectives (and adverbs)
that you have to memorize because they don’t follow the rules above.
They are:

Adjective/Adverb Comparative Superlative

good/well better best
bad/badly worse worst
far farther, further the farthest, the furthest
little less least
Here are some examples of these irregular words as comparatives and
superlatives in context:

 Today I had the best time touring the city.

 I went farther than my friend when we walked around the park.
 You dance better than I do.
 You bought the least attractive pair of moccasins at the thrift
store.
 He can run the farthest of his classmates, but that’s only once
around the track.
 I do badly in math, but at least I’m not the worst .

 Comparative and Superlative of “Handsome”

Besides the irregular words in the table above, one other nuclear
comparative/superlative choice is handsomer/more
handsome and handsomest/most handsome.
The rules call for handsomer and handsomest, but usage has changed
over time. Modern speakers prefer more handsome to handsomer, and
there is an even split between handsomest and most handsome.
Preferred usage typically follows what native speakers say, and the
trend seems to be moving toward the simpler construction of more +
adjective and the most + adjective.

4. COUNTABLE AN UNCONTABLE NOUNS

 Countable & Uncountable nouns

Nouns can be countable or uncountable. When you learn a new noun

you should make a note of whether it is countable or uncountable as we
use different words with countables and uncountables.

 Countable nouns

 There is a cat in the garden.

 There are some birds in the trees.

 For positive sentences we can use a/an or some (with a

plural verb form)

 There isn’t a dog in the garden.

 There aren’t any birds in the tree.

 For negatives we can use a/an or any (with a plural verb

form).

 Is there an orange on the tree?

 Are there any chairs in the garden?
 How many chairs are there?

In questions we use a/an, any or how many.

Uncountable nouns

 There is some milk on the floor.

Uncountable nouns have no plural. The verb form is singular and

we use some.

 Is there any sugar?

 How much wine is there?

In questions we can use any or how much.

Other expressions of quantity

 There are a lot of apples on the trees.

 There is a lot of snow on the road.

A lot of can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.

 Bill Gates has much money.

Notice that we don’t usually use ‘much’ or ‘many’ in positive

sentences. We use ‘a lot of’.

 Bill Gates has a lot of money.

 There’s a lot of beer but there isn’t much wine.
 There are a lot of carrots but there aren’t many potatoes.

We use not many with countable nouns and not much with
uncountable nouns.

Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable, depending on

how they are used, and some nouns are commonly confused. These
are covered in another section.
 5. QUANTIFLERS

We use quantifiers when we want to give someone information about

the number of something: how much or how many.
Sometimes we use a quantifier in the place of a determiner:
Most children start school at the age of five.
We ate some bread and butter.
We saw lots of birds.
We use these quantifiers with both count and uncount nouns:
 all any enough less a lot of lots of
 more most no none of some

 and some more colloquial forms:

 plenty of heaps of a load of loads of tons of etc.

 Some quantifiers can be used only with count nouns:

 both each either(a) few fewer neither several

and some more colloquial forms:
 a couple of hundreds of thousands of etc.
Some quantifiers can be used only with uncount nouns:
 a little (not) much a bit of
And, particularly with abstract nouns such as time, money, trouble,
etc:, we often use:
 a great deal of a good deal of
Members of groups
You can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talking
about members of a group in general…
Few snakes are dangerous.
Both brothers work with their father.
I never have enough money.
…but if you are talking about a specific group of people or things,
use of the … as well
Few of the snakes are dangerous.
All of the children live at home.
He has spent all of his money.
Note that, if we are talking about two people or things we use the
quantifiers both, either and neither:

More than two

One supermarket Two supermarkets*
supermarkets

All the supermarkets

The supermarket
Both the supermarkets were closed
was closed
were closed.
None of the
The supermarket
Neither of the supermarkets were
wasn't open
supermarkets was open. open
I don’t think the
I don’t think either of the I don't think any of the
supermarket was
supermarkets was open. supermarkets were
open.
open

Nouns with either and neither have a singular verb.

Singular quantifiers:
We use every or each with a singular noun to mean all:

There was a party in every There were parties in all the

=
street. streets.

Every shop was decorated All the shops were decorated

=
with flowers. with flowers.

All the children were given a

Each child was given a prize. =
prize.

There was a prize in each There were prizes in all the

=
competition. competitions.

We often use every to talk about times like days, weeks and years:
When we were children we had holidays at our
grandmother’s every year.
When we stayed at my grandmother’s house we went to the
beach every day.
We visit our daughter every Christmas.
BUT: We do not use a determiner with every and each. We do not
say:
The every shop was decorated with flowers.
The each child was given a prize.
 6. THE DEFINITIVE ARTICLE

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE - EASY LEARNING GRAMMAR

The definite article is the.The definite article is used with singular and
plural nouns. It is used both with countable nouns and uncountable
nouns:
 to make definite or specific reference to a person or a thing that has
already been referred to.
 There’s the man I was telling you about!
 to refer to a person or thing that is already specific because of what
those talking already know. In the first example below, ‘the
children’ would be members of our family and ‘the swimming pool’ is
the swimming pool we normally go to.
 Let’s take the children to the swimming pool.
 Did you switch the heating on?
 There were drinks in the fridge but the beer was soon finished.
 to generalize about a whole class or species, usually of plants or
animals. A singular noun is used for this purpose. The first example
means ‘The elephant species is hunted.’
 The elephant is still hunted for its tusks.
 The snowdrop is the first flower to arrive in the new year.
 when it is followed by an adjective used as a noun indicating nationality
or when generalizing about a whole class of people. The Dutch in the
first example means ‘Dutch people in general’.
 The Dutch are very skilful engineers.
 The poor were crowding the streets of the capital.
 The homeless were sheltered in the church.
 before the names of rivers, groups of islands, seas, oceans, and
mountain ranges.
The Thames The Hebrides

The North Sea The Pacific

 before the names of certain public institutions, most newspapers, and
some magazines.
 The British Museum The Hilton Hotel

The Lyceum Theatre The Houses of Parliament

The Independent The Guardian

The Listener The New Scientist

 before parts of the body when these are referred to in an impersonal
way.
 A stone struck him on the hand.
 Martin hit him on the head.
 The definite article is rarely used with titles. Proper nouns that refer
to persons, such as Sueand Ron, and proper nouns used in
conjunction with titles, such as Queen Elizabeth, Doctor
Thomas, and Captain Parry, only take a definite article if:
 they stand for the name of a thing such as a boat.
 The Queen Elizabeth II is on a long cruise.
 a distinction is being made between people who have identical
names. This use can give emphasis to the noun.
 Ah, no. The David Parry I know lives in Manchester.
 I saw Paul Kay in town this morning. – Not the Paul Kay?
 7. THE ZEERO ARTICLE

Articles are not always necessary. There are occasions when a noun in
a sentence need not be preceded by a definite article (the) or indefinite
article (a, an). In such a case, the term zero article is used.
No article is used when making generalization with plural countable
nouns and singular uncountable nouns.
Examples:

o Cars are still expensive for lower-income people. (Countable noun)

o Flying is far safer than driving. (Uncountable noun)

Zero article:
Examples:

o He travels to work by train.

o Not: He travels to work by a/the train.

o She loves taking photos of caterpillars.

o Not: She loves taking photos of the caterpillars.

Zero article:
Examples:
before name of materials:

o Gold is found in Australia.

o Not: The gold is found in Australia.

o They are mining for tin.

o Not: They are mining for the tin.

 before abstract nouns used in a general sense:

o It is said that money cannot buy happiness..

o Not: Money cannot buy the happiness.

o We always expect total honesty from our employees..

o Not: We always expect the total honesty from our employees.
  before proper nouns:

o He is a fan of Michael Jackson.

o Not: He is a fan of the Michael Jackson.

o She gave birth to twins in June.

o Not: She gave birth to twins in the June.

 before illness:

o She came down with measles and had to stay in bed.

o Not: She came down with the measles and had to stay in bed.

o Our family doctor suffers from asthma.

o Not: Our family doctor suffers from the asthma.

 before the name of cities, states, countries, islands, or

mountains:

o India achieved independence in 1947.

o Not: The india achieved independence in 1947..

o Mount Everest is the world's highest mountain.

o Not: The Mount Everest is the world's highest mountain.
 8. GERUNDS

What is the Gerund?

-ing form used as a noun
2. Form
infinitive + -ing
3. Examples
Gerund as Subject:
Going to parties is fun.
Gerund as Object:
I enjoy reading.
4. Gerund after the following verbs
 Admit : He admitted having driven too fast.
 Avoid: They avoid going on holiday on Saturdays.
 Carry on: If we carry on sleeping so badly, we may need help.
 Consider: Ralph is considering buying a new house.
 Delay: I delayed telling Max the news.
 Deny : She denies reading the book.
 Can't/couldn't help : He couldn't help falling in love with her.
 Enjoy : I enjoy playing chess.
 Finish : They finished working in the garden.
 Give up: Susan gives up playing ice-hockey.
 Imagine :He imagined driving a new car.
 Include : Your responsibility includes taking reservations on
the phone.
 Involve The project will involve growing plants.
 Justify :I cannot justify paying $100 for this ticket.
 keep (on):They keep on running.
 Mention : Did Alex ever mention playing baseball?
 Mind : I don't mind sleeping on the couch.
 Miss :They miss playing with their friends.
  Practise :She practised playing hockey.

5. Gerund after special phrases

 To Be Busy: He is busy reading the paper.
 Don't Mind: I don't mind telling them my opinion.
 Feel Like: We feel like having a cup of tea.
 How About: How about walking home instead of taking the
car?
a) it's (no) good
 It's no good talking to this girl.
 it's no use
 It's no use talking to the headmaster.
a) spend one's time:They spend their time reading.
b) there's no
 There's no cheating anymore.
 there's no point
 There's no point in complaining further.
c) what about
 What about going to the zoo?
 9. INFINITIVE

Remember that a verbal is a form of a verb that functions as something

else in a sentence.
An infinitive is a verbal that can function as noun, adjective, or adverb.
It is formed by using "to" + the verb.
Examples of Infinitives:
The infinitive can appear by itself, or it can be part of a larger infinitive
phrase.
Examples of infinitives:
To run
To walk
To cook
To understand
To make
Examples of infinitives or infinitive phrases used as nouns:
1) I like to run. (functions as a direct object)
2) I wanted to cook dinner for my parents. (functions as a direct object)
3) To fly an airplane is a dream of mine. (functions as a subject)
4) I cannot believe you knew to put out grits to attract ants! (functions as
a direct object)
Examples of infinitives or infinitive phrases used as adjectives:
1) The fair is the place to go. (tells us which place)
2) I have some jeans to wash. (tells us which jeans)
3) The singer to watch is Joyce. (tells us which singer)
4) The kind of flowers to plant are perennials. (tells us which flowers)
Examples of infinitives or infinitive phrases used as adverbs:
1) To complete the math problem, you divide by x. (tells why to divide)
2) I bought paint to finish the picture for my mom. (tells why I bought
paint)
3) To make the cookies, you must add the flour first. (tells why we add f
 10. THEM GERUNDS OR INFINITIVE

Gerunds might sound like a strange term to come across in English

grammar, but they describe a very common part of the language. You’ll
find gerunds in virtually everything you read, write or hear – and they’re
quite easy to use!
Read on to find out what exactly a gerund is, and how to make sure
you’re using them correctly.

What is a gerund?

A gerund is an instance when a verb is being used in a very particular

way – as a noun!
You do this by changing the infinitive form of the verb, and adding “ing”
at the end.

For example, “eat” is changed to “eating”, or “write” is changed to

“writing”.

Let’s take a look at some gerunds in action:

 “I enjoy writing – it’s my favourite hobby.”
 “She gets quite nervous about flying.”

You might notice that a gerund takes the same form as the present
participle of a verb – but it has a different meaning! A present participle,
by contrast – plays the role of a verb.

Take a look at this example to see how it is different from a gerund:

 “They go running each morning to train for the marathon.”

Although it looks like a verb, a gerund always follows the same rules as
you would with a noun –it can be used as a subject just like any other
noun. If you’re not sure whether you need to use a present participle or
a gerund, imagine swapping the gerund for another simple noun – does
the sentence still make grammatical sense?
Using gerunds with “to be”
One of the most common verbs that you will use with a gerund is the
verb “to be” – this is the simplest way to present the gerund.
For example:
 “Her big fear is driving on the main roads.”
Gerunds can be used in every tense in the same way. For instance:
 “My goal for the year was finding a new job – and I did it.”

Using gerunds with prepositions and phrasal verbs

Prepositions are words such as “on”, “at” or “in”, that can be used to link
nouns and noun phrases in a sentence.
When using any verb after a preposition, you must always use it as a
gerund, and not in any other form.
For example:
 “They are planning on arriving at midday.”
 “He’s not very good at speaking in public.”

In the same way, when using a phrasal verbs, you must also use the
gerund. Phrasal verbs are verbs formed in conjunction with a preposition
or an adverb.
For example:
 “Those children will grow up behaving very badly.”
 “We have had to put off going on our holiday this year.”

YOUR TURN

People can often get confused about how to use gerunds correctly
because they are so similar to a verb – but by remembering one
important fact – that they are nouns, not verbs – you will be able to avoid
mistakes!
Make sure you practice using them correctly – try writing a few different
examples with each of the different forms described above.