Study Guide

FUNDAMENTALS OF CIRCUITS
© 2016 University of South Africa
All rights reserved
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University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria
CAN4701/1/2017
MS Word, Florida
Campus
70401918
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CONTENTS
PAGE
Unit 1: Fundamentals of circuits

Study objectives .................................................................................................... 3
1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 4
1.1 Units of measurement and systems of units ............................................ 4
1.2 Significant figures, accuracy, and rounding off ........................................ 4
1.3 Powers of ten ........................................................................................... 5
1.4 Fixed-point, floating point, scientific and engineering notation ................. 5
1.5 Conversions ............................................................................................. 6
1.6 Calculators ............................................................................................... 6
1.7 Summary .................................................................................................. 6
1.8 Test yourself ............................................................................................ 6
2. CHAPTER 2: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ............................................... 7
2.1 Voltage ..................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Current ..................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Voltage sources ....................................................................................... 8
2.4 Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors ........................................... 8
2.5 Ammeters and voltmeters ........................................................................ 8
2.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 9
2.7 Test yourself ........................................................................................... 9.
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3.1 Resistance: circular wires ........................................................................ 9
3.2 Temperature effects ............................................................................... 10
3.3 Type of resistors .................................................................................... 10
3.4 Conductance .......................................................................................... 10
3.5 Ohmmeters ............................................................................................ 10
3.6 Reading materials .................................................................................. 11
3.7 Summary ................................................................................................ 11
3.8 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 11
Unit 2: Ohm’s law, series DC circuit

Study objectives ................................................................................................. 15
4. CHAPTER 4: OHM’S LAW, POWER, AND ENERGY ........................... 15
4.1 Ohm’s law .............................................................................................. 15
4.2 Plotting Ohm’s law ................................................................................. 16
4.3 Power and energy .................................................................................. 17
4.4 Efficiency ............................................................................................... 18
4.5 PSpice and Multisim .............................................................................. 18
4.6 Summary ................................................................................................ 18
4.7 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 18
5. CHAPTER 5: SERIES DC CIRCUIT ...................................................... 19
5.1 Series DC circuit .................................................................................... 19
5.2 Instruments ............................................................................................ 20
5.3 Power and voltage in series circuit ......................................................... 20
5.4 Kirchhoff’s voltage law ........................................................................... 20
5.5 Voltage division in a series circuit .......................................................... 21
5.6 Circuit notation ....................................................................................... 21

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5.7 Voltage regulation and internal resistance of voltage source ................. 22
5.8 Summary ................................................................................................ 23
5.9 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 23
Unit 3: Parallel DC circuit, series-parallel circuit

6. CHAPTER 6: PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS ............................................... 27
6.1 Parallel resistors .................................................................................... 28
6.2 Parallel circuits ....................................................................................... 29
6.3 Power distribution .................................................................................. 29
6.4 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) ................................................................. 30
6.5 Current divider rule ................................................................................ 30
6.6 Voltage source in parallel ....................................................................... 31
6.7 Open and short circuit ............................................................................ 31
6.8 Voltmeter loading effects ....................................................................... 31
6.9 Extra readings ........................................................................................ 32
6.10 Computer analysis ................................................................................. 32
6.11 Summary ................................................................................................ 32
6.12 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 32
7. CHAPTER 7: SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS ....................................... 33
7.1 Series-parallel networks ......................................................................... 33
7.2 Voltage divider supply: unloaded and loaded ........................................ 34
7.3 Potentiometer loading ............................................................................ 34
7.4 Ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter design ........................................... 35
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7.6 Summary ................................................................................................ 35
7.7 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 35
Unit 4: Methods of analysis and selected topics (DC)

8. CHAPTER 8: METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND SELECTED

TOPICS (DC) ......................................................................................... 38
8.1 Current sources ..................................................................................... 39
8.2 Branch-current analysis ......................................................................... 39
8.3 Mesh analysis ........................................................................................ 40
8.4 Nodal analysis ........................................................................................ 41
8.5 Bridge networks, Δ–Y and Y–Δ conversions ....................................... 41
8.6 Applications ............................................................................................ 42
8.8 Summary ................................................................................................ 42
8.9 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 42
Unit 5: Network theorems

Study objectives .................................................................................................. 44
9. CHAPTER 9: NETWORK THEOREMS ................................................. 44
9.1 Superposition theorem ........................................................................... 45
9.2 Thévenin’s theorem ............................................................................... 45
9.3 Norton’s theorem ................................................................................... 47
9.4 Maximum power transfer theorem ......................................................... 48
9.5 Millman’s theorem .................................................................................. 49
9.6 Substitution theorem .............................................................................. 50
9.7 Reciprocity theorem ............................................................................... 50
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9.9 Summary ................................................................................................ 50
9.10 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 50
Unit 6: Capacitors
10. CHAPTER 10: CAPACITORS ................................................................ 52
10.1 The electric field ..................................................................................... 53
10.2 Capacitance ............................................................................................ 54
10.3 Capacitors .............................................................................................. 55
10.4 Charging phase ...................................................................................... 56
10.5 Discharging phase .................................................................................. 58
10.6 Initial conditions and instantaneous values ............................................. 60
10.7 Thévenin equivalent: τ = RThC ........................................................... 61
10.8 The current iC ........................................................................................ 61
10.9 Capacitors in series and in parallel ......................................................... 62
10.10 Energy stored by a capacitor .................................................................. 62
10.11 Stray capacitances ................................................................................. 63
10.12 Applications ............................................................................................ 63
10.13 Computer analysis .................................................................................. 63
10.14 Summary ................................................................................................ 63
10.15 Test yourself ........................................................................................... 64
Unit 7: Inductors
11. CHAPTER 11: INDUCTORS .................................................................. 67
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11.1 The magnetic field .................................................................................. 68
11.2 Inductance ............................................................................................. 70
11.3 Induced voltage: vL 72
11.4 The storage phase and initial conditions ................................................ 73
11.5 The release phase ................................................................................. 75
11.6 Thévenin equivalent, instantaneous values, and average induced

voltage ................................................................................................. 76
11.7 Inductors in series and parallel .............................................................. 77
11.8 Steady-state conditions, energy stored in inductors ............................... 78
11.9 Applications ............................................................................................ 78
11.11 Summary ................................................................................................ 78
11.12 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 78
Unit 8: The basic elements and phasors

14. CHAPTER 14: THE BASIC ELEMENTS AND PHASORS ..................... 80
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 80
14.2 Response of R, L, C to a sinusoidal voltage and current ....................... 81
14.3 Frequency response of R, L, C .............................................................. 82
14.4 Average power and power factor ........................................................... 85
14.5 Complex numbers .................................................................................. 86
14.6 Phasors .................................................................................................. 89
14.8 Summary ................................................................................................ 90
14.9 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 90
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Unit 9: Series and parallel AC circuits

15. CHAPTER 15: SERIES AC CIRCUITS .................................................. 94
15.1 Resistive, inductive, and capacitive elements ........................................ 94
15.2 Impedance diagram ............................................................................... 95
15.3 Series configuration ............................................................................... 95
15.4 Voltage divider rule ................................................................................ 96
15.5 Frequency response .............................................................................. 96
15.6 Phase measurement .............................................................................. 97
15.7 Applications ............................................................................................ 98
15.9 Summary ................................................................................................ 98
15.10 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 99
16. CHAPTER 16: PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS ............................................. 99
16.1 Total impedance and total admittance ................................................... 99
16.2 Parallel AC network ............................................................................. 100
16.3 Current divider rule .............................................................................. 101
16.4 Frequency response of parallel elements ............................................ 101
16.5 Equivalent circuits ................................................................................ 103
16.6 Applications .......................................................................................... 103
16.7 Computer analysis ............................................................................... 104
16.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 104
16.9 Test yourself ........................................................................................ 104
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17. CHAPTER 17: SERIES-PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS ............................. 105
17.1 Illustrative examples ............................................................................ 105
17.2 Ladder networks .................................................................................. 105
17.3 Grounding ............................................................................................ 105
17.4 Applications .......................................................................................... 106
17.6 Summary .............................................................................................. 106
17.7 Test yourself ........................................................................................ 106
Unit 10: Methods of analysis (AC)

Study objectives ................................................................................................ 108
18. CHAPTER 18: METHODS OF ANALYSIS .......................................... 108
18.1 Independent versus dependent sources .............................................. 108
18.2 Mesh analysis ...................................................................................... 109
18.3 Nodal analysis ...................................................................................... 110
18.4 Bridge networks (AC) ........................................................................... 111
18.5 Δ– Y, and Y– Δ conversions ................................................................ 113
18.7 Summary .............................................................................................. 115
18.8 Test yourself ........................................................................................ 115
Unit 11: Network theorems (AC)

19. CHAPTER 19: NETWORK THEOREMS ............................................. 118
19.1 Superposition theorem ......................................................................... 118
19.2 Thévenin’s theorem ............................................................................. 119
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19.3 Norton’s theorem ................................................................................. 120
19.4 Maximum power transfer theorem ....................................................... 120
19.5 Substitution, reciprocity, and Millman’s theorem .................................. 122
19.6 Applications .......................................................................................... 122
19.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 122
19.9 Test yourself ........................................................................................ 122
Unit 12: Power (AC)

20. CHAPTER 20: POWER (AC) ............................................................... 124
20.1 General equation ................................................................................. 124
20.2 Resistive circuit .................................................................................... 125
20.3 Apparent power .................................................................................... 126
20.4 Inductive circuit and reactive power ..................................................... 126
20.5 Capacitive circuit .................................................................................. 127
20.6 The power triangle ............................................................................... 128
20.7 Power factor correction ........................................................................ 129
20.8 Power meters ....................................................................................... 129
20.9 Effective resistance .............................................................................. 129
20.10 Applications .......................................................................................... 131
20.12 Summary .............................................................................................. 131
20.13 Test yourself ........................................................................................ 131
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HOW TO USE YOUR STUDY GUIDE
In order to simplify your studies, I have structured each unit in this guide in the same way.
• Each unit starts with the study objectives of the chapter or chapters of the textbook
covered in that unit. These objectives set out what you must be able to do after you have
studied the chapter. Please read through these objectives carefully before studying the
chapter.
• The essence of the points in the textbook is then briefly set out. I supply clear instructions
for approaching each point. Carry out these instructions and make sure that you can do
the problems given. All the terms used in this subject are explained in the textbook. Make
sure you read through each point carefully to understand each term.
• After you have studied all the points, you must test yourself to find out whether you have
achieved the objectives set out at the beginning of the unit. At the end of each chapter in
the textbook there are problems enabling you to test whether you have achieved the study
objectives. I will tell you which of these I would like you to do, and I will provide
solutions to some of the problems during the course of the year. If you have achieved the
objectives, you are ready to go on to the next chapter and/or unit.
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PRESCRIBED TEXTBOOK
The following textbook is the only prescribed book for this course:
Robert L. Boylestad. 2016. Introductory Circuit Analysis. Pearson Press: 13th Edition.
ISBN-10 1-292-09895-3, ISBN-13 978-1-292-09895-1.
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS
To be updated.
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PROGRESS CHART
The total time available for this course is approximately 24 weeks. The following schedule
will help you to work through all the units and chapters in time.
Unit 1: Chapters 1–3: 2 weeks
Unit 4: Chapter 8: 2 weeks
Assignment 01
Assignment 02
Unit 9: Chapter 15–17 : 2 weeks
Assignment 03
As you can see, you need to complete three assignments during the study period. The due
dates for the assignments will be given in the tutorial letter for this module.
At the end of the module, there will be a three-hour, closed-book examination.
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Unit 1 1
Fundamentals of circuits
CONTENTS
PAGE
STUDY OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................... 3
1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................. 4
1.1 Units of measurement and systems of units ............................................... 4
1.2 Significant figures, accuracy, and rounding off ........................................... 4
1.3 Powers of ten .............................................................................................. 5
1.4 Fixed-point, floating point, scientific and engineering notation .................... 5
1.5 Conversions ................................................................................................ 6
1.6 Calculators .................................................................................................. 6
1.7 Summary .................................................................................................... 6
1.8 Test yourself ............................................................................................... 6
2. CHAPTER 2: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT .................................................. 7
2.1 Voltage ....................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Current ........................................................................................................ 7
2.3 Voltage sources .......................................................................................... 8
2.4 Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors .............................................. 8
2.5 Ammeters and voltmeters ........................................................................... 8
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2.6 Summary .................................................................................................... 9
2.7 Test yourself ............................................................................................... 9
3. CHAPTER 3: RESISTANCE ....................................................................... 9
3.1 Resistance: circular wires ........................................................................... 9
3.2 Temperature effects .................................................................................. 10
3.3 Type of resistors ....................................................................................... 10
3.4 Conductance ............................................................................................. 10
3.5 Ohmmeters ............................................................................................... 10
3.6 Reading materials ..................................................................................... 11
3.7 Summary .................................................................................................. 11
3.8 Test yourself ............................................................................................. 11
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STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapters 1 to 3 of the textbook. In general, you must be familiar with
key concepts relating to voltage, current, and resistors in electrical circuits.
After studying chapters 1 to 3 of the textbook, you should be able to:
Chapter 1: Introduction
• Discuss the rapid growth of the electrical/electronics industry over the past century.
• Explain the importance of applying a unit of measurement to a result or measurement
and ensure that the numerical values substituted into an equation are consistent with
the unit of measurement of the various quantities.
• Apply the international system of units as used throughout the electrical/electronics
industry.
• Justify the importance of powers of ten and how to work with them in any numerical
calculation.
• Convert any quantity, in any system of units, to another system with confidence.
Chapter 2: Voltage and current
• Explain how the terminal voltage of a battery or any DC supply is established and how
it creates a flow of charge in the system.
• Explain how current is established in a circuit and how its magnitude is affected by the
charge flowing in the system and the time involved.
• Discuss the factors that affect the terminal voltage of a battery and how long a battery
will remain effective.
• Apply a voltmeter and ammeter correctly to measure the voltage and current of a
network.
Chapter 3: Resistance
• Identify the parameters that determine the resistance of an element and calculate the
resistance from the given dimensions and material characteristics.
• Explain the effects of temperature on the resistance of a material and how to calculate
the change in resistance with temperature.
• Discuss superconductors and explain how they can affect future development in the
industry.
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• Identify a broad range of commercially available resistors and read the value of each
from the colour code or labelling.
• Identify a variety of elements such as thermistors, photoconductive cells, and varistors
and explain how their terminal resistance is controlled.
You should spend approximately two weeks on these three chapters.
1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Units of measurement and systems of units

Highlights of units of measurement:
• Measurements without a unit are meaningless. For example, the velocity “v = 44” is
meaningless. A correct notation could be “v = 44 m/s”, where “m/s” means meters per
second.
• The numerical value substituted into an equation must have the unit of measurement.
Highlights of systems of units:
• Three systems of units are introduced in the textbook, namely: English, metric (MKS and
CGS), and SI.
• Read Table 1: Comparison of the English and metric systems of units, and Figure 4:
Comparison of units of the various systems of units.
• The standard definitions of meter, kilogram, and second.
1.2 Significant figures, accuracy, and rounding off

Highlights of significant figures and rounding off:
The significant figures of a number are digits that carry meaning contributing to its measurement
resolution. Rules to define the significant figures:
• All non-zero digits are significant.

• Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
• Leading zeros are never significant.
• In a number with a decimal point, trailing zeros (those to the right of the last non-zero
digit) are significant.
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• In a number without a decimal point, trailing zeros may or may not be significant. For
more information, follow this link: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Significant_figures.
In the addition or subtraction of approximate numbers, the entry with the lowest level of accuracy
determines the format of the solution. Read Example 1.
Round off: to note the digit following the last to appear in the rounded off form, add a 1 to the last
digit if it is greater than or equal to 5, and leave it alone if it is less than 5. Read Examples 2 and 3.
1.3 Powers of ten

TABLE 1
CALCULATIONS OF POWERS OF TEN
Description Formulae
Product of powers of ten (10𝑛𝑛 ) (10𝑚𝑚 ) = 10𝑛𝑛+𝑚𝑚
Division of powers of ten 10𝑛𝑛

= 10(𝑛𝑛−𝑚𝑚)
10𝑚𝑚
Power of powers of ten (10𝑛𝑛 )𝑚𝑚 = 10𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
Addition and subtraction 𝐴𝐴 × 10𝑛𝑛 ± 𝐵𝐵 × 10𝑛𝑛 = (𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐵𝐵) × 10𝑛𝑛
Multiplication (𝐴𝐴 × 10𝑛𝑛 ) × (𝐵𝐵 × 10𝑚𝑚 ) = (𝐴𝐴 × 𝐵𝐵) × 10𝑛𝑛+𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝐴 × 10𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝐴
Division = × 10(𝑛𝑛−𝑚𝑚)
𝐵𝐵 × 10𝑚𝑚 𝐵𝐵
Powers (𝐴𝐴 × 10𝑛𝑛 )𝑚𝑚 = 𝐴𝐴𝑚𝑚 × 10𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
1.4 Fixed-point, floating point, scientific and engineering notation

Highlights
• The fixed-point format requires that the decimal point appear in the same place each
time.
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• In the floating-point format, the decimal point appears in a location defined by the
number to be displayed.
• Scientific notation requires that the decimal point appear directly after the first digit
greater than or equal to 1, but less than 10.
• Engineering notation specifies that all powers of ten must be 0 or multiples of 3, and the
mantissa must be greater than or equal to 1, but less than 1000.
• Remember all prefixes as introduced in Table 2.
1.5 Conversions
Highlights
• Conversions between levels of powers of ten – study Examples 14 to 16.

• Conversions within and between systems of units – study Example 21.
1.6 Calculators
Highlights
• Read initial settings for the calculators.

• Familiarise yourself with all the notations:
− Accuracy level
− Approximate mode
− Clear screen
− Clear current entries
− Turn on/off
• Study order of operations.
• Try to work out Examples 24 to 28 using a calculator.
1.7 Summary
This chapter provides important preliminary knowledge that is going to be used in later chapters. You
must be familiar with 1) units of measurement; 2) significant figures; 3) powers of ten; 4) conversions
between systems of units and powers of ten; and 5) the operation of scientific calculators.
1.8 Test yourself

Work through problems 4, 14, 15, 28, 30, 31, 35, 49, and 54 in the textbook.
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2. CHAPTER 2: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
2.1 Voltage
Highlights
Every source of voltage is established by simply creating a separation of positive and

negative charges. If a total of 1 joule (J) of energy is used to move the negative charge of 1
coulomb (C), there is a difference of 1 volt (V) between the two points.
𝑾𝑾
𝑽𝑽 = 𝑸𝑸 ,
where V = volts (V), W = joule (J), Q = coulomb (C); 1 C of charge is the total charge
associated with 6.242 × 1018 electrons.
2.2 Current
Highlights
• The applied voltage is the starting mechanism – the current is a reaction to the applied
voltage.
• If 1 C electrons pass through the cross-section of a conductor in 1 second, then flow of
charge, or current, is said to be 1 ampere (A).
𝑸𝑸
𝑰𝑰 = 𝒕𝒕 ,
where I = ampere (A), Q = coulomb (C), and t = time (s).

• This textbook uses conventional flow instead of electron flow.
• Safety considerations:
− water and electricity don’t mix;
− < 10 mA is generally safe;
− 50 mA causes severe shock;
− 100 mA is fatal for human beings.
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2.3 Voltage sources

Highlights
• An electromotive force (emf) is a force that establishes the flow of charge (or current) in
a system due to the application of a difference in potential.
• DC voltage sources can be divided into three types:
− Batteries: chemical action or solar energy;
− Generators: electro-mechanical;
− Power supplies: rectification.
• Ampere-hour rating
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎−ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜(𝐴𝐴ℎ) 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
− 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 (ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜) = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝐴𝐴)
• Battery life factors
− The capacity of a battery ( in ampere-hours) will change with change in current
demand;
− The ampere-hour rating of a battery will decrease from the room temperature level
with very cold and very warm temperatures;
− The terminal voltage of a battery will eventually drop (at any level of current drain)
if the time period of continuous discharge is too long.
2.4 Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors

Highlights
• Understand the relative conductivity of various materials.

• Become familiar with the commonly used materials for conductors, insulators, and
semiconductors.
2.5 Ammeters and voltmeters

Highlights
• Voltmeters to be connected across the two points.

• Ammeters to be placed in the network such that the charge flows through the meter.
• Note that the two meters must be designed not to affect the electrical/electronic system.
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2.6 Summary
You must familiarise yourself with 1) the concept of voltage and current; 2) common voltage
sources; 3) materials for conductors, insulators, and semiconductors, and the concept of
relative conductivities; 4) the use of ammeters and voltmeters.
2.7 Test yourself

Work through problems 3, 10, 21, 24, 28, and 32 in the textbook.
3. CHAPTER 3: RESISTANCE
3.1 Resistance: circular wires

Highlights
• The opposition to the flow of charge through an electrical circuit is called resistance. The
unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω).
• The resistance of any material is due to four main factors:
− Material
− Length
− Cross-sectional area
− Temperature of the material
𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 = 𝜌𝜌 𝐴𝐴,
where 𝜌𝜌 is resistivity, which is measured in CM-Ω/ft. This formula is applicable only at
room temperature. Note that
− The higher the resistivity, the greater the resistance of a conductor;
− The longer the conductor, the greater the resistance;
− The greater the cross-sectional area of a conductor, the less the resistance.
− Wire with a diameter of 1 mil has an area of 1 CM, 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = (𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 )2.
− Work out Examples 1 to 5.
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3.2 Temperature effects

Highlights
• Conductors have a positive temperature coefficient.

• Insulators and semiconductors have a negative temperature coefficient.
• Inferred absolute temperature
− For different materials, the inferred absolute temperatures are different;
|𝑇𝑇1 | + 𝑇𝑇1 |𝑇𝑇1 | + 𝑇𝑇2

=
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
where |𝑇𝑇1 | indicates the inferred absolute temperature of the material.

• Work out Example 7.
3.3 Type of resistors

Highlights
• Fixed resistors
• Variable resistors
• Colour coding and standard resistor values: note the presence of four, five, and six band
colour coding
• Surface mount resistors: study the three-symbol and two-symbol colour coding.
3.4 Conductance
Highlights
The reciprocal of the resistance of a material is called conductance. The symbol is G, and it is
measured in siemens (S).
3.5 Ohmmeters
Highlights
The ohmmeter is an instrument used to perform the following task and other functions:
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• Measure the resistance of individual or combined elements;

• Detect an open-circuit and short-circuit situation;
• Check the continuity of network connections and identify wires of a multi-lead cable;
• Test some semiconductor devices.
3.6 Reading materials

• Memristor
• Superconductors
• Thermistors
• Varistors
3.7 Summary
You must familiarise yourself with 1) the concept of resistance, and the key factors that
influence the resistivity of a conductor; 2) temperature effects of the resistors; 3) different
types of resistors and standard colour coding; 4) the use of ohmmeters.
3.8 Test yourself

Work through problems 2, 9, 20, 37, 39, and 40 in the textbook.
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Unit 1 2
Ohm’s law, series DC circuit
CONTENTS
PAGE
STUDY OBJECTIVES ......................................................................................... 15
4. CHAPTER 4: OHM’S LAW, POWER, AND ENERGY .............................. 15
4.1 Ohm’s law ................................................................................................. 15
4.2 Plotting Ohm’s law .................................................................................... 16
4.3 Power and energy ..................................................................................... 17
4.4 Efficiency .................................................................................................. 18
4.5 PSpice and Multisim ................................................................................. 18
4.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 18
4.7 Test yourself ............................................................................................. 18
5. CHAPTER 5: DC CIRCUIT ....................................................................... 19
5.1 Series DC circuit ...................................................................................... 19
5.2 Instruments ............................................................................................... 20
5.3 Power and voltage in series circuit ........................................................... 20
5.4 Kirchhoff’s voltage law .............................................................................. 20
5.5 Voltage division in a series circuit ............................................................. 21
5.6 Circuit notation .......................................................................................... 21
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OHM’S LAW, SERIES DC CIRCUIT
5.7 Voltage regulation and internal resistance of voltage source .................... 22
5.8 Summary .................................................................................................. 23
5.9 Test yourself ............................................................................................. 23
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STUDY OB JECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapters 4 and 5 of the textbook. In general, you must be
familiar with key concepts relating to Ohm’s law, power, energy, and the series DC circuit in
electrical circuits.
After studying chapters 4 and 5 of the textbook, you should be able to:
Chapter 4: Ohm’s law, power, and energy
• Analyse Ohm’s law and be able to apply it to various situations.

• Plot Ohm’s law and understand how to read a graphical plot of voltage versus current.
• Tell the difference between power and energy levels and how to solve for each.
• Explain the power and energy flow of a system, including how the flow affects the
efficiency of operation.
Chapter 5: Series DC circuit
• Solve voltage, current, and power to each of the circuit elements.

• Formulate and apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
• Apply the voltage divider rule.
• Use subscript notation to define the voltage levels of a network.
• Use a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter to measure the quantities of a network.
You should spend approximately two weeks on these two chapters.
4. CHAPTER 4: OHM’S LAW, POWER, AND ENERGY
4.1 Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law is one of the most important equations to learn in this field. It is very powerful
and can be applied to any network (DC circuit, AC circuit, digital and microwave circuit) in
any timeframe (over a period of time or for instantaneous response).
15
Highlights
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜,
where 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = flow of charge or current, 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐= voltage, potential difference,

𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = resistance. These terms can be converted into a mathematical description as
𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼 = ,
𝑅𝑅
where 𝐼𝐼 represents current, and 𝑉𝑉 denotes the potential difference (voltage) across the
resistance 𝑅𝑅. It is important to note that this equation describes the relationships
among 𝑰𝑰, 𝑽𝑽, and 𝑹𝑹. If you know any two of the components of a circuit, you can
calculate the remaining one.
Highlights
• The voltage source pressures the current in a direction that leaves the positive terminal of
the supply and returns to the negative terminal of the battery.
• For any resistor, the direction of current through a resistor will define the polarity of the
voltage drop across the resistor.
• Study and compare Figures 2 and 3 in the textbook.
• Study Examples 3 and 4 in the textbook.
4.2 Plotting Ohm’s law

Highlights
• Tips for reading the plots:

− Read the titles of horizontal and vertical axes (i.e., voltage, current, pressure, etc.)
and units (i.e., volts, mini-volts, ampere, etc.).
− Read the scales of the horizontal and vertical axes.
− Read the curves in the plot, paying attention to legends if applicable.
• Study Example 5.
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4.3 Power and energy

Highlights
Items Power Energy

An indication of how much
work (energy conversion) Use a certain level of power over
Definition
can be accomplished in a a period of time.
specified period of time.
Units W = J/s Wh, kWh
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑡𝑡
𝑉𝑉 2 𝑅𝑅
Formulae 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 = For dynamic power 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡)
𝑅𝑅
𝑊𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑃(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
The highlighted area, which is
The curve in blue is power. also bounded by two red dashed
lines, is energy.
Power (W)
P(t)
Relationship
t1 t2 Time (s)
• Tell the difference between energy and power.

• Apply the power and energy formulae.
• Study Examples 6 to 8, and 13 and 14.
17
4.4 Efficiency
Highlights
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂 = , and
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜
𝜂𝜂% = × 100%,
𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖
where 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜 is power output, and 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 is the power input.
• Study Figures 18 to 20 in the textbook. Explain the concept of efficiency.

• Study Examples 16 to 19.
4.5 PSpice and Multisim

Read the section dealing with computer analysis and the software programs PSpice and
Multisim. Have at least one of these two software programs installed on your PC. If you have
difficulties in doing this, then contact your lecturer for this module.
4.6 Summary
You must be familiar with the following concepts before you move on to the next section:
1) Ohm’s law and the plotting of Ohm’s law;

2) difference between energy and power;
3) calculations of energy, power, and efficiency;
4) PSpice and Multisim software.
4.7 Test yourself

Work through problems 5, 10, 16, 34, 35, 37, 47, 60, and 63 in the textbook.
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5. CHAPTER 5: SERIES DC CIRCUIT
5.1 Series DC circuit

Highlights
• DC: the flow of charge (current) does not change in magnitude or direction with time.
• AC: the flow of charge is continually changing in magnitude and direction with time.
• Series resistor characteristics:
− Total resistance of a series configuration is the sum of the resistance level.
− The more resistors added in series, the greater the total resistance.
− The largest resistor in a series combination will have the most impact on the total
resistance.
− The total resistance of resistors in series is unaffected by the order in which they are
connected.
− A resistor is a two-terminal device, and there is no polarity associated with
resistance.
− Ohmmeters can be used to measure the total resistance of the series resistors.
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 = ∑𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 ,
where 𝑖𝑖 is the counter of resistors in series, 𝑁𝑁 is the total number of series resistors,
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 is the total resistance, and 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 is the 𝑖𝑖th resistor in series.
• Series circuit characteristics:
− The direction of current in a series DC circuit is such that it leaves the positive
terminal of the supply and returns to the negative terminal.
− The current is the same at every point in a series circuit.
𝐸𝐸
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 ,
𝑇𝑇
where 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 is the current of a series circuit, and 𝐸𝐸 is the power supply.
− The polarity of the voltage across a resistor is determined by the direction of the
current.
− Study Examples 4 and 5.
19
5.2 Instruments
Highlights
• The insertion of any meter in a circuit will affect the circuit.

• The voltage of a circuit can be measured without disturbing the circuit.
• Using an ammeter to measure the current of a circuit requires that the circuit be broken at
some point and the meter inserted in series with the branch in which the current is to be
determined.
• Pay attention to the polarity when connecting the voltage and ampere meters.
5.3 Power and voltage in series circuit

Highlights
• The power applied by the DC supply must equal that dissipated by the resistive elements.
• In a series configuration, maximum power is delivered to the largest resistor.
• Voltage sources can be connected in series to either increase or decrease the total voltage
applied to a system. The net polarity is the polarity of the larger sum with the same
polarity.
5.4 Kirchhoff’s voltage law

Highlights
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) specifies that the algebraic sum of the potential rises and
drops around a closed path or closed loop is zero.
∑↻ 𝑽𝑽 = 𝟎𝟎, or
∑↻ 𝑽𝑽𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 = ∑↻ 𝑽𝑽𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 .
• The sum of the voltage rises around a closed path will always equal the sum of the
voltage drops.
• It is most important to make sure of the polarity of the voltage of each component in a
series circuit. Study Examples 8 and 9.
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• There is no requirement that the closed loop path for KVL has charge flow or current.
Study Example 10.
• KVL can be applied either to an individual circuit component or a block of circuit
components. Study Examples 11 to 13.
5.5 Voltage division in a series circuit

Highlights
• The voltage across series resistive elements will be decided as the magnitude of the
resistance level; see Figures 33 to 35 in the textbook:
− In a series resistive circuit, the larger the resistance, the more of the applied voltage
it will capture.
− The ratio of the voltages across series resistors will be the same as the ratio of their
resistance levels.
• Voltage divider rule (VDR):
𝑽𝑽
𝑽𝑽𝒙𝒙 = 𝑹𝑹𝒙𝒙 𝑹𝑹 ,
𝑻𝑻
where 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 is the voltage across the resistor 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 . 𝑉𝑉 and 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 are the total power supply and
total resistance of the series circuit.
− Study Examples 16 and 17.
− The VDR is going to be used frequently in later chapters.
• Interchanging series elements:
− The element of a series circuit can be interchanged without affecting the total
resistance, current, or power to each element.
− Study Example 20.
5.6 Circuit notation

Notation plays an increasingly important role in the analysis of circuits.
Highlights
• Voltage sources and ground:

− Electrical and electronic systems are grounded for reference and safety purposes.
21
− Read Figures 45 to 49 carefully.

• Double-script notation
− Voltage is an across variable and exists between two points. This has resulted in a
double-script notation that defines the first subscript as the higher potential. See
Figure 50.
− For instance, 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is the voltage at point 𝑎𝑎 with respect to point 𝑏𝑏, which specifies
that point a has the higher potential.
• Single-script notation
− If point 𝑏𝑏 of the notation 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is specified as ground potential, then a single-subscript
notation can be used that provides the voltage at a point with respect to ground.
• General comments
− 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 .
− 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = −𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 .
5.7 Voltage regulation and internal resistance of voltage source

Highlights
• Every practical (real-world) supply has an internal resistance in series with the idealised
voltage source. Pay attention to Figure 65(b).
• The internal resistance is
Δ𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 =
Δ𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿
where the Δ𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 and Δ𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 are the differences between no-load and full-load condition.
• Voltage regulation (VR):
VNL − 𝑉𝑉𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = × 100%
VFL
Note that VR is an indicator of the sensitivity of a power supply. Most modern

commercial supplies have regulation factors less than 1%, with 0.01% being very typical.
• Study Examples 28 and 29.
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5.8 Summary
Well done! You have mastered the following key concepts while working through this
chapter. If you feel that there is anything you should revise, please do so now, as these
concepts are essential to what you will be studying in the rest of the course.
1) Concepts relating to series DC circuits;

2) KVL;
3) Voltage division;
4) Circuit notation;
5) Calculation of internal resistance of a power supply;
6) Analysis of series DC circuit using PSpice and Multisim software.
5.9 Test yourself

Work through problems 2(b, d), 7, 12(b), 17, 18, 21(c), 23, 26, 28, 37, 40, 44, 45 and 46–48
in the textbook.
Note that from chapter 5 you need to work on problems in addition to the ones I identify. I
have selected the most important problems you will need to do, but you will need much more
practice!
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Unit 1 3
Parallel DC circuit, series-parallel
circuit
CONTENTS
PAGE
6. CHAPTER 6: PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS ................................................... 27
6.1 Parallel resistors ......................................................................................... 28
6.2 Plotting Ohm’s law .................................................................................... 29
6.3 Power distribution ..................................................................................... 29
6.4 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) ...................................................................... 30
6.5 Current divider rule ................................................................................... 30
6.6 Voltage source in parallel ......................................................................... 31
6.7 Open and short circuit ............................................................................... 31
6.8 Voltmeter loading effects .......................................................................... 31
6.9 Extra readings............................................................................................. 32
6.10 Computer analysis .................................................................................... 32
6.11 Summary .................................................................................................. 32
6.12 Test yourself ............................................................................................. 32
25
PARALLEL DC CIRCUIT, SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT
7. CHAPTER 7: Series-parallel circuits ......................................................... 33
7.1 Series-parallel networks .......................................................................... 33
7.2 Voltage divider supply: unloaded and loaded ........................................... 34
7.3 Potentiometer loading ............................................................................... 34
7.4 Ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter design .............................................. 35
7.6 Summary .................................................................................................... 35
7.7 Test yourself ............................................................................................. 35
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STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapters 6 and 7 of the textbook. In general, you must be
familiar with the following key concepts regarding the series and parallel DC principles in
electrical circuits.
Chapter 6: Parallel DC circuits
• Explain the characteristics of a parallel network and solve calculations for voltage,
current, and power for each element.
• Analyse and apply Kirchhoff’s current law on an electrical circuit.
• Apply the current divider rule.
• Explain the impact of open and short circuits on the behaviour of a network.
• Measure the key parameters of a parallel network by means of an ohmmeter,
voltmeter, and ammeter.
Chapter 7: Series-parallel circuits
• Identify the unique characteristics of series-parallel configurations and solve the

voltage, current, or power to any individual element or combination of elements.
• Apply the voltage divider supply effectively.
• Use a potentiometer to control the voltage across any given load.
6. CHAPTER 6: PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

Series and parallel network configurations can form the framework for the most complex
network structures. A clear understanding of each will pay enormous dividends as more
complex methods and networks are examined. In this chapter, you will examine the parallel
circuit and all the methods and laws associated with the important configurations.
The content of chapter 6 is in parallel with chapter 5. You can read the two chapters together
to identify the linkages and differences between series and parallel circuits. For instance, you
27
will have the opportunity to compare series resistors (circuit) and parallel resistors (circuit),
power distribution in series/parallel circuits, Kirchhoff’s current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage
law, voltage divider rules and current divider rules, voltage source in series/parallel, and so
on. This process will help you to gain deeper understanding of both the series and parallel
circuits.
6.1 Parallel resistors

Once you have studied this chapter, make sure that you are able to obtain the total resistance
of different configurations of parallel resistors, either by calculation or by measuring the
values with instruments.
Highlights
• In general, two elements, branches, or circuits are in parallel if they have two points in
common. Refer to Figure 6.1 for the different structures of parallel circuits.
• If N resistors 𝑅𝑅1 , … , 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 are connected in parallel, then the total resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 is
calculated by
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁
Note that the resistance 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 is smaller than the value of the smallest resistors in the
configuration. You can think about whether this comment is true, and we can discuss it on
myUnisa. The above equation can also be written as
𝐺𝐺𝑇𝑇 = 𝐺𝐺1 + 𝐺𝐺2 + ⋯ + 𝐺𝐺𝑁𝑁 ,
1
where GT = 𝑅𝑅 in siemens (S).
𝑇𝑇
When all the parallel resistors are equal, then
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝑁𝑁
where 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 is the value of the ith resistor.

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• Remember the formula for total resistance of two parallel resistors:
𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑅𝑅_2
• Study Examples 6.3, 6.6, 6.9 and 6.10.
6.2 Parallel circuits

You must be able to calculate the voltage and current of each element in parallel circuits.
Highlights
• In general, the voltage is always the same across parallel elements.

• Current always seeks the path of least resistance.
• For single-source parallel networks, the source current is always equal to the sum of the
individual branch currents. Study Examples 6.12 and 6.13 to check on this.
• Use Ohm’s law to do the calculation of voltage and current in parallel circuits.
• Try using Multisim to do the instrumentation measurement on parallel circuits.
6.3 Power distribution

You need to be able to calculate the power of each element in parallel circuits.
Highlights
• For the parallel circuit,

𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸 = 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 1 + 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 2 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 𝑁𝑁
where 𝑃𝑃𝐸𝐸 is the power delivered by the source, 𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖 is the power to the ith resistor, and
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅2
𝑃𝑃𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅2𝑖𝑖 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 = 𝑖𝑖
.
𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖
29
• In a parallel resistive network, the larger the resistor, the less the power absorbed.
• Study Example 6.15, and work it out yourself before you read the solution.
6.4 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)

You must be able to apply KCL to analyse complex circuits with various configurations.
Highlights
• The sum of the currents entering a junction (or region) of a network must equal the sum
of the currents leaving the same junction (or region). Please refer to Figures 6.30 and
6.31 for illustrations.
• The directions of currents are essential when applying KCL.
• The term node is commonly used to refer to a junction of two or more branches.
• You need lots of practice to master KCL. Study Examples 6.16 to 6.20.
6.5 Current divider rule

The current divider rule (CDR) will help you to calculate the current through a circuit branch
faster.
Highlights
• For two parallel elements of equal value, the current will divide equally.
• For parallel elements with different values, the current will divide as the inverse of their
resistor value as the ratio rule:
𝐼𝐼1 𝑅𝑅2
=
𝐼𝐼2 𝑅𝑅1
• The current divider rule is:

𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 = 𝐼𝐼
𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 𝑇𝑇
where 𝐼𝐼𝑥𝑥 is the current through the xth branch of a parallel circuit, and 𝑅𝑅𝑥𝑥 is the total
resistance of the xth branch of a parallel circuit. 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 and 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 are the total current and
resistance of the parallel circuits, respectively.
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• Memorise the current divider formula for the special case of two parallel resistors.
• Study Examples 6.21 and 6.22.
6.6 Voltage source in parallel

Keep in mind that voltage sources can be placed in parallel only if they have the same
voltage. However, it is not easy to achieve this in practice.
Highlights
• If you have to replace batteries in series or parallel, replace all of them at once.
• Never connect two different voltage sources in parallel. If you do, both will become
ineffective or damaged.
6.7 Open and short circuit

Open circuits and short circuits can often cause more confusion and difficulty in the analysis
of a system than standard series or parallel systems. Make sure you have got the two concepts
clear in your mind, since they are important in the next chapters.
Highlights
• An open circuit is two isolated terminals not connected by an element of any kind, which
has a potential difference (voltage) across its terminals, but the current is always zero
amperes.
• A short circuit is a very low resistance, direct connection between two terminals of a
network, which carries a current of a level determined by the external circuit, but the
potential difference (voltage) across its terminals is always zero volts.
• Read practical examples of short circuits in Figure 6.52.
6.8 Voltmeter loading effects

You need to know the loading effects of both the ampere meters and voltmeters.
31
Highlights
• An ampere meter places an additional resistance in series with the branch of interest.
• A voltmeter places an additional resistance across the elements.
• The ideal level for the internal resistance of a voltmeter would be infinite ohms, just as
zero ohms would be ideal for an ammeter.
• Be able to calculate the internal resistance of a volt–ohm meter (VOM).
• Study Example 6.25.
6.9 Extra readings

Please do extra readings about troubleshooting techniques, breadboards, and application, such
as the car system, house wiring, and parallel computer bus connections.
6.10 Computer analysis

The software programs PSpice and Multisim are excellent and important tools for learning
circuit analysis. Follow the instructions in the textbook for some basic simulations on series
and parallel circuit analysis, such as the measurements of resistors in series/parallel, and the
measurements and calculations of current, voltage and power. You can also verify the results
of the textbook examples as suggested in this study guide.
6.11 Summary
Table 6.1 contains a useful summary of series and parallel circuits, and the duality of the two
types of circuit. Please read Table 6.1 carefully and be sure that you are able to calculate or
measure the current, voltage, and power of any type of series and parallel circuits.
6.12 Test yourself

Work through problems 1(c, d), 2(b, d), 6(b), 7(b), 8(c), 9, 11, 17, 23, 25, 26, 28–32, 35, 39,
42, 44, 46, and 48–50 in the textbook.
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7. CHAPTER 7: SERIES - PARALLEL CIRCUITS

In broad terms, the network configurations can be either series-parallel or complex. A series-
parallel configuration is one that is formed by a combination of series and parallel elements.
A complex configuration is one in which none of the elements are in series or parallel. In this
chapter there are no new laws or rules to learn for circuit analysis. However, a number of
approaches are introduced to facilitate the analysis of circuits with different structures.
In this chapter, the circuits are becoming a little more complex than simply a series or parallel
configuration. The key methodology entails simplifying the complex circuit into the series or
parallel circuits that you already know from previous chapters. To achieve this target, let’s
study the reduce and return approach and the block diagram approach. Then you will have the
opportunity to practise by applying these approaches for circuit analysis on various circuit
configurations. These approaches are also applicable for AC circuit analysis at a later stage.
7.1 Series-parallel networks

In this section we focus on the general approach, reduce and return approach and block
diagram approach, and you will do exercises involving a number of descriptive examples.
Highlights: General approach
• You must be very careful to determine which elements are in series and which are in
parallel.
• Examine each region of the network independently to simplify the circuit.
• Redraw the network as often as possible with the reduced branches.
• Verify the solution by considering the magnitudes of the energy source and the elements
in the network.
Highlights: Reduce and return approach
• Reduce phase aims to simplify the network.

• In the return phase, you use the resulting source current to work back to the desired
unknown. Study Figure 2 and Example 2.
33
Highlights: Block diagram approach
• Once grouping of elements reveals the most direct approach, you can examine the impact
of the individual components in each group. This grouping of elements is called the block
diagram approach, which is widely used in circuit analysis.
• Study Examples 3 and 4. Note that one network may be grouped into different block
diagrams.
• Study all descriptive examples and pay close attention to Example 8.
• Study one popular circuit configuration of ladder networks.
7.2 Voltage divider supply: unloaded and loaded

This section reveals that loading affects the system supply, and that the heavier the current,
the greater the loading effects.
Highlights
• For a voltage divider supply to be effective, the applied resistive loads should be
significantly larger than the resistors appearing in the voltage divider network.
• Be able to calculate the terminal voltage in a voltage divider supply.
7.3 Potentiometer loading

Highlights
• For the unloaded potentiometer, the output voltage is determined by the voltage divider
rule.
• When applying the potentiometer, note that
𝑅𝑅 ′ 𝐸𝐸
− 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = with 𝑅𝑅 ′ = 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 ||𝑅𝑅1.
𝑅𝑅 ′ +𝑅𝑅2
− 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 ≫ 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇
− 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇 should not be too small, given the consideration of energy consumption.
• Study Figures 43 and 44, and Example 13.
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7.4 Ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter design

Read this section for more details about the design of ammeters, voltmeters and ohmmeters.
If you kept in mind that the internal resistance should ideally be 0 in ammeters, and infinite in
voltmeters, then understanding the design process is a lot easier.

I recommend that you use Multisim to simulate the voltage divider supply.
7.6 Summary
This chapter introduced the reduce and return approach and the block diagram approach. You
need to complete a lot of exercises to master both approaches for circuit analysis. If you have
trouble in applying these two approaches for circuit analysis, then do not move on to the next
chapter until you have had more practice and feel more confident.
7.7 Test yourself

Work through problems 1(c, e, f), 2(c, d), 4, 8, 9, 12, 15, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 28, 29, 31,
34, 42, and 43–47 in the textbook.
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Unit 1 4
Methods of analysis and selected
topics (DC)
CONTENTS
PAGE
8. CHAPTER 8: Methods of analysis and selected topics (DC) ...................... 38
8.1 Current sources .......................................................................................... 39
8.2 Branch-current analysis ............................................................................ 39
8.3 Mesh analysis ........................................................................................... 40
8.4 Nodal analysis ............................................................................................ 41
8.5 Bridge networks, Δ–Y and Y–Δ conversions .......................................... 41
8.6 Applications .............................................................................................. 42
8.8 Summary .................................................................................................. 42
8.9 Test yourself ............................................................................................... 42
37
METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND SELECTED TOPICS (DC)
STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapter 8 of the textbook. In general, you must be familiar
with the key concepts relating to three major analysis method for complex circuits, namely
branch-current analysis, mesh analysis, and nodal analysis.
After studying chapter 8 of the textbook, you should be able to:
Chapter 8: Methods of analysis and selected topics (DC)
• Analyse terminal characteristics of a current source and solve for the voltage and
currents of a network.
• Apply branch-current analysis and mesh analysis to find the currents of a network with
one or more independent paths.
• Apply nodal analysis to find all the terminal voltages of any series-parallel network
with one or more independent sources.
• Explain bridge network configurations and perform Δ–Y or Y–Δ conversions.
You should spend approximately two weeks on this chapter.
8. CHAPTER 8: METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND SELECTED

TOPICS (DC)
In this chapter, you will be systematically introduced to methods of analysis for approaching
networks with any number of sources in any arrangements. You will remember that the
methodologies in previous chapters dealt mainly with networks in which sources are in series
and parallel. Three key methods, namely
• branch-current analysis
• mesh analysis, and
• nodal analysis
will be introduced in this chapter. These methods can be applied to investigate a complex
network called the bridge configuration, followed by the use of 𝚫𝚫 – Y or Y – 𝚫𝚫 conversions
to analyse this kind of network.
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8.1 Current sources

Current sources are introduced in this chapter for the first time. When you study this section,
ask yourself what a current source is, and be able to do source conversions and analyse
current sources in parallel and series.
Highlights
• The current source is often described as the dual of the voltage source.
• A current source establishes a fixed current in the branch where it is located.
• Study the current source symbol as shown in Figure 1 in the textbook. The arrow
indicates the direction in which it is supplying current to the branch where it is located.
• Study Examples 2 and 3 to get an idea of how to solve for the desired unknown
parameters in simple circuits with multiple sources.
• As shown in Figure 5 in the textbook, ideal voltage sources have internal resistance of 0
Ω, while ideal current sources have internal resistances of +∞ Ω. Ideal sources cannot be
converted from one type to another.
• In practice, voltage source connects a low-value resistor in series, while current source
connects a high-value resistor in parallel. Thus the voltage source and current sources can
be converted into each other by applying Ohm’s law. The equivalence between a current
source and a voltage source exists only at their external terminals. Also note that a source
and its equivalent will establish current in the same direction through the applied load.
• Study Examples 4 and 5 to practise the source conversion.
• Current sources of different values cannot be placed in series due to a violation of
Kirchhoff’s current law.
• Current sources can be placed in parallel. Study Example 6 to calculate the direction and
magnitude of the total current source, as well as the total internal resistance.
8.2 Branch-current analysis

The branch-current method is favoured because 1) the reduce and return approach is not
applicable in some circuits, such as the circuit shown in Figure 19, and 2) the source
conversion approach is too complicated and sometimes does not permit a solution to complex
circuits. When studying this section, make sure that you can apply the branch-current
approach to analyse circuits.
39
Procedure
• Assign a distinct current of arbitrary direction to each branch of the network.

• Indicate the polarities for each resistor as determined by the assumed current direction.
• Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) around each closed independent loop of the
network (see Figure 20).
• Apply Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) at the minimum number of nodes that will include
all branch currents of the network. The minimum number is one less than the number of
independent nodes (see Figure 21).
• Solve the linear equations for the assumed branch currents. You need to review the use of
the determinants method to solve the linear equations, which is part of your mathematical
background. Study Example 10.
8.3 Mesh analysis

Mesh analysis is actually an extension of the branch-current method. Pay attention to the
concepts of the general approach, supermesh current, and mesh format approach.
Compared with the branch-current approach, the mesh approach will use KVL only, while
removing the step of applying KCL at independent nodes.
General procedure
• Assign a distinct current in the clockwise direction to each independent, closed loop of
the network. Note that applying the clockwise direction is not compulsory, but it is a
standard process to avoid common errors.
• Indicate the polarities within each loop for each resistor as determined by the assumed
direction of loop current for that loop.
• Apply KVL around each closed loop in the clockwise direction. (Note that polarity of a
voltage is unaffected by the direction of the assigned loop currents.)
• Solve the linear equation for the assumed loop current.
• The supermesh current is applicable when there is a current source without a parallel
resistance.
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• Key steps for using the supermesh current: 1) Set the independent current source as an
open circuit. 2) Link the supermesh current with the independent current source. 3) The
rest of the procedures are the same as for mesh analysis.
• Study Examples 16 to 18 to identify the advantages of the format approach of mesh
analysis.
8.4 Nodal analysis

Nodal analysis uses KCL only at the nodes, which removes the step of applying KVL at
independent current loops.
General procedure
• Determine the number of nodes within the network.

• Pick a reference node, and label each remaining node with a subscript value of voltage.
• Apply KCL at each node except the reference. Assume that all unknown currents leave
the node.
• Solve the resulting equations for the nodal voltages.
• Study Examples 20 and 21 carefully.
• The supernode approach is applicable when there is a voltage source without a series
resistance.
• Key steps for using the supernode approach: 1) Set the independent voltage source as
short circuit. 2) Link the supernode voltage with the independent voltage sources. 3) The
rest of the procedures are the same as the general nodal analysis. Study Example 22 to
practise the supernode approach.
• Study Examples 23 to 25 to identify the advantages of the format approach of nodal
analysis.
8.5 Bridge networks, 𝚫𝚫 – Y and Y – 𝚫𝚫 conversions

This section introduces the bridge network, a configuration that has a multitude of
applications, which is widely used in both DC and AC meters.
41
Highlights
• Try to use mesh and nodal analysis to analyse the standard bridge circuit in Figure 65.
• Study Examples 27 to 30 in order to practise the formulas to perform Δ–Y and Y–Δ
conversions.
8.6 Applications
Read the material in the textbook that deals with the constant-current characteristics in the
design of security systems, the bridge circuit in a common residential smoke detector, and the
nodal voltages of a digital logic probe.

Use Multisim to verify the results of the examples in this chapter.
8.8 Summary
Three key circuit analysis approaches, namely branch-current analysis, mesh analysis and
nodal analysis were introduced. These can be applied to investigate complex circuits with
multiple current/voltage sources, or bridge networks. They are very powerful analysis
approaches, but you will need a lot of practice before you can apply them flexibly and
effectively in different scenarios.
8.9 Test yourself

Work through problems 4, 10, 12, 17, 18, 25–31, 39, 42, 43, 45, 46, 53, 57, 59, 61, 66, 69,
and 70–72 in the textbook.
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Unit 1 5
Network theorems
CONTENTS
PAGE
9. CHAPTER 9: Network theorems................................................................. 44
9.1 Superposition theorem................................................................................ 45
9.2 Thévenin’s theorem .................................................................................. 45
9.3 Norton’s theorem ...................................................................................... 47
9.4 Maximum power transfer theorem ............................................................ 48
9.5 Millman’s theorem ..................................................................................... 49
9.6 Substitution theorem ................................................................................. 50
9.7 Reciprocity theorem .................................................................................. 50
9.9 Summary .................................................................................................... 50
9.10 Test yourself ............................................................................................... 50
43
NETWORK THEOREMS
STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapter 9 in the textbook. Chapter 9 deals with a number of
very import network theorems, namely the superposition theorem, Thévenin’s theorem,
Norton’s theorem, the maximum power transfer theorem, Millman’s theorem, the substitution
theorem, and the reciprocity theorem. Not only can these theorems be used to solve networks
such as those previously introduced, but they also provide an opportunity to determine the
impact of a particular source or element on the response of the entire system. In most cases,
the network to be analysed and the mathematics required to find the solution are simplified
through the effective use of these network theorems.
After studying chapter 9 of the text book, you should be able to:
Chapter 9: Network theorems
• Identify the unique ability of the superposition theorem to separate the impact of each
source on the quantity of interest.
• Apply Thévenin’s theorem to reduce a two-terminal, series-parallel network with any
number of sources to a single voltage source and a series resistor.
• Use Norton’s theorem to reduce a two-terminal network to a single current source and
a parallel resistor.
• Apply the maximum power transfer theorem to determine the maximum power to a
load and to choose a load that will receive maximum power.
• Explain the reduction powers of Millman’s theorem and the powerful implications of
the substitution and reciprocity theorems.
9. CHAPTER 9: NETWORK THEOREMS

The first theorem to be introduced is the superposition theorem, followed by Thévenin’s
theorem, Norton’s theorem, and the maximum power transfer theorem. The chapter
concludes with a brief introduction to Millman’s theorem and the substitution and reciprocity
theorems.
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9.1 Superposition theorem

The superposition theorem is unquestionably one of the most powerful in this field. It is
helpful in analysing networks that have two or more sources that are not in series or parallel,
and is able to reveal the effect of each source on a particular quantity of interest. The
superposition theorem is applicable for both DC and AC circuits, and networks with both DC
and AC sources.
Highlights
• Superposition theorem: the current through, or voltage across, any element of a network
is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages produced independently by each
source. More precisely:
− This theorem allows us to find a solution for a current or voltage using only one
source at a time.
− Once the solution for each source is obtained, the total solution is the algebraic sum
of the solution for each source. When calculating the total, take the directions of
currents and polarities of voltages into consideration.
− When considering the effect of each source, remove the other sources.
− Setting a voltage source to zero is like placing a short circuit across its terminals.
− Setting a current source to zero is like replacing it with an open circuit.
− Study Figure 1 in the textbook.
− The number of networks to be analysed by the superposition network will equal the
number of sources.
− Superposition cannot be applied to power effects. Find out why this is the case as
you study this section.
• Five examples are presented in the textbook. As you study these examples:
− Do not miss out any sources in the network.
− Apply the correct rule to remove sources for the analysis of an independent source.
− Use the correct current directions and voltage polarities.
− Examples 1 and 4 are interesting. Study them in detail.
9.2 Thévenin’s theorem

Thévenin’s theorem makes it possible to reduce complex networks to a simpler form for
analysis and design. This theorem is most applicable to 1) analysing networks with sources
that are not in series or parallel; 2) reducing the number of components required to establish
45
NETWORK THEOREMS
the same characteristics at the output terminals; 3) investigating the effect of changing a
particular component on the behaviour of a network much more easily without analysing the
entire network after each change.
Highlights
• Thévenin’s theorem: any two-terminal DC network can be replaced by an equivalent

circuit consisting solely of a voltage source and series resistor, as shown in Figure 1.
RTH
a
ETH
FIGURE 1
Thévenin equivalent circuit
• The main challenge in applying Thévenin’s theorem relates to finding the E 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 and R 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 .
To do this, follow the steps below:
− Remove the portion of the network that is not included in the Thévenin equivalent
circuit.
− Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.
− Calculate R 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 by setting all sources to zero (you should know how to do this after
studying the superposition theorem; if you need to, please go back and review this
part now), and then finding the total resistance between the two marked terminals.
− Calculate E 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 by first returning all sources to their original position and finding the
open-circuit voltage between the marked terminals. This step causes confusion and
errors, so please always check when you do the calculations.
− Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit and connect it to the previously removed
portion, as shown in Figure 9.25.
• Six examples are given in the textbook. Examples 6 and 7 are quite easy to follow, and
can be taken as the demonstrations of the Thévenin theorem. In Example 8, pay special
attention to determining R 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 . Example 9 is an application in the bridge circuit. You may
solve it by nodal or mesh analysis and then decide whether it is much easier to use
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Thévenin’s theorem. Example 10 looks difficult, but if you manage to redraw it into a
circuit as shown in Figure 49, then the problem becomes much easier. This is a very good
case study, since you can also use the superposition theorem to determine the E 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 . In
Example 11, there are both voltage and current sources; the example also gives a hint that
you can apply Thévenin’s theorem iteratively to simplify a complex network.
• Experimental procedures are also applicable for finding the Thévenin equivalent circuits.
The experimental approach is much easier for identifying the Thévenin voltage. The
following information is helpful:
− 𝐄𝐄𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 : The Thévenin voltage is determined by connecting a voltmeter to the output
terminals of the network. Be sure that the internal resistance of the voltmeter is
significantly more than the expected level of R 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 .
− 𝐑𝐑 𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 : 1) If you are using an ohmmeter, make sure that the sources are set to zero in a
safe and practical manner; 2) if you are using the short-circuit current, then the R 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
can be calculated by Ohm’s law.
9.3 Norton’s theorem

Like Thévenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem can also be used to 1) analyse networks with
sources that are not in series or parallel; 2) reduce the number of components required to
established the same characteristics at the output terminals; 3) investigate the effect of
changing a particular component on the behaviour of a network much more easily without
analysing the entire network after each change.
Highlights
• Norton’s theorem: any two-terminal linear bilateral DC network can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit consisting of a current source and a parallel resistor, as shown in Figure
2 below.
47
NETWORK THEOREMS
IN
RN
FIGURE 2
Norton equivalent circuit
• The main challenge in applying Norton’s theorem is finding the 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 and 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 . Follow the
steps below:
− Remove the portion of the network that is not included in the Norton equivalent
circuit.
− Mark the terminals of the remaining two-terminal network.
− Calculate 𝑅𝑅𝑁𝑁 . You can follow the same procedure as in calculating 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 .
− Calculate 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁 by first returning all resources to their original position and then finding
the short-circuit current between the marked terminals.
− Draw the Norton equivalent circuit with the previously removed portion of the
network.
• The Norton and Thé venin equivalent circuits can also be found from each other by using
the source transformation approach.
• Follow the same experimental procedure as for Thévenin’s theorem to identify the
Norton equivalent circuit.
9.4 Maximum power transfer theorem

This is the first theorem on power in this textbook. The key point to remember is that the load
will receive maximum power from a network when 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 . Two major questions need to
be asked and answered: 1) What load should be applied to a system to draw the maximum
power? 2) Given a load, what conditions need to be satisfied to ensure that the system will
deliver the maximum power to the load?
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Highlights
• Study Figure 86. If 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 < 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 , the power to load drops off rapidly as 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 decreases to
zero; if 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 > 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 , the power to load drops off more slowly as 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 increases.
• Note that power and efficiency are two different concepts. Efficiency increases when
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 increases. When 𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 , the efficiency of a circuit is 50%.
• There are four examples in this section. If you can work out Example 15 before reading
the answers, then you have mastered the content of this section nicely. Then work out
Examples 16 and 17 for more practice, and Example 18 to find out how this section links
up with previous two sections.
9.5 Millman’s theorem

Through the application of Millman’s theorem, any number of parallel voltage sources can be
reduced to one. In addition, the dual of Millman’s theorem can convert series current sources
into one. The question, then, is how to perform the conversion.
Highlights
• The application consists of the three steps below (Figures 97 to 100 provide a clear
demonstration):
− Convert all voltage sources to current sources.
− Combine the parallel current source.
− Convert the resulting current source to a voltage source.
• The formulae (9.8) to (9.11) are obtained by KCL. When applying these formulae, you
need to pay attention to the directions of the current sources and polarities of the voltage
sources, as these will affect the mathematical signs in the formulae.
• Two examples are given in this section. Example 19 is an excellent demonstration of
Millman’s theorem. The question in Example 20 is the same as the one presented in
chapter 8, which was solved by mesh and nodal analysis. It can now also be solved by
Millman’s theorem.
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NETWORK THEOREMS
9.6 Substitution theorem

The substitution theorem states that given the known voltage across and current through any
branch of a DC bilateral network, this branch can be replaced by any branch equivalence.
You need to note that for each equivalent, the terminal voltage and current are the same. Also
consider that the response of the remainder of the circuit is unchanged once any substitution
is performed in the circuit.
This theorem has been applied in previous chapters. For instance, V = 0 and I = 0 were
replaced by a short circuit and an open circuit.
9.7 Reciprocity theorem

Highlights
• The reciprocity theorem is applicable only to single-source networks.

• The theorem states that the location of the voltage source and the resulting current may
be interchanged without a change in current.
• Calculate the example in this section to verify this theorem yourself.

Follow the instructions in this section to repeat the examples in PSpice and Multisim on your
own.
9.9 Summary
Seven network theorems were introduced in this chapter. After studying this chapter, you
must have mastered the superposition theorem, Thévenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem, and
the maximum power transfer theorem.
9.10 Test yourself

Work through problems 4, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, 18, 26, 30, 36, 38, 41, 43, 47, and 50–53 in the
textbook.
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Unit 1 6
Capacitors
CONTENTS
PAGE

10. CHAPTER 10: Capacitors........................................................................ 52
10.1 The electric field ..................................................................................... 53
10.2 Capacitance ........................................................................................... 54
10.3 Capacitors .............................................................................................. 55
10.4 Charging phase ..................................................................................... 56
10.5 Discharging phase ................................................................................. 58
10.6 Initial conditions and instantaneous values ............................................ 60
10.7 Thévenin equivalent: τ = RThC ............................................................ 61
10.8 The current iC ........................................................................................ 61
10.9 Capacitors in series and in parallel ........................................................ 62
10.10 Energy stored by a capacitor ................................................................. 62
10.11 Stray capacitances ................................................................................. 63
10.12 Applications ........................................................................................... 63
10.14 Summary ................................................................................................. 63
10.15 Test yourself ............................................................................................ 64
51
CAPACITORS
STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapter 10 of the textbook. A new and extremely important
network component, the capacitor, is introduced here. Your key focuses should be: basic
construction of capacitors, concept and calculation of capacitance, transients in capacitive
networks: charging phase and discharging phase, time constant, initial conditions, the
Thévenin equivalent, current characteristics, capacitors in series and in parallel, and energy
stored by a capacitor. The challenges are the transients in capacitive networks.
Chapter 10: Capacitors
• Identify the basic construction of a capacitor and explain the factors that affect its
ability to store charge on its plates.
• Determine the transient response of a capacitive network and plot the resulting
voltages and currents.
• Calculate the total capacitance of capacitors in series or parallel.
• Apply computer methods to analyse networks with capacitive elements.
10. CHAPTER 10: CAPACITORS

In all the previous chapters, circuit analysis has been limited to DC resistive networks, where
the relationship between the current and voltage remains fixed and insensitive to time. The
new element introduced in this chapter – the capacitor – is different from resistors, as the
relationship between the current and voltage depends on how one or the other changes with
time. In addition, capacitors behave like an open circuit when the voltage across the
capacitors fails to change with time. The ideal capacitors do not consume energy, but merely
store it, and it can be returned to the network when needed.
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10.1 The electric field

You may already know something about the electric field from other course such as Physics
or Chemistry. If you still remember this concept clearly, then you just need to review this
section briefly. If not, you need to study this section very carefully, as it provides the
fundamentals for the construction of capacitors.
Highlights
• The electric field is represented by electric flux lines. Electric flux lines 1) always extend
from a positively charged body to a negatively charged body, 2) always extend or
terminate perpendicular to the charged surfaces and 3) never intersect.
• The symbol for electric flux is the Greek letter 𝜓𝜓, and the flux per unit area (flux density)
is represented by the capital letter D and is calculated by
𝜓𝜓
𝐷𝐷 =
𝐴𝐴
where A is the cross-sectional area against the flux lines.

• The larger the charge Q in coulombs, the greater the number of flux lines extending or
terminating per unit area. Therefore,
𝜓𝜓 ≡ 𝑄𝑄.
• The electric field strength at a point is the force acting on a unit positive charge at that
point, that is,
𝐹𝐹
𝜀𝜀 =
𝑄𝑄
where the force (𝐹𝐹) exerted on a unit positive charge by a charge 𝑄𝑄, 𝑟𝑟 meters away, can
be determined using Coulomb’s law as
𝐹𝐹 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘/𝑟𝑟 2 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝜀𝜀 = = = 2
𝑄𝑄 1/𝐶𝐶 𝑟𝑟
53
CAPACITORS
where 𝑘𝑘 = 9 × 109 𝑁𝑁 ∙ 𝑚𝑚2 /𝐶𝐶. Thus the electric field strength is directed related to the
size of the charge 𝑄𝑄 and the distance from the charge 𝑄𝑄.
• You need to have an impression of the electric flux distributions of opposite charges and
like charges.
10.2 Capacitance
This section introduces the physics of capacitors and the key factors that affect capacitors.
Highlights
• The element constructed simply of two conducting surfaces separated by an air gap is
called a capacitor.
• Capacitance is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge on its plates – its storage
capacity.
• The unit of measure applied to capacitors is the farad (F). In particular, a capacitor has a
capacitance of 1 F if 1 C of charge (6.242 × 1018 electrons) is deposited on the plates by a
potential difference of 1 V across its plates. The farad is generally too large a measure of
capacitance for most practical applications, and so the microfarad (mF) and picofarad
(pF) are more commonly encountered.
• The relationship connecting the applied voltage (V, in volts), the charge on the plates (Q,
in coulombs), and the capacitance level (C, in farad) is defined by the following
equation:
𝑄𝑄
𝐶𝐶 =
𝑉𝑉
• The electric field strength between the plates is determined by the voltage across the
plates and the distance between the plates as follows:
𝑉𝑉
𝜀𝜀 =
𝑑𝑑
where 𝑉𝑉 is the applied voltage, and 𝑑𝑑 is the distance of the two conducting plates.
• Note that besides applied voltage and distance, insulation material is another factor that
influences the capacitance of the capacitors.
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10.3 Capacitors
This section introduces capacitor construction and types of capacitors.
Highlights
• The basic components of a capacitor: conductive plates, separation, and dielectric. In

addition, 1) large plates provide a greater area for the storage of charge; 2) the smaller the
distance between the plates, the larger the capacitance; 3) higher levels of permittivity 𝜖𝜖
result in higher levels of capacitance.
• The capacitance is determined by
𝐴𝐴
𝐶𝐶 = 𝜖𝜖 𝑑𝑑.
• Studying Example 2 will help you to understand the above equation.

• Read the material introducing the different types of capacitors:
− Fixed capacitors: for the same type of construction and dielectric, the larger the
required capacitance, the larger the physical size of the capacitor.
− Viable capacitors.
• Leakage current and ESR
− Capacitors are not an ideal element. A practical capacitor is equal to an ideal
capacitor connected to a resistor in series and another resistor in parallel.
− The equivalent series resistance (ESR) is a total resistance that includes all the
dissipative factors.
− The equivalent parallel resistance causes the leakage current, given the fact that
dielectrics are not perfect insulators.
• Temperature effects: ppm
− Every capacitor is temperature sensitive, with the nameplate capacitance level
specified at room temperature.
− The term parts per million (ppm) can be illustrated by an example. Consider a
1000 𝜇𝜇F capacitor with a temperature coefficient -150 ppm/°C; the capacitance will
drop with increase in temperature. Then, for each 1°C increase in temperature, the
capacitance will change:
150 1000 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

− × = −150000 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝/°𝐶𝐶
1 000 000 °𝐶𝐶
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CAPACITORS
• Capacitor labelling and standard capacitor values

− The size of the capacitor is the first indicator of its value. In most cases, larger size
indicates 𝜇𝜇F, while a smaller size implies pF.
− 𝐾𝐾 is read as a multiplier of 103 .
− A lower case 𝑛𝑛 represents 10−9. 𝐽𝐽 appearing on the unit represents a ± 5% tolerance
level. F represents a ± 1% tolerance level, and M appearing on the unit represents a
± 20% tolerance level.
− The most common capacitors use the same numerical multipliers encountered for
resistors. The vast majority are available with 5%, 10%, or 20% tolerances.
• Measurement and testing of capacitors
− Value of a capacitor can be measured by multimeters.
− The ohmmeter could help to isolate capacitors in which the dielectric has
deteriorated.
10.4 Charging phase

You will see how smart the capacitors are as they can be charged and discharged. Key
content you need to pay attention to is 1) the concept of the time constant; 2) mathematical
descriptions of voltage and current during the transient period; 3) circuit with switches; 4)
initial conditions; and 5) instantaneous values.
Highlights
The phase during which charge is deposited on the plates of capacitors is the charging phase.
The charging phase does not occur instantaneously, but over a period of time.
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+ vR -
iC
R
E +
C vC
-
FIGURE 1
Basic R-C charging network
• The period of time during which charge is being deposited on the plates is called the
transient period – a period of time where the voltage or current changes from one steady-
state level to another. During the transient period, the voltage of the capacitor in a basic
circuit as shown in Figure 1 is calculated by
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸 �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 �
𝑡𝑡
where 𝐸𝐸 is the applied voltage, and 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 is an exponential function. 𝜏𝜏 is the time constant
of the network, and is defined by
𝜏𝜏 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
which has the unit of time in s (seconds).

• The voltage across a capacitor in a DC network is essentially equal to the applied voltage
after five time constants of the charging phase have passed.
• The transient or charging phase of a capacitor essentially ends after five time constants.
• In Figure 1, the equation for the current is
𝐸𝐸 −𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏
𝑅𝑅
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CAPACITORS
The current of a capacitive DC network is essentially zero amperes after five time
constants of the charging phase have passed. During the charging phase, the majority
change in voltage and current occurs during the first time constant. Particularly, the
voltage across the capacitor reaches 63.2% (about 2/3) of its final value, whereas the
current drops to 36.8% (about 1/3) of its peak value.
• A capacitor can be replaced by an open-circuit equivalent once the charging phase in a
DC network has passed.
• A capacitor has the characteristics of a short-circuit equivalent at the instant the switch is
closed in an uncharged series R-C circuit.
• The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
• In Figure 1, the voltage across the resistor can be determined by Ohm’s law in the
following manner:
𝐸𝐸 −𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏 × 𝑅𝑅 = 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏
𝑅𝑅
• Kirchhoff’s voltage law is applicable at any instant of time for any type of voltage in any
type of network.
• You need to practise using a calculator to solve exponential functions.
• Only one example (Example 6) is given in this section,. When you study this example,
pay attention to the minor difference of the waveform of voltage versus time, and voltage
versus time constants.
10.5 Discharging phase

A second contact for the switch is added to the circuit in Figure 2 to permit a controlled
discharge of the capacitor. In this section, calculations of 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 , 𝜏𝜏, 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 , 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 are based on Figure
2(b).
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1 + vR - 1 + vR -
iC iC
R R
2 2
E + E +
C vC C vC
- -
(a) (b)
FIGURE 2
Basic R-C charging and discharging network
Highlights
For the voltage across the capacitor that is decreasing with time, the mathematical expression
is
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏
where
𝜏𝜏 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
and
𝐸𝐸 −𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏
𝑅𝑅
and
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏
as the R and C are in parallel.
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CAPACITORS
• Once again note that the waveform will appear the same if 𝜏𝜏 changes due to a change of
capacitor, resistor, or both, when the waveform is plotted against the time constant.
However, if the waveform is plotted against time, then the change of waveform will be
apparent immediately.
• Study Examples 7 to 9 and try to sketch the waveforms of 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 , 𝜏𝜏, 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 , 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 of both the
charging and discharging phase.
10.6 Initial conditions and instantaneous values

This section deals with the situations when capacitors are already charged. The full charging
phase can then be divided into three periods, namely initial conditions, transient response,
and steady-state region.
Highlights
• Given a capacitor with an initial charged voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 , then for the transient period, the
voltage rises from 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 to a final value 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 at the steady state. The voltage 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 across the
entire time period can be denoted by
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸 �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 � = (𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 − 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 ) �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 �
Adding the starting value of 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 will result in
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 + (𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 − 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 ) �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 �
Rearranging terms we find
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 + (𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 )𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 (1)
• Note that the derivations of Equation (1) are given incorrectly in the 12th edition of the
textbook.
• Equation (1) is a universal equation for the transient response of a capacitor, which is
also applicable to the discharging phase by applying the correct values of 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 and 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 .
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• For instantaneous values, you may need to calculate:

− 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 , 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 , 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 at time t; this can be obtained by substituting time t into the formulae we
obtained
or
− the time required to reach a particular voltage or current. For this purpose, we need
to solve t in the equations, which results in
�𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 �
𝑡𝑡 = 𝜏𝜏 log 𝑒𝑒
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 − 𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
and for the currents
𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖
𝑡𝑡 = log 𝑒𝑒
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶
10.7 Thévenin equivalent: 𝝉𝝉 = 𝑹𝑹𝑻𝑻𝑻𝑻 𝑪𝑪

For complex networks, Thévenin’s theorem is very useful for simplifying the circuits for
further analysis. Work through Examples 11 to 13 to identify the advantages of applying this
theorem. This is also a good chance to review Thévenin’s theorem.
10.8 The current 𝒊𝒊𝑪𝑪

There is a very special relationship between the current of a capacitor and the voltage across
it.
Highlights
• The capacitive current is directly related to the rate of change of the voltage across the
capacitor, not the levels of voltage involved. The relationship between 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 and 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 is
defined by
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
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CAPACITORS
An important point to be gained from here is that it is not the magnitude of the voltage
across a capacitor that determines the current, but rather how quickly the voltage changes
across the capacitor.
10.9 Capacitors in series and in parallel

Capacitors, like the resistors, can be placed either in series or in parallel. The key point here
relates to calculating the total capacitance of the capacitors in series and in parallel.
In general, for capacitors in series, the charge is the same on each capacitor. Applying KVL
around the capacitors in series, one obtains:
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉1 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛
and V = Q/C, therefore
𝑄𝑄 𝑄𝑄1 𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 1 1 1
= + ⋯+ �� = + ⋯+
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛 𝑄𝑄=𝑄𝑄1=⋯=𝑄𝑄𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛
Similarly, for capacitors in parallel, the total capacitance
𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇 = 𝐶𝐶1 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛
You need to study and work out Examples 15 to 19 for practice.
10.10 Energy stored by a capacitor

Unlike the resistors, the capacitors only store energy, and do not consume it. This is a very
important point to keep in mind.
Highlights
For capacitors, the power curve during the charging phase is obtained by finding the product
of the voltage and current at selected instants of time. That is
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𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶 = 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 × 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶
The energy stored is represented by the shaded area under the power curve. Using calculus,
the energy
1
𝑊𝑊𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝐶𝐶𝐸𝐸 2 in J
where 𝐸𝐸 is the applied voltage, which is also denoted by 𝑉𝑉 = 𝑄𝑄/𝐶𝐶. Then
1 𝑄𝑄 2 𝑄𝑄 2
𝑊𝑊𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 � � =
2 𝐶𝐶 2𝐶𝐶
10.11 Stray capacitances

Stray capacitances exist not through design, but simply because two conducting surfaces are
relatively close to each other. Stray capacitances can often lead to serious errors in system
design if they are not thought about carefully.
10.12 Applications
Touchpads, flash lamps, and surge protection are interesting examples of the application of
capacitors in everyday life.

Use PSpice or Multisim to simulate the transient RC response and the average capacitive
current.
10.14 Summary
The key content you learnt in this chapter is 1) the concept of capacitance; 2) construction
and types of capacitors; 3) charging and discharging phases of capacitors; 3) current 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 ; and
4) energy stored in capacitors.
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CAPACITORS
10.15 Test yourself

Work through problems 2, 3, 7, 12, 13, 15, 19, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 36, 39, 42,
44, 45, 49, 51, 55, and 57–60 in the textbook.
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Unit 1 7
Inductors
CONTENTS
PAGE
11. CHAPTER 11: INDUCTORS ................................................................... 67
11.1 The magnetic field .................................................................................. 68
11.2 Inductance ............................................................................................. 70
11.3 Induced voltage: vL ................................................................................ 72
11.4 The storage phase and initial conditions ................................................ 73
11.5 The release phase ................................................................................. 75
11.6 Thévenin equivalent, instantaneous values, and average induced

voltage ................................................................................................... 76
11.7 Inductors in series and parallel .............................................................. 77
11.8 Steady-state conditions, energy stored in inductors .............................. 78
11.9 Applications ........................................................................................... 78
11.11 Summary ................................................................................................. 78
11.12 Test yourself ............................................................................................ 78
65
INDUCTORS
STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapter 11 of the textbook. You have been introduced to
resistors and capacitors. To make the circuits more interesting, let’s look at another
component, the inductor, which is also widely used in various circuit networks. The structure
of this chapter is quite similar to that of the previous chapter – have a look at the table below.
Serial No. Capacitors Inductors

1 Electric field Magnetic field
2 Capacitance Inductance
3 • Capacitors Inductors
• Capacitor construction
• Inductor construction
• Type of capacitor
• Type of inductors
• Leakage current and ESR
• Practical equivalent inductors
• Temperature effects: ppm
• Inductor labelling
• Capacitor labelling
• Measurement and testing of
• Measurement and testing of inductors
capacitors
• Standard capacitor value Note: the textbook does not talk
about temperature effects of
inductors and the standard inductor
value
4 The charging phase The storage phase
5 The discharging phase The release phase
6 Initial conditions Initial conditions
Steady-state conditions
7 Instantaneous values Instantaneous values
8 Thévenin equivalent: 𝜏𝜏 = 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇ℎ 𝐶𝐶 Thévenin equivalent: 𝜏𝜏 = 𝐿𝐿/𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇ℎ
9 The current 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 Induced voltage 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿
10 Capacitors in series and in Inductors in series and in parallel
parallel
11 Energy stored by a capacitor Energy stored by an inductor
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12 Stray capacitances n/a

13 Applications Applications
• Touchpad • Camera flash lamp
• Flash lamp • Household dimmer switch
• Surge protection
14 Computer analysis Computer analysis
Your key focuses should be: basic construction of inductors, concept and calculation of
inductance, transients in inductive networks: storage phase and release phase, time constant,
initial conditions, Thévenin equivalence, voltage characteristics, inductors in series and in
parallel, and energy stored by an inductor. The challenges are the transients in inductive
networks.
Chapter 11: Inductors
• Describe the basic construction of an inductor and the factors that affect the strength of
the magnetic field established by the element.
• Determine the transient response of an inductive network and plot the resulting
voltages and currents.
• Identify the impact of combining the inductors in series or parallel.
• Develop some familiarity with the use of computer methods to analyse networks with
inductive elements.
11. CHAPTER 11: INDUCTORS

Three basic elements, namely resistors, capacitors, and inductors, appear in the majority of
the electrical/electronic systems in use today. We will focus on inductors here. In many ways,
an inductor is a dual of a capacitor. The inductor exhibits its true characteristics only when a
change in voltage or current is made in the network. As you learnt in chapter 10, capacitors
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INDUCTORS
can be replaced by an open-circuit equivalent under steady-state conditions; inductors can be

replaced by a short-circuit equivalent under steady-state conditions. Stated in brief, resistors
consume energy in the form of heat, ideal capacitors store energy in the form of electric field,
while ideal inductors store energy in the form of magnetic field.
11.1 The magnetic field

You need to know about the magnetic field in order to understand the rest of this chapter.
Highlights
• A permanent magnet is made of a material, such as steel or iron, that remains magnetised
for long periods of time without the need for an external source of energy.
• A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a permanent magnet. This field can be
represented by magnetic flux lines similar to electric flux lines. Magnetic flux lines:
− do not have origins or terminating points;
− exist in continuous loops;
− radiate from the north pole to the south pole, returning to the north pole through the
metallic bar;
− are equally spaced within the core;
− are symmetrically distributed outside the magnetic material.
− The continuous magnetic flux line will strive to occupy as small an area as possible.
This results in magnetic flux lines of minimum length between the unlike poles.
− The strength of a magnetic field in a particular region is directly related to the
density of flux lines in that region.
− Magnets of unlike poles attract, but of magnets of like poles repel.
− Non-magnetic material does not change the flux distribution when it is placed in the
magnetic flux paths, but the magnetic flux will pass through the magnetic materials
if they are placed in the magnetic flux paths.
• A magnetic field is present around every wire that carries an electric current. The
direction of the magnetic flux lines can be found simply by the right-hand rule.
• The flux distribution of the coil is quite similar to that of the permanent magnet.
• The field strength of the coil can be effectively increased by placing certain materials,
such as iron, steel, or cobalt, inside the coil to increase the flux density within the coil.
• By increasing the field strength with the addition of the core, we have devised an
electromagnet that has
− all the properties of a permanent magnet; and
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− field strength that can be varied by changing of the component value – current, turns.
• Study Figure 10, which introduces the convention for directions perpendicular to the
page. The cross and the dot refer to the tail and the head of the arrow, respectively.
• In the international system of units, magnetic flux is measured in webers (Wb), denoted
by phi, Φ.
• In equation form, the flux density B is given in teslas (T):
Φ
B=
A
where Φ is the number of flux lines passing through area A.
1 tesla = 1 T = 1 Wb/m2
• The flux density of an electromagnet is directly related to the number of turns (N) of, and
current (I) through the coil. The product of the two, called the magnetomotive force 𝐹𝐹, is
measured in ampere-turns as defined by
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
• Another factor that affects the magnetic field strength is the type of core used.
− Materials in which magnetic flux lines are readily be set up are said to be magnetic
and to have a high permeability, which is a measure of the ease with which magnetic
flux lines can be established in the material, denoted by 𝜇𝜇.
− The permeability of air is: μ0 = 4𝜋𝜋 × 10−7 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊/𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
− Free space permeability: air, copper, aluminium, wood, glass, and air;
− Diamagnetic: permeabilities slightly less than free space;
− Paramagnetic: permeabilities slightly greater than free space;
− Ferromagnetic: materials with very high permeabilities.
• The ratio of the permeability of a material to that of the free space is called its relative
permeability, that is
𝜇𝜇
𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟 =
𝜇𝜇0
Note that there is a publishing error in the 13th edition (2016) of the textbook relating to the
above formula.
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INDUCTORS
• In general, for ferromagnetic materials, 𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟 ≥ 100, and for non-magnetic materials,
𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟 = 1. Note that the relative permeability is a function of the operating conditions that
is sensitive to the magnetomotive force.
11.2 Inductance
This section introduces the concepts of inductance, inductor constructions, type of inductors,
practical equivalent inductors, inductor labelling, and the measurement and testing of
inductors.
Introduction to inductance
• Inductor: a unit that includes a coil of wire, either with or without a core.
• Inductors are designed to set up a strong magnetic field, while capacitors are designed to
set up a strong electric field between the plates.
• The inductance level of an inductor determines the strength of the magnetic field around
the coil due to an applied current.
− Inductance is measured in henries (H);
− Most inductors are in the range of millihenry (mH) or microhenry (μH).
− 1 H is the inductance level that will establish a voltage of 1 volt across the coil due
to a change in current of 1 A/s through the coil.
Inductor construction
The level of inductance depends on the area within the coil, the length of the unit, and the
permeability of the core material. The inductance is also sensitive to the number of turns of
wire in the coil. The inductance is dictated by the following equation:
𝜇𝜇𝑁𝑁 2 𝐴𝐴
𝐿𝐿 =
𝑙𝑙
where 𝜇𝜇: permeability of core material;
𝑁𝑁: number of turns of coil;
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A: area within the coil;
𝑙𝑙: length of the unit.
• The inductance of an inductor with a ferromagnetic core is 𝜇𝜇𝑟𝑟 times the inductance
obtained with an air core.
• Work out Examples 1 and 2.
Types of inductor
Inductors can be either fixed or variable. Study Figure 20 for the inductor symbols.
• Fixed inductors
− Size of an inductor is determined primarily by the type of construction, the core used
and the current rating.
• Variable inductors
− The inductance is changed by turning the slot at the end of the core to move it in and
out of the unit.
Practical equivalent inductors
Inductors are not ideal.
• Associated with every practical inductor is a resistance and stray capacitance.

• The resistance is determined by the resistance of the turns of wire, and the core losses.
• The stray capacitance can be ignored.
Inductor labelling
• Nameplate value is often printed on the body of the larger size inductors.
• Tolerance: K±10%, J±5%, M±20%.
• See Figure 26 for colour coding.
71
INDUCTORS
Measurement and testing of inductors
• Measurement: can be measured by common multimeters.

• Testing: use an ohmmeter to check whether a short circuit has developed between the
windings, or whether an open circuit has developed.
11.3 Induced voltage: 𝒗𝒗𝑳𝑳

Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law are introduced in this section. Study the details of each law and
pay attention to the connection between the two laws. These two laws are fundamental for
analysing the response of inductive elements to an applied DC voltage.
Faraday’s law
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁Φ
𝑒𝑒 =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
where 𝑒𝑒 is the induced voltage.
• Faraday’s laws states that if we move a conductor through a magnetic field so that it cuts
magnetic flux lines, a voltage is induced across the conductor.
− The faster the conductor is moved through a magnetic field, the greater the induced
voltage.
− You may keep the conductor still, but move the magnetic field; this also produces
the induced voltage.
− The direction in which you move the conductor through the field determines the
polarity of the induced voltage.
− If you move the conductor through the field at right angles to the magnetic flux, you
generate the maximum induced voltage. However, moving the conductor parallel
with the magnetic flux results in no induced voltage.
Lenz’s law
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁Φ
𝐿𝐿 =
𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿
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• Lenz’s law states that an induced effect is always such that it opposes the cause that
produced it.
• The inductance of a coil is also a measure of the change in flux linking the coil due to a
change in current through the coil.
When combining the two formulae from Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law, one obtains:
𝑑𝑑Φ 𝑑𝑑Φ 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿

𝑒𝑒 = 𝑁𝑁 = 𝑁𝑁 = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• In network analysis, the voltage induced across an inductor will always have a polarity
that opposes the applied voltage (like the voltage across a resistor).
• The larger the inductance and/or the more rapid the change in current through a coil, the
larger the induced voltage across the coil will be.
11.4 The storage phase and initial conditions

A great number of similarities exist between the analyses of inductive and capacitive
networks. What is true for the voltage of a capacitor is also true for the current of an inductor.
The circuit in Figure 1 is used to describe the storage phase. For an inductor, energy is stored
in the form of a magnetic field linking the coil.
+ vR -
iL
R
E +
L
vL
-
FIGURE 1
Basic R-L transient network
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INDUCTORS
Storage phase
• At the instant the switch is closed, the choking action of the coil prevents an
instantaneous change in current through the coil, resulting in 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = 0.
• The steady-state current is determined by E/R.
• The mathematical expression of the storage phase of current is
𝐸𝐸 𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = (1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 )
𝑅𝑅
𝐿𝐿
where 𝜏𝜏 = 𝑅𝑅, in seconds (s).
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏
and
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝐸𝐸(1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 )
• The storage phase has passed and steady-state conditions have been established after a
period of time equal to five time constants.
• The current cannot change instantaneously in an inductive network.
• The inductor takes on the characteristics of an open circuit at the instant the switch is
closed.
• The inductor takes on the characteristics of a short circuit when steady-state conditions
have been established.
Initial conditions
• Similar to capacitors, initial conditions also apply to inductors, and
𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 + �𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 − 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 � �1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 � = 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 + (𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 )𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏
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where 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 is the initial current of an inductor before the storage phase, and 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 is the steady-
state current.
11.5 The release phase

Unlike the capacitors, an isolated inductor cannot continue to store energy because the
absence of a closed path causes the current to drop to zero, releasing the energy stored in the
form of a magnetic field. In this section, the release phase of the inductor is illustrated in
Figure 2.
1 + vR1 -
iL
R1
2
E - +
vR2 R2 L
vL
+ -
FIGURE 2
Storage phase and release phase of an inductor
Highlights
• Assume the switch was in contact 1 and a full storage phase is completed. Then, at the
instant switch moves to contact 2,
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = −(𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅1 + 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅2 )
𝑅𝑅2
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = − �1 + � 𝐸𝐸
𝑅𝑅1
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INDUCTORS
• During the release phase

𝑅𝑅2 −
𝑡𝑡
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = − �1 + � 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏′
𝑅𝑅1
𝐿𝐿
where 𝜏𝜏 ′ = 𝑅𝑅 , and
1 +𝑅𝑅2
𝐸𝐸 − 𝑡𝑡′
𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = 𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏
𝑅𝑅1
𝑡𝑡
− ′
𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅1 = 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅1 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝜏𝜏
𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑡𝑡′
𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅2 = 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅2 = 𝐸𝐸𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏
𝑅𝑅1
pay attention to the polarity of 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅2 .
• Study Example 5, and note that it is also possible that when the switch moves to contact
2, it may only be at half way through the storage phase, which results in an initial
condition for the release phase. You can try to figure out the formulae of this scenario.
11.6 Thévenin equivalent, instantaneous values, and average induced voltage

The Thévenin equivalent is very helpful in dealing with more complicated circuits with
inductors. The best way to study this section is to work out Examples 6 and 7.
Similar to instantaneous values discussed in the chapter on capacitors, instantaneous value

problems refer to two types of problems. One is given time t to calculate the value of
𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 , 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 , 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 , or conversely,
𝑡𝑡
• Known 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 + �𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓 �𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 , the time required to reach a certain level of 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 would be
𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓
𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 − 𝐼𝐼𝑓𝑓
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𝑡𝑡
• Known 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏, the time required to reach a certain level of 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 would be
𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖
𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿
𝑡𝑡
• Known 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝐸𝐸(1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 ), the time required to reach a certain level of 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 would be
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓
𝑉𝑉𝑓𝑓 − 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅
The voltage across the coil is not determined solely by the magnitude of the change in current
through the coil (Δ𝑖𝑖), but by the rate of change of current through the coil (Δ𝑖𝑖/Δ𝑡𝑡). Study
Example 8, paying attention to the polarity of the induced voltage.
11.7 Inductors in series and parallel

The formulae to calculate total inductance of N inductors in series and parallel are quite
similar to the calculations for resistors.
• For inductors in series, total inductance
𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 = 𝐿𝐿1 + 𝐿𝐿2 + ⋯ + 𝐿𝐿𝑁𝑁
• For inductors in parallel, total inductance
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯+
𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇 𝐿𝐿1 𝐿𝐿2 𝐿𝐿𝑁𝑁
• Work out Example 9 on your own.
77
INDUCTORS
11.8 Steady-state conditions, energy stored in inductors

Steady-state conditions
• An ideal inductor can be replaced by a short-circuit equivalent once steady-state

conditions have been established.
• The assumption is that steady-state conditions have been established after five time
constants of the storage or release phase have passed.
Energy stored in inductors
• For ideal inductors, energy stored is represented by the area under the power curve, and
1 2
𝑊𝑊𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼
2 𝑚𝑚
11.9 Applications
Read the information about the applications of inductor in the case of 1) a camera flash lamp;
and 2) a household dimmer switch.

Follow the instructions in the textbook to conduct a computer analysis using PSpice and
Multisim.
11.11 Summary
The key concepts you covered here are: 1) the concept of inductance; 2) construction and
types of inductors; 3) storage and release phases of inductors; 3) induced voltage 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 ; and 4)
energy stored in inductors.
11.12 Test yourself

Work through problems 1, 2, 9, 11, 13, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 23, 26, 31, 33, 34, 37–39, 43, 45,
and 47–51 in the textbook.
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Unit 1 8
The basic elements and phasors
CONTENTS
PAGE
14. CHAPTER 14: THE BASIC ELEMENTS AND PHASORS....................... 80
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 80
14.2 Response of R, L and C to a sinusoidal voltage and current ................. 81
14.3 Frequency response of R, L, C .............................................................. 82
14.4 Average power and power factor ........................................................... 85
14.5 Complex numbers .................................................................................. 86
14.6 Phasors .................................................................................................. 89
14.11 Summary ................................................................................................. 90
14.12 Test yourself ............................................................................................ 90
79
THE BASIC ELEMENTS AND PHASORS
STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapter 14 of the textbook. From this chapter onwards we deal
with the AC network. For this, you need to be aware of 1) the response of basic elements –
the resistors, capacitors, and inductors – to a sinusoidal voltage or current; 2) the frequency
response of the basic elements; 3) average power and power factors in an AC network; 4)
complex numbers; and 5) phasor calculations.
Chapter 14: The basic elements and phasors
• Find the response of a resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor to the applied sinusoidal
voltage or current.
• Apply the phasor format to add and subtract sinusoidal waveforms.
• Calculate the real power to resistive elements and the reactive power to inductive and
capacitive elements.
• Express the frequency response of ideal and practical elements.
• Use a calculator to work with complex numbers.
14. CHAPTER 14: THE BASIC ELEMENTS AND PHASORS

This chapter starts to analyse how resistive, inductive, and capacitive elements will respond
to the time-varying sources, which are the sinusoidal voltage and current. The complex
numbers and the phasor format will facilitate the calculation.
14.1 Introduction
This section mainly reviews the derivative of sinusoidal waveforms. You will need to have
strong mathematical skills for dealing with the derivative of sinusoidal signals. However, if
you are able to follow the formula below easily, then it will be fine for you to continue with
this chapter.
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𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜃𝜃)
d
𝑣𝑣 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝜔𝜔𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜃𝜃) = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝐸𝐸𝑚𝑚 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 ± 𝜃𝜃)
dt 𝐶𝐶
Highlights
• The derivative of a sine wave is a cosine wave.

• The current through and voltage across the capacitor have the same frequency and
period.
• The derivative of a sine wave has the same period and frequency as the original
sinusoidal waveform.
14.2 Response of R, L and C to a sinusoidal voltage and current

This section discusses the response of resistors, inductors, and capacitors to a sinusoidal
voltage and current. Key responsive parameters are voltage, current, and reactance. In order
to highlight the key points, the following table has been designed for this section. To
investigate the sinusoidal response of the resistive, inductive, and capacitive elements, you
can refer to the typical illustrative circuit as shown in Figure 1, in which the block can be
replaced with a resistor, an inductor, or a capacitor.
+
v
-
FIGURE 1
Determining the sinusoidal response for R/L/C
81
TABLE 1
RESPONSIVE PARAMETERS TO SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL INPUTS
Parameters Resistors Inductors Capacitors

𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿
Voltage 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿 = 𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝜔𝜔cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶
𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶
Current 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅 = = sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑅𝑅 R = ωCVm sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
1
Reactance Resistance R 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 =
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Phase angle 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 and 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅 are in phase 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 leads 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 by 90° 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 lags 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 by 90°
In Table 1, the parameter given in red is the known parameter.
Highlights
• For a pure resistive element, the voltage through and voltage across are in phase, with
their peak values related by Ohm’s law.
• Inductive reactance is the opposition to the flow of current, which results in the continual
interchange of energy between the source and the magnetic field of the inductor.
• Capacitive reactance is the opposition of the flow of charge, which results in the
continual interchange of energy between the source and the electric field of the capacitor.
• If the source current leads the applied voltage, the network is predominantly capacitive,
and if the applied voltage leads the source current, it is predominantly inductive.
• After studying and summarising the information in this section, you need lots of practice,
so please work out Examples 1 to 7. Pay special attention to Example 7.
14.3 Frequency response of R, L, C

In this section, let’s investigate the response of the basic elements to the applied frequency, as
the frequency is the determinant of the reactance of inductors and resistors. Another key issue
is that the commercial products of resistors, inductors, and capacitors are not ideal. There is
also a brief discussion of the practical elements in response to varied frequencies.
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Ideal response
TABLE 2
FREQUENCY RESPONSE TO IDEAL ELEMENTS
Ideal
Resistors Inductors Capacitors
response
Frequency Not sensitive, resistance 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘, 1 1

𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 = =
response remains nameplate value where 𝑘𝑘 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
At a frequency of
At a frequency of 0 Hz, an 0 Hz, characteristics
inductor takes on the charac- of a capacitor
teristics of a short circuit. approach those of an
Commercial resistors are open circuit.
Key notes sensitive to applied
frequencies At very high
At very high frequency, an
frequency, a
inductor takes on the
capacitor takes on
characteristics of an open
the characteristic of a
circuit.
short circuit.
Practical response
TABLE 3
FREQUENCY RESPONSE TO PRACTICAL ELEMENTS
Practical
response
Carbon
composition
resistor has the Practical inductors will be affected The capacitors are not
Frequency
ideal character- by frequency, temperature, and ideal for the full frequency
response
ristics for current. range.
frequency up to
about 15 MHz.
83
CP
Ls
Rs
ZC
Rs L
ZL C Rp
Rd
Figure 2: Equivalent circuits of
Every resistive practical inductors.
element inherits • For inductors, the larger the
some stray inductance, the lower the
Key notes
capacitance levels frequency at which the Figure 3: Equivalent
and lead
parasitic elements become circuits of practical
inductances.
important. capacitors.
• Inductors lose their ideal • Be concerned when
characteristics and begin to you encounter very
act as capacitive elements high frequencies,
with increasing losses at extreme
very high frequencies. temperatures, or
very high currents
or voltages.
RS: 1) Copper losses; 2)
RS: 1) Copper losses; 2) eddy
eddy current losses; 3)
current losses; 3) hysteresis losses.
hysteresis losses.
Cp: stray capacitance.
Cp: stray capacitance.
1 1
ESR = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + +
𝜔𝜔 2 𝐶𝐶 2 𝑅𝑅𝑝𝑝 𝜔𝜔𝐶𝐶 2 𝑅𝑅𝑑𝑑
ESR • The level of ESR or equivalent series resistance is frequency sensitive and
considerably greater at low frequencies than just the DC resistance. At
very high frequencies, it approaches the DC level.
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14.4 Average power and power factor

Highlights
• Even though the current through and the voltage across reverse direction and polarity,
respectively, power is delivered to the resistive load at each instant of time.
• The fact that the power curve is always above the horizontal axis reveals that power is
being delivered to the load at each instant of time of the applied sinusoidal voltage.
• Any portion of the power curve below the axis reveals that power is being returned to the
source.
• For a resistive network, the power equation is the same when applied to DC networks as
long as we work with rms values.
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
2
For an AC network,
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
2
where 𝜃𝜃is the phase angle.
The magnitude of average power delivered is independent of whether 𝑣𝑣 leads 𝑖𝑖 or 𝑖𝑖

leads 𝑣𝑣.
85
TABLE 4
AVERAGE POWER AND POWER FACTORS
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 =
Power 2
Vrms 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐90° = 0 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐90° = 0
2
= 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅
power factor = Fp = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
The terms “leading” and “lagging” are often written in conjunction with the power
factor. They are defined by the current through the load.
Power • Leading power factor: current leads the voltage across the load
factors
(capacitive).
• Lagging power factor: current lags the voltage across the load (inductive).
Fp = 1 Fp = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐90° = 0
The average power or power The average power or power

Key dissipated by the ideal dissipated by the ideal
notes inductor (no associated capacitor (no associated
resistance) is zero watts. resistance) is zero watts.
14.5 Complex numbers

This section introduces a system of complex numbers that, when related to the sinusoidal AC
waveform, results in a technique for finding the algebraic sum of sinusoidal waveforms that
is quick, direct, and accurate. This section covers the following key content: 1) introduction
to complex numbers; 2) rectangular and polar forms; 3) conversion between forms; 4)
mathematical operations with complex numbers; and 5) using a calculator for complex
number calculations.
Highlights
A complex number represents a point in a two-dimensional plane located with reference to

two distinct axes.
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The format of rectangular form is
𝑪𝑪 = 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
where C represents a complex number, X and Y are real numbers in the real axis and
imaginary axis, and the symbol j is associated with imaginary numbers (this is also given as i
in other textbooks).
The polar form is
𝐂𝐂 = Z∠θ
where Z indicates the magnitude and θ is always measured counter-clockwise (CCW) from
the positive real axis, and
−𝐂𝐂 = −Z∠θ = Z∠θ ± 180°
TABLE 5
CONVERSION BETWEEN FORMS
Rectangular to polar Polar to rectangular

2
Z = �𝑋𝑋 2 + 𝑌𝑌 2 X = Zcosθ
𝑌𝑌 Y = Zsinθ
θ = tan−1
𝑋𝑋
87
TABLE 6
MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS
Operations Formulae
j j = √−1
j2 = −1
1
= −𝑗𝑗
j
Complex conjugate 𝑪𝑪 = 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
� = 𝑋𝑋 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑪𝑪
Reciprocal 𝑪𝑪 = 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝟏𝟏 1
=
𝑪𝑪 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
or
𝐂𝐂 = Z∠θ
𝟏𝟏 1
=
𝐂𝐂 Z∠θ
Addition 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 = 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌1
𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 = 𝑋𝑋2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌2
𝐶𝐶1 + 𝐶𝐶2 = (𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑋𝑋2 ) + 𝑗𝑗(𝑌𝑌1 + 𝑌𝑌2 )
Subtraction 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 = 𝑋𝑋1 − 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌1
𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 = 𝑋𝑋2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌2
𝐶𝐶1 + 𝐶𝐶2 = (𝑋𝑋1 − 𝑋𝑋2 ) + 𝑗𝑗(𝑌𝑌1 − 𝑌𝑌2 )
Multiplication 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 = 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌1

𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 + 𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 = (𝑋𝑋1 𝑋𝑋2 − 𝑌𝑌1 𝑌𝑌2 ) + 𝑗𝑗(𝑋𝑋1 𝑌𝑌2 − 𝑋𝑋2 𝑌𝑌1 )
or
𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 = Z1 ∠θ1
𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 = Z2 ∠θ2
𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 × 𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 = Z1 Z2 ∠(θ1 + 𝜃𝜃2 )
and
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𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 = 𝑘𝑘𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌1

Division 𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 = 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌1
𝑪𝑪𝟏𝟏 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌1 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌1 𝑋𝑋2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌2
= = ×
𝑪𝑪𝟐𝟐 𝑋𝑋2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌2 𝑋𝑋2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌2 𝑋𝑋2 − 𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌2
or
𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 = Z1 ∠θ1
𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 = Z2 ∠θ2
𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 Z1
= ∠(θ1 − 𝜃𝜃2 )
𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 Z2
and
𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌𝟏𝟏 = 𝑘𝑘𝑋𝑋1 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑌𝑌1
In addition
1 𝑋𝑋 − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
= 2
𝑋𝑋 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋 + 𝑌𝑌 2
1
= 𝑍𝑍∠ − 𝜃𝜃
Z∠θ
Notes: addition or subtraction cannot be performed in polar form unless the complex numbers
have the same angle θ or unless they differ only by multiples of 180°.
Work out all the examples in this section, using a calculator.
14.6 Phasors
This is another important section in this chapter. You must understand all the key points in
this section and be able to perform phasor algebra.
Highlights
• The radius vector, having a constant magnitude with one end fixed at the origin, is called
a phasor when it is applied to electric circuits.
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• Examples are very helpful in demonstrating the phasor calculation process. In the
textbook, study Example 27 for the sum of two sinusoidal functions by both a graphical
approach and a phasor approach.
• The phasor format of a sinusoidal voltage and current will be
𝐕𝐕 = Vrms ∠θ
𝐈𝐈 = Irms ∠θ
where the sine wave is always the reference, and the frequency is not represented.
Phasor algebra for sinusoidal quantities is applicable only for waveforms having the
same frequency.
Study Examples 28 to 31.

Follow the instructions in the textbook to conduct computer analysis using PSpice and
Multisim.
14.8 Summary
The key topics are 1) response of R, L, C to a sinusoidal source; 2) frequency response of
resistors, inductors and capacitors; 3) complex numbers and their mathematical operations;
and 4) phase algebraic calculations.
14.9 Test yourself

Work through problems 3, 5, 6, 7, 15, 16, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 47, 50,
53, 56, 58, and 59–61 in the textbook.
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Unit 1 9
Series and parallel AC circuits
CONTENTS
PAGE
15. CHAPTER 15: SERIES AC CIRCUITS .................................................. 94
15.1 Resistive, inductive, and capacitive elements ........................................ 94
15.2 Impedance diagram ............................................................................... 95
15.3 Series configuration ............................................................................... 95
15.4 Voltage divider rule ................................................................................ 96
15.5 Frequency response .............................................................................. 96
15.6 Phase measurement ............................................................................. 97
15.7 Applications ........................................................................................... 98
15.9 Summary ............................................................................................... 98
15.10 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 99
16. CHAPTER 16: PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS ............................................ 99
16.1 Total impedance and total admittance .................................................. 99
16.2 Parallel AC network ............................................................................. 100
16.3 Current divider rule .............................................................................. 101
91
SERIES AND PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS
16.4 Frequency response of parallel elements ........................................... 101
16.5 Equivalent circuits ............................................................................... 103
16.6 Applications ......................................................................................... 103
16.7 Computer analysis .............................................................................. 104
16.8 Summary ............................................................................................ 104
16.9 Test yourself ....................................................................................... 104
17. CHAPTER 17: SERIES-PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS .......................... 105
17.1 Illustrative examples ............................................................................ 105
17.2 Ladder networks .................................................................................. 105
17.3 Grounding ........................................................................................... 105
17.4 Applications ......................................................................................... 106
17.5 Computer analysis .............................................................................. 106
17.6 Summary ............................................................................................. 106
17.7 Test yourself ....................................................................................... 106
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STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapters 15 to 17 of the textbook. This study unit deals with
series and parallel AC circuits. In comparison with the DC circuits, the major differences are
1) capacitors and inductors are added to the circuit; 2) phasor notation is applied for
calculation; 3) frequency responses need to be considered. Since little new theory is
introduced in these three chapters, it would be a good idea to work through all the examples
in the textbook to gain in-depth understanding of circuit analysis. This unit is also a great
opportunity to use computer analysis – use PSpice and Multisim to work through all the
examples in the textbook to enhance your practical skills in circuit analysis.
After studying chapters 15 to 17 of the textbook, you should be able to:
Chapter 15: Series AC circuits
• Find unknown parameters of current, voltage, power levels, and frequency response;
• Find total impedance and sketch the impedance diagram.
• Apply KVL for circuit analysis.
• Apply the voltage divider rule to any AC network.
Chapter 16: Parallel AC circuits
• Find unknown parameters of current, voltage, power levels, and frequency response.
• Find total impedance and sketch the impedance diagram.
• Apply KCL for circuit analysis.
• Apply the current divider rule to any AC network.
Chapter 17: Series-parallel AC circuits
• Develop confidence in the analysis of series and parallel circuits.
You should spend approximately two weeks on these three chapters.
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15. CHAPTER 15: SERIES AC CIRCUITS

Let’s start with the series AC circuits. In series circuits, each component is tied to its
neighbouring component by only one connection and the current is the same through each
element, whether a resistor, capacitor, inductor, motor, generator, or complete packaged
system.
15.1 Resistive, inductive and capacitive elements

We can now start to use complex algebra as introduced in chapter 14 for circuit analysis. As
the starting point, we assume that the frequency in the circuit does not change. Your first
circuit analysis skill involves finding the desired unknown parameter in the circuit. Key
content is summarised in Table 1.
TABLE 1
SERIES AC NETWORK
Parameters Resistors Inductors Capacitors
𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

Voltage 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 = 𝑉𝑉∠0° 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉∠0° 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉∠0°
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = √2𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = √2𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = √2𝑉𝑉
𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉

𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 = √2 � � sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 90°) 𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 = √2 � � sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 90°)
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼∠0° 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
Current
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉∠0° 𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉∠0° 𝑉𝑉
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 = = ∠ − 90° 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 = = ∠90°
𝑅𝑅 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 ∠90° 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ∠ − 90° 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
Impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = 𝑅𝑅∠0° 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 ∠90° 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ∠ − 90°
Power
In phase Lagging Leading
factor
Highlights
• Study Examples 1 and 2 for resistive elements.

• Study Examples 3 and 4 for inductive elements.
• Study Examples 5 and 6 for capacitive elements.
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15.2 Impedance diagram

In the impedance diagram, the resistance will always appear on the positive real axis, the
inductive reactance on the positive imaginary axis, and the capacitive reactance on the
negative imaginary axis.
Highlights
• For any circuit configuration, the angle θT associated with the total impedance is the
angle by which the applied voltage leads the source current.
• For an inductive network, θT is positive, whereas for a capacitive network θT is negative.
15.3 Series configuration

This section introduces series configurations, and typical circuits of R-L, R-C, and R-L-C.
Total impedance ZT in the series AC circuit is
𝑁𝑁
ZT = � 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
The power is
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇
where 𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 is the phase angle between 𝐸𝐸 and I.
Highlights
• The current is the same through the impedance in a series circuit.

• Study the typical R-L, R-C, and R-L-C circuits.
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15.4 Voltage divider rule

The basic format for the voltage divider rule in AC circuits is exactly the same as that for DC
circuits:
𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥 𝐸𝐸
𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 =
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇
where 𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥 is the voltage across one or more elements in a series that have total impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑥𝑥 .
𝐸𝐸 is the total voltage appearing across the series circuit, and 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 is the total impedance of the
series circuit.
Study Examples 11 to 13 to practise the voltage divider rule.
15.5 Frequency response

In AC circuits, resistance will remain fixed for the full range of frequencies. The inductor
will provide increasing levels of impedance as the frequency increases, while the capacitor
will provide lower levels of impedance.
When encountering a series AC circuit of any combination of elements, always use the
idealised response of each element to establish some feeling for how the circuit will respond
as the frequency changes.
Highlights
• ZT in R-C circuit
− ZT = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
− ZT = 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 ∠𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 = �𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 ∠ − tan−1 𝑅𝑅
− As frequency increases, the circuit transfers from a capacitive circuit into a resistive
circuit.
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• VC in R-C circuit
𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸∠−90° 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸∠−90°
− VC = 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇
= =
𝑅𝑅−𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑋𝑋
�𝑅𝑅 2 +𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 ∠−tan−1 𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝐸𝐸
− VC =
�𝑅𝑅 2 +𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅
− θC = −90° + tan−1 = −tan−1 𝑋𝑋
𝑅𝑅 𝐶𝐶
− When frequency 𝑓𝑓 = 0, the open-circuit equivalent is applicable for the capacitors,
where VC = 𝐸𝐸. As frequency increases, VC approaches 0.
• ZT in R-L circuit
− ZT = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
− ZT = 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 ∠𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 = �𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 ∠ tan−1 𝑅𝑅
− As frequency increases, the circuit transfers from a resistive circuit into a inductive
circuit.
• VL in R-C circuit
𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 𝐸𝐸 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝐸𝐸∠90° 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝐸𝐸∠90°
− VL = 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇
= =
𝑅𝑅+𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋
�𝑅𝑅 2 +𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 ∠ tan−1 𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝐸𝐸
− VL =
�𝑅𝑅 2 +𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
− θL = 90 − tan−1 𝑅𝑅

• Study the R-L-C circuit and pay attention to the total impedance curve vs. frequency.
15.6 Phase measurement

When the oscilloscope is being used to measure the phase angle, both channels of a dual-trace
oscilloscope must be connected to the same ground.
Highlights
• For AC networks with reactive elements, the total impedance cannot be measured with
an ohmmeter.
• The phase angle between the applied voltage and the resulting source current is important
because
97
− it is also the phase angle associated with the total impedance;

− it provides an instant indication of whether a network is resistive or reactive;
− it reveals whether a network is inductive or capacitive;
− it can be used to find the power delivered to the network.
• While you are studying this section, it would be a very good idea to use the simulation
tools to work through the examples in the textbook.
15.7 Applications
Read the speaker system application.

Follow the instructions in the textbook to conduct computer analysis using PSpice and
Multisim.
15.9 Summary
The following are important conclusions relating to the analysis of series AC circuits with
reactive elements:
• The total impedance will be frequency dependent.

• The impedance of any one element can be greater than the total impedance of the
network.
• The inductive and capacitive reactance are always in direct opposition on an impedance
diagram.
• Depending on the frequency applied, the same circuit can be either predominantly
inductive or predominantly capacitive.
• At lower frequencies, the capacitive elements will usually have the most impact on the
total impedance, while at high frequency the inductive element will usually have the
most impact.
• The magnitude of the voltage across any one element can be greater than the applied
voltage.
• The magnitude of the voltage across an element compared with the other elements of the
circuit is directly related to the magnitude of its impedance; that is, the larger the
impedance of an element, the larger the magnitude of the voltage across the element.
• The voltages across a capacitor coil are always in direct opposition on a phasor diagram.
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• The current is always in phase with voltage across the resistive element, lags the voltage
across all the inductive elements by 90°, and leads the voltage across the entire capacitive
element by 90°.
• The larger the resistive element of a circuit compared with the net reactive impedance,
the closer the power factor is to unity.
15.10 Test yourself

Work through problems 2, 4, 8, 9–11, 15, 17, 24, 26, 30–32, 34, 35, and 36–38 in the
textbook.
16. CHAPTER 16: PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS

The analysis of parallel AC networks will follow the same development applied to DC
parallel networks.
16.1 Total impedance and total admittance

In parallel AC networks, the voltage is the same across each parallel element and the source
current is the sum of the current through each branch. For a summary, see Table 1.
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TABLE 1
TOTAL IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE
Components Total impedance Total admittance
N elements 𝑁𝑁 1
1 1 YT =
=� 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇
ZT 𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑁𝑁
YT = � 𝑌𝑌𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=1
Two elements 1 1 1 1 1
= + YR = = = G∠0°
ZT 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅∠0°
𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 1 1
ZT = 𝑌𝑌𝐿𝐿 = = = BL ∠ − 90°
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 ∠90°
1 1
𝑌𝑌𝐶𝐶 = = = BC ∠90°
𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ∠ − 90°
N equal elements 𝑍𝑍1 n/a

ZT =
𝑁𝑁
Practice Study Examples 1 and 2 Study Examples 3 to 5
16.2 Parallel AC network

In parallel AC networks, the source current is determined by Ohm’s law as follows:
𝐸𝐸
I= = 𝐸𝐸𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇
The power delivered to the network is
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇
where 𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 is the phase angle between 𝐸𝐸 and I.
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TABLE 2
FORMULAE FOR UNKNOWN VALUES IN TYPICAL CIRCUITS
Typical circuits R-L R-C R-L-C
Total impedance 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 = 𝑌𝑌𝑅𝑅 + 𝑌𝑌𝐿𝐿 + 𝑌𝑌𝐶𝐶 =
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 =
𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝐺𝐺∠0° + 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 ∠ − 90°
𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 = 𝑌𝑌𝑅𝑅 + 𝑌𝑌𝐿𝐿 = 𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 = 𝑌𝑌𝑅𝑅 + 𝑌𝑌𝐶𝐶 = + 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 ∠90°
𝐺𝐺∠0° + 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 ∠ − 90° 𝐺𝐺∠0° + 𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 ∠90°
Current 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 + 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 + 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶
Power 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 𝑃𝑃 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇
Power factor 𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 =
𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇
lagging leading lagging/leading
16.3 Current divider rule

For two parallel branches with impedance 𝑍𝑍1 and 𝑍𝑍2 , the current
𝑍𝑍2
𝐼𝐼1 = 𝐼𝐼
𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑇𝑇
Examples 6 and 7 illustrate this rule clearly.
16.4 Frequency response of parallel elements

Unlike the series AC circuit, in which the largest real or imaginary component has the most
impact on the total impedance, in the case of parallel elements, the smallest parallel
impedance will have the most impact on the total impedance.
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Highlights
• In a parallel R-L-C AC circuit, the circuit will transfer from inductive to capacitive.
At very low frequency, the impedance of inductors is dominant and results in an
inductive network. At very high frequency, the impedance of capacitors is dominant
and results in a capacitive network.
• There is a maximum impedance of the typical R-L-C network. Thus, for the applied
voltage source, the current will be minimum at the peak frequency. At the peak
frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 ,
1
𝑌𝑌𝑇𝑇 =
𝑅𝑅
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = 𝑅𝑅
1 1
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 = 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ⇒ 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 2 = 2
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
• As you study this section, your major focus will be the analysis of the total impedance
and source current in three typical circuits, namely R-L, R-C, and R-L-C. The
characteristics of the R-L and R-C circuits are summarised in Table 3.
TABLE 3
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF TYPICAL CIRCUITS
Typical circuits R-L R-C

Total impedance 𝑅𝑅 1
For 𝑓𝑓 < 𝑓𝑓1 = , 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 < 𝑅𝑅 For 𝑓𝑓 < 𝑓𝑓1 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋, 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 > 𝑅𝑅
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑅𝑅 1
For 𝑓𝑓 > 𝑓𝑓1 = , 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 > 𝑅𝑅 For 𝑓𝑓 > 𝑓𝑓1 = , 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 < 𝑅𝑅
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 ∠90° 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝑅𝑅𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶 ∠ − 90°
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = = 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 = =
𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐿𝐿 �𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 ∠ tan−1 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 + 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑅𝑅 �𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶2 ∠ tan−1
𝑅𝑅𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝑅𝑅
= 𝑅𝑅𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
�𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2 =
�𝑅𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿2
𝑅𝑅
𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 = tan−1 𝑅𝑅
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿 𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 = −tan−1
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
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Source current 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸
𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 = 𝐼𝐼𝑆𝑆 =
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇
Highlights • 𝑓𝑓 ↓ → inductive network • 𝑓𝑓 ↓ → resistive network

• 𝑓𝑓 ↑ → resistive network • 𝑓𝑓 ↑ → capacitive network
16.5 Equivalent circuits

In AC networks, the total impedance of two or more elements is often equivalent to an
impedance that can be achieved with fewer elements of different values. The elements and
their values can be determined by the frequency applied.
Highlights
• The equivalent element is applicable to only one applied frequency. Once the frequency
changes, the equivalent element needs to be updated.
• With the equivalent impedance, the source current will be the same if the same input
voltage is applied.
• The equivalence can be identified between the series and parallel circuits as follows.
𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃 and 𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃 in parallel  𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 and 𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 in series 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 and 𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 in series  𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃 and 𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃 in parallel
𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃 𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃2 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆2

𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆 = 𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃 =
𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃2 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆
𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃2 𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃 𝑅𝑅𝑆𝑆2 + 𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆2
𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆 = 𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃 =
𝑋𝑋𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑅𝑅𝑃𝑃2 𝑋𝑋𝑆𝑆
16.6 Applications
Read about home wiring and phase-shift power control as applications.
103

Follow the instructions in the textbook for conducting computer analysis using PSpice and
Multisim.
16.8 Summary
• It is possible to draw the following important conclusions regarding the analysis of series
AC circuits with reactive elements:
• The total impedance will be frequency dependent.
• Depending on the frequency applied, the same circuit can be either predominantly
inductive or predominantly capacitive.
• The magnitude of the current through any one branch can be greater than the source
current.
• The inductive and capacitive susceptances are in direct opposition on an admittance
diagram.
• At lower frequencies, the inductive elements will usually have the most impact on the
total impedance, while at high frequency the capacitive element will usually have the
most impact.
• The impedance of any one element can be less than the total impedance.
• The current through a coil is always in direct opposition to current through a capacitor on
a phasor diagram.
• The magnitude of the current through an element compared with the other elements of
the circuit is directly related to the magnitude of its impedance; that is, the smaller the
impedance of an element, the greater the magnitude of the current through the element.
• The applied voltage is always in phase with voltage across the resistive element, leads the
voltage across all the inductive elements by 90°, and lags the voltage across the entire
capacitive element by 90°.
• The smaller the resistive element of a circuit compared with the net reactive susceptance,
the closer the power factor is to unity.
16.9 Test yourself

Work through problems 2, 4, 6–8, 9–11, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, and 24–27 in the textbook.
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17. CHAPTER 17: SERIES-PARALLEL AC CIRCUITS

This chapter presents general approaches to solving more complicated series-parallel AC
networks. The general approach can be summarised as follows:
• Redraw the network using block impedances, which will reduce the network to one that
clearly reveals the fundamental structure of the systems.
• Study the problem and choose an approach to use.
• 1) Start from the simplest branch, 2) find the total impedance and the source current, and
3) work back to specific unknowns.
• Validate the results by checking the magnitudes of the energy source. Software will be
very helpful during this process.
17.1 Illustrative examples

Highlights
• Example 1 covers: 1) finding specific unknowns; 2) power delivery calculation; 3) power

factor of AC network.
• Example 2 covers: 1) current divider rule; 2) KCL.
• Example 3 covers: voltage divider rule.
• Example 4 should be very easy to follow.
• Example 5 covers: frequency response.
• Example 6 covers: multiple current sources with different phase angle.
• Example 7 should be easy to follow.
• Example 8 is similar to Example 1.
17.2 Ladder networks

Ladder networks were discussed in detail in chapter 7. Read the example for this type of
network.
17.3 Grounding
Highlights
• Ground potential is zero volts at every point in a network that has a ground symbol.
• There are various types of grounds:
105
− Earth ground: connected directly to the earth by a low-impedance connection. Every

home has an earth ground.
− Chassis ground: the chassis has a reference potential for all points of the network. If
the chassis is not connected to earth potential, it is said to be floating.
• National electrical code (America): (You are welcome to check what the electrical code
in South Africa is.)
− Hot line: black, carries current to a load;
− Neutral line: white, carries current back to the supply;
− Green or bare: common ground, not designed to carry current.
17.4 Applications
Read the application of a ground fault circuit interrupter.

Follow the instructions in the textbook for conducting computer analysis using PSpice and
Multisim.
17.6 Summary
Exercises will make you more confident in analysing the AC network.
17.7 Test yourself

Work through problems 2, 3, 6–8, 9, 11, 13, 16, 17, and 18–21 in the textbook.
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Unit 1 10
Methods of analysis (AC) 0
CONTENTS
PAGE
STUDY OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................... 108
18. CHAPTER 18: METHODS OF ANALYSIS .......................................... 108
18.1 Independent versus dependent sources .............................................. 108
18.2 Mesh analysis ...................................................................................... 109
18.3 Nodal analysis ........................................................................................ 110
18.4 Bridge networks (AC) ........................................................................... 111
18.5 Δ– Y, and Y– Δ conversions ................................................................ 113
18.7 Summary .............................................................................................. 115
18.8 Test yourself ........................................................................................ 115
107
METHODS OF ANALYSIS (AC)
STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapter 18 of the textbook. Key content in this chapter is 1)
independent and dependent sources; 2) mesh analysis; 3) nodal analysis; and 5) bridge
networks. Remember that all the analytic approaches are introduced in the DC part of the
textbook. The only difference is that all the discussions are for the AC domain in this chapter.
Pay attention to the dependent source, which appears for the first time in the textbook.
Chapter 18: Methods of analysis
• Tell the difference between independent and dependent sources.

• Convert between voltage and current sources and vice versa in the AC domain.
• Apply mesh and nodal analysis to AC networks with independent and controlled sources.
• Define the relationship between the elements of an AC bridge network that will establish
a balance condition.
18. CHAPTER 18: METHODS OF ANALYSIS

This chapter discusses the mesh and nodal analysis in the AC network with two or more
sources that are not in series or parallel. Dependent sources are also introduced for both mesh
and nodal analysis.
18.1 Independent versus dependent sources

This section covers both independent/dependent sources, and source conversions.
Independent/Dependent sources
• Independent sources: the magnitude of the source is independent of the network to which
it is applied and the source displays its terminal characteristics even if it is completely
isolated.
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• A dependent or controlled source is one whose magnitude is determined or controlled by

a current or voltage of the system in which it appears.
• Pay attention to the special notation for controlled sources. Also note that isolation of the
dependent source will result in:
− Controlled voltage source  short circuit, when 𝐕𝐕 or 𝐈𝐈 = 0.
− Controlled current source  open circuit, when 𝐕𝐕 or 𝐈𝐈 = 0.
Source conversions
• Source conversion can be dealt with in much the same manner as for DC circuits. Study
Examples 1 and 2.
• This section deals only with scenarios where the controlling variable is not determined by
a portion of the network to which the conversion is to be applied. More complex
conversions will be discussed in the next chapter.
18.2 Mesh analysis

Both the general approach and format approach are discussed in this section. Examples will
be helpful for your study, which covers circuits with independent/dependent voltage/current
sources.
General mesh analysis for independent voltage sources
• In comparison with chapter 8, the only change involves substituting impedance for
resistance and admittance for conductance in the following procedure:
− Assign a distinct current in the clockwise direction to each independent closed loop
of the network.
− Indicate the polarities within each loop for each impedance as determined by the
assumed direction of loop current for that loop.
− Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each closed loop in the clockwise direction.
− Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equations for the assumed loop currents.
• Study Example 5, paying attention to the calculation, since phasors are now applied.
General mesh analysis for dependent voltage sources
• Treat each dependent source like an independent source when Kirchhoff’s voltage law is
applied to each independent loop.
109
General mesh analysis for independent current sources
• Treat each current source as an open circuit, and write the mesh equations for each
remaining independent path.
General mesh analysis for dependent current sources
− The procedure is essentially the same as that applied for independent current
sources, except that now the dependent sources have to be defined in terms of the
chosen mesh currents to ensure that the final equations have only mesh currents as
the unknown quantities.
− Study Example 8.
Format mesh approach
• The format approach is highly recommended, as this approach reduces the possibilities of
making mistakes in your calculation.
− Assign a clockwise direction to each closed current loop.
− The number of equations required is equal to the number of chosen independent
closed loops. Column 1 of each equation is the total impedance values of loop
current in interest.
− Each mutual term is the product of the mutual impedance and the other loop current
passing through the same element.
− The column to the right of the equality sign is the algebraic sum of the voltage
sources through the current loop of interest.
− Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the desired loop current.
18.3 Nodal analysis

When studying this section for AC networks, 1) apply the format approach; 2) study the
examples and do more exercises.
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• Follow the steps below for nodal analysis:

− Choose a reference node and assign a subscripted voltage label to the (N – 1)
remaining independent nodes of the network.
− The number of equations required for a complete solution is equal to the number of
subscripted voltages.
− Column 1 of each equation is formed by summing the admittances tied to the node
of interest and multiplying the results by that subscripted nodal voltage.
− The mutual terms are always subtracted from the terms of the first column.
− The column to the right of the equality sign is the algebraic sum of the current
sources tied to the node of interest. A current source is assigned a positive sign if it
supplies current to a node and a negative sign if it draws current from the node.
− Solve the resulting simultaneous equations for the desired nodal voltage.
18.4 Bridge networks (AC)

Three popular bridge networks, namely the Maxwell bridge, Hay bridge, and the capacitance
comparison bridge will be introduced.
Maxwell bridge
R1 R2 Z1 Z2
+ C1 +
E AC E AC
R5 Z5
- R3
- Z3
R4
Z4
FIGURE 1
Maxwell bridge
111
R1 R2 R1 R2
C1
+
I E AC
-
R5 R5
R3 R3
L4 C3 C4
R4 R4
(a) Hay bridge (b) Capacitance comparison bridge
FIGURE 2
Bridge networks
• If IZ5 = 0, then Z1 𝑍𝑍4 = 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍3 .

• The Hay bridge can be used for measuring the resistance and inductance of a coil in
which the resistance is a small fraction of the reactance XL .
• When Z5 is replaced by a sensitive galvanometer in the Maxwell bridge, it can be used
for inductance measurements when the resistance of the coil is large enough not to
require a Hay bridge.
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In summary, when using the bridge network for measurements:
TABLE 1
MEASUREMENTS BY VARIOUS BRIDGE NETWORKS
Bridge network Figure Results

𝐶𝐶𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
L4 =
1 + 𝜔𝜔 2 𝐶𝐶 2 𝑅𝑅12
Hay bridge Figure 2(a)
𝜔𝜔2 𝐶𝐶 2 𝑅𝑅1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
R4 =
1 + 𝜔𝜔 2 𝐶𝐶 2 𝑅𝑅12
L4 = 𝐶𝐶1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3

Maxwell bridge Figure 1 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
R4 =
𝑅𝑅1
𝑅𝑅1
C4 = 𝐶𝐶3
Capacitance comparison 𝑅𝑅2
Figure 2(b)
bridge 𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅3
R4 =
𝑅𝑅1
18.5 𝚫𝚫 − 𝐘𝐘, and 𝐘𝐘 − 𝚫𝚫 conversions
As you study this section, it is important to learn the Δ– Y configurations and the conversion
formulae. Then study Examples 22 and 23 for practice.
113
𝚫𝚫 − 𝐘𝐘 configuration
a Zc b
Z2
Z1
Zb Z3
Zc
FIGURE 3
Δ − Y configuration
TABLE 2
Δ − Y CONVERSION
𝚫𝚫 − 𝐘𝐘 𝐘𝐘 − 𝚫𝚫
𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍3 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍3
Z1 = ZB =
𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 + 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵 + 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝑍𝑍2
𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 𝑍𝑍𝐶𝐶 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍3 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍3
Z2 = ZA =
𝑍𝑍𝐴𝐴 𝑍𝑍𝐵𝐵 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍3 + 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍3
Z3 = ZC =

Follow the instructions in the textbook for PSpice and Multisim simulations of the examples.
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18.7 Summary
The key content of this chapter is 1) independent and dependent sources and source
conversion; 2) mesh analysis of AC networks; 3) nodal analysis of AC networks; and 4)
bridge networks and Δ − Y conversions.
18.8 Test yourself

Work through problems 1, 2, 4, 8–10, 14–16, 18, 24–26, 29, 32–35, 37, 39, and 40–49 in the
textbook.
115
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Unit 1 11
Network theorems (AC) 0
CONTENTS
PAGE
19. CHAPTER 19: NETWORK THEOREMS ............................................. 118
19.1 Superposition theorem ......................................................................... 118
19.2 Thévenin’s theorem ............................................................................. 119
19.3 Norton’s theorem ................................................................................. 120
19.4 Maximum power transfer theorem ....................................................... 120
19.5 Substitution, reciprocity, and Millman’s theorem .................................. 122
19.6 Applications ......................................................................................... 122
19.8 Summary ............................................................................................. 122
19.9 Test yourself ........................................................................................ 122
117
NETWORK THEOREMS (AC)
STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapter 19 of the textbook, which parallels chapter 9 for the
same network theorems in DC networks. Key content of this chapter is 1) the superposition
theorem; 2) Thévenin’s theorem; 3) Norton’s theorem; 4) the maximum power transfer
theorem; and 5) the substitution and reciprocity theorems, and Millman’s theorem.
Chapter 19: Network theorems (AC)
• Apply the superposition theorem, Thévenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem to AC

networks with independent, dependent and DC sources.
• Identify the conditions that must be met for maximum power transfer to a load in an
AC network with independent or dependent sources.
19. CHAPTER 19: NETWORK THEOREMS

You have learnt a number of network theorems such as the superposition theorem,
Thévenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem, the maximum power transfer theorem, Millman’s
theorem, the substitution theorem, and the reciprocity theorem in the DC network. These
theorems are also applicable to the AC network.
19.1 Superposition theorem

The only variation in applying this method to AC networks with independent sources relates
to the fact that we are now working with impedances and phasors instead of just resistors and
real numbers.
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Highlights
• To consider the effects of each source, you can set voltage sources to zero (short circuit)
and current source to zero (open circuit).
• The superposition theorem is not applicable to power effects in networks.
Examples
• The first two examples are networks with AC sources of the same frequency. Note that in
AC networks, the impedances change with applied frequencies. Study Examples 1 to 3.
• Example 4 illustrates the application of the superposition theorem in a network with both
AC and DC sources.
• Example 5 shows the application of the superposition theorem in a network with
dependent sources in which the controlling variable is not determined by the network to
which the superposition theorem is to be applied.
• In Example 6, the dependent resources cannot be removed with the presence of the main
independent source.
19.2 Thévenin’s theorem

Thévenin’s theorem as stated in the AC network is changed only to include the term
“impedance of resistance”. That is, any two-terminal linear AC network can be replaced with
an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source and impedance in series.
Highlights
• The Thévenin circuit found for a particular network is applicable only at one frequency.
• The following steps are to be followed to find the Thévenin circuit:
− Remove the portion of the network across which the Thévenin circuit is to be found.
− Mark the remaining two-terminal network.
− Calculate ZTh by setting all voltage and current sources to zero (short circuit and
open circuit, respectively), and then find the total impedance between the marked
two-terminal network.
− Calculate ETh by first replacing the voltage and current sources, and then finding the
open-circuit voltage between the marked terminals.
− Draw the Thévenin equivalent circuit.
119
• Study Examples 7 and 8. The two examples are quite similar, but the calculation of
Example 8 is more complicated.
• Example 9 shows the applications of both Thévenin’s theorem and the superposition
theorem.
• For dependent sources, if the controlling variable is part of the network to which the
theorem is to be applied, the approaches below are introduced:
𝐸𝐸𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
− Approach 1: Eoc = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇ℎ , ZTh = , where 𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is the short-circuit current of the
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Thévenin equivalent circuit.
− Approach 2: 1) set the source voltage of the original network to zero; 2) apply a
source voltage to the terminal of interest and measure the source current. Then
𝐸𝐸𝑔𝑔
ZTh =
𝐼𝐼𝑔𝑔
• Examples 10 to 13 demonstrate the three approaches as introduced in finding the

Thévenin equivalent circuit.
19.3 Norton’s theorem

The Norton and Thévenin equivalent circuits can be found from each other by using the
source transformation. The Norton equivalent circuit is applicable at only one frequency
since the reactances are frequency dependent. Study Examples 14 to 18.
19.4 Maximum power transfer theorem

The maximum power transfer theorem states that maximum power will be delivered to a load
when the load impedance is the conjugate of the Thévenin impedance across its terminal.
Highlights
• As shown in Figure 1, for maximum power transfer to the load,
ZL = ZTh and θL = −θTh
• Or in the rectangle form,
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R L = R Th and ±jXload = −(±jXTh )
• The condition will make the total impedance of the circuit appear purely resistive, where
ZTh
ETh ZL
FIGURE 1
Conditions of maximum power transfer to a load
ZT = 2R Th
The power factor of the circuit under maximum power condition is 1.

The magnitude of the current I is
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇ℎ 𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇ℎ
𝐼𝐼 = =
𝑍𝑍𝑇𝑇 2𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇ℎ
The maximum power to the load is
2
2
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐼𝐼 𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇ℎ =
4𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇ℎ

• If the load resistance is adjustable but the magnitude of the load reactance is not, then the
maximum power that can be delivered to the load will occur when the load resistance is
set to the following value:
121
2 2
R L = �𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇ℎ + (𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇ℎ + 𝑋𝑋𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 )
The power delivered is then determined by
2
𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇ℎ
𝑃𝑃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
4𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑅𝑅𝑇𝑇ℎ +𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿
where 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = .
2
19.5 Substitution, reciprocity, and Millman’s theorem

These three theorems remain the same as introduced in chapter 9.
19.6 Applications
Please read the application case study of the electronic systems in the textbook.

As usual, the computer software programs PSpice and Multisim will be very helpful for self-
study of this chapter. Explore the application of the software by following the instructions in
the textbook.
19.8 Summary
The key content of this chapter is 1) the superposition theorem; 2) Thévenin’s theorem; 3) the
maximum power transfer theorem; and 4) all the examples provided in the textbook.
19.9 Test yourself

Work through problems 3, 6, 8, 11–13, 17, 19–23, 37–41, 49–51, 58–60, and 61–65 in the
textbook.
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Unit 1 12
Power (AC)
CONTENTS
PAGE
20. CHAPTER 20: POWER (AC) ............................................................... 124
20.1 General equation ................................................................................. 124
20.2 Resistive circuit .................................................................................... 125
20.3 Apparent power ................................................................................... 126
20.4 Inductive circuit and reactive power ..................................................... 126
20.5 Capacitive circuit .................................................................................. 127
20.6 The power triangle ............................................................................... 128
20.7 Power factor correction ........................................................................ 129
20.8 Power meters ....................................................................................... 129
20.9 Effective resistance .............................................................................. 129
20.10 Applications ......................................................................................... 131
20.12 Summary ............................................................................................. 131
20.13 Test yourself ........................................................................................ 131
123
POWER (AC)
STUDY OBJECTIVES
This unit covers the content of chapter 20 of the textbook, which includes 1) general equation
of power; 2) apparent power and reactive power; 3) power in resistive, inductive, and
capacitive circuits; 4) power triangle; and 5) power factor correction.
Chapter 20: Power (AC)
• Tell the difference between average, apparent, and reactive power.

• Calculate the power of any combination of resistive and reactive elements.
• Explain that the energy dissipated by a load is the area under the power curve for the
period of time of interest.
• Identify the relationships of the real, apparent, and reactive power in an AC network.
• Conduct power-factor correction to improve the terminal characteristics of a load.
• Develop some understanding of energy glossed in an AC system that is not present
under DC conditions.
20. CHAPTER 20: POWER (AC)

This chapter will provide an in-depth investigation of power in the AC network.
20.1 General equation

For any system, as shown in Figure 1, the power delivered to the load at any instant is defined
by the product of the applied voltage and the resulting current, that is,
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
where
𝑣𝑣 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃)
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𝑖𝑖 = 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
i
+
p v Load
+
FIGURE 1
Power delivered to load
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 sin(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜃𝜃) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔)
The expansion is denoted by
𝑝𝑝 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
Highlights
• The average power pav = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 appears as an isolated form that is time independent.
• Both terms that follow vary at a frequency twice that of the applied voltage or current,
with peak values having a very similar format.
20.2 Resistive circuit

For a purely resistive circuit, 𝑣𝑣 and 𝑖𝑖 are in phase, and θ = 0°. In this case,
pR = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 − 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
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POWER (AC)
The average (real) power is
Vm 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 = = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑅𝑅 =
2 𝑅𝑅
Study Example 1.
20.3 Apparent power

Apparent power is denoted by S, in the unit of VA, and
𝑆𝑆 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑆𝑆 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑍𝑍
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑆𝑆 =
𝑍𝑍
The average power to the load
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉, in W
𝑃𝑃 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
In general, power equipment is rated in VA or kVA and not in watts.
20.4 Inductive circuit and reactive power

For a purely inductive circuit, 𝑣𝑣 leads 𝑖𝑖, and θ = 90°. In this case,
pL = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
The net flow of power to the pure (ideal) inductor is zero over a full cycle, and no energy is
lost in the transaction.
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Highlights
• The peak value of the curve 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉 is defined as the reactive power associated with a pure
inductor. In general, the reactive power associated with any circuit is defined to be
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉. The symbol for reactive power is Q, and its unit of measure is the volt-ampere
reactive (VAR). For the inductor,
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 =
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿
20.5 Capacitive circuit

For a purely capacitive circuit, 𝑖𝑖 leads 𝑣𝑣, and θ = −90°. In this case,
pC = −𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
The net flow of power to the pure (ideal) capacitor is zero over a full cycle, and no energy is
lost in the transaction.
Highlights
For the inductor, the reactive power is equal to the peak value of the 𝑝𝑝𝐶𝐶 curve.
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 = 𝐼𝐼 2 𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
𝑉𝑉 2
𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 =
𝑋𝑋𝐶𝐶
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POWER (AC)
20.6 The power triangle

The three quantities average power, apparent power, and reactive power can be related in the
vector domain by
𝐒𝐒 = 𝐏𝐏 + 𝐐𝐐
where 𝐏𝐏 = P∠0°, 𝐐𝐐𝐋𝐋 = 𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿 ∠90°, 𝐐𝐐𝐂𝐂 = 𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶 ∠ − 90° and for an inductive load
𝑺𝑺 = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑗𝑗𝑄𝑄𝐿𝐿
and for a capacitive load
𝑺𝑺 = 𝑃𝑃 − 𝑗𝑗𝑄𝑄𝐶𝐶
and
S 2 = 𝑃𝑃2 + 𝑄𝑄 2
The total number of W, VAR, VA, and the power factor of any system can be found using the
following procedure:
• Find the real power (P) and reactive power (Q) for each branch of the circuit.
• The total real power of the system PT is then the sum of the average power delivered to
each branch.
• The total reactive power QT is the difference between the reactive power of the inductive
loads and that of the capacitive loads.
• The total apparent power is ST = �𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇2 + 𝑄𝑄𝑇𝑇2 .
• The total power factor is 𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 /𝑆𝑆𝑇𝑇 .
Highlights
• The total apparent power must be determined from the total average and reactive powers
and cannot be determined from the apparent powers of each branch.
• It is not necessary to consider the series-parallel arrangement of branches.
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20.7 Power factor correction

Highlights
• The process of introducing reactive elements to bring the power factor closer to unity is
called power-factor correction.
• Since most loads are inductive, the process normally involves introducing elements with
capacitive terminal characteristics having the sole purpose of improving the power factor.
20.8 Power meters

The power meter is capable of providing a digital readout for distorted non-sinusoidal
waveforms, and it can provide the phase power, total power, apparent power, reactive power,
and power factor.
The power quality analyser can also display the real, reactive, and apparent power levels,
along with the power factor. It also has a broad range of other options, including providing
the harmonic content of up to 51 terms for the voltage, current, and power.
20.9 Effective resistance

The resistance of a conductor as determined by the equation
𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 = 𝜌𝜌
𝐴𝐴
is often called the DC, ohmic, or geometric resistance. In AC circuits, the actual resistance of
a conductor is called effective resistance, which differs from the DC resistance because of the
varying currents and voltages that introduce effects not present in DC circuits.
This section will introduce the effects that affect the resistance, which include radiation
losses, skin effect, eddy currents, and hysteresis losses.
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POWER (AC)
Experimental procedure
• The effective resistance of an AC circuit cannot be measured by the ratio of V/I, since
this ratio is the impedance that may have both resistance and reactance.
• The effective resistance can be found by the following equation:
𝑃𝑃
R eff =
𝐼𝐼 2
A wattmeter and an ammeter are therefore necessary for measuring the effective resistance of
an AC circuit.
Radiation losses
• The radiation loss is the loss of energy in the form of electromagnetic waves during the
transfer of energy from one element to another.
• The radiation loss increases as the frequencies increase.
Skin effect
• An increase in frequency therefore increases the counter-induced voltage at the centre of

the wire to the point where the current flows on the surface of the conductor.
• At 60 Hz, the skin effect is just noticeable. At radio frequency, the skin effect is so
pronounced that conductors are frequently made hollow because the centre part is
relatively ineffective.
• The skin effect causes the resistance of the conductor to increase, since
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌
𝑅𝑅 ↑=
𝐴𝐴 ↓
Hysteresis and eddy current losses
• The hysteresis and eddy current losses appear when a ferromagnetic material is placed in
the region of a changing magnetic field.
• Eddy current loss:
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2
Peddy = 𝑖𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
Peddy ∝ f 2 B2
• Key factors affecting the eddy current are:

− material
− frequency
− magnetic field strength
• The hysteresis loss is proportional to the frequency to the 1st power times the magnetic
field strength to the nth power
Phys ∝ f 1 Bn
where n can vary from 1.4 to 2.6, depending on the material under consideration.
20.10 Applications
Please read the application case studies relating to 1) portable power generators; 2) business
sense as given in the textbook.

As usual, the computer software programs PSpice and Multisim will be very helpful for your
self-study of this chapter. Experiment with the software by following the instructions in the
textbook.
20.12 Summary
The key content of this chapter is 1) the superposition theorem; 2) Thévenin’s theorem; 3) the
maximum power transfer theorem; and 4) all the examples in the textbook.
20.13 Test yourself

Work through problems 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 23, 25 and 26 in the textbook.
131

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FUNDAMENTALS OF CIRCUITS

© 2016 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

Unit 1: Fundamentals of circuits

1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................... 4

1.1 Units of measurement and systems of units ............................................ 4

1.2 Significant figures, accuracy, and rounding off ........................................ 4

1.3 Powers of ten ........................................................................................... 5

1.4 Fixed-point, floating point, scientific and engineering notation ................. 5

1.5 Conversions ............................................................................................. 6

1.6 Calculators ............................................................................................... 6

1.7 Summary .................................................................................................. 6

1.8 Test yourself ............................................................................................ 6

2. CHAPTER 2: VOLTAGE AND CURRENT ............................................... 7

2.1 Voltage ..................................................................................................... 7

2.2 Current ..................................................................................................... 7

2.3 Voltage sources ....................................................................................... 8

2.4 Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors ........................................... 8

2.5 Ammeters and voltmeters ........................................................................ 8

2.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 9

2.7 Test yourself ........................................................................................... 9.

3.1 Resistance: circular wires ........................................................................ 9

3.2 Temperature effects ............................................................................... 10

3.3 Type of resistors .................................................................................... 10

3.4 Conductance .......................................................................................... 10

3.5 Ohmmeters ............................................................................................ 10

3.6 Reading materials .................................................................................. 11

3.7 Summary ................................................................................................ 11

3.8 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 11

Unit 2: Ohm’s law, series DC circuit

4. CHAPTER 4: OHM’S LAW, POWER, AND ENERGY ........................... 15

4.1 Ohm’s law .............................................................................................. 15

4.2 Plotting Ohm’s law ................................................................................. 16

4.3 Power and energy .................................................................................. 17

4.4 Efficiency ............................................................................................... 18

4.5 PSpice and Multisim .............................................................................. 18

4.6 Summary ................................................................................................ 18

4.7 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 18

5. CHAPTER 5: SERIES DC CIRCUIT ...................................................... 19

5.1 Series DC circuit .................................................................................... 19

5.2 Instruments ............................................................................................ 20

5.3 Power and voltage in series circuit ......................................................... 20

5.4 Kirchhoff’s voltage law ........................................................................... 20

5.5 Voltage division in a series circuit .......................................................... 21

5.6 Circuit notation ....................................................................................... 21

5.7 Voltage regulation and internal resistance of voltage source ................. 22

5.8 Summary ................................................................................................ 23

5.9 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 23

Unit 3: Parallel DC circuit, series-parallel circuit

6. CHAPTER 6: PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS ............................................... 27

6.1 Parallel resistors .................................................................................... 28

6.2 Parallel circuits ....................................................................................... 29

6.3 Power distribution .................................................................................. 29

6.4 Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) ................................................................. 30

6.5 Current divider rule ................................................................................ 30

6.6 Voltage source in parallel ....................................................................... 31

6.7 Open and short circuit ............................................................................ 31

6.8 Voltmeter loading effects ....................................................................... 31

6.9 Extra readings ........................................................................................ 32

6.10 Computer analysis ................................................................................. 32

6.11 Summary ................................................................................................ 32

6.12 Test yourself .......................................................................................... 32

7. CHAPTER 7: SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS ....................................... 33