The Making of Sustainable Urban Development: A Synthesis Framework

sustainability
Article
The Making of Sustainable Urban Development: A
Synthesis Framework
Hui-Ting Tang and Yuh-Ming Lee *
Institute of Natural Resources Management, National Taipei University, 151 University Road, San Shia District,
New Taipei City 23741, Taiwan; s810075101@webmail.ntpu.edu.tw
* Correspondence: yml@mail.ntpu.edu.tw; Tel.: +886-2-8674-1111 (ext. 67333)
Academic Editor: Md Saidul Islam

Received: 29 February 2016; Accepted: 14 May 2016; Published: 19 May 2016
Abstract: In a time of rapid climate change and environmental degradation, planning and
building an ecologically sustainable environment have become imperative. In particular, urban
settlements, as a densely populated built environment, are the center of attention. This study
aims to build a clear and concise synthesis of sustainable urban development not only to serve
as an essential reference for decision and policy makers, but also encourage more strategically
organized sustainability efforts. The extensive similarities between environmental planning and a
policy-making/decision-making/problem-solving process will be carefully examined to confirm the
fundamental need to build a synthesis. Major global urban sustainability rankings/standards will
be presented, discussed, and integrated to produce a holistic synthesis with ten themes and three
dimensions. The study will assemble disparate information across time, space, and disciplines to
guide and to facilitate sustainable urban development in which both environmental concerns and
human wellbeing are addressed.
Keywords: sustainable urban development; synthesis framework; environmental planning
1. Introduction
1.1. Challenges of Climate Change and Environmental Degredation: Cities on the Front Line
The climate change we are facing now is of large scale and high speed, unprecedented and unseen
in the past. It occurs across national borders and geographical boundaries and has already taken
its toll on humankind. The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) compiled by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) makes a shocking but truthful observation: global average surface
temperatures have increased by about 0.74 ˝ C over the past one hundred years (between 1906 and 2005)
and 2005 and 1998 were the two warmest years in the instrumental global surface air temperature record
since 1850 [1]. In the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) released in 2013, new atmospheric temperature
measurements are used and the IPCC goes further to “show an estimated warming of 0.85 ˝ C (1.5 ˝ F)
since 1880 with the fastest rate of warming in the Arctic” [2].
Several different scenarios of the 21st century global temperatures and greenhouse gases (GHGs)
concentrations have been described in the AR5, and it has been projected that “global surface
temperature increases will exceed 1.5 ˝ C and keep rising beyond 2100 in all scenarios except the
lowest-emission scenario” [2]. The speed of global warming is picking up and, without cooperative
measures from around the world to limit GHGs emissions, “in the scenarios with higher rates of
emissions, warming is likely to exceed 2 ˝ C by 2100, and could even exceed 4 ˝ C” [2]. Also noted by
the IPCC is that rising sea levels are a particularly serious outcome of global warming. Worldwide sea
level is expected to increase by 8–88 cm during the 21st century [3].
Sustainability 2016, 8, 492; doi:10.3390/su8050492 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

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As temperatures increase, more floods, droughts, diseases, famines, and wars will follow, creating
millions of dislocated people and destroying ecosystems. According to a team of health and climate
scientists from the World Health Organization (WHO) and the University of Wisconsin at Madison,
global warming and climate change will not only threaten our health in the future, but also cause
more than 150,000 deaths and five million illnesses every year. This number is estimated to double
by 2030 [4]. Once the 2 ˝ C threshold of temperature increase is passed, the balance of ecosystem will
be thrown off, food and water safety will be compromised, and extreme weather events will strike.
Ultimately comes the extinction of all species.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate
change as “a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters
the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability
observed over comparable time periods” [5]. It is stated clearly that climate change here refers only to
the type originating from human causes. After decades of careful observation and examination, the
scientific community has reached a consensus, concluding that climate change is indeed happening
and various human activities are to take the majority of the blame.
Such a claim is supported by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT),
which has identified that, since cities are heavily populated and concentrated with human activities like
manufacturing and consumption, they produce nearly 60%–70% of the total GHGs emissions. However,
cities all over the world take up in total only 2% of the land [6]. It should also be noted that cities not
only rank as the most prominent GHGs sources, but also “concentrate disproportional parts of the
economy, resource consumption and the decision-making power in most countries” [7]. A staggeringly
high proportion of “75% of the global economic production takes place in urban areas” [7]. Not
surprisingly, it comes with a price: cities consume 75% of the planet’s resources, generate a comparable
percentage of waste, including air pollution, solid waste, and toxic effluents [8] and use 67% of the
total global energy consumption [7]. From this perspective, it follows that urbanization, or to be more
specific, urban development is indeed strongly associated with environmental degradation.
1.2. Reserch Rationale and Objective

Around the globe, rapid urbanization has created immense burdens on public infrastructure, such
as transit systems and utility facilities. It has also produced a highly stressed and strained ecosystem.
The ongoing reciprocal action between climate change and urbanization further complicates the
situation and has greatly threatened the global natural environment, economic development, social
stability, and human wellbeing. Combining highly concentrated population and economic assets,
urban settlements are truly the places where human impacts on the environment are most extensive,
persistent, and focused. Accordingly, it is well recognized that careful planning of the environment of
urban settlements will be the crucial step to securing a sustainable future.
The fact that cities are the places where a large portion of economic activity and consumption
take place means that human impacts on the environment will be the most intense. Contrariwise,
environmental impacts on human society will be the most visible. In short, cities are fundamental
to climate change management efforts. This compelling fact defines the scope of argument in this
study. Namely, the focus of environmental planning presented and discussed below will be perceived
from the perspective of urban settlements. We aim to address the challenge of sustainable urban
development by means of offering a concise synthesis framework. It will register all concerns in
environmental issues and human wellbeing. It will not only serve as a fundamental reference for
decision and policy makers, but also encourage more strategically organized efforts in sustainable
environmental planning.
In this study, Section 1 presents an overview of the problems of climate change and environmental
degradation originating from human activities. The rest of the study is organized as follows. Section 2
begins with an investigation of the role of cities both in creating and in addressing the issues of
sustainable urban development. Then comes an extensive review of a range of concepts and approaches
developed by a variety of bodies, showing their focuses and areas of overlap and divergence. Section 3
moves on to argue that environmental planning is a form of policymaking which in its turn is a type
of problem-solving that requires a clear formulation of agenda, hence the need of a clear synthesis
framework. The framework is finally offered by Section 4, which merges together all the approaches
considered through an integrative methodology in order to give them consistency and exhaustiveness.
Section 5 in conclusion indicates directions for future applications and research.
2. Overview of Urban Planning and Sustainable Urban Development
2.1. The Role of Urban Planning in Sustainable Urban Development

The world’s first cities can be dated back to 3500 B.C. It is generally agreed by scholars that
the Uruk Cluster in Mesopotamia is humanity’s first great urban center and city [9]. It was located
150 miles south of the modern-day Baghdad and, ever since its establishment, cities have come in to
existence all over the world. Early into the 21st century, cities have started to appear with greater
frequency. According to statistics calculated by Global Health Observatory, a program run by the
WHO, as of 2010, more than half of all people live in urban areas. It is projected that by 2030, six out of
every 10 will live in cities, and by 2050, this proportion will increase to seven out of 10 [10].
Although cities cover only a trivial percentage of the land, they are densely populated and create a
high volume of economic activities. It has been observed by the International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development that “by enabling density—the concentration of people and economic activities in
a small geographic space—cities have helped transform economies for many centuries” [11] (p. 1).
Statistically, 50% of world gross domestic product (GDP) is generated on just 1.5% of the world’s land,
practically all of it in cities [12]. Cities are characterized by high population densities and prosperous
human activities and, as stated above, around 70% of GHGs released into the atmosphere are attributed
to urban residents [6]. It is hoped by focusing on the planning of cities, the most prominent GHGs
sources, we might facilitate sustainability and improve human comfort and development at the
same time.
Urban planning is defined as “the planning and designing of buildings, roads, and services in a
town” [13]. In “urban planning,” we deal with two concepts: “urban environment” and “planning.”
Even though the first term is frequently used, it does not mean that it has a universally-agreed-upon
definition. In fact, as to what an urban area stands for or what it is comprised of, we still do not have a
consensus [14]. In most countries, whether a settlement or population should be classified as rural
or urban often depends on its population number, density, physical characteristics, or administrative
functions [15]. The International Council for Science proposes a synthesized definition to call urban
environment “the natural, built and institutional elements that determine the physical, mental and
social health and wellbeing of people who live in cities and towns” [16] (p. 8). As for “planning,”
if used in a city or business context, it usually refers to “the establishment of goals, policies, and
procedures for a social or economic unit” [17]. From the discussion above, we can see that “cities
have thus been planned from the beginning, enabling new settlements, economic specialization, and
cultural expression” [11].
Urbanization is most evident in the context of cities where the majority of global population
resides and therefore brings about the most significant environmental impact. It can be reasonably
inferred that human activity is the principal driving force of various kinds of environmental problems.
With so many residents and properties in them, cities are also the most vulnerable in the face of extreme
weather events or other climate-related impacts. For example, compared with rural areas, big cities
will encounter a more rapid temperature increase because of the heat island effect. According to the
United States Environmental Protection Agency, any city with one million people or more can be
1–3 ˝ C warmer than surrounding areas in terms of the annual mean air temperature [18]. This shall
increase or aggregate health problems. From this point of view, cities are indeed both the victimizers
and the victims. To solve this cyclical problem, cities, or urban settlements, should be carefully planned
from the beginning.
2.2. Different Views and Aspects of Sustainable Urban Development

To address the challenges of climate change and environmental degradation, more holistic
planning of urban development has become our immediate priority. In 1973, the United Nations
Environmental Progamme (UNEP) declared 5 June of every year as the World Environment Day to
promote global environmental awareness of the importance of taking prompt action to protect and to
preserve the Earth. Its theme in 2005 was “Green Cities” and used the slogan “Plan for the Planet!”
Starting from 1986, the UN-HABITAT nominated the first Monday of every October as the World
Habitat Day. Every year, in the commemoration of this day, a specific topic on urban environment and
development is celebrated, such as “Planning Our Urban Future” in 2009, “Better City, Better Life” in
2010, and “Cities and Climate Change” in 2011. They all call for cities around the world to alleviate
pressure on the ecosystem and to ensure the quality and security of our living environment.
The aim of sustainable urban development has emerged and spawned numerous urban settlement
theories, including the “Healthy City”, “Sustainable City”, “Low-Carbon City”, “Transit-Oriented
City”, “Compact City”, “Smart City”, “Green City”, and “Livable City”. These theories may come with
different concerns in different areas, but they all share one central idea and ultimate goal: achieving
maximum development with minimum resource consumption and environmental impact to ensure
the well-being of both humans and the Earth.
Investigating the relationship between humans and environment has always attracted
considerable attention. The concept of the “Healthy City” is used in the field of public sanitation and
city design; it emphasizes how policies can influence human health. It originated in the mid-19th
century and its modern incarnation appeared in the Initiative on Healthy Cities and Villages advocated
by the WHO in 1986 [19]. At the time, 11 cities were initially chosen to participate in the project
and follow the principle of “Health for All (HTA)” [20]. The WHO points out that many factors,
including society, economy, and environment, influence human health, so planning a Healthy City
not only involves public health protection, but also requires efforts in political, economic, and social
arenas [21]. A Healthy City will bring many benefits, such as “a clean, safe physical environment of
high quality”, “the meeting of basic needs for all the city’s people”, and “an ecosystem that is stable
now and sustainable in the long term” [20].
The WHO initiated the Healthy Cities Project in 1990 and 47 countries participated in it during
the first stage. At the time, the WHO drew up 53 Healthy Cities Indicators as initial references
and continued to collected relevant data and statistics. After meticulous study and analysis, the
53 indicators were condensed into 32 and were classified in four categories: Health Indicators, Health
Service Indicators, Environmental Indicators, and Socio-economic Indicators [22].
Since the urban environment comprises a wide range of elements and its form of planning is varied,
the “Sustainable City” has become a major trend in many countries. It takes environmental impacts
into consideration during the design phase of city planning and encourages residents to actively reduce
their energy and water consumption and to limit their emissions of GHGs and other pollutants. In 2002,
the International Environmental Technology Centre of the UNEP and the Environment Protection
Authority of Victoria in Australia collaborated to hold an international expert panel in Melbourne.
From it, the Melbourne Principles for Sustainable Cities were developed. The vision promoted by the
principles is to “create environmentally healthy, vibrant and sustainable cities where people respect
one another and nature, to the benefit of all” [23]. Rather than a fixed framework, the principles
are designed to be flexible enough to be adopted by any cities and they provide a starting point for
decision-makers on the journey towards sustainability, assisting government officials in understanding
the implications of decisions taken at a broad strategic level [23].
The “Low-Carbon City” is sometimes referred to as the “Low-Emission City”. To confront the
issue of ever-increasing GHGs emissions, the UNEP and the UNFCCC have been advocating Adaption
and Mitigation: the former addresses the adverse effects of climate change, responds to the impacts
of existing climate change, and improves resilience against future impacts [24]; the latter refers to
reduction or prevention of GHGs emissions. For example, “mitigation can mean using new technologies
and renewable energies, making older equipment more energy efficient, or changing management
practices or consumer behavior” [25].
A Low-Carbon City uses mitigation strategies in urban planning with the aim of enlisting efforts
from not only the public and private sectors but the whole community significantly to cut down
emissions. In Global Report on Human Settlements 2009—Planning Sustainable Cities: Policy Directions
published by the UN-HABITAT, it has been strongly advocated that “the key objective of the trend
towards ‘carbon neutral’ cities is to ensure that every home, neighbourhood and business is carbon
neutral. Carbon neutral cities are able to reduce their ecological footprint through energy efficiency
and by replacing fossil fuels” [26] (p. 149). From this statement, we can reasonably infer that “low
carbon,” or the ultimate “carbon neutral”, has become the goal of all sustainable urban development.
Such awareness and action are essential if the world is to shift to “post-carbon cities” [27]. The World
Bank launched the Low-Carbon Livable Cities Initiative in September 2013 and planned to help
300 large cities in developing countries to transition into low-carbon settlements in the next four
years. Assistance will come in the form of planning and financing and necessary assistance will be
promptly provided.
Along the same lines, several programs have been in place to help cities reach the goal of carbon
emissions reduction or carbon neutrality. Examples include the Cities for Climate Change program by
the Local Governments for Sustainability, the Clinton Foundation’s C-40 Climate Change Initiative,
Architecture 2030, and the UN-HABITAT’s Cities for Climate Change Initiative. These programs
all stress the importance of reducing energy use wherever and whenever possible, especially in the
building and transportation sectors. Since transport creates the primary form of any city, it is frequently
regarded as the most fundamental infrastructure for a city [28] and naturally should be the focus of
any urban sustainability efforts.
One of the dominant features of modern cities is high density. Those in developing countries
often have much higher density than those in developed countries. If vehicles in these confined
spaces are not controlled in numbers, or have poorly-maintained fossil fuel engines, serious air
pollution will surely follow. Therefore, cities have to rigorously monitor and manage such emission
sources [29]. Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) has the potential to address this issue. TOD
represents a neighborhood incorporating a mélange of land uses centered around a transit station [30].
Within a short walking distance from the core, usually in ten minutes, residents can easily access
all kinds of daily services, such as retail stores, offices, and residential quarters. The function and
importance of TODs are emphasized as follows [31] (p. 2):
“the location, mix, and configuration of land uses in TODs are designed to encourage
convenient alternatives to the auto, to provide a model of efficient land utilization, to
better serve the needs of [ . . . ] diverse households, and to create more identifiable, livable
communities”.
TOD can not only reduce car use per capita by 50%, but save households about 20% of their income
because they can manage with average one fewer car, or even none [32]. It also enables low carbon
housing. For instance, in the United States, shifting 60% of new growth to compact/high-density
patterns will reduce CO2 emissions by as much as 85 million metric tons annually by 2030 [33].
Compared with traditional community development, TOD expands facets of economy, comfort, and
environment. As identified by Belzer and Autler [34], measures of livability which relate to TOD
include reduction of gasoline consumption, increased walkability and access to public transportation,
decreased traffic congestion, positive health outcomes, and more convenient access to services,
activities, and public spaces. Cities, or the built environment, are all too often the most prominent
GHGs sources. In other words, they are the key to success of any efforts towards emission reduction.
TOD illustrates that, in urban development, environmental concerns and human interest can be
balanced at the same time under the common goal of sustainability for all.
The “Compact City” also strives for TOD and plans for roads, streets, and neighborhood
networks that promote walkability and are convenient for all users. It is high in density and social
diversity, emphasizing the optimal provision of infrastructures in cities of small and medium size and
advocating local production and consumption. In it, economic and social activities often overlap and
community development is focused on the neighborhood. Therefore, energy and space efficiency can
be greatly enhanced.
In Urban Patterns for A Green Economy—Leveraging Density, a report published by the UN-Habitat
in 2012, five Ds that characterize a compact city are proposed: Density, Diversity, Design, Destination,
and Distance to Transit. The five Ds show the importance of making good decisions on locations,
urban structures, and street networks in order to weave an urban fabric conducive to walking, cycling,
and public transit [35]. With similar ideals in mind, the Institute for Transportation and Development
Policy (ITDP) released a report named Europe’s Vibrant New Low Car(bon) Communities. It puts forth
eight principles for smart urban growth, or a smart city: promote walking, prioritize bicycle networks,
create dense street networks, support high-quality transit, plan for mixed land use, match density with
transit capacity, create compact regions, and regulate parking and local road use [36]. In the report, the
ITDP emphasizes the importance of walking, cycling, and quality public transportation and believes
that the key to emission reduction is to cut back on the use of vehicles that burn fossil fuels. The belief
is actually summed up in the title of the report, Europe’s Vibrant New Low Car(bon) Communities, as the
word “car” is plainly stated.
In literature on the subject on sustainable urban settlements, the notion of “greenness” has also
become influential in recent years. It is frequently presented as “greening” or “green”, and can be found
in various city rankings, such as the European Green Capital Award (EGCA) and the Green City Index.
The EGCA aims to “reward cities which are making efforts to improve the urban environment and
move towards healthier and sustainable living areas” [37]. Siemens AG and the Economist Intelligence
Unit (EIU) collaborate to survey cities in more than 120 countries. The focal geographical regions cover
Europe, Latin America, United States, Canada, Asia, and Africa. Cities are assessed and compared
in terms of environmental performance. The final evaluation results will be compiled and presented
as the Green City Index, showing weaknesses and strengths of each region and each city. The Green
City Index is targeted to measure and to rate the environmental performance of cities, “touching on a
wide range of environmental areas, from environmental governance and water consumption to waste
management and greenhouse gas emissions” [38] (p. 4).
As urban settlements represent a built environment with various man-made architectural
structures, the concept of greenness is also embodied in contemporary building standards. Both
homes and commercial buildings use large amounts of energy for heating, cooling, cooking, and
management of waste. Attempts to rein in such energy use and its subsequent GHGs emissions from
fossil fuel combustion have led to an increase of green building standards that promote better occupant
comfort and lower environmental impacts at the same time. In general, a green building aims to
be responsible to the environment during its entire life cycle and to increase its energy efficiency
at different stages, including siting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and
demolition. It requires close cooperation among design teams, architects, engineers, and clients [39].
Compared with traditional ones, green buildings expand concerns of economy, utility, durability, and
comfort [40]. Around the world, “incentives or requirements for buildings to meet green-building
standards have been used in some cities as part of a move towards carbon neutrality” [26] (p. 41).
The notion of “livability” is also highly noteworthy. It is sometimes presented as “liveability”
or “livable/liveable”, and appears in numerous documents from both public and private sector
organizations. For efforts made by public organizations, the most recent and significant one is the
Better Life Initiative, which is the culmination of research results published by the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 2011. The OECD has put in more than a decade
of work and has subsequently assembled internationally comparable measures of well-being, called
the Better Life Index. The Index is one of the core products from the Initiative. It invites users to
compare well-being across countries according to the following 11 topics: community, education,
environment, civic engagement, health, housing, income, jobs, life satisfaction, safety and work-life
balance [41]. The OECD’s goal lies in “developing statistics to capture aspects of life that matter to
people and that shape the quality of their lives” [41] (p. 1).
For notions deployed by private sector organizations, there are also numerous examples. By way
of example, the EIU runs a global survey of livability entitled the “EIU Liveability Ranking”. It
states that livability “assesses which locations around the world provide the best or the worst
living conditions” [42] (p. 1). Mercer, a global leading human resources consultancy, publishes
“Quality-of-Living Reports” that rank cities in terms of quality factors including political/social/
economic environment, medical/health considerations, and education [43]. Monocle, a global affairs
magazine, holds its annual “Quality of Life Survey”, previously named “The Most Liveable Cities
Index”. It rates the “components and forces that make a city not simply attractive or wealthy
but truly liveable” [44] and announces every year its top 25 livable cities in the world, based on
“statistics collected on population, international flights, crime, sunshine, tolerance, unemployment
rate, upcoming developments, electric car charging points, culture, bookshops, green space, street life,
and dinner on a Sunday” [45].
Presented above are some of the most notable and most frequently-cited global livability rankings.
Through them, we may get a fuller understanding of what livability is. However, livability “does not
come packaged in a single accepted definition” [46] because the concept has constantly been associated
with an abundance of social characteristics and physical aspects. It involves not only elements of the
daily physical environment but ideals of placemaking. From this point of view, “a livable community
is one that has affordable and appropriate housing, supportive community features and services, and
adequate mobility options, which together facilitate personal independence and the engagement of
residents in civic and social life” [47].
3. Environmental Planning as Read in Policy-Making, Decision-Making, and Problem-Solving

Innumerable countries are now faced with the same challenge: how to design and develop
sustainable urban settlements. Environmental planning in this sense is much like a problem-solving
process. We should also bear in mind that for any environmental planning to be sustainable, it should
take into consideration the environmental, social, political, economic, governance, and ethics factors
that can influence and determine the relationship between natural systems and human systems. All
concerns have to be addressed in balance in order to render well-rounded decisions and polices.
If inspected in fine enough detail, policy-making is in principle strongly similar to
decision-making, as interpreted since the 1950s. Harold Lasswell [48] was one of the first to view
the overall process of policy-making through the lens of “phases” or “stages.” He put forward the
following seven “stages” of “the decision process”: intelligence, promotion, prescription, invocation,
application, termination, and appraisal. Since Lasswell’s identification of the seven stages, there has
been an abundance of variants to the number and specification of the stages [49–56]. Though the set
of stages has been challenged and placed under scrutiny over the years, it remains a firm basis for
subsequent study in policy science and policy analysis [57].
Stemming from the work of Lasswell are countless policy-making models. Stokey and
Zeckhauser [58] propose a five-step process in which the analysts are charged to determine the
underlying problem and objective to be pursued, set out possible alternatives, predict the consequences
of each alternative, determine the criteria for measuring the achievement of alternatives, and to
indicate the preferred choice of action. Anderson’s [59] policy process model has six stages: problem
identification, agenda formation, policy formulation, policy adoption, policy implementation, and
policy evaluation. Quade [60] lists five elements: problem formulation, searching for alternatives,
forecasting the future environment, modeling the impacts of alternatives, and evaluating the
alternatives. Hill [61] and Jann and Wegrich [57] also describe five steps: agenda setting, policy
formulation, decision-making, implementation, and evaluation.
These kinds of policy-making processes have a strong resemblance to decision-making. A large
number of decision-making processes or models have been proposed in literature over the years. In a
simplified and generalized sense, a decision-making process can be portrayed as a problem-solving
process. After analyzing 25 such decision processes, Mintzberg et al. [62] summarizes them into a
alternative solutions; and (3) Selection of alternative [63]. The rational decision‐making model [63,64]
three-phase model: (1) Identification of issues and goals; (2) Development of alternative solutions; and
has often been used as a reference frame when depicting decision‐making processes. Though it can
(3) Selection of alternative [63]. The rational decision-making model [63,64] has often been used as a
be a reductionist version of reality, it can still offer a close impression of the decision‐making process
reference frame when depicting decision-making processes. Though it can be a reductionist version of
via six steps: goal clarification, solution search, solution analysis, solution evaluation, decision, and
reality, it can still offer a close impression of the decision-making process via six steps: goal clarification,
control [64].
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Figure 1. Comparability among policy‐making, decision‐making, and problem‐solving processes.
Figure 1. Comparability among policy-making, decision-making, and problem-solving processes.
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the top priority (Figure 2). Since the concept of sustainable urban development is multidimensional, made in
efforts made in the field could be diverse, random, and not strategically organized. Such a
framework should be able to provide the big picture, that is, to summarize complex issues for
supporting policy makers and encouraging more focused efforts.
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and foremost step is to determine areas of concerns based on available information. Any later
efforts in subsequent steps can thus be made in a more efficient and directed way. Applying such a
concept in the context of sustainable urban development, we can readily infer that a synthesis
framework that encompasses the complete range of human and environmental wellbeing will be
the top priority (Figure 2). Since the concept of sustainable urban development is multidimensional,
the fieldmade
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encouraging more focused efforts.
supporting policy makers and encouraging more focused efforts.

Figure 2. Building a synthesis framework as fundamental first step.
Figure 2. Building a synthesis framework as fundamental first step.
4. A Synthesis Framework with Dimensions and Themes

This section elaborates on how the synthesis framework is constructed and consists of
four subsections:
‚ Subsection 4.1: Defining Sustainable Urban Development

‚ Subsection 4.2: Global Rankings/Standards of Urban Sustainability: Different Focal Areas
‚ Subsection 4.3: Global Rankings/Standards of Urban Sustainability: Sorting Indicators into Themes
‚ Subsection 4.4: Global Rankings/Standards of Urban Sustainability: A Synthesis Framework
It begins with Subsection 4.1, which establishes an original definition of sustainable urban
development. An integrative methodology used in this study to build the synthesis framework
is introduced in Subsection 4.2, and 10 representative urban sustainability rankings/standards are
selected in this subsection. All indicators from the rankings/standards are collected and sorted into
new themes in Subsection 4.3 Finally, Subsection 4.4 integrates the new themes into dimensions and
produces a synthesis framework.
4.1. Defining Sustainable Urban Development

In the search for a sustainable development pathway, the United Nations World Commission on
Environment and Development published in 1987 Our Common Future, also known as the Brundtland
Report. It is considered the starting point of the global discourse on sustainability and defines
sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [65] (p. 37). Sustainable development
carries different meanings to different people, subject to their position in societies [66–68]. “It takes
on meaning within different political ideologies and programmes underpinned by different kinds of
knowledge, values and philosophy” [69] (p. 3). Thus far, there has been no consensus on how such
development should be defined or attained.
The concept of sustainable urban development is thus ever-changing and evolving. It is sometimes
defined in terms of the economic sustainability of a city, that is, its potential “to reach qualitatively a new
level of socio-economic, demographic and technological output which in the long run reinforces the
foundations of the urban system” [70]. This way of thinking seeks to continue economic growth and is
now regarded as a relatively weaker form of sustainable development. Others may put more emphasis
on the social sustainability and base the concept on a broad range of social principles of futurity, equity,
and participation, especially involvement of public citizens in the land development process [71]. When
viewed alongside environmental concerns, the concept also embodies environmental sustainability,
meaning the pursuit of urban form that synthesizes land development and nature preservation and
places the protection of natural systems into a state of vital equipoise [72]. In general, countries
around the world are called to minimize environmental impact and to improve the social conditions
of individuals and the community [73]. In summary, principles of achieving sustainable urban
development are generally based on environmental, economic, and social considerations [74–76].
Although current discussions appear to focus more on the environment and economy, cities are
still fundamentally human habitats. In contrast to the weaker form of sustainable development, a
stronger form “represents a revised form of self-reliant community development which sustains
people's livelihoods using appropriate technology” [69] (p. 4). Since cities are for people [77],
sustainable cities should be “places where people want to live and work, now and in the future.
They meet the diverse needs of existing and future residents, are sensitive to their environment,
and contribute to a high quality of life. They are safe and inclusive, well planned, built and run,
and offer equality of opportunity and good services for all” [78] (p. 56). It is prescient that human
health, wellbeing, safety, security and opportunity will be influenced by the way urban settlements
are planned, designed, developed and managed [79]. It should also be noted that social development
and economic productivity depend on citizens whose mental and physical needs are satisfied. City
Sustainable comfort
inhabitants’ urban hence
development is indeed
plays a significant role in a multilayered
sustainable concept. It synthesizes land
urban development.
Sustainable urban development is indeed a multilayered concept. It synthesizes land development
development and nature preservation. It also refers to the capacity of nature to support its activities,
and nature preservation. It also refers to the capacity of nature to support its activities, the vitality of a
the vitality of a city as a complex system, and the quality of life of its inhabitants. In other words,
city as a urban
sustainable complex system, and the
development quality
covers of lifefields
many of its inhabitants.
of activity In other
such as words, sustainableprotection,
environmental urban
development covers many fields of activity such as environmental protection, human development,
human development, and inhabitant wellbeing. However, despite all the discussions, no single or
and inhabitant wellbeing. However, despite all the discussions, no single or agreed meaning has been
agreed meaning has been produced. Taking account of all the concerns stated above, this study
produced. Taking account of all the concerns stated above, this study proposes to define sustainable
proposes to define sustainable urban development as the capacity of any significant human
urban development as the capacity of any significant human settlements to maintain environmental
settlements
quality andto maintain environmental
carrying capacity, to support quality and carrying
socio-economic capacity, and
development to support socio‐economic
management, and to
development and management, and to provide sufficient services and livelihoods to all current and
provide sufficient services and livelihoods to all current and future inhabitants. That is, the practicable
future inhabitants. That is, the practicable and full realization of sustainability can only take place in
and full realization of sustainability can only take place in the overlap, or the dynamic, among the
the overlap, or the dynamic, among the three fundamental capacities (Figure 3).
three fundamental capacities (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Sustainable urban development—defined as capability in three aspects.
Figure 3. Sustainable urban development—defined as capability in three aspects.
4.2. Global Rankings/Standards of Urban Sustainability: Different Focal Areas
In order to facilitate an improved understanding on the state of, or changes to, urban
settlements in relation to better sustainability performance, different sets of frameworks, indicators,
and assessment tools have been developed [80,81]. A broad range of urban sustainability indicators
4.2. Global Rankings/Standards of Urban Sustainability: Different Focal Areas

In order to facilitate an improved understanding on the state of, or changes to, urban settlements
in relation to better sustainability performance, different sets of frameworks, indicators, and assessment
tools have been developed [80,81]. A broad range of urban sustainability indicators has also been in use
across different cities and regions, varying in accordance with their particular needs and goals [82,83].
From an initial look, these indicators or rankings/standards appear individually from different sources,
leaving the impression that they are proposed as ad-hoc solutions to the emerging environmental
challenges. However, each is actually sensibly put together in line with the growing trends in urban
environmental planning.
For instance, in recent decades, the concept of New Urbanism, also called Smart Growth or
Transit-Oriented Development, has begun to take form. It started out as a reaction against the
perceived environmental, economic and social problems of earlier generations of urban planning.
New Urbanism advocates “restructuring of public policy and development practices to support the
following principles: neighborhoods should be diverse in use and population; communities should
be designed for the pedestrian and transit as well as the car; cities and towns should be shaped
by physically defined and universally accessible public spaces and community institutions; urban
places should be framed by architecture and landscape design that celebrate local history, climate,
ecology, and building practice” [84]. From a thoroughgoing critique of the impacts of urbanization,
many have also made the case for “walkable, human-scaled neighbourhoods as the building blocks of
sustainable communities and regions” [85]. Such conception are materialized into six fundamental
features, including a clear neighborhood center that satisfies all residents’ daily needs, the five minute
walk, a street network in the form of a continuous web, narrow and versatile streets, mixed land use,
and special sites for special buildings [85].
These New Urbanist features have in reality been translated into indicators, such as “shift of
transport mode” in the Low Carbon Cities Framework, “local transport” in European Green Capital
Award, “green transport promotion” in Green City Index, “density” in Sustainable Cities Index,
“complete neighborhood/compact city” in Indicators for Sustainability, and “street life” in Quality of
Life Survey. Each of these indicators serves as a parameter “which points to, provides information
about, and/or describes the state of a phenomenon/environment/area” [86,87]. Indicators have the
role of measuring performance. They must be clear, simple, scientifically sound, verifiable, and
reproducible [88]. According to the European Evaluation Network for Rural Development [89], an
indicator must be SMART: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-related. They help
make tangible an otherwise rather abstract concept, that is, in this case, urban sustainability.
“An indicator quantifies and aggregates data that can be measured and monitored to determine
whether change is taking place” [90], and change can often bring cost reduction and service
improvement outcomes. In Asia, the Green City Index by Siemens AG has projected potential cost
savings of US$2.7 billion from various projects or clean technology deployments in the 22 Asian cities
surveyed and “bulk of the estimated savings will be generated from energy consumption and energy
efficiency initiatives” [91]. In Denmark, there is the Copenhagen 10-Step Program; the results are also
highly positive and can be described in measurable terms. The city has: (1) reduced the number of cars
in its center by eliminating parking spaces at a rate of 2–3 percent per year; (2) introduced the City
Bike system, allowing anyone to borrow a bike from any one of the 110 bike stands located around
the city center for a small refundable coin deposit; and (3) encouraged 34 percent of Copenhageners
working in the city to bicycle to their jobs [92].
However, as much as efforts from different parties have been made in applying sustainability
indicators, the results can sometimes be mixed and a number of outcomes can even fall short in terms
of facilitating sustainability performance [93–95]. It has been contended that an inadequate selection
of indicators [80,94] and the lack of consensus on urban sustainability indicators among different
approaches [96,97] have been causing confusion and have led to, in some cases, failure to achieve
favorable sustainability results. Furthermore, policymakers and city authorities today are faced with a
huge array of available urban sustainability rankings/standards and the sheer number and diversity
of them can be overwhelming [98]. There are still no pertinent standards or universal methods for
selecting urban sustainability indicators [99].
Among various measures currently in use, there has not been any comprehensive framework
that can cover the three fundamental capacities that define sustainable urban development: (1) to
maintain environmental quality and carrying capacity; (2) to support socio-economic development and
management; and (3) to provide sufficient services and livelihoods to all current and future inhabitants.
Hence, this study proposes an integrative methodology (Figure 4) to select urban sustainability
rankings/standards with different focal areas and integrate them into a synthesis framework that can
encompass a complete range of urban sustainability concerns.

Figure 4. An
Figure 4. An integrative
integrative methodology
methodology of building
of building a synthesis
a synthesis framework
framework of sustainable
of sustainable urban
urban development.
development.
Step 1 of the five-step methodology has been carried out in Subsection 4.1. Now we proceed to
Step 1 of the five‐step methodology has been carried out in Subsection 4.1. Now we proceed to
Step 2, where we select representative rankings/standards that correspond to the three fundamental
Step 2, where we select representative rankings/standards that correspond to the three fundamental
capacities of sustainable urban development defined in this study. There are 10 in total (Figure 5) and
capacities of sustainable urban development defined in this study. There are 10 in total (Figure 5)
they are chosen to optimize the purpose of this study.
and they are chosen to optimize the purpose of this study.
‚ To maintain environmental quality and carrying capacity: Selected
To maintain environmental quality and carrying capacity: Selected areare rankings/standards named
rankings/standards named
with reference
with reference toto “Low-Carbon”
“Low‐Carbon” or “Green” (e.g., (e.g.,
or “Green” Low Carbon Cities Framework
Low Carbon by the Malaysian
Cities Framework by the
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water [100], the European Green
Malaysian Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water [100], the European Green Capital Capital Award [101],
and the [101],
Award Siemens AGthe
and Green City Index
Siemens [38]). Their
AG Green main concerns
City Index relate to the natural environment
[38]). Their main concerns relate to the
with relatively minor considerations of socio-economic issues.
natural environment with relatively minor considerations of socio‐economic issues.
‚ To support socio-economic development and management: Selected
To support socio‐economic development and management: Selected are
are rankings/standards labeled
rankings/standards labeled
with “Sustainability,” or “Health” (e.g., the Sustainable Cities Index of the Australian
with “Sustainability,” or “Health” (e.g., the Sustainable Cities Index of the Australian Conservation
Foundation [102], Indicators for Sustainability by Sustainable Cities International [103], and the
Conservation Foundation [102], Indicators for Sustainability by Sustainable Cities International
WHO Healthy
[103], and the Cities
WHO Indicators
Healthy [22]).
Cities They usually[22]).
Indicators focusThey
on socio-economic
usually focus development, public
on socio‐economic
development, public infrastructure, and human health‐related statistics. Environmental isor
infrastructure, and human health-related statistics. Environmental or ecosystem preservation of
secondary importance.
ecosystem preservation is of secondary importance.
‚ To provide
To provide sufficient
sufficient services
services and
and livelihoods to all
livelihoods to all current
current andand future
future inhabitants: Selected are
inhabitants: Selected are
rankings/standards titled as “Livable” or “Life/Living” (e.g., the OECD Better Life Index [104],
rankings/standards titled as “Livable” or “Life/Living” (e.g., the OECD Better Life Index [104],
the EIU Liveability Ranking [42], the Mercer Quality-of-Living Report [105], and the Monocle
the EIU Liveability Ranking [42], the Mercer Quality‐of‐Living Report [105], and the Monocle
Quality of
Quality of Life Survey
Life [45]).
Survey Their
[45]). emphasis
Their on socio-economic
emphasis and medical
on socio‐economic services and
and medical provision
services and
of inhabitant
provision physical and
of inhabitant mentaland
physical wellbeing
mental iswellbeing
strong. Environmental interests are limited.
is strong. Environmental interests are
limited.

Figure 5.5. Sustainable
Figure Sustainable urban development—incorporating ten
urban development—incorporating major global
ten major global urban
urban sustainability
sustainability
rankings/standards with different focal areas.
rankings/standards with different focal areas.
4.3. Global Rankings/Standards of Urban Sustainability: Sorting Indicators into Themes
4.3. Global Rankings/Standards of Urban Sustainability: Sorting Indicators into Themes
Urban sustainability rankings/standards currently in use are composed of indicators that
Urban sustainability rankings/standards currently in use are composed of indicators that address
address different concerns. “Indicators are selected to provide information about the functioning of
different concerns. “Indicators are selected to provide information about the functioning of a specific
a specific system, for a specific purpose—to support decision‐making and management” [90]. The
system, for a specific purpose—to support decision-making and management” [90]. The common
common ground to be found among all these rankings/standards is that they all aim to promote
ground to be found among all these rankings/standards is that they all aim to promote sustainable
sustainable urban development by aggregating diverse information into focused and applicable
urban development by aggregating diverse information into focused and applicable knowledge [106].
knowledge [106].
However, issues covered in sustainable urban development can be innumerable. For example,
However, issues covered in sustainable urban development can be innumerable. For example,
according to the Division for Sustainable Development of the United Nations (UN-DESA), “urban
according to the Division for Sustainable Development of the United Nations (UN‐DESA), “urban
planning, transport systems, water, sanitation, waste management, disaster risk reduction, access
planning, transport systems, water, sanitation, waste management, disaster risk reduction, access to
to information, education and capacity-building are all relevant issues to sustainable urban
information, education and capacity‐building are all relevant issues to sustainable urban
development” [107]. In addition, in 2003, the British Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM, UK)
development” [107]. In addition, in 2003, the British Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM,
launched a programme of action called Sustainable Communities: Building for the future. In it, the most
UK) launched a programme of action called Sustainable Communities: Building for the future. In it, the
important requirements of sustainable communities are set out as below [108] (p. 5):
most important requirements of sustainable communities are set out as below [108] (p. 5):
(1) A flourishing local economy to provide jobs and wealth;
(1) A flourishing local economy to provide jobs and wealth;
(2) Strong leadership to respond positively to change;
(2) Strong leadership to respond positively to change;
(3) Effective
(3) Effective engagement
engagement and and participation
participation by local
by people,
local groups
people, andand
groups businesses, especially
businesses, in the
especially in
planning, design and longterm stewardship of their community, and an active voluntary
the planning, design and longterm stewardship of their community, and an active voluntary and
community sector;
and community sector;
(4) A safe and healthy local environment with well‐designed public and green space;
(4) A safe and healthy local environment with well-designed public and green space;
(5) Sufficient size, scale and density, and the right layout to support basic amenities in the
neighbourhood and minimise use of resources (including land);
(5) Sufficient size, scale and density, and the right layout to support basic amenities in the
neighbourhood and minimise use of resources (including land);
(6) Good public transport and other transport infrastructure both within the community and linking
it to urban, rural and regional centres;
(7) Buildings—both individually and collectively—that can meet different needs over time, and that
minimise the use of resources;
(8) A well-integrated mix of decent homes of different types and tenures to support a range of
household sizes, ages and incomes;
(9) Good quality local public services, including education and training opportunities, health care
and community facilities, especially for leisure;
(10) A diverse, vibrant and creative local culture, encouraging pride in the community and cohesion
within it;
(11) A “sense of place”;
(12) The right links with the wider regional, national and international community.
As the pace of urbanization continues to accelerate, many cities are faced with “an urgent need
for a transition towards a future that maximises their liveability and sustainability” [109]. The notion
of urban sustainability becomes increasingly intertwined with livability, which represents “the sum of
the factors that add up to a community’s quality of life—including the built and natural environments,
economic prosperity, social stability and equity, educational opportunity, and cultural, entertainment
and recreation possibilities”, as defined by the Partners for Livable Communities (PLC) [110]. In short,
as put by the British Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG), a sustainable and
livable city should be an environment that is both inviting and enjoyable, where inhabitants would
want to live and work now and in the future [111].
From the above discussion, it can be observed that different types of issues embody different
concerns. In many cases, the concerns are unbalanced and fails to concurrently address the
environmental, socio-economic, and inhabitant wellbeing aspects. Therefore, Table 1 collects issues
proposed from multiple sources and summarizes them into ten major themes: (1) Environmental
Quality Monitoring; (2) Natural Resource Consumption; (3) Lowering Environmental Impact and
Maintaining Carrying Capacity; (4) A Sound Socio-economic Environment; (5) Adequate Infrastructure;
(6) Development Strategy Considering Both Human and Natural Environment; (7) Sports, Leisure and
Recreation; (8) Consumer Goods and Services; (9) Cultural Diversity and Tolerance; and (10) Sense of
Wellbeing and Work-Life Balance.
In the 10 themes above, the first three are considered more environmental, the second three more
socio-economic, and the last four more inhabitant wellbeing-oriented. With themes clearly laid out, we
continue with Step 3 of the integrative methodology: collate all indicators from the 10 major global
urban sustainability rankings/standards (Figure 5) and follow the specified theme coverage in Table 1
to re-arrange all indicators into 10 themes. Tables 2–4 show how these hundreds of indicators are
sorted into themes for easy and comprehensive reference.
Table 1. Ten themes and specified theme coverage.
Proposed by Urban Sustainability Issues Major Theme Summarized Theme Coverage

UN-DESA Water
Water quality/consumption, Energy
Natural Resource Consumption
ODPM, UK Requirement #5 intensity/performance/consumption
PLC Natural environment
UN-DESA Disaster risk reduction Atmospheric and biological environment
Environmental Quality Monitoring
monitoring, Air pollution monitoring
PLC Natural environment
UN-DESA Transportation systems, Waste management Green transport, Green buildings, Waste, Green
Lowering Environmental Impact and
space planning and land use, Resource
ODPM, UK Requirements #4, 5, 6, 7 Maintaining Carrying Capacity
productivity improvement
PLC Built environment
UN-DESA Education
ODPM, UK Requirements #1, 2, 3, 8, 9 Social stability, Public participation, Education,
A Sound Socio-economic Environment Housing, Economy
Economic prosperity, Social stability and equity,
PLC
Educational opportunity
UN-DESA Transport systems, Water, Sanitation Transportation network, Water/Energy/Telecom
Adequate Infrastructure
infrastructure, Health and medical services
ODPM, UK Requirement #9
Urban planning, Access to information,
UN-DESA Development Strategy Considering City space planning, Decision-making and action
Capacity-building
Human and Natural Environment management
ODPM, UK Requirements #2, 3
ODPM, UK Requirement #9
Sport, Leisure and Recreation (same as title of theme)
PLC Entertainment and recreation possibilities
ODPM, UK Requirement #5 Consumer Goods and Services (same as title of theme)
ODPM, UK Requirements #10, 11, 12
Cultural Diversity and Tolerance (same as title of theme)
PLC Cultural possibilities
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Sense of Wellbeing and Work-Life
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The Making of Sustainable Urban Development: A Synthesis Framework

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The Making of Sustainable Urban Development: A Synthesis Framework

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sustainability

Academic Editor: Md Saidul Islam

Keywords: sustainable urban development; synthesis framework; environmental planning

Sustainability 2016, 8, 492; doi:10.3390/su8050492 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

1.2. Reserch Rationale and Objective

2. Overview of Urban Planning and Sustainable Urban Development

2.1. The Role of Urban Planning in Sustainable Urban Development

2.2. Different Views and Aspects of Sustainable Urban Development

3. Environmental Planning as Read in Policy-Making, Decision-Making, and Problem-Solving

4. A Synthesis Framework with Dimensions and Themes

‚ Subsection 4.1: Defining Sustainable Urban Development

4.1. Defining Sustainable Urban Development

4.2. Global Rankings/Standards of Urban Sustainability: Different Focal Areas

Table 1. Ten themes and specified theme coverage.

Proposed by Urban Sustainability Issues Major Theme Summarized Theme Coverage

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