by
H.N.Vishwanath
Lecturer in Education
Sharada Vilas Teachers College
Mysore
l:
Under the guidance of :-:() .. ~.J 0 p 2.
,db ,. I _c... l'.:;
Dr. A.S. Seetharamu
Professor & Head
Education Unit
Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC)
Bangalore 560 072
MC!y 2002
CERTIFICATE
I certify that I have guided and supervised the conduct of the study and
writing of the present thesis entitled "A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF
EFFECTIVENESS OF MODELS OF TEACHING ON THE
ACHIEVEMENT OF X STANDARD STUDENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL
STUDIES" completed by Mr. H. N. Vishwanath, who worked as an
external candidate on this topic in the Education Unit, Institute for Social
and Economic Change, Bangalore.
I also certify that it has not previously formed the basis for the award of
any degree, diploma or associate fellowship of the University of Mysore or
of the Institute for Social and Economic Change, or any other university or
institution.
I further declare that this research report has not, either wholly or in part, been
submitted to this or any other university for any degree or diploma. Due
acknowledgements have been made wherever any information has been used
as reference from various sources.
~:;;\5'~?
Date: (H.N'vISHWANATH)
Place: Bangalore
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My heartfelt thanks are also due to all my colleagues at Dr. T M A Pai College of
Education, Udupi and Sharada Vilas Teachers College, Mysore, parents, wife, relatives
and friends, for their continuous encouragement and cooperation in completing this
research work.
l/~~~;\<l'V
Date: (H.N.vISHWANATH)
Place:Bangalore
CONTENTS
Page
No.
Certificate
Declaration
Acknowledgements
List of Tables
Prelude 1
Science in the Modern World 3
Science as a Component of Education 3
Science in Environmental Management 7
Science Education for the 21 st Century 12
Teaching of Science 15
Teaching of Science & Teacher Education & Models of Teaching 22
Need for the Study 23
Organization of the Thesis 26
Theory 29
Need for Restoring Ecological Balance 31
Why is Ecological Balance Disturbed 32
Strategies for Restoring Ecological Balance 35
i) Legislative Strategies 35
ii) Administrative and Managerial Strategies 38
iii) Education as a Strategy 42
Socio- Economic Factors 57
Gender Issues 59
Theoretical Understandings Underlying the Study 60
Introduction 64
Review of Studies in the Area of Environmental Education (EE) 65
Review of Studies in the Area of Models of Teaching 81
Summary of the Findings 102
Insights from the Review 106
General Understandings and Distinctiveness of the Study 109
CHAPTER IV: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (EE) AND 112 -161
MODELS OF TEACHING
II
Table Descriptions Page
No. No.
40 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 221
achievement scores (III unit test) of students studying in schools with
average and high total school facilities.
41 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 222
achievement scores (III unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and high total school facilities.
42 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (III unit test) obtained 223
by students with low, average and high total home facilities.
43 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 223
achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by boys and girls.
44 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained 224
by_ students, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
45 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 225
achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through
AOM and ITM.
46 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 225
achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM
and NPM.
47 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 226
achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through
AOM and NPM.
48 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (Iv unit test) of 227
students belonging to low, average and high SES groups.
49 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained 227
by students studying in schools having low, average and high total school
facilities.
50 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 228
achievement scores (IV unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and average total school facilities.
51 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 229
achievement scores (IV unit test) of students studying in schools with
average and high total school facilities.
52 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 229
achievement scores (IV unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and high total school facilities.
53 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained 230
by students with low, average and high total home facilities.
54 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 231
achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by boys and girls,
55 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (V unit test) obtained 231
by students, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
56 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 232
achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and ITM.
57 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 233
achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM
and NPM.
58 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 233
achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM
and NPM.
59 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (V unit test) of 234
students belonging to low, average and high SES groups.
iii
Table Descriptions Page
No. No.
60 Summary of one-way ANOVA of achievement scores (V unit test) obtained 235
by students studying in schools having low. average and high total school
facilities.
61 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 235
achievement scores (V unit test) of students studying in schools with low
and average total school facilities.
62 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 236
achievement scores (V unit test) of students studying in schools with
average and high total school facilities.
IV
Table Descriptions Page
No. No.
78 Summary of one-way ANOVA of summation achievement scores obtained 247
by students with low, average and high total home facilities.
79 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 248
summation achievement scores obtained by boys and girls.
80 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test of achievement scores of various 249
groups in the I unit test in ES.
81 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test of achievement scores of various 250
groups in the II unit test in ES.
82 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test of achievement scores of various 251
grou[ls in the III unit test in ES.
83 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test of achievement scores of various 252
groups in the IV unit test in ES.
84 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test of achievement scores of various 253
groups in the V unit test in ES.
85 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test of achievement scores of various 255
groups of students in ES in total.
86 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by low 256
SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
87 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 257
achievement scores of low SES students, in ES taught through AOM and
ITM.
88 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 258
achievement scores of low SES students, in ES taught through ITM and
NPM.
89 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 258
achievement scores of low SES students, in ES taught through AOM and
NPM.
90 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by 259
average SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
91 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 260
achievement scores of average SES students, in ES taught through AOM
and ITM.
92 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 260
achievement scores of average SES students, in ES taught through ITM
and NPM.
93 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 261
achievement scores of average SES students, in ES taught through AOM
and NPM.
94 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by high 262
SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
95 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 262
achievement scores of high SES students, in ES taught through AOM and
ITM.
96 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 263
achievement scores of high SES students, in ES taught through ITM and
NPM.
97 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 264
achievement scores of high SES students, in ES taught through AOM and
NPM.
98 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by 265
students with low total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and
NPM.
v
Table Descriptions Page
No. No.
99 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 265
achievement scores of students, with low total home facilities in ES taught
through AOM and ITM.
100 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 266
achievement scores of students with low total home facilities, in ES taught
through ITM and NPM.
101 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 267
achievement scores of students, with low total home facilities in, ES taught
through AOM and NPM.
102 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by 268
students with average total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM
and NPM.
103 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 268
achievement scores of students, with average total home facilities in ES
taught through AOM and ITM.
104 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 269
achievement scores of students with average total home facilities, in ES
taught through ITM and NPM.
105 Number of students. mean scores. standard deviation and t-value of total 270
achievement scores of students, with average total home facilities in, ES
1--.....,.-::-=-_t_.'=ta_l1lht through AOM and NPM.
106 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by 271
students with high total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and
NPM.
107 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 271
achievement scores of students, with high total home facilities in ES taught
through AOM and ITM.
108 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 272
achievement scores of students with high total home facilities, in ES taught
throu~h ITM and NPM.
109 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 273
achievement scores of students, with high total home facilities in, ES
taught through AOM and NPM.
110 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by boys 273
in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM.
111 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 274
achievement scores obtained by boys in ES taught through AOM and ITM.
112 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 275
achievement scores obtained by boys in ES taught throu~h ITM and NPM.
113 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 275
achievement scores obtained by boys in, ES taught through AOM and
NPM.
1----:-:--:----1- CC' - C . - - - --. .. - . ----------,---,---:----:--:---:--:--+---=:-=:--1
114 Summary of one-way ANOVA of total achievement scores obtained by girls 276
I---:-:-=--+~in:--.E=-S,,":",_tea=.~ t!!J h ro u g.b.. A 0 ~m\11 cc.a'-Cn=-dccN,-'-P.. .:M.:. :.:. . .---:--:---:----:---_---:--:-----:--_--;-:-:--:-+--"""""~=-_
115 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 276
achievement scores obtained by girls in ES taught through AOM and ITM.
116 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 277
t----:--:-::-_r.a,c,:-h___ievement scores obtained by girls in ES taught through ITM and NPM.
117 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of total 278
achievement scores obtained by girls in, ES taught through AOM and
NPM.
VI
Table Descriptions Page
No. No.
118 Summary of one-way ANOVA and t-test on achievement scores of various 278
groups of students in ES taught through AOM, ITM and NPM
119 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 281
achievement scores obtained by total sample of students, in the I and V unit
tests in ES.
120 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation.· and I-value of 282
achievement scores obtained by students, taught through AOM in the I and
V unit tests in ES.
121 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 283
achievement scores obtained by students, taught through ITM in the I and
V unit tests in ES.
122 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 283
achievement scores obtained by students, taught through NPM in the I and
V unit tests in ES.
123 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and I-value of 284
achievement scores obtained by low SES students, in the I and V unit tests
in ES.
124 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 285
achievement scores obtained by average SES students, in the I and V unit
tests in ES.
125 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 285
achievement scores obtained by high SES students, in the I and V unit
tests in ES.
126 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 286
achievement scores obtained by the students with low home facilities in the
I and V unit tests in ES.
127 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 287
achievement scores obtained by the students with average home facililies
in the I and V unit tests in ES.
128 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 287
achievement scores obtained by students with high home facilities in the I
and V unit tests in ES.
129 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 288
achievement scores obtained by students studying in schools with low total
school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES.
------
130 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 289
achievement scores obtained by students studying in schools with
average total school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES.
131 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 289
achievement scores obtained by students studying in schools with high
total school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES.
132 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 290
achievement scores obtained by boys in the I and V unit tests in ES.
133 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 291
achievement scores obtained b)l girls in the I and V unit tests in ES.
134 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 291
achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through AOM in
the I and V unit tests in ES. ---
135 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 292
achievement scores obtained by average SES students, taught through
AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
vii
Table Descriptions Page
No. No.
136 Number of students. mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 293
achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through AOM
in the I and V unit tests in ES.
137 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 293
achievement scores obtained by students with low home facilities, taught
through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
138 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 294
achievement scores obtained by students with average home facilities,
taught through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
139 Number of students, mean scores. standard deviation and t-value of 295
achievement scores obtained by students with high home facilities, taught
through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
140 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and I-value of 296
achievement scores obtained by boys. taught through AOM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
141 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 296
achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through AOM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
142 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 297
achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through ITM in
the I and V unit tests in ES.
143 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 298
achievement scores obtained by average SES students, taught through
ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
144 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 298
achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through ITM in
the I and V unit tests in ES.
145 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 299
achievement scores obtained by students with low home facilities, taught
through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
146 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 300
achievement scores obtained by students with average home facilities,
taught through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
147 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 300
achievement scores obtained by students with high home facilities, taught
through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
148 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 301
achievement scores obtained by boys, taught through ITM in the I and V
unit
.
--~~.
tests in ES .
149 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 302
achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through ITM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
150 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 302
achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through NPM in
the I and V unit tests in ES.
151 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 303
achievement scores obtained by average SES students, taught through
NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
152 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 304
achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through NPM
in the I and V unit tests in ES.
viii
Table Descriptions Page
No. No.
153 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 304
achievement scores obtained by students with low home facilities, taught
through NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
154 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 305
achievement scores obtained by students with average. home facilities,
taught through NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
155 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 306
achievement scores obtained by students with high home facilities, taught
throuqh NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES.
156 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 306
achievement scores obtained by boys, taught through NPM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
157 Number of students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value of 307
achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through NPM in the I and V
unit tests in ES.
158a,b Summary of t-tests on achievement scores of various groups (total sample, 308 &
&c primary sub sample, secondary sub sample) in the I and V unit test in ES. 309
159 Coefficient of correlation between achievement of students in ES and other 313
variables.
160 Cases of high achievement when moderator variable SES is considered 315
161 Cases of low achievement when moderator variable SES is considered 316
162 Cases of high achievement when moderator variable TSF is considered 316
163 Cases of low achievement when moderator variable TSF is considered 317
164 Cases of high achievement when moderator variable THF is considered 317
165 Cases of low achievement when moderator variable THF is considered 318
IX
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Prelude
Knowledge in the school curriculum is comprised of Languages, Mathematics,
Physical and Natural Sciences as well as Social Studies apart from several co-
curricular subjects and activities. The perspective of looking at this classification
changed in the last two decades with the physical, natural and social sciences
being treated as a whole and referred to as Environmental Studies. The physical,
natural and social universe constitute the environment within which the human
life has been set. The individual needs to look at the universe in an integral I
holistic framework of life. Taking note of this, the Government of Karnataka
reclassified the knowledge in the curriculum into Languages, Mathematics,
Environmental Studies I and" since 1991. Hence, it is to be noted that physical
and biological sciences that were transacted in the school curriculum for a long
time have been now referred to as Environmental Studies- I.
2
programme in schools would contribute to nation-building in India. This research
study is designed with this macro-perspective of life and society.
With the great advancement in both science and technology, the threat to the
very sustenance of environment is also increasing at an alarming rate. This is
mainly due to improper and illegal applications of scientific knowledge motivated
by selfish needs, greed and lack of foresight. Basic understandings of the
nature, personal health and public hygiene, peaceful and dangerous uses of
science, basic skills of civic life and an enquiring,· questioning and exploring
attitude are very much essential for the progress and development of a society
as well as for the healthy growth of science and technology. Science education
has the potential to create the required awareness, understanding and attitude
which are all the more important in a developing country, like India.
In the past, science had to struggle hard and long for its rightful place in the
school curriculum. Science education, in one or the other form, has a
recognized place in school education now. The role of science education
3
becomes critical because science and technology have become the growing
edges and these are influencing human life and environment in diversified ways.
Pearson Karl (1924) in his book "Grammar of Science", emphasizes the
importance of 'training the mind to an exact and impartial analysis of facts, with a
view to developing sound citizenship and international relations universally. The
real significance of science had not been realized till the beginning of the 19th
century and that is why science had no place in the school curriculum during the
earlier periods.
4
The learning of science and technology in our schools, colleges and universities
is necessary to develop new skills. It is also essential for fully comprehending
the processes of society so that they can be altered in accordance with the
highest code of morality, and the enrichment of human personality. It is,
therefore, essential that science should be used to promote the spirit of free
inquiry to promote national wealth, to abolish inequality between nations and
classes and to test all assumptions in the crucible of scientific analysis.
Since the middle of the 19th century, there has been a realization of the
importance of learning the processes of science. In England, Thomas
H.Huxley, Hooker and John Henslow (1973) held a view that "the unique
characteristic of science as a branch of learning, was the method by which
5
knowledge was acquired. These methods were of utmost significance from an
educational point of view than the conclusions reached". The 'process' aspect
of science was considered more significant than its 'product' aspect. Hence,
science has to be studied in schools not only for its informational benefits but
also because it trains the powers of observation and reasoning. Science is no
longer treated merely as a body of knowledge; it is regarded as a systematic and
dynamic process of life.
The rapid advancement of science and technology and increasing need for
scientific application have made it all the more important to provide for science
education in schools. Even the Secondary Education Commission, 1952, had
recommended that every Secondary School pupil should study General Science
as a compulsory subject, so that h/she gains a basic quantum of scientific
knowledge as a part of his/her general education. In addition, provision should
be made for elective subjects in science for those students who want to pursue
higher study.
For the first time, the 42"d amendment to the Indian Constitution adopted in 1976
included several fundamental duties of a citizen. This is in contrast to the
fundamental rights included in the Constitution of 1950. One of the fundamental
duties of a citizen is to develop 'scientific temper', and the schools are expected
to develop scientific temper among the students. This also justifies the inclusion
and need of science as a subject in school education. In view of the manifold
values of science, especially the utilitarian value, which are indispensable for the
efficient discharge of responsibilities of a good citizen in an age of science, it has
been elevated to the status of a compulsory subject at all stages of schooling.
With the introduction of compulsory and free education for all, science has been
assigned an important place in the curriculum and has been made one of the
compulsory subjects till the lower secondary stage to make all students realize
the need of science for society. At secondary stage, science is one of the core
subjects. As a whole, science education in secondary schools has been
fashioned to perform three-dimensional functions, viz. (1) as an integral part of
general education; (2) as a preparatory course to college science; and (3) as
preparation for vocation.
6
Science in Environmental Management
Progress and development have become synonymous with the introduction of
new technologies and products aimed at making life better, safer and more
viable. But, there have been instances where apparently useful products and
technologies have turned out to be capable of inflicting extremely deleterious
impact on environment and development in the long run. Many of the problems
related to environment are largely due to lack of environment-friendly application
of science and technology which are the best tools and instruments that can
either be used for constructive or destructive purposes. The ills of improper use
of technology have now been well understood in the fields of agriculture,
manufacturing, energy, construction, transport, etc. For example, in modern
agriculture, indiscriminate use of pesticides, insecticides and synthetic fertilizers
has led to the bio-magnification of toxic substances in food chains; in
manufacturing sector, industries have been producing bio-undegradable
products in unlimited quantity; radio-active radiations from nuclear reactors and
nuclear wastes bring about a rise in global temperature and genetic hazards;
unplanned and unlimited manmade constructions have altered the natural
ecosystem resulting in natural disasters such as floods, famine, earthquake and
soil erosions; and increased transportation on land, air and water has led to
desertification, ozone depletion and marine pollution respectively. The law of
decreasing returns and diminishing utility operate when the depletion of natural
resources and environmental costs are taken into consideration (Swaminathan
1986).
Environmental costs generally fall into two categories, i.e., (i) public health
impacts caused by pollution, and (ii) productivity changes on account of increase
in water supply costs, soil degradation and deforestation including reduced
density of tree cover. A stock of natural resources per capita depletes in the
form of reduction of rich soil nutrients, fall of water table and the growing scarcity
of clean water and air which will have a bearing on the costs associated with
economic activity which increase sharply. It is in this context that the need for
cultivating a scientific and rational outlook in people is felt which enables the
scientists to enlist their appreciation and confidence.
7
applications encompassing sCience discipline called 'Eco-technology' which
takes into account the concerns of ecology, equity and employment. Besides,
eco-technology guides human society with its emphasis on natural environment
for the benefit of both; helps to combine traditional wisdom and techniques with
modern science and frontier technologies such as Biotechnology, Space
Technology, renewable energy technologies, management and marketing
technologies, etc. Eco-technology is the only. available option that can
guarantee sustainable development (Dash 1999). Sustainable development is a
process in which the exploitation of resources, direction of investments,
orientation of technological development and institutional changes are all made
consistent with future as well as present needs of man and nature. The
constructive application of modern science and technology ensures the
preconditions for sustainable development such as inter-generational equity &
social justice, economic efficiency and ecological harmony.
Most countries including India with higher population growth rates have difficulty
in meeting their needs for food, water, health care, sanitation, shelter,
employment, energy and productive land, and are destroying their environment
in the process. Their economic inefficiency also contributes to ecological un-
sustainability. As a matter of fact, it is all due to the unchecked population
growth. In this context, a need for application of science and technology for
environmental conservation is felt. Eco-technological measures can be
effectively employed to have sustainability. Science has contributed to mankind
towards developing and using many eco-technological tools and methods in
various sectors such as energy, population control, transport, agriculture,
industry, wild life conservation, bio-diversity, food production, renewable and
nonrenewable resources, communication, etc., which might otherwise carry
negative effects on the environment.
8
agriculture involving soil management (soil testing, ploughing, seeding,
manuring); irrigation (sprinkler method, drip irrigation, etc.); crop protection
(controlling weeds and crop diseases); and crop improvement (hybridization and
tissue culture).
"Tissue Culture", widely used for multiplying valuable plants, testing various
chemicals for toxicity, for genetic engineering studies and other experimental
investigations.
"Genetic Engineering", widely used to boost growth, alter resistance of both
plants and animals to factors such as drugs, heat, cold, salinity, etc. This
technique has contributed to creating transgenic cows, sheep and goats
producing human proteins in their blood and milk. Transgenic tomatoes, tobacco
and wheat endowed with unique traits such as resistance against pests;
diseases and frost have also been created using this technology.
"Cloning" is now a standard biotechnological tool for growing superior
plants/animal species of uniform quality in large numbers from parental cells
taken from good quality plants/animals.
9
Science and Energy : Science has been playing a major role in exploring
alternative sources of energy. Apart from the conventional and non-renewable
energy sources like coal and petroleum, energy can also be derived from other
sources like sun, wind, ocean, etc. In contrast to fossil fuels, the alternative
sources of energy are inexhaustible, renewable, cheap, eco-friendly and are,
therefore, of vital importance in sustainable development. The various types of
energy that have been explored and used are: (a) Photovoltanic energy -
produced by converting solar light into electric energy through semiconductors;
(b) solar thermal energy - heating capacity of solar radiations that is used in
generating electricity, also used in desalination, space heating, crop drying, etc;
(c) wind energy - mechanical energy of the wind that is used to generate
electricity by aerogenerator; (d) bio-mass energy - energy produced by using
agricultural, forestry and municipal wastes; (e) bio-gas energy - a mixture of
different gases in varied compositions produced by the action of anaerobic
microorganisms on domestic and agricultural wastes; bio-gas saves other types
of fuels and gives required and enriched organic fertilizers; (f) geothermal energy
- energy produced from underground hot water (sulphur springs) and hot dry
rocks; and (g) oceanic energy - produced from ocean tides.
10
EgA. Transport sector - reduction in the fuel/energy consumption of motor
vehicles, reduction in total number of motored kilometers, provision of
efficient public transport system, etc.
Eg.5. Food sectors - harvesting marine benefits such as sea-foods in an
agrarian country like India.
II
In this way, scientific and technological methods based on the principles of
ecology, equity and social justice are appreciated in the current scenario of
population explosion, depleting and degrading natural resources, over-
exploitation of natural resources beyond their carrying capacity as well as
increasing environmental protection costs. These technologies provide a
balanced and buoyant environment, which is fundamental for continuous
developmental efforts and quality of life. Thus, there is interdependence
between eco-technology and sustainable development, which should be realized
and practised in such a manner that it can ensure sustainability.
The impact of modern science on society is such that it has necessitated a great
spread of awareness of social implications of science. Students of modern
world need to understand and appreciate the dependence of the modern society
on science and the changes in the social structure that have been brought about
by the achievements of science and technology. They should not only be able
to appreciate the modern marvels of science but should also understand the
social use of the scientific achievements. This can be justified from the fact that
modern liberal education has a much wider orientation, and thus, the idea of
developing scientific attitude and appreciation, should be considered as one of
the aims of teaching science in the years to come. The science teacher should
teach science in such a way that the pupils realize varied social functions of
science, think, act and contribute to the welfare of the future world. They should
appreciate science as a part of modern living and that science should always be
used only for the benefits of the society and not for selfish needs. In this
12
context, future education - science education in particular - will undergo
changes that one needs to envIsion. Students of the present and future
generations deal with ideas drawn from all parts of the world. Thus, science
education that is to be provided to him I her should extend beyond the classroom
to encompass community agencies, industrial processes, research centres,
natural habitats, and space beyond the earth. Classrooms of the future schools
may consist of well equipped laboratories, cubicles for using teaching machines,
space for individual work, conference rooms and rooms in which students can
prepare aids and materials with the guidance of technicians and teachers. The
study of science may be pursued in various places, viz., laboratory, natural
milieu, social environment, peer group projects, wherein students seek, discover,
innovate, invent and create ideas, principles and' phenomena through self-
efforts.
Facilities for learning are numerous and varied. The laboratory develops
children's interest in problems of science. It contains well-equipped and child-
centered experimental set up for students' self-investigation. In processing their
information, children use individual learning aids such as computers, tape
recorders, televisions, charts, globe, maps, and other modern gadgets (Caffery
1967)
13
less interference with the vision of a more fundamental objective of teaching
science which is to develop among the vast body of pupils the patient,
systematic observation of facts, the design of experiments to isolate what is to
be studied, the formulation of hypothesis for subsequent verification, the
willingness to abandon any hypothesis not substantiated experimentally, and the
consistent maintenance of an attitude of detached objectivity in their day-to-day
thinking (Charles 1959).
Science education that is offered to the students of the twenty first century
should be properly designed and executed to visualize and achieve the aims and
objectives of teaching science extended to the future context. The aim of the
whole course extending from the elementary level to the post-graduate level
should be to enable the student to acquire scientific knowledge, and in addition,
come to possess some understanding of the methodology of science and further,
in the very process of acquiring this understanding, the student should be
enabled to develop scientific attitude. The terminal goal of the entire science
education programme should be to enable the student to emerge not only as a
science expert but also a young scientist imbibed with scientific spirit and
mentality necessary to solve the problems of the surrounding environment.
(Srinivasan, K 1987). In addition to this, other ultimate aims of teaching science
that are more emphasized in the future context would be: the new science
education programmes should enable the pupils to understand the whole world
better factually - especially the world as it affects them concretely and to help
pupils investigate ways of increasing the range and depth of understanding
natural processes and to relate this understanding to the many puzzling
complexities of industrial society.
Keeping these aims in view, science education should offer varied direct and
purposeful learning experiences through which students can identify the
problems and they also find solutions to them through scientific method.
(Vaidya, 1996).
14
Perhaps this type of futuristic science education eventually changes pupil's
behaviour and his/her idea of his/her role in the world, so that tomorrow's
citizens grow with inquiring minds and creative spirits ready to face the
challenges of the twenty first century.
Teaching of Science
Teaching of science is not just handing out facts and information about science.
It is much more than that. Besides motivating and presenting things in an
interesting way, the teacher must be able to create suitable learning experiences
which reflect an atmosphere for students' self exploration, problem solving,
inductive reasoning, etc, which are necessary for the development of science
process skills such as observation, identification of problem, collection of data,
experimentation and verification, manipulation, recording, analyzing, etc,. To
achieve this, there are varieties of methods of teaching available and the teacher
has to select such method or methods, which are suitable for the given set of
students in a given context.
IS
would considerably contribute to the transformation of the tradit40nal outlook in
the direction of a rational attitude towards life and its problems along with the
development of scientific skills. It is indeed disappointing to note that this has
not happened to any significant extent. It is mainly due to the fact that the
methods of teaching employed by the teacher are less effective which
emphasize more on 'product' aspect of science rather than 'process' aspect
(Vaidya 1996).
It is for these reasons that science teaching is not considered to be related to the
immediate environment at all. Consequently, training in scientific method,
problem solving, creative thinking, and the development of scientific skills,
interests, attitudes and appreciation remain in an utter state of neglect.
16
Another commonly cited defect of science teaching is that it is almost totally
information-based. This makes science education at the lower levels very drab
and a matter-of-fact business which often bores students. At the higher levels it
runs through the risk of becoming out of date before the student reaches
maturity and takes up any scientific work on his own. Learning becomes highly
limited. Science, which is an admirable synthesis of learning, and production
activity is becoming a stereotype. The characteristic features of science of being
open- ended, of welcoming change, and of being based on reason, are given
scant attention. Due to this, science education, instead of becoming a liberating
and intellectually stimulating experience, becomes another kind of cut--and-dry
dogma. The science classroom appears to be a place where children make little
use of their talents and tools because the methods of teaching in vogue are not
only mechanical in nature but also devoid of constructive imagination. Even
though, science teaching, at all levels has changed radically, in both content and
form in the wake of the recent scientific revolution, science teachers from their
unexamined day-to-day classroom teaching have formed firm opinions about
their wards which is too difficult to change or eradicate. In spite of many major
developments in the pedagogy of science which include multi-media approach,
mass communication instruction, individualized instruction, group-learning, team
teaching many versions of scientific method such as inquiry approach, problem
solving method, brain storming method, heuristic method, inductive method, etc,
teachers all over the world in India, are employing fixed ways of teaching science
in classroom. Even though a number of methods are evolved over a period of
time, only some of them were rarely practised at school and very few of them
have been employed by teachers for science teaching on a large scale. This is
true especially in the Indian context where schools and classrooms lack
infrastructure and physical resources required for modern, technical and
scientific approaches of science teaching, overloaded syllabus with less span of
academic schedule and lack of initiation, motivation, exposure and innovative
attitude among science teachers. The commonly used methods by teachers for
science teaching are lecture method, discussion method, lecturer-cum-
demonstration method, topic method and assignment method. A few additional
methods that have been used are question-answer method, textbook method
and reference method. Methods such as project method, laboratory method,
and heuristic methods are used occasionally in schools with required facilities.
These methods employed by the teachers are associated with teaching aids
17
such as models, charts, specimens, objects and audio-visual aids. Other
methods and approaches such as programmed instruction, heuristic approach,
model approach, Simulated Social Skill Training (SSST) are very rarely used
and, by and large, restricted to experimental tryout or used for demonstration
and research purposes.
18
required communication skills, planning of lessons, varied experiences with
students, classroom climate, associated senior teachers, head teacher,
observation and supervision, guidance, feedback and revision with a continued
scope for improvement. Hence, teaching practice is of great importance as it
forms the practical setup for the skill-oriented course such as teacher education.
The teaching inabilities of a science teacher may be to some extent, due to any
of the following aspect! aspects of teaching practice.
19
Practice-in-teaching, the current weakest link of teacher education, possesses
the potentiality of converting itself into a strong component, if properly organized.
The process of curriculum transactions needs improvement and enrichment. In
this framework, pedagogic analysis of school teaching subjects has been
thought of as an essential component of practice-in-teaching. Pedagogical
analysis of teaching subjects is sure to refine teaching and learning as it
transforms the teacher's performance and develops competencies not covered
by the method-cum-content approach. With the background of pedagogical
analysis of model demonstration lessons given by the teacher educator, the
classroom performance is sure to improve, and to a great extent when it is
supervised in detail by subject specialist.
20
scientific methods of teaching science are seldom emphasized and used during
and after the training programme. Teaching by and large is unimaginative and
the usual methods employed by science teachers become just academic
exercises and or not related to the immediate natural environment of the
learners. (Rajput, 1998). The prospective science teachers are to be prepared
so as to enable them to perform successfully in the pre-instructional, instructional
and post-instructional situations of teaching. The curriculum transaction through
effective transactional strategies have to be adjusted with the needs of students
and the locally available resources.
21
sCience teachers, should have well established and resourceful institutions,
meaningful and purposive curriculum and experiential programmes, most
appropriate practical activities well in balance with the theoretical aspects, and
objective evaluation techniques. This enables the pupil teachers to understand
the nature, purpose and philosophy of secondary education; understand the
psychology of pupils and the process of socialization; equip them to acquire
competencies relevant to stage specific pedagogy, curriculum development, it's
transaction and evaluation; develops skills for guidance and counseling; foster
creative thinking among their students for reconstruction of knowledge; use
community resources as educational inputs effectively; and more than all,
develop communication skills necessary for effective teaching. Training in
models of teaching may, to some extent, compensate for the inefficiency of
teachers who have entered the profession of teaching on defective admission
criteria.
22
Need for the Study
Teachers occupy a key position in the field of education by playing the role of
facilitator for learning by organizing the instructional activities and required
learning situations. They can't play this significant role effectively if they have
problem with methods of teaching especially in science education. Therefore,
for the fruitful improvement of education pattern, innovative and effective
methods of teaching science should be located through research and are to be
tried out in actual classroom settings.
23
evaluation in the process of teaching. A teacher needs such instructional
strategies which are logical, systematically structured and which provide for their
accomplishment with very few limitations. Models of teaching incorporate such
strategies.
Models are numerous and they adequately cover the wide range of objectives.
Each model has its own goal, theoretical assumption, principle and major
concept underlying it. Some models are designed for very specific purposes
while others have general applicability. As a consequence, the researcher felt
the need for determining the most effective models for teaching environmental
concepts in high school classroom settings. It was clearly noted by the
researcher that even among the few studies done, comparisons had been made
only with one or two models of teaching with each other and with the
conventional method of teaching.
Several teaching methods and strategies are being examined here in terms of
well-known variables. It is, however, observed that there is a great need for more
detailed and in-depth studies in the same area. Research at this stage is still in
its infant condition, because research on classroom teaching over the past three
or four decades has brought people only marginally closer to an understanding
of teaching - learning process. Time is now right to scientifically search for new
and alternative strategies that can be easily and effectively employed.
One of the fundamental facts, which every educator should know, is that
progress in teaching and learning can be achieved by research, guided by
proper philosophy of education. (Best, W John 1978) states that, "research is
one method by which one finds the solution to educational problems". Every
teacher should recognize the important role that research plays in teaching and
learning process. The common assumption that the art of teaching is nothing
better than the process of imparting information is gone.
The main aim of teaching is to help the child to respond to his environment in an
effective way. A sincere analysis of teaching and research or experimentation
in teaching provides for refinement in teaching or transformation process. The
necessity for improving science teaching, for instance, is strongly reflected by
lack of changes in teaching methods over many years. Therefore, it is high time
24
to adopt innovative methods of teaching that foster transformation and
evaluation in the process of education.
Education in schools has become narrowed down in focus, rigid and more
related to textbooks than to the life contexts. Hence, it is time to redefine the
objectives of education according to the present and future needs of the
individual and society. Any improvement in education should essentially reflect
the changes in the process of teaching because the major part of formal
education is carried out in the form of classrooms teaching. An attempt through
research is required to examine the compatibility of educational practices with
procedures and techniques of teaching.
Research on models of teaching has been carried out and validated in western
countries. To what extent do they fit into Indian conditions? There is a need to
explore the feasibility of these models of teaching for Indian conditions.
There is a generally shared feeling that science teaching in schools has become
drab, dry and monotonous. It does not stimulate the thinking and generate the
interests of students towards sCience. Students tend to develop negative
attitudes towards learning of sCience. Such a phenomenon leads to low
enrolment in science at higher levels of education leading to a dearth of
scientists who can engage in research and development. Creativity in science
would be a casualty in future. Hence, interest in science learning should be
developed at school level itself by adopting a variety of strategies I methods I
models. The conditions under which models function effectively needs to be
understood in classroom I school contexts and in real life situations
Education process does not mean passing on information only but is concerned
with developing analytical, critical and problem solving abilities as well as the
creativity of an individual. Many research studies in this regard on pupil's
performance or achievement in learning are available. However, it is very
significant to note that no study has been done to find out the most effective
models of teaching "Environmental Studies" (ES) in relation to given
performance levels. In fact this prompted the researcher to take up the present
study of comparing the effectiveness of various models on learning the
environmental concepts with special reference to environmental curriculum in
schools.
25
Organization of the Thesis
Chapter II deals with the theoretical understandings. Here, the needs for
studying sustainable environment and various strategies towards attaining the
same have been discussed. In addition, issues related to methodology of
science teaching and the dynamics of achievement of students in Environmental
Studies have been discussed. Theoretical understandings underlying this study
have also been stated.
Chapter III presents a review of related literature. It has been divided into two
main sections, viz.,
Chapter IV deals with issues related to EE such as concept, nature, scope, aims
and objectives, need and importance of EE, principles related to EE and
teaching of Environmental Studies, curriculum for EE, issues related to models
26
of teaching such as concept, description and classification of models with a
detailed description of AOM and ITM.
In Chapter V, the methodology of research carried out has been discussed. The
research problem has been stated along with defining the various variables
considered in the study in terms of operational definitions. In addition to this,
the various objectives and hypotheses of the study have been discussed which
get classified under the following four sections:
This chapter also deals with the universe of the study, sample and sampling
procedure, detailed description on the construction, validation and use of various
tools for the collection of data and measurement of variables, the procedure of
data collection, plan of analysis and statistical techniques employed. At the
end, the scope and limitations of the study have also been discussed.
Chapter VI deals with the 'Analysis and Interpretation of data'. In this chapter,
keeping in view the various objectives and hypotheses of the study, the
quantitative data obtained by the researcher on various variables considered in
the study have been subjected to statistical treatment using statistical techniques
such as t-test, one-way ANOVA and Coefficient of Correlation. Analysis and
interpretation of the results obtained have been described under the following
five sections:
27
III. Comparative analysis of achievement of various groups of students in ES
at the beginning and at the end of the experiment;
IV. Correlation analysis of achievement of students with their SES, home
facilities and sex; and
v. Case study analysis.
28
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
CHAPTER -II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Theory
Meaning of Theory: One of the ultimate goals of Science is to integrate and
systematize facts about the physical I natural universe around us into a
meaningful pattern or theory. The theory is, however, regarded as tentative and
not the ultimate truth. It is subject to revision or modification as new phenomena
are observed
29
Need for a Theoretical Framework for the Study: Theory serves many
purposes. It serves as guide, tool and sign-post, as means of identifying and
collecting data, and indicator of performance. As a tool, it provides a guiding
framework for observation, analysis and discovery. As sign-post, it provides
directions for interpretations of specific phenomenon with maximal probability
and exactitude. Hence, every scientific study needs a theoretical framework.
Theory is often the fountainhead of ideas for empirical research, and sound
theory is of inestimable value in any field. Theories help researchers in many
ways. They help in:
formulation of concepts I variables;
identification of data I attributes I properties of concepts I variables;
discovery of relationships across variables;
- discovery of convergence I divergence across postulates that
suggest relationships;
integration of insights from relationship; and
coherence in thinking I writing.
Scientific theory serves both as a tool for the development of science and as a
product of such development. As means, it provides a framework, which guides
scientists in making observations and discovery. Theory summarizes and puts
in logical order knowledge within a given field. It also clarifies and provides
meaning to this summarized knowledge comprising of isolated empirical findings.
As end, theory provides scientists explanations for observed events and
relationships for specific phenomena with maximum objectivity by explaining the
nature of relationships among variables on the basis of which scientific
speculations and deductions are made.
30
Need for Restoring the Balance
Earth is the only planet known so far to support human life in the solar system.
This is mainly due to its shape, size, distance from the Sun, presence of water in
all the three forms, viz., solid, liquid and gas, presence of atmosphere and
various types of natural resources that are vital to life. Hence, looking at the
way the environment is getting degraded, it becomes urgent that the earth's
capacity to sustain and perpetuate life be protected and conserved for all times -
present as well as future through appropriate and scientifically planned action
programmes and environment friendly policies to maintain the ecological
balance.
Need based civilization which alone can ensure sparing use of natural
resources, and minimum impact on environment has been replaced by greed-
based civilization resulting in unlimited wants and consumerism without least
realizing the duty towards posterity to leave the earth in as safe a position as it
was inherited. It looks as though man thinks that the earth and everything on it
belongs to him though the truth is, man belongs to the earth, so also the fauna
and flora. Ostentatious living coupled with 'use and throw' attitude are causing
a serious drain on natural resources. Before the night falls, before it is too late,
humanity should realize what is happening and retrace its steps and proceed in
the right direction at least from the beginning of the new millenium (Jois 1986 ).
31
within the purview of "dharma", according to M.Rama Jois (1986) are "Simple
life" through sparing use of natural resources, and "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" -
a feeling of world as one family.
Due to the continuous interaction among various biotic and abiotic components,
the environment remains more or less stable. This ability of nature to stabilize
itself is known as the balance of nature or ecological balance. Ecological
balance is also due to reciprocal interactions and inter-relationships that exist
among four spheres of earth viz.: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere. This ecological balance has been disturbed to a considerable extent
due to human interference through his senseless, selfish and inhuman activities
which include pollution of the natural resources, deforestation, industrialization,
unchecked population growth (population explosion), loss of bio-diversity,
increased urbanization, etc. The impact of science and technology on the
environment in the post-industrial revolution period has been negative. No
longer can the earth's ecological ills be treated as separate. The environmental
damage is now assuming a dangerous proportion throughout the world and a
growing awareness is discernible to maintain ecological balance. Hence
humans have a tremendous responsibility to protect and conserve the
environment, restore the ecological equilibrium and maintain sustainability of the
earth for the future generations.
32
The interaction of humanity with its environment has grown over the last few
decades with the exploitation of nature on an increasingly large scale which
necessarily has a detrimental effect on the ecological balance. Man has been
the vital cause for this status of environment. Man being a single unit in the vast
and complex ecosystem is the only organism so totally committed to shaping his
environment according to his selfish needs rather than adapting himself to the
natural setting of the environment. The problem is that man's propensity to
make developmental decisions is far more advanced than his ability to
understand his environment. Environmental problems like pollution, depletion of
natural resources, erosion of top soil, deforestation and loss of bio-diversity are
all the results of selfish attitude of man along with over and misuse of limited
resources by increasing population. Though man is a product of mother-nature,
yet after living in perfect harmony with nature for centuries and centuries, he has
created a situation of persistent conflict with nature which, unfortunately, is now
leading to as grave a situation as self-destruction. As Mahatma Gandhiji opined
'The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's need, but not for every man's
greed". The shortfall between consumption and production, whether on account
of need or greed of humankind, has resulted in undue stress on ecological
balance. Man depends on all natural resources which are limited in quantity,
and some of them are non-renewable. Due to population explosion, because of
unchecked population growth, the resources are getting depleted at an alarming
rate, affecting the sensitive interaction among biotic and abiotic factors,
threatening the very ecological equilibrium.
The carrying capacity of the earth has also been threatened by the ever-growing
rate of population growth and consumption. The carrying capacity of an
ecosystem is the maximum population of a given species that the ecosystem can
hold without being degraded. There is a carrying capacity for the biosphere, for
each ecosystem and for each habitat at any given time. The ecological balance
on earth depends on the carrying capacity of the earth which has been affected
by many variables. It varies with environmental conditions such as severe and
continuous drought, floods, imbalance in the ratio of prey and predators, forest
fires, improper management of natural resources, etc. If population increases
beyond the carrying capacity of its habitat, the environment deteriorates and the
population may decline sharply until a new equilibrium is reached. Proper
management of natural resources do require a committed political regime and
33
the presence of conscIous civil classes. In the absence of both, the
management of natural resources tends to cause structural imbalance (Nadkarni
1989).
34
unless corrective steps are taken in time, they can spell doom for all living
organisms including man himself. Hence, there is an urgent need to restore the
balance that exists in the environment.
Legislative Strategies
35
L~ 1(o,-5?:-.'7 __ ... __ _
(, It. <'J
Conference, 1972. This Conference reviewed the measures taken to implement
the 1972 declarations, recognized and emphasized the urgent need for
intensifying the efforts at the global, regional and national levels to protect and
improve the environment.
Then, Earth Summit was held at Rio De Janeiro, Brazil in the year 1992, which
is also called Rio Summit, in which 170 countries participated and this summit
proposed major action programmes setting out what nations should do to
achieve sustainable development in the 21 st century. Chapter 36 of the
agreement document is of significance, because it recommends promoting EE
as an essential part of learning within both formal and non formal education
stream.
Article 48A states that, "the state shall endeavour to protect and improve the
environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country". Apart form
the constitutional safeguards, there is a contingent of about 200 Central and
State legislations which have a direct or indirect bearing on environment. Some
of the important Acts enacted by Indian Government are as follows:
36
The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, elucidates the protection mechanisms of
wildlife, appends 4 schedules enlisting various wild animals that are fully
protected and not to be killed without the permission of concerned authority.
This Act also empowers the Government to appoint required employees for
wildlife protection.
The Water (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1974 and The Water
(prevention and control of pollution) Cess Act, 1977: These Acts provide for
preventing and controlling water pollution, maintaining the wholesomeness of
water of all sources, establishing pollution control boards and levying and
collecting cess from consumers. Besides these Acts, there are number of Acts
dealing with specific aspects of water pollution, viz., Shipping Act 1958,
Factories Act 1948 (amendment 1986), etc.
Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (amendment 1988) addresses the alarming rate
of deforestation in the country and is enacted to check deforestation and use of
forest land for non forest purposes without prior approval form the central
government.
The Air (prevention and control of pollution) Act 1981 empowers state
governments to declare air pollution control area; give instructions for ensuring
standards of emission from automobiles and put certain restriction on industrial
plants with respect to their emission of gaseous effluents.
The Environment (protection) Act 1986 - an inclusive act, provides for appointing
analysts to certify industries with regard to polluting the environment and deals
with rules and penalties in case of air pollution. One of the most interesting parts
of this Act is section 4. It is very significant to note that, on an advisory opinion,
the Supreme Court of India held that the Central Government must instruct all
schools to teach environment, wildlife, forest and nature conservation.
In addition to this, some more important central and state legislations have been
enlisted below.
- 1905 Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act
- 1912 Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act
- 1917 Mysore Destruction by Insects and Pests Act
- 1919 Andhra Pradesh Agricultural Pest Act
- 1923 The Indian Boilers Act
37
- 1927 The Indian Forest Act
- 1946 Bihar Wasteland Act
- 1947 Mines and Minerals Act
- 1949 Andhra Pradesh Improvement Scheme Act
- 1951 Industries Act
- 1953 Orissa River Pollution and Prevention Act
- 1954 Assam Agricultural Pest And Disease Act
- 1954 Prevention of Food Adulteration Act
- 1956 River Boards Act
- 1962 Atomic Energy Act (Radiation protection rules 1971)
- 1968 The Insecticides Act
- 1969 Maharashtra Prevention of Water Pollution Act
- 1976 Urban Land Act
38
Department of Environment (DOE), integrated in the Ministry of Environment,
Forests & Wildlife in 1985 is acting as a nodal agency for environmental
protection and eco-development and also, it has the administrative responsibility
of pollution monitoring, regulation and conservation of the eco-system.
39
11. Indian Plywood Industries Research & Training Institute (IPIRTI) -
conducting research aimed at prolonging the life of wood and wood products,
reducing wastage to reduce pressure on natural forests.
12. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) - preventing and controlling air and
water pollution.
13. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) - conducting country-wide EE
activities including exhibitions, seminars, workshops and takes up action-
oriented projects.
14. Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore (Ecology Economics
Unit) - conducting research, training programmes and doctoral programmes
on Environment Economics.
A few other national organizations and material centres working for the
environment protection are:
40
11. Indian Plywood Industries Research & Training Institute (IPIRTI) -
conducting research aimed at prolonging the life of wood and wood products,
reducing wastage to reduce pressure on natural forests.
12. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) - preventing and controlling air and
water pollution.
13. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) - conducting country-wide EE
activities including exhibitions, seminars, workshops and takes up action-
oriented projects.
14. Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore (Ecology Economics
Unit) - conducting research, training programmes and doctoral programmes
on Environment Economics.
A few other national organizations and material centres working for the
environment protection are:
40
10. World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Geneva, Switzerland.
41
7. In addition to these, a few other action programmes are Environment Audit,
Environment Impact Assessment, Eco-Mark, Coastal Area Management, etc.
Education as a Strategy
42
aspects of environment. Real life situations link environment to life. These
conditions are location-specific with different environmental aspects being
emphasized in different states, e.g., pollution aspects are emphasized in
predominantly industrial nations. In contrast to the awareness where attitudes
are important, in real life situations, the emphasis shifts to practical aspects as
related to the circumstances around the person concerned; Conservation and
Sustainable Development refer to the wise and proper utilization of natural
resources by present and future generations without harming environment
equilibrium. At the primary stage, the emphasis is mostly on building up
awareness, followed by exposure to real life situations and conservation. This
prepares the child for understanding the subtleties of sustainable development
(Khoshoo, 1991). From the lower secondary stage onwards, the quantum of
awareness decreases in favour of increased knowledge about real life situations,
conservation and sustainable development. At higher education levels, more
weightage can be given to knowledge acquisition. From the lower secondary
stage onwards, the attempt has been to emphasize, in an increasing manner,
the interconnectedness, inter-relatedness and inter-dependence of the life
support system of environment and man.
Schooling with formal education system provides for ample time and
opportunities for the children to participate in various activities conducted in and
out of the school environment. The very organizational climate and school
environment with well established and properly maintained school garden, play
ground, class room, library, aquarium and overall infrastructure with physical
resources can develop gradually an aesthetic sense and positive attitude
towards a clean environment in children. The well-maintained sanitary facilities,
including toilets and latrines, make the children aware of the importance of
maintaining good health and hygiene necessary to become healthy citizens. In
addition to this, the very environmental attitude of head of the school and
teachers as role models has a powerful impact on the minds of pupils. The
plasticity of mind and dependence of students make them gain a positive attitude
towards environment, develop in them environmental awareness and shape their
behaviour which is, environmentally desirable and gradually they develop a
responsible citizenship.
43
A child's perception of the environment develops partly from formal schooling in
nursery schools, other pre-primary institutions and partly from informal education
at home. Active consciousness towards the natural environment seems to
develop in most of the children at the age of 9 to 10 years. The openness of
mind at this age presents a challenge for teachers curriculum designers, activity
planners and teacher trainees. Students at the secondary level are usually
receptive, strongly motivated and are capable of assimilating an EE, that is
value-oriented, community-oriented and concerned with human well- being.
Teachers can employ new methods and approaches which provide for a great
deClI of learning out of doors such as field trips and visits, which provide direct
and purposeful learning experiences through which children can discover,
measure, collect, survey, record and learn in a lively, relevant way, using the
outdoors as a learning resource which is far more potent than the text book.
Keeping in view the objectives of EE, the following activities can be undertaken
by students in the school. Many of these have been suggested by Meena
Raghunathan (1997). The nature of activities should be in accordance with the
age, the educational level (primary/secondary/ higher), the facilities available in
the school and community, the capabilities of students, available time, funds and
seasonal changes in the concerned localities.
44
1. Growing plants
2. Observation of plants and trees with a view to recognizing them
3. Observation of flowers, identification of different parts, analyzing their
structure and role in reproduction
4. Observation of birds and animals with a view to recognizing them
5. Observing and analyzing animal behaviour
6. Hearing and imitating the sounds of different animals
7. Observation of changes in growing plants and animals by making
comparisons and measurements.
8. Building huts and houses in soil blocks with a view to understanding the
need of shelters for animals
9. Drawing pictures of trees, animals, hills, ponds, etc.
10. Daily recording of temperature, humidity to compare and analyze the
changes in the climate
11. Reading and writing stories on wildlife, environmental situations and
problems
12. Learning, observing and writing the life history of frog, butterfly, house fly ,
silk worm, etc.
13. Observation of nesting process/parental care in birds
14. Visits to museums of natural history, sanctuaries, national parks, zoos,
botanical gardens, forests, coast lines, river belts, industrial areas, hospitals,
bus stand, railway station, aerodrome, mining areas, ships, temples,
churches, mosques, fire stations, post office, firms, historical monuments,
library, market yards, agricultural land, farms, woodland, sand-dunes, diary,
poultry, piggary, orchards, radiofTV. stations, gram panchayats, power
stations, water supply stations, sewage disposal centres, etc.
15. Preparation of herbarium, aquarium, terrarium, vivarium, etc.
16. Showing educational movies on environmental protection, bio-diversity,
wildlife life protection, detection of food adulteration, soil erosion, nuclear
reactors, pollution and overpopulation hazards, sanitations, sewage
management, woman education, health education, etc.
17. Model making
18. Arts and crafts
19 Organizing competitions such as essay writing, drama, quiz programmes,
debates, slogan writings, painting, drawing and composing poems on
environmental issues.
4S
20. Collection of herbarium, shells, stones, newspaper clippings on
environmental issues, dropped nests, seeds, bones, specimens, etc.
21. Survey of medicinal plants, forests, agricultural land/farms, sources of
pollution, automobile intensity, sanitation at public places, waste disposal,
etc.
22. Demonstrations on water purification methods, stages of growth in plants, life
cycle of animals, etc.
23. Action programmes such as raising school garden, nurseries, fish tanks,
pond eco-system, cleaning school campus, school beautification, fencing the
school campus, growing flowering plants, vegetables, medicinal plants in the
school garden, developing proper drainage system for waste disposal,
organizing exhibitions on environmental aspects, etc.
24. Creative expressions through street plays, puppet shows, staging
environmental drama
25. Observing special environmental programmes such as World Environment
Day, Wildlife week, Vanamahotsav, etc.
26. Formation of Eco clubs such as Nature Club, Environmental Science Club,
Adventure Club, etc.
27. Destroying weeds in association with NSS, NCC, local organizations like
Interact Club, Rotaract, Rotary Club, Lions Club, etc.
Note This list is not exhaustive. It is only indicative
46
are conscientised so that they organize and get themselves liberated from the
clutches of ignorance, poverty, illiteracy, ill-health, superstitions, etc., and also
they can be made aware of: dreaded diseases like AIDS, the need for
environmental sanitation, immunization, population control, women education,
etc. (Pillai 1995). NFEE is extremely important in creating and enhancing
environmental awareness and developing environmental literacy in both children
and adults including illiterates, slum dwellers, industrial workers in both rural and
urban sectors. Environmental literacy programmes help to create a sense of
duty to care for and manage wisely the natural endowment and productive
resources over the long range of time
In its generic sense, 'teaching' denotes action undertaken with the intention to
bring about 'learning' ; in conventional sense, the descriptive definition of
teaching is, "teaching is imparting knowledge and skills" (Smith 1985b).
48
draw a line of demarcation between good and bad methods of teaching. In fact,
the best method of teaching is the one which helps the students to learn 'how to
learn' and which enables the teacher to achieve the objectives of his teaching in
a given time. Thus, 'method' plays a vital role in making both the teacher and his
teaching very effective. This word, 'method' has a Latin origin, which means
'mode' or 'way'. It means the way of delivery of knowledge and transmission of
scientific skills by a teacher to his pupils and their comprehension and
application by the pupils in the process of studying and learning science.
The concept and nature of the right method of teaching science is directly related
to the educative process which essentially consists of the 'child' who learns and
the 'subject matter' that is learned. The process works well through the teacher
with his/her right method of teaching whose task is to make the subject matter, a
part and parcel of the child's own experience. A right method would imply an
orderly way of doing something. It is not a casual or chance mode of activity. It
grows out of experience, by trial and error, by process of repetition of activities,
selection of activities and the synthesis of desirable ones. A good method is a
living process of thought in pupil's mind by which he/she advances towards a
purpose along the best and most effective way. The right method does not work
in isolation of the subject matter. It involves the kind of teaching that calls out
the best of child's inner resources and makes finest and best of the aggregate
learning results - knowledge, attitude, habits and skills. The right method does
not involve the technique of the process of instruction alone, much more than
that, it requires upon the part of the teacher, the knowledge of child, his/her
interest, activities, a mastery of the subject matter dealt with and an
understanding of the process through which the child incorporates the new
experiences into his/her own. A 'good' method should have the potential to
stimulate students for self-learning, for being pro-active, for taking initiatives
individually and in groups to discover new knowledge, master skills of
observation, documentation, analysis and understanding. It shall motivate them
to learn and develop in them the love of learning. A good method links up the
teacher and his/her pupils into an organic relationship with constant mutual
interaction; it impinges not only on the minds of the students but on their entire
personality, their standards of work and adjustment, their intellectual and
emotional equipment, their attitudes and values. (Secondary Education
Commission 1953).
49
Good methods of teaching serve the following objectives (Secondary Education
Commission 1953).
1. A good method of teaching aims not only at imparting the knowledge in an
effective manner, but also at inculcating desirable values, attitudes, habits
and skills.
2. A good method of teaching shall in particular, endeavour to crate in students
a genuine attachment to work and a desire to do it as efficiently, honestly
and thoroughly as possible
3. A good method of teaching shall shift the emphasis from verbalism and
memorization to learning towards meaningful learning through purposeful,
concrete and realistic situations.
4. A good method of teaching provides opportunities for students to learn
actively and to apply practically the knowledge that they have acquired in the
class room.
5. A good method of teaching lays special stress on clear thinking and clear
expression both in speech and writing on the part of both teacher and pupils.
6. A good method of teaching aims less at imparting the maximum quantum of
knowledge possible and more on training students in the techniques of study
and methods of acquiring knowledge through personal effort and initiative.
7. Finally, a good method of teaching expands the range of student's interest to
enable him to explore his field of creativity and thus discover for himself his
best field of specialization.
There are varied methods of teaching. Knowledge and skills are considered as
the basis of classification of methods resting on word (narration), object (image)
and action (motion); thus the three corresponding categories of methods are
oral, observational and practical (Zurve 1967). Every method has something to
offer and has its own merits and demerits. A given method, which may prove to
be of great value to one teacher may lose much of its value when it is used by
another teacher (Vaidya 1971). Each method is active, valuable in varied
degree as it makes pupils think and arouse interest in the subject. Methods
develop in students the abilities of comprehension, comparison, generalization
and deduction. Methods, techniques and approaches to teaching, either in
isolation or in combination, provide ample opportunities to the pupils for realizing
the process objectives of science teaching, viz, questioning, hypothesising,
defining tile problem, researching, planning the experimental design,
50
experimenting under controlled conditions, observing, discovering, recording,
organizing, verifying, drawing inference, understanding relationships, interpreting
data, generalizing, applying knowledge, discussing and commenting in precise
terms and making operational definitions.
All methods appear to work equally well when young children are motivated and
exhibit too much eagerness to learn science. The effectiveness of a given
method of teaching depends mainly on four aspects, viz., content, nature of the
learner, facilities for teaching-learning process and nature of the process of
learning. General experience, however, tells that pupils differ from each other;
so they learn differently through different methods. Individual experience is
superior to the demonstration method if one considers long-term consequences
of the lesson. Selected teaching methods such as problem solving, open-ended
laboratory experiments, research projects and stimulating discussions can
promote student creativity in science class. Some methods are more effective
for developing skills than knowledge. Laboratory method of teaching promotes
the development of observation and motor skills.
Those methods and approaches are the best which involve students maximally
in the lesson; which demand reflection on the part of the student; and lastly
methods which are based upon concrete experiences, examples and individual
and group discussions. It is believed that developmental approach of teaching
science dominates over the authoritarian approach because the former tends to
develop in pupils, the ability to inquire and solve problems, think scientifically and
acquire scientific attitude (Washton 1967).
The method selected for a given course is determined by the conditions under
which the course is taught and by the objectives of the course. A science
teacher should use several methods of teaching to realise various objectives:
Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor. The artistry of teaching science depends
on how skillfully the teacher blends several of the methods into a unified
teaching lesson. The nature of the lesson, the personality and goals of the
teacher , classroom climate ' and the interests and the needs of the students
determine the uilimate selection and utilization of appropriate teaching method of
science.
51
The Search for Better Methods of Teaching Science - A Historical
Perspective
The history of education shows a long search for a general method which can
solve the problems of teaching, a single master-key which unlocks all doors.
The scientific approach to teaching methods began with the Natural method of
Comenius, the Psychological synthesis of Pestalozzi, the Intellectual analysis of
Herbart, joyful learning devised by Froebel, play-way proposed by Rousseau, the
Auto-didactic method of Montessori, the Project method of Kilpatrick and
Stevenson, and the Laboratory plan of Dalton which are some examples of
efforts to discover a systematic method of teaching which should be of universal
application. Comenius (1592-1670) stressed five major elements for a scientific
teaching method: (a) it is the world of sense and experience and not the work of
a teacher or a book that should be used as a starting point; (b) 'nature' as a
phenomenon of biological and physical world can contribute significantly to the
educational methods; (c) the content to be taught should be what the pupils are
ready to take according to their mental age and strength; (d) learning should
proceed from activity which should be interesting, pleasant and relevant; and (e)
the teacher should encourage pupils to discover and learn by their own efforts.
A similar approach was also propounded by J H Pestalozzi (1746 - 1827) who
emphasized that teaching methods should be in accordance with the
development pattern of children's growth. Froebel (1782 - 1852) followed the
same line and stressed the self-activity of the child, taking into account the
emotional as well as intellectual development of the child. J.F.Herbart (1776-
1841) propounded five instructional activities associated with teaching methods:
(a) preparation, (b) presentation, (c) association, (d) assimilation and (e)
application.
52
between the learners and the teacher. But, cognitive psychologists differ from
these two stands. According to them, mental processes such as thinking,
reasoning and problem solving form the basis of teaching methods.
With the introduction of the mass media and other technological gadgets into the
teaching-learning processes, methods of teaching have been sanctified by
educational technology. In this context, several major developments in
pedagogy were identified, VIZ., mass communication instruction, individualized
instruction and group learning. Mass communication instruction owes itself to
the introduction of electronics hardware into the teaching-learning process. The
second development is individualized instruction attributed to B.F.Skinner
through Programmed Learning. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAl), the most
recent form of individualized instruction, is an extension of programmed
instruction and the personalized system of instruction. The third development in
the area of instruction is group-learning methods. These methods became
popular due to the limited success of individualized instruction to develop inter-
personal skills. Group-learning methods are oriented to develop humanistic
skills.
A good deal of attention of many active educators was directed towards the
techniques of revitalizing class room teaching in schools. Considerable efforts
were made over the decades through seminars, workshops, researches and
refresher courses to search and try out new and effective methods of teaching
(Kothari Commission, 1964-66). But have the teachers been blessed with a
method of 'universal application'? Perhaps not. Educational research has
been offering new methods of teaching to meet the problems of children of new
generations who have been unfolding themselves with their individual
differences. There can be no end for the quest to meet the teaching problems
and to search for new methods of teaching
The search for better method is closely related to the need for a continuing
improvement in teaching methods and to meet the growing demands of
continually deepening and diversifying school curricula. This need for improved
methods of teaching has rightly been pointed out in the report of Secondary
Education Commission (1953): "even the best curriculum and the most perfect
syllabus remain dead unless quickened into life by the right methods of teaching
and the right kind of teachers. Sometimes, even an unsatisfactory and
S3
unimaginative syllabus can be made more interesting and significant by a good
teacher who does not focus his mind more on the subject matter to be taught or
the information to be imparted, but on his students - their interest, aptitude and
responses, employing good methods of instruction". Keeping in view, this most
important fact, both the Secondary Education Commission and Education
Commission. 1966 have decided in favour of dynamic methods of teaching. No
single method can be regarded as the panacea for teaching ills and any attempt
to reduce every kind of teaching to a single formula measure is sure to be
defeated at the very threshold. All new methods, in their own different ways,
emphasize the self-activity of the child and the need for basing education on the
learner's experience. Hence, there is a need for designing, trying, evaluating
and diffusing of new and progressive methods of teaching
54
whicl/ can be used to shape c!lTriculum or course, to design instructional
materials and to guide a teael/er's actions. Thus, a model of teaching can be
used to design face - to - face teaching in classroom, to shape instructional
materials including books, films, tapes, computer - mediated programmes and
curricula and long term courses of studies. (Joyce et al 1982). Apart from the
above uses, it creates the necessary environment which facilitates the teaching-
learning process. The core of the process of teaching is the arrangement of
environment within which the student can interact (Dewey 1933). Thus, a model
of teaching includes guidelines for designing educational activities and
environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning that are intended to
achieve certain kinds of goals (Joyce and Weil 1985). It is a step-by-step
procedure that leads to specific learning outcomes. Models are prescriptive
teaching strategies, designed to accomplish particular instructional goals. Thus,
a model of teaching is designed to achieve a particular set of objectives. It is
not a substitute to any teaching skill. Rather, it creates the conducive teaching-
learning environment in which teachers teach more effectively by making the act
of teaching more systematic and efficient.
There are many powerful models of teaching designed to bring about particular
kinds of learning and help students become more effective learners. As a
teacher or teacher educator, one needs to be able to identify various models of
teaching and to select the ones that he/she can master in order to develop and
increase his/her own effectiveness, To become competent to use these
teaching strategies comfortably and effectively requires much further study and
practice.
The various models collected and collated by Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil get
classified into four families on the basis of the objectives for which they are
designed for their major functions, viz., (a) Information processing models, which
aim at fostering the information processing ability in learners, i.e., these models
help the learners to seek and master information, organize it and test
hypotheses; (examples; Inductive Thinking Model, Inquiry Training Model,
Advance Organizer Model, etc.), .(b) Personal models, which lay more stress on
personal development of an individual and the development of self-hood; they
emphasize the process by which individuals can establish a productive
relationship with their environment, construct and organize their unique reality;
(examples; Non-Directive Teaching, Awareness Training, Synectics, etc.), (c)
Social interaction models, which emphasize the development of capabilities for
inter-personal relationships and social skills among students; (examples; Group
Investigation, Social Inquiry, Jurisprudential, etc.) and (d) Behaviour
modification models, which emphasize desirable modification in the behaviour of
learners through sequencing meaningful learning tasks and manipulating stimuli,
response and reinforcement (examples; Contingency Management, Self-control,
Stress reduction, etc ).
Socio-Economic Factors
57
educational attainments of parents, occupation of parents, economic status of
parents, type of management of schools are some of the factors which merit
consideration.
Children coming from families with high social and economic status will have
wide ranging facilities, motivation, interaction and guidance which are different
from those children coming from low social and economic conditions of families.
Their experiences with people, animate and inanimate objects, organizational
structures, power relationships and actions within the home and outside are
different. They will have better exposure to mass media and communication
facilities. All these have a significant impact on the cognitive and affective
development of children. The family has a very important role in the
development of the mental outlook and desirable attitudes of the younger ones.
The child's personal views and convictions are first formed within the home.
The manner by which family members relate with one another lays the
foundations of self-concept. A child who feels loved, wanted and guided by the
significant persons in his/her life, will have a better perception of himself/herself,
others and the world, than a child who is neglected. Hence, the socio-economic
factors are of crucial importance in fashioning the personalities of children. A
higher Socio Economic Status (SES) provides the high school students access
to a number of facilities, resources and capabilities, some of which are discussed
below.
Access to Mass Media: Much of the influence of SES is through the wider
range of mass media available to students. A high SES child has access to
television, cine films, documentaries, magazines and periodicals. In terms of
quality and quantity, the environmental knowledge acquired through mass media
by high SES children far exceeds that acquired by the children of lower SES
classes through a drab monotonous curriculum. Cine films have a very powerful
influence on attitudes , and on issues related to environmental conservation, and
short audiovisual documentaries have been the most vociferous protagonists of
conservation. Such audio visuals are also used by the forest department to
educate the poorer rural folk living near wildlife sanctuaries and forests about the
value of wildlife conservation.
Interest Range: Since a high SES provides greater access to mass media as
well as superior learning skills in the areas of reading, writing and speaking, the
58
result is superior language ability. With this, the range of interests also
increases. Since higher SES children achieve better scores in academic
subjects, the overall stress felt by the high school adolescent with high SES
would be far less than the stress felt by the high school student belonging to a
low SES class. The wider range of interests naturally lead the high SES student
to question, explore and investigate a wider world which may not be directly
related to his immediate environment. For the high SES student, the
environmental crisis has wider and deeper implications, than for low SES
students. The low SES student who is burdened by the pressure of academics
and a greater need to achieve is unlikely to relate to the environmental crisis in a
meaningful way.
Gender Issues
Gender bias is a curse of any society and the approach and attitude towards the
girl child is always different from that of a boy child. The behaviour expected of
a girl differs from that of a boy. The activities and experience of a girl is tailored
to suit the needs of the home while that of the boy is developed to meet the
needs of the outside world.
Whyte (1986) observes Bias in text books, and the lack of motivating social
context are two criticisms of the way the content of science ignores or bypasses
59
the girl child's interests. Women certainly have a nurturing attitude, which is
partly encouraged by society. Girls express love for animals, birds and plants
and this is certainly reinforced by society. On the other hand, their active
participation in adventurous outdoor activities is discouraged. The tendency is
to develop attitudes, but inhibit interest and participation. But boys' interest in
collecting birds' eggs, insects, trekking, maintaining an aquarium at home and
exploration are actively encouraged. The male child's natural curiosity is never
suppressed, as it is done for girl child. Perhaps the female child's greater
rationality leads her to acquire higher levels of knowledge which develops more
favourable attitudes. The male child's greater curiosity might enable him to
acquire high levels of environmental knowledge, awareness and more
favourable attitudes.
Kahle and Lakers (1983) in US, Smail (1985) in England and Parker and
Rennie (1986) in Australia found that there is a clear documentation that fewer
girls than boys handle science equipment, perform science experiments, or
participate in science related and environment related activities. So, it is
important that teachers give girls the same amount as well as quality of attention
and experiences that they give to boys. Teachers should impress upon girls that
their expectations from girls is similar to those from boys. Kelly (1985) suggests
that "schools could playa transformative, rather than a reproductive role, in the
formation of gender identities". EE therefore, can circumvent the traditional
roles and opportunities which are culturally assigned to boys and girls.
Thus, schools and teachers must study attentively the sentiments, views and
everyday behaviour of their pupils, and provide a well thought-out system of
curricular and co-curricular activities involving the children's individual and
collective efforts. The teacher must be genuinely interested in the fate of every
pupil, in the pupil's harmonious all-round development.
60
Earth is the only planet in the solar system that has been supporting life because
of its life supporting environment. But, looking at the way environment is getting
degraded, it has become the need of the hour to save the earth's capacity to
sustain and perpetuate life with ecological balance forever through appropriate
and scientifically planned approaches and programmes. Environment is of global
concern today. The natural tendency of earth's environment for self -
stabilization is the ecological balance that has been severely affected due to
many human created problems such as population explosion, poverty, unending
exploitation of natural resources, pollution, deforestation, loss of bio-diversity etc.
The ecological balance on earth depends on 'the carrying capacity' of the earth
which has also been affected by same variables. The human exploitation of
natural resources is at a greater rate than it can be regenerated. The failure to
regenerate the inputs and plough them back into the natural ecosystem is
responsible for ecological imbalance and the concomitant failure in the
establishment of geo-biological balance of the ecosystem. This kind of
undesirable system may have serious consequences for future generations.
Hence, there is an urgent need to restore the ecological equilibrium that is
necessary for sustainability.
Several strategies have been emphasized for restoring the ecological balance,
viz., legislative strategies including international summits and legal provisions for
environmental protection; administrative and managerial strategies; and
educational strategies. The role of the legal system with more than 200 central
and state legislations, various national and international organizations and their
programmes in protecting the environment have been noted. The vital role and
effectiveness of formal and non-formal types of education need attention.
61
knowledge, attitudes and awareness among high school students is worthy of
serious and systematic attention.
62
along with studying their feasibility In teaching environment topics at the
secondary level.
Some of the other variables that have entered into the discussion of the
dynamics of development of environmental knowledge, awareness and attitude
among children are socio-economic factors, school and home facilities and sex
of children.
This study takes a holistic view of all the foregoing undercurrents and overviews
in EE. It has tried to accommodate the variables entering the dynamics of
promotion of environmental knowledge, skill, attitude and awareness through a
well organized system of EE. The variables have been accorded varying
degrees of importance. Though the following placement of variables should not
be strictly taken as rankings in order of importance and degree of influence, still
they suggest the direction of thinking in the present research regarding the
relative importance of various variables.
The study is set and carried out with the foregoing theoretical framework. The
insights derived from the overview on teaching and learning Environmental
Studies in the chapter on "Theoretical understandings" has served as guidelines
to the researcher in pursuing the present study.
63
CHAPTER III
REVIEW OF RESEARCH
LITERATURE
CHAPTER III
Introduction
The Studies reviewed are broadly grouped under two sections. They are:
64
The studies reviewed in the area of EE (Section I) get classified under the
following five Categories:
1. Studies examining the design, development and validation of
curriculum and instructional materials in EE',
2. Studies examining the effectiveness of methods and approaches on
the development of environmental knowledge, attitudes and
behaviour;
3. Studies examining the levels of environmental awareness,
knowledge, attitude and behaviour of students and teachers',
4. Studies examining the Evaluation of curriculum and instructional
materials in EE; and
5. Studies in the area of EE that cannot be classified under the above
four heads.
The studies reviewed in the area of Models of Teaching have been classified
under the following three categories
Barr et al. (1981) developed a need based curriculum plan in EE, based on the
needs established by analyzing the results of testing 1,412 X grade students
from 53 public schools in Lousiana for their knowledge and opinions about the
environment.
Data were collected from 53 public schools. ANOVA was used to determine if
there were any significance in the difference among regions of the state,
between sexes , between urban and rural communities, and among size of
school.
65
The results show that the students had limited knowledge most of the cognitive
variables. The overall attitudes and opinions demonstrated that the students
favoured ideas that did not affect them directly while showing disagreement with
those issues that would affect them directly.
The data were collected using the environmental achievement test, unit test,
environmental attitude inventory and environmental activities inventory. t-Test
was used to analyse the data.
The study reveals that, there was significant difference in the performance of the
experimental group as compared with control group on knowledge scores and
attitude scores. The experimental group gained more than the control group in
environmental activities inventory, indicating effectiveness of the curriculum.
66
The data were collected from 593 Science (Biology and Chemistry) teachers
through WCAS and questionnaire and were analyzed by statistical techniques
such as Pearson product-moment correlation tests, t-test and regression
analysis.
The study reveals that, the difference, when comparing WCAS scores for
teachers who introduced acid rain and those who did not, was found to be
significant.
This study also found that the sex of teachers, years of teaching experience,
being a life science teacher and use of the combined classroom techniques of
discussion, student reports, library work and films were not important predictors.
This study describes how classroom, laboratory and field study activities were
planned and developed for use in an instructional unit on the study of a local
stream and science related community problems. It also describes how these
activities were used in a classroom tryout to determine their relative
effectiveness, compared to conventional method of instruction.
Results indicate that students who received science instruction in the form of a
generalized approach to problem study, using teacher developed materials,
became more positive in their views towards school science and exhibited a
greater tendency to apply knowledge of science to societal issues without
sacrifice in the acquisition of basic knowledge of science.
The EECNAQ elicited perceptions about the desired status of EE curricula, the
current status of EE curricula, the need for the curriculum development, the
anticipated use of curricula by teachers and the need for in service teacher
67
education related to goal oriented curricula. These five major questions were
posed relative to 15 goals which reflected the Tbilsi objectives and which
addressed environmental knowledge, issue awareness, issue investigation or
evaluation skills and citizenship action.
The data were collected through observation, in-depth interviews and artifact
reviews. The findings reveal that EE did exist both blatantly and subtly in the
intermediate grade curriculum. In science, exploration of plants, animals,
energy, climate, air and water quality were replete with environmental
ramifications. In social studies, dependence of human cultural development on
natural environment was given key importance. Environmental themes were
employed to teach mathematics, languages, reading and art skill. Much music
was developed around the imitation of sounds of nature.
68
The results indicate that the interdisciplinary curriculum unit based on a relevant
and a popular topic (tropical rain forest) influenced students' attitude towards
science. When compared to control group, the experimental group showed more
positive attitude towards science. No gender or interaction effects were evident
on students' attitude towards science.
Tools used in the study included Cognitive Entry Behavior Test; Modular reaction
opinlonalre developed by investigator; Frymier's Junior index of motivation and
Test of general intelligence by Cattell and Cattell. Data were analyzed by using
Product-Moment Correlation, t-test, ANOVA and Chi-square.
The study reveals that all the three structured modular approaches of teaching
were effective in terms of mean gain cognitive achievement in Morphology,
Physiology and Ecology. However, the self learning approach was more
effective than the other two modular approaches.
69
The study employed a two-group design having the environmental approach for
the experimental group and the traditional approach for the Control Group. The
study was conducted at three levels: primary, middle and higher secondary.
The study revealed that the students of experimental group of classes V, VIII, IX,
X obtained higher achievement scores due to teaching of science through
environmental approach and showed greater cognitive gain in knowledge,
understanding and application of science concepts related to EE at primary,
middle and secondary school levels.
Lisowski, Marylin (1987) conducted a study to find out the effect of field based
learning experiences on students understanding of selected ecological concepts.
The study was designed to examine the nature of ideas the students had about
specific scientific concepts and to investigate the modes of instruction that would
effectively help them to gain an accurate understanding of their world,
specifically, students' conceptions of selected ecological concepts and the
influence of field instruction strategy on students' understanding and retention of
these concepts were investigated.
The Student Ecology Assessment (SEA) instrument was developed 2nd used to
obtain information on students' understanding of ecological concepts.
A pre-test, post-test method was used with four experimental groups receiving
IIAT instruction and four Control Groups.
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It was found that the IIAT promoted responsible citizenship behaviour. This
inference was supported by the findings that the specific knowledge, skills and
belief critical to responsible citizenship behavior were also significantly
enhanced.
The sample consisted 267, VI grade male and female students of a large school
of New York city. Three groups were formulated - two experimental groups
were given treatment with formal and informal EE programmes, while the third
(control) involved no treatment. Pre-test and post-test were administered on all
the participating students. The tools used were multiple choice environmental
knowledge kit (EKT) and two attitude scales; the Millward Giuter Outdoor
Attitude Inventory (MGOAI) and the environmental attitude scales.
The students were pre - and post-tested; "some ideas", developed by Robert
Horvat and Allen Voelkar to measure environmentally responsible behaviour and
"some students' misconceptions" developed by the researchers to measure
environmental misconception were used. This study shows that playing games
especially designed to teach certain topics might be successful in improving
students' environmentally responsible behavior. It also shows that
misconceptions were not readily dispelled simply by changing the methodology.
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implications. Action - oriented lessons should be taught for greater period of
time. Education willing to test students' knowledge of subject, as diverse as EE,
should design tests to be specific rather than general in nature. Students taking
action towards solving environmental problem need these behaviours reinforced
continuously. Educators can reinforce students' behavior by teaching
environmental action skills, removing barriers such as negative peer pressure
and inconsistent messages about the state of the environment.
Singh, Ummed (1995) conducted a study to develop and try out a video
instructional package for creating environmental awareness among secondary
school children in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The study was
developmental-cum-experimental in nature having two stages:
1. Developing video instructional package
2. Try out the developed video instructional package
The sample consisted of 180 students selected from three schools - one each
from GUJarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh studying in VII and VIII Standards
with Hindi Medium. Purposive sampling technique was used. In order to
collect data, one video instructional film of 45 minutes on "environmental crisis, a
booklet of 20 pages on "environmental pollution - a danger for man's existence",
four criticism tests, opinionnaire and a rating scale for experts were developed
by the investigator
In the first phase, the Madhya Pradesh State curriculum for classes III and IV
were redesigned to inCUlcate scope for environmental approach of teaching. In
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the second phase, an environmental awareness test was developed. The third
phase was the experimentation phase where the effect of implementing the
redesigned curriculum was assessed on environmental awareness and
achievement in science.
In the second phase, the draft test was administered to 140 students from
grades III and IV, subsequently to 200 children from the same classes but from
two other schools, and third time to 275 children from other two schools. The 57
items had a reliability of 0.80. For each item, the difficulty index ranged between
25 percent and 70 percent and a discrimination index was more than 0.40.
The experiment in third phase was conducted on 197 students from two schools
in Bhopal. 102 students of IV class, 95 students from class III, 57 stUdents from
class IV and 47 students from class III (2 sections each) were in the
experimental group and the rest in control group. Mean, S.D and t-test were
applied for data analysis and hypotheses verification.
The findings of the study were that only one of the 4 groups was significantly
different on environmental awareness at pre-test stage whereas at the post-test
stage, the experimental groups were significantly better than the control groups.
RaJ put and Gupta (1988a) conducted a study of the environmental awareness
among children of rural and urban schools and non-formal education centres to
know the components of environment in which children from rural and urban
areas were lacking and the areas in which the stUdents from both the streams
were well aquatinted and to compare the environmental awareness of school
going children and children studying in non-formal education center. They also
intended to suggest means for developing environment based curriculum for
universalization of elementary education.
The sample of the study consisted of 115 students among whom 20 were from
rural schools , 35 from urban schools and 60 from non-formal centres.
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The study reveals that: 1. The difference between Formal Rural (FR) and Formal
Urban (FU) on environmental awareness was significant and in favour of FR 2.
Difference between Non Formal Rural (NFR) and FU was also significant on
environmental awareness and in favour of NFR 3. The difference between NFR
and FR on environmental awareness was not significant.
Neri, Esmondo Molina (1990) conducted a study to investigate the attitude and
teaching perception related to environmental concerns of 347 pre-service middle
and high school teachers of 16 selected colleges and universities of East
Tennessee. The specific objectives of the study were; to investigate similarities
and differences of expressed attitudes towards selected environmental concern;
to determine the degree of awareness (or unawareness) to environmental
issues, problems or solutions; to examine perceived seriousness and readiness
to teach issues and to examine perceived abilities to get involved with EE.
The data indicates that a majority of the pre-service teachers had strong
opinions; showed concerns and support for environmental quality; attitude and
familiarity with specific environmental concerns were varied among different
groups.
Students in rural junior high schools appear to have the lowest level of
environmental knowledge, environmental attitudes, awareness of environmental
problems and verbal commitment. Older students out - scored younger students
as expected. Rural teachers possessed less environmental knowledge than
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urban teachers. Girls tend to be more aware of environmental problems than
boys. Interestingly, pre services and in-service teachers were not aware of
environmental problems than the senior high school students, but in-service
teachers expressed more commitment to the environment than all others.
This study also suggests that parents' 'educational level' made significant
difference on students' and parents' environmental awareness and
environmental action. In general, the higher the educational level, the more
concern they have. This finding is supported by the previous research and
suggests that education is the means to solve many environmental problems.
2x2 factorial design was used for the study. Environmental awareness was
measured by using environmental awareness questionnaire with 100 secondary
school teachers. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed in order to study
the main effects viz. treatment, experience and its interaction effects on
environmental awareness.
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The study concludes that EAP had its very high effect in raising environmental
awareness of teacher. The experience of teacher did not play an important role
on the environmental awareness.
The study reveals that students with high IQ had increased environmental
awareness; the environmental awareness multimedia package was more
effective than the traditional lecture method; Girls students were more sensitive
about the environmental awareness than boys.
The sample of the study consisted of 20 headmasters, 200 teachers and 100
educated parents of students. They were administered a checklist about the
revised curriculum and the old curriculum in science for classes III and V.
The study reveals that most of the headmasters and teachers felt that the old
curriculum was not relevant to the child's cognitive level as well as needs, but
contrary to this, parents felt that the old curriculum was easily understandable to
the children. The headmasters and teachers felt that the new curriculum was
relevant to the environment in which the children lived, but the parents of the
pupils felt that the new curriculum increased the cognitive load on their child,en.
The teachers, parents and headmasters opined that the new curriculum was
more helpful than> the old one in enriching the knowledge of the children
regarding the environment.
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Relevant text books (class III and V) at the national level, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
collateral materials from USA, U S S R, U K. France, UNESCO and other
developed systems were also analyzed. In addition to the analysis and critical
appraisal, interviews, observation and focused group discussions with teachers,
non-formal school education workers, administrative officers were conducted.
The study reveals that a very few genuine EE type activities, as understood in
modern developed systems, seemed to be undertaken in the primary schools.
The effective lead books (text books) at the national level seemed to have some
worthy aspects such as process approach in science, activisation, some
directives to observation and visits, stimulating questions with open tables to fill
in the answers, clear verbal processing, etc., the national level textbooks lacked
the higher specifications commonly adopted in modern EE procedures and in
open, multidisciplinary approaches to the environment. The NCERT's curriculum
framework which had obviously guided the text book gave negative guidelines
(what EE is not) but distinct positive guidelines were lacking
Following random selection. teachers were randomly assigned to one of the four
conditions of study. Group A teachers lectured from their assigned textbooks
supplemented with the regionally based background information that was
provided. Group B teachers used the background information and the
simulation-game activities for infusion into their classes; Group C teachers used
the background information together with the instructional videos; and Group D
teachers used the background information, infusing both the activities and videos
into their class.
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The tools used in the study included: Louisiana environmental knowledge test to
measure students' environmental knowledge and the new environmental
paradigm scale to measure students' environmental attitudes.
The results of the study suggest that: "Wild Louisiana" infusion materials can be
more effective in increasing students' environmental knowledge. Students in the
videos only group and students in the activities with video group had significantly
higher knowledge scores than that of lecture group.
The project was carried out in eleven villages with 39 teachers. The teachers
were to carryout a baseline survey of five families, to introduce the message in at
least 40 families, to check the nutrition, health and sanitation habits of each
family, evaluation of the impact of the message with remedial suggestions, to
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help develop desirable practices in school children, observe behavioral changes
during school hours and evaluate the progress.
The study reveals that the impact was observable In: awareness of the
cleanliness of clothes, hand, feet and cutting of nails; the use of soap kit and
waste water in the kitchen garden; the bathing habits; and preparation of food.
Sandiford, and Sham iii Ajgaonkar (1992) conducted a study to explore the
relationship between environmental attitudes, behaviours and future
perspectives and the influence of locus of control temporality (i.e., how
individuals rank past, present and future in directing their behaviour) and
perceived level and scope of knowledge about environmental affairs on attitude,
behaviour and future perspective.
Note The researcher could not get detailed or descriptive information about the
following studies related to EE, but still felt that it was worth mentioning them.
Ghosh, G.R. and P. K. Khanna (1988) worked with students of classes IX to XII
at Bhopal, collected plants of the city and its environs. The study reveals that the
students learn about the habit, habitat and nomenclature more effectively than
through laboratory study, hence, field trips in Ecology and EE were more
important
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RaJPut, J.S. (1988b) studied the teaching skills and training strategies for
implementing the environmental approach at the primary level of teaching at
Bhopal.
Prahraj, B (1991) explored the level of environmental knowledge, attitude and its
perception among 416 pre-service and 302 in-service secondary school teachers
In Puri District. The pre-service teachers distinctly had poor knowledge of the
environment, while the in-service teachers moderately knew about it.
Gopala Krishnan, SaroJini (1992) selected 1,451 students of class V from ten
different primary schools of Nilgiri, Chennai and Coimbatore districts and
exposed them to EE and then put them through an Environmental Education
Test (EET) and found a very good impact of EE.
Rodegres, Cathy Allyn (1981) conducted a study to find out the effect of a
Comparative Advance Organizer (AO) that has on student expectancy for
success and achievement.
The research questions were derived from previous research in the areas, viz.,
1. Instructional strategies which enhance learning (particularly
comparative AO);
2. Learner motivation and the effect of expectancy for success; and
3. The influence of academic self-esteem on school programme.
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Specific predictions were made based on past research conducted in these
areas. This was essentially an exploratory study intended to identify these
effects, beyond enhancement of incorporation of new information into cognitive
structure which may result from exposure to an AO.
While the predictions that the AO group would exhibit greater enhancement of
expectancy for success and achievement than the Control Group were not
supported, the AO did evidence strong effects. In particular, the AO suppressed
the positive relationships between esteem and achievement, expectancy for
success and achievement, and level of prior knowledge and achievement which
were generally found in learning situations.
121 VII graders were the subjects of the study. Based on their scores on the
reading comprehension sub-test of the Stanford Achievement Test, the subjects
were identified as "at-level" readers if they scored in the 34th to 66th percentile
range and "above-level" readers if they scored in the 66th to 88th percentile
range. The dependent variables were the subjects' scores on comprehension
and delayed retention tests. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three
treatment conditions: 200 word AOs, 20 word AOs and no AOs. Depending
upon the treatment, the subjects used an organizer or no organizer followed by
a 1,500 word expository passage. The subjects were administered a
comprehension test consisting of 20 items.
The findings of the study were reported under four categories, VIZ., At-level
readers on immediate comprehension; Above-level readers on immediate
comprehension; At-level readers on delayed retention; and Above-level readers
on delayed retention. In response to the above four categories, it was found that
. on immediate comprehension the 20 word AO and at-level readers were superior
to the 200 word AO readers. For above-level readers, there were no facilitative
effects among the 200 word AO, 20 word AO and no AO readers. Results
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