EE6007 MICROELECTROMECHANICAL SYSTEMS QB

UNIT - I INTRODUCTION (CHAPTER 1,2 & 3)

UNIT - II SENSORS AND ACTUATORS - I (CHAPTER 4,5 & 8)
UNIT - III SENSORS AND ACTUATORS - II (CHAPTER 6 & 7)
UNIT - IV MICROMACHINING ( CHAPTER 10 & 11)
UNIT -V POLYMER AND OPTICAL MEMS (CHAPTER 13 ) &​ ​(CHAPTER 15)*

Note: Refer “Foundation of MEMS” - By Chang Liu (Indian edition)

​ * For Optical MEMS refer foreign edition (CHAPTER 15 )

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Chang Liu, ‘Foundations of MEMS’, Pearson Education Inc., 2012.
2. Stephen D Senturia, ‘Microsystem Design’, Springer Publication, 2000.
3. Tai Ran Hsu, “MEMS & Microsystems Design and Manufacture” Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi,
2002.
REFERENCES:
1. Nadim Maluf,“ An Introduction to Micro Electro Mechanical System Design”, Artech House, 2000.
2. Mohamed Gad-el-Hak, editor, “ The MEMS Handbook”, CRC press Baco Raton, 2001.
3. Julian w. Gardner, Vijay K. Varadan, Osama O.Awadelkarim, Microsensors MEMS and Smart
Devices, John Wiley & Son LTD, 2002.
4. James J.Allen, Micro Electro Mechanical System Design, CRC Press Publisher, 2005.
5. Thomas M.Adams and Richard A.Layton, “Introduction MEMS, Fabrication and Application,”
Springer, 2010.
 UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Intrinsic Characteristics of MEMS – Energy Domains and Transducers- Sensors and Actuators –
Introduction to Micro fabrication – Silicon based MEMS processes – New Materials –​Review of
Electrical and Mechanical concepts in MEMS – Semiconductor devices – Stress and strain analysis –
Flexural beam bending- Torsional deflection.

PART-A
1. Define MEMS
2. What is actuator?
3. Define Sensors
4. Define transducer
5. What is Microfabrication?
6. Name any two materials used in the fabrication of MEMS
7. Define stress and strain
8. State Hooke's law and explain elastic limit.
9. Justify, “intrinsic stress is important for MEMS devices”
10. List the properties of silicon Nitride.
11. What is an active transducer? Give an example.
12. What are the physical properties of silicon
13. What is the use of silicon dioxide in MEMS fabrication process?
14. What is photoresist and explain its types?
15. Explain Scaling law?
16. Why silicon is an ideal substrate for MEMS?

PART -B
(Different MEMS Materials: Silicon,Silicon nitride,Polysilicon,Quartz,Nickel, P Type silicon,gold,
conductive polymers. refer pg no. 248 in Tai Ran Hsu, “MEMS & Microsystems Design and
Manufacture” Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2002.)

1. Write about actuator and its characteristics, selection factors. 8M

2. Write about Sensor and its characteristics, selection factors. 8M
3. Describe in general about intrinsic stress in MEMS.16M
4. Discuss in detail about torsional deflections. 16M
5. Examine the relation between stress and strain in brief. 16M
6. Explain with neat sketches, various process steps in bulk micromachining process to fabricate
a pressure sensor. 16M
7. Explain with relevant diagrams, silicon based fabrication process used in the fabrication of
MEMS. 16M
8. Suggest at least one of the properties and applications of the following MEMS Materials.
Silicon,Silicon nitride,Polysilicon,Quartz,Nickel, P Type silicon,gold, conductive
 polymers.
9. Illustrate in detail about the flexural beam bending analysis 16M
10. (i)Apply the longitudinal strain for pure bending. (ii)Also draw their relevant diagram and
explain the longitudinal strain for pure bending. 8M
11. Explain the various boundary conditions used in solving cantilever beams. 16M
12. What are the different materials used in MEMS fabrication processes and explain each one of
their properties and application. 16M

Sensors:
A sensor is an object whose purpose is to detect events or changes in its environment, and then
provide a corresponding output.
A sensor is a type of ​transducer​; sensors may provide various types of output, but typically use
electrical or optical signals.
For example, a ​thermocouple generates a known voltage (the output) in response to its temperature
(the environment). Sensors for mobile robots,aerial robots, MEMS based accelerometer, MEMS based
gyroscope

Actuators:
Actuation is simply the process of conversion of one form of energy to mechanically form.The process
is known as the principle of energy transduction.A device that accomplishes the conversion is termed
as Actuator.Actuator plays an important role in automation and control.
Ex: Piezo based miniature actuator which are basically used for micromanipulation.

Transducer:
Transducer is defined as a basic element that converts or transforms one form of energy to another
form, usually to electrical energy.Sensors and actuators are collectively referred to as transducer.

Define MEMS
It is defined as miniaturized mechanical and electromechanical elements (i.e., devices and structures)
that are made using the techniques of microfabrication.

What is the use of silicon dioxide in MEMS fabrication process?

 1. As a thermal and electric insulator
2. As a mask in the etching of silicon substrates
3. As a sacrificial layer in surface micromachining.

Application Of Microsensors and Microactuators:

What is Microfabrication?

Microfabrication is the process of fabricating miniature structures of micrometre scales and

smaller.Fabrication of device components of this minute size is clearly beyond traditional mechanism
such as machining, drilling,milling,casting and welding.

Comparison Of MEMS & IC’s:

Photoresist​ :
A ​photoresist is a ​light​-sensitive material used in several industrial processes, such as
photolithography​ and ​photoengraving​, to form a patterned coating on a surface
● A​ positive resist ​is a type of photoresist in which the portion of the photoresist that is
exposed to light becomes soluble to the photoresist developer. The portion of the
photoresist that is unexposed remains insoluble to the photoresist developer.

Ex:​ Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)

● A ​negative resist ​is a type of photoresist in which the portion of the photoresist that is
exposed to light becomes insoluble to the photoresist developer. The unexposed portion
of the photoresist is dissolved by the photoresist developer.

Ex:​ Xylene

Miniaturization:
Scaling law ​explains how physics works at different sizes. It is value guide to what may work and what
may not work when we start to work on Micro.
In order to downscaling machines & devices scaling law should be followed. There are two types of
scaling laws that are applicable to the design of MEMS.
Two types of scaling laws:
1. The first type: depends on the size of physical objects.
2. The second type: involves both the size and material properties of the system.

Different MEMS Materials:

There are two types of substrate materials
1. Passive substrate materials for support only. These include polymers,plastics,ceramics, etc.,
2. Active substrate materials such as silicon Ga As, and quartz for the sensing or actuating
components in a MEMS.

Silicon is an ideal substrate for MEMS:

Single crystal silicon is the most widely used substrate material for MEMS because of the following
reasons.
1. Mechanically stable
2. High melting point
3. Greater flexibility
4. No mechanical hysteresis
5. Its thermal expansion coefficient is about 8 times smaller than that of steel.

Disadvantages of silicon substrate:

1. Brittle material
 2. Anisotropic (this makes accurate stress analysis of silicon structures tedious,since
directional mechanical property must be included.)

Quartz:
1. Quartz is an ideal material for sensors because of its near absolute thermal dimensional
stability.
2. Inexpensive
3. More flexibility in geometry than silicon
4. Quartz is a desirable material in microfluidics applications in biomedical analyses.
5. Unfortunately, it is hard to shape into desirable co

Gallium Arsenide:
1. High electron mobility than silicon
2. Thermal insulator
3. Suitable for surface micromachining.
4. Its high piezoelectricity make this material suitable for precision microactuation.
Disadvantages:
1. Low yield strength
2. More expensive than silicon

Polymers:
1. Used primarily as passive substrate material.
2. Low cost in both materials and production processes.
3. Easily formed into the desired shapes.
4. Has flexibility in ‘alloying’ for specific purpose.
5. Sensitive to environmental conditions such as temperature and moisture.
6. Most polymers age; ie., they deteriorate with time.
Other Substrates in the silicon family:
Silicon dioxide:
1. Can be easily grown on a silicon substrate surface
2. Excellent for both thermal and electrical insulation
3. Can be used as good masking material for wet etching of silicon substrate.

Silicon Carbide:
1. Chemical stability at high temperatures.
2. Very strong resistance to oxidation even at very high temperatures and make it suitable for
masks for dry etching
3. Dry etching with aluminium masks can easily pattern it.

Silicon Nitride:
1. It provides an excellent barrier to diffusion of water and ions such as sodium.
2. Its ultra strong resistance to oxidation and many etchants make it suitable for masks for deep
etching.
 3. It is also used as high strength electric insulators and ion implantation masks.
4. An excellent material for optical wave guidance.

Polycrystalline silicon:
1. Widely used as resistors, gate for transistors and for thin film transistors.
2. A good material for controlling the electrical characteristics of substrates.

UNIT II SENSORS AND ACTUATORS-I

Electrostatic sensors – Parallel plate capacitors – Applications – Interdigitated Finger capacitor –
Comb drive devices – Micro Grippers – Micro Motors – Thermal Sensing and Actuation – Thermal
expansion – Thermal couples – Thermal resistors – Thermal Bimorph – Applications ​– Magnetic
Actuators – Micromagnetic components – Case studies of MEMS in magnetic actuators- Actuation
using Shape Memory Alloys.
PART -A
1. List the two configurations of electrostatic transducer?
2. Name the materials used in fabrication of parallel plate sensors
3. Name the factor determines the pressure sensor sensitivity?
4. Discuss the relative disadvantage of electrostatic actuation?
5. Describe comb drive device?
6. Summarize pull-in voltage?
7. Explain the principle of electrostatic actuation 4M
8. What is SMA? How does the SMA react to heat?
9. State any one application of microgrippers.
10. What are the types of thermal sensors?

(1. Microgripper 2. Micro Motors refer pg no. 56 in Tai Ran Hsu, “MEMS & Microsystems Design
and Manufacture” Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2002.)

PART -B
1. Discuss in detail the surface micromachining technique. 16M
 2. With suitable diagram explain the working principle of parallel plate capacitor and also discuss
the various application of parallel plate capacitor with regard to actuation and sensing.
3. Explain with neat diagram actuation using shape memory alloys.
4. Prepare the pros and cons of different configurations of interdigitated finger capacitor. 6M
5. With neat diagram explain (a) comb drive (b) Transverse comb drive and (c) Longitudinal
comb drive.
6. Quote are the applications of comb drive devices?
7. With block diagram explain the functionality of i) Microgripper ii) Micro Motors
8. Explain the operation of magnetic actuators with micro magnetic components.
9. Explain the fabrication of Magnetic coil

Pull-in voltage:
The electrostatic force will generate a negative natural spring constant and the mechanical
elastic members will also generate a positive spring constant relatively. The distance between the
movable and fixed plates is limited by a specific value named “pull-in instability range”, and the
specific voltage constraint is called “pull-in voltage”. If the applied voltage is over this constraint, the
fingers will snap in together.

Comparison of Electrostatic, Thermal ,Piezo & Magnetic

Electrostatic Thermal Piezo Magnetic

Low power Yes No Yes No

Fast switch Yes - Yes -

High Force No Yes Yes Yes

Large Travel No Yes - Yes

Simple fabrication Yes Yes No No

 Low voltage No Yes - Yes

Robustness - Yes Yes Yes

Accurate/sensitive Yes No Yes Yes

Comparison of Electrostatic actuation vs Thermal bimetallic actuation

Electrostatic actuation Thermal bimetallic actuation

Advantages 1. Low power operation 1. Relatively large range

at low frequencies of movement can be
2. High response speed achieved.
2. Small actuator
footprint for
comparable
displacement

Disadvantages 1. Relatively small range 1. Moderate to high

of motion
2. Relatively large area
and footprint in order
to generate large force
& displacement.
power operation as
current is used to
generate ohmic
heating
2. Low response speed as
the time constant is
governed by thermal
heating & dissipation
Scratch Drive Actuator (SDA):
A scratch drive actuator is a MEMS system device that converts electric energy into 1 dimensional
motion. The actuator can come in many shapes & sizes,depending on the fabrication method used.
It can be used as ‘L’. The smaller end is called the bushing.
The actuator sits on the top of a substrate that has thin insulating dielectric layer on the top. A voltage
is applied between the actuator and the substrate and the resulting potentials pulls the body of the
actuator downwards. When this occurs, the bush is pushed forwarded by a small amount and energy
is stored in the strained actuator. When the voltage is removed , the actuator springs back into shape
while the bushing remains in its new position. By applying a pushed voltage, the SDA can be made to
move forward.

Shape Memory Alloy (SMA):

A Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) is able to memorise and recover its original shape, after it has been
deformed by heating over its transformation temperature. This unique effect of returning to an
original geometry after a large inelastic deformation (near 10%) is known as the Shape Memory Effect
(SME).
Microactuation can be produced more accurately and effectively by using shape memory alloys(SMA)
such as Nitinolor or Nickel-titanium(NiTi)alloys.Other shape memory alloys include
copper-aluminum-nickel, copper-zinc-aluminum, and iron- manganese-silicon alloys. These alloys tend
to return to their original shape at a preset temperature.

Actuation using Shape Memory Alloys:

When desiging a shape memory alloy(SMA) actuator for a mechanisim, oneof the first decisions is
specifying the source of heat to actuate the SMA element.IN certain specialized applications, the
temperature of the surrounding medium can be used as sourcr of heat.

To illustrate the working principle of a microactuator using SMA, let us refer to fig.

An SMA strip originally in a bent shape at a designed preset temperature T is attached to a silicon
cantilever beam.The beam is set straight at room temperature. However, heating the beam with the
attached SMA strip to the temperature T would prompt the strip’s “memory” to return to its original
bent shape. The deformation of the SMA strip causes the attached silicon beam to deform with the
strip, and microactuation of the beam is thus achieved.This type of actuation has been extensively in
micro rotary actuators, micro joints and robots,and micro springs.

Advantages:
1. Bio compatibility
2. Diverse field of applications
3. Good mechanical property(strong corrosion resistance)
4. Reduce complexity of robotic system.

Disadvantages:
1. Expensive
2. Poor fatigue properties
3. Low efficiency
4. Low bandwidth
5. Difficulty controlling SMA actuators.

Applications:
1. Aeronautical applications
2. Surgical tools
MICROGRIPPERS:
MEMS-based microgrippers provide advantages in terms of compact size and low cost, and
hence play an important role in microassembly and micromanipulation fields for manipulating
micromechanical elements, biological cells, etc.
Electrostatic Actuator:
Parallel Plate:
The electrostatic forces generated in parallel charged plates can be used as the driving force for
gripping objects.

Disadvantages:
1. Excessive space that the electrodes occupy in a microgripper.

Comb Drive:
The comb drives are the main components of this type of actuator. The actuator contains a
large number of fingers which are parallel-plate capacitors. When the voltage is applied between the
movable and fixed plates, the actuator force is generated to move the comb.

The electrostatic force will generate a negative natural spring constant and the mechanical elastic
members will also generate a positive spring constant relatively. The distance between the movable
and fixed plates is limited by a specific value named “pull-in instability range”, and the specific voltage
constraint is called “pull-in voltage”. If the applied voltage is over this constraint, the fingers will snap
in together.

These microgrippers can be adapted to micro manipulators or robots in manufacturing processes or

microsurgery. The length of the gripper was 400 µm. It had a tip opening of 10µm.

UNIT III SENSORS AND ACTUATORS-II

Piezoresistive sensors – Piezoresistive sensor materials – Stress analysis of mechanical elements –
Applications to Inertia, Pressure, Tactile and Flow sensors – ​Piezoelectric sensors and actuators –
piezoelectric effects – piezoelectric materials – Applications to Inertia , Acoustic, Tactile and Flow
sensors.
PART -A

1. What is direct piezoelectric effect?

2. What is in direct piezoelectric effect?
3. List piezoelectric materials?
4. Write the equation of piezoresistivity.
5. What is meant by piezo resistive sensor
6. What are the advantages of piezoresistive sensor.
7. Draw the stress and strain curve of MEMS material.
PART -B
13. Elaborate and list out the materials used for piezoresistive sensor.
14. Define the piezoresistive property and then explain the operation of piezoresistive pressure
sensor 16M
15. List the properties and applications of piezoelectric materials. 8M
16. With suitable diagram explain the principles of piezoelectric micro cantilever beam. 8M

Piezo resistive:
Piezoresistance is defined as a change in electrical resistance of solids when subjected to stress fields.
The sensing material in a piezoresistive pressure sensor is a diaphragm formed on a silicon substrate,
which bends with applied pressure. A deformation occurs in the crystal lattice of the diaphragm
because of that bending. This deformation causes a change in the band structure of the piezoresistors
that are placed on the diaphragm, leading to a change in the resistivity of the material. This change
can be an increase or a decrease according to the orientation of the resistors.
For a typical piezoresistive pressure sensor, the piezoresistive elements (i.e., the diffused resistors)
are located on an n-type epitaxial layer of typical thickness 2-10m m. The epitaxial layer is held by a
p-type substrate. The pressure sensitive diaphragm is formed by silicon back-end bulk
micromachining. For this process, anisotropic etchants like TMAH and KOH are be used.

APPLICATION AREAS
● Household Appliances: Washing machines, dishwashers, vacuum cleaners;
● Automotive Applications: Oil level, gas level, air pressure detection;
● Biomedical Applications: Blood pressure measurement, etc...

ADVANTAGES
● Low-cost sensor fabrication opportunity.
● Mature processing technology.
● Different pressure levels can be achieved according to the application.
● Also, various sensitivities can be obtained.
● Read-out circuitry can be either on-chip or discrete.

Piezoresistive Application(Acoustic):
CMOS based ultrasonic MEMS diaphragm is used for fault detection: by sensing the echo of an
ultrasonic burst in a structure.In such applications acoustic impedance of the diaphragm is exploited.
Acoustic impedance is defined as the ability of a diaphragm material to transmit sound. The
diaphragm is integrated with other element such as piezoresistive behave as strain gauge through
which piezoresistive sensing is achieved. The change in resistance is taken as read out & is produced
through a balanced bridge circuit(wheatstone bridge). The bridge circuit can also be fabricated in the
same substrate. The output of the bridge circuit is fed to the instrumentation amplifier.

Piezoelectric Sensors and actuators:

Piezoelectric materials:
There are 3 basic classes of piezoelectric materials used in microfabrication
1. Piezoelectric substrates such as quartz,lithium niobate and gallium arsenide
2. Thin film piezoelectrics (Piezoelectric ceramics)such as zinc oxide, aluminium nitride and lead
zirconate titanate(PZT)
3. Polymer-film piezoelectrics such as polyvinylidene fluoride(PVDF)

Ceramics are less expensive and more easily fabricated than polymers. They have relatively high
dielectric constants and good electromechanical coupling. Since they are stiff and brittle, monolithic
ceramics cannot be coated onto curved surfaces, which limits the design flexibility in the transducer;

Piezoelectric polymers are very flexible but have limitations of low electromechanical coupling and
low dielectric constant, and high cost of fabrication

Quartz:
The trigonal crystallized silica of SiO2 is known as Quartz and is one of the most common crystals on
earth's surface. It has an hexagonal structure
Properties
Quartz is a very pure crystal and contains only traces of other elements. Natural quartz contain:
Al3+: 13 to 15,000 ppm, usually only 100 ppm
Fe3+,Ti4+,P5+,H+,Li+,Na+,K+.
Quartz shows a strong piezoelectric effect perpendicularly to the prism axis. Applying pressure on a
quartz crystal generates an electrical polarization along the pressure direction. Alternatively, applying
an electrical tension leads to a mechanical deformation of the crystal.
Zinc oxide:
Zinc oxide has a cubic chemical structure and its crystalline structure shows piezoelectric properties.
Aluminum nitride:
Aluminum nitride, crystallizes in an hexagonal space group.AlN is piezoelectric but not much.
PZT:
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is a ceramic material made of lead (Pb), oxygen (O) and titanium (Ti) or
zirconium (Zr).
The atoms are arranged in a cubical structure.At temperatures below the Curie temperature
(depending on the material between 150°C and 200°C) the titanium atom moves from its central
position and the electrically neutral lattice becomes a dipole.This dipole lattice presents now
piezoelectric characteristics and is considered as one of the most economical piezoelectric material.By
doping the PZT material, its piezoelectric characteristics can be modified: especially the hardness or
softness of the material.
PVDF:
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) is a transparent, semi-crystalline, thermoplastic fluoroplastic.

UNIT IV MICROMACHINING
Silicon Anisotropic Etching – Anisotropic Wet Etching – Dry Etching of Silicon – Plasma Etching – Deep
Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) – Isotropic Wet Etching – Gas Phase Etchants – Case studies – ​Basic
surface micromachining processes – Structural and Sacrificial Materials – Acceleration of sacrificial
Etch – Striction and Anti Striction methods – LIGA Process – Assembly of 3D MEMS – Foundry process
PART-A
1. Etching
2. Isotropic Etching
3. Anisotropic Etching
4. Comparison of dry and wet etching
5. Sputtering
6. Name the widely practiced method for depositing structural and sacrificial materials?
 7. Where the plasma enhanced CVD process is used in MEMS fabrication?
PART-B
(LIGA Process refer pg no. 323 in Tai Ran Hsu, “MEMS & Microsystems Design and Manufacture”
Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2002​.)

1. Write short notes on isotropic and anisotropic etching process. 8M ​(or)​ 16M
2. With neat diagrams explain the different etching processes in detail. 16M
3. Explain Deep reactive ion etching 8M
4. Draw a schematic representation of plasma etching process.
5. Discuss the step by step approach of polysilicon surface micromachining process for a micro
motor in detail. 16M

Etching:
Etching is one of the most important process in microfabrication.In micromachining, etching is used to
shape the geometry of microcomponents in MEMS.
1. Dry or Plasma etching
2. Wet etching
Isotropic Etching:
Isotropic etching is a process in which the etching of substrate take place uniformly in all direction at
the same rate.​(orientation independent etching)
Anisotropic Etching:
Anisotropic etching, etches away substrate material at faster rates in preferred directions.
Disadvantages:
1. Slower than isotropic etching; the rate rarely exceeds 1​µm​/min
2. The etching rate is temperature sensitive
3. It usually requires an elevated temperature around 100o​ ​c in the process, which
precludes the use of many photoresistive masking materials.

Comparison of Bulk vs Surface micromachining:

Bulk Micromachining Surface Micromachining

Size, Thickness(& Aspect ratio Aspect ratio are limited to the

Mass) (vertical dimension): Relatively High(one or thickness of the deposited
more wafer layer( approx 2​µm)
thickness)

Use of Wafers Utilizes both sides of the substrate;especially Several thin film deposition &
during the process of etching . etching are required to build
up 3D microstructure.

Common sensing Piezoresistive or capacitive sensing are easier Capacitive and resonant
mechanism to implement sensing mechanism because of
easy formation of air gap and
 cavity

Wafer Bonding Required Usually not used

The technology is relatively matured; Relatively new technology

Abundance of products & producers

Comparison of Dry vs Wet etching

Parameters Dry etching Wet etching

Directionality Good for most materials Only with single crystal

materials

Materials to be etched Only certain materials All

Control of etch rate Good in case of slow etch Difficult

Typical Etch Rate Slow (0.1​µm​/min) to fast Fast (1​µm​/min to 6​µm​/min)

Equipment cost Expensive Less expensive

Sputtering:
Sputtering is a process that is often used to deposit thin metallic film in the order of 100 Ao​
thick(1Ao​ ​=10-10
​ ​m) on substrate surfaces.Metallic films are required to conduct electricity from signal
generators in sensors or for the supply of electricity to an actuator.

Isotropic etching:
 Isotropic etching is a process in which the etching of substrate take place uniformly in all
direction at the same rate.​(orientation independent etching). ​Most substrate materials are not
isotropic in their crystalline structures.
For example, silicon has a diamond cubic crystal structure. Therefore, some parts in the crystal
are stronger, and thus more resistant to etching, than others.Three planes of silicon crystal are of
particular importance in micromachining. These are (100),(110) and(111) planes.

The two most common orientations used in IC industry are the (100) and(111) orientations.
However in micromachining, the (110) orientation is the favored orientation.This is because, in this
orientation, the wafer breaks or cleaves more cleanly than in the other orientations.The (111) plane,
on the other hand, is the toughest plane to treat. Thus, the (111) orientation is the least used
orientation in micromachining.This non uniformity in mechanical strength also reflects the degree of
readiness for etching.

Dry Etching:
Dry etching involves the removal of substrate materials by gaseous etchants without wet chemicals or
rinsing.
1. Plasma
2. Ion milling
3. Deep reactive ion etching
Plasma Etching:
Plasma is a neutral ionizes gas carrying a large number of free electrons and positively charged ions.
A common source of energy for generating plasma is a radio frequency(RF] source.
The process involves adding a chemically reactive gas such as CCl2​ ​F2​ to the plasma, one that contains
ion and has its own carrier gas(inert gas such as argon gas)
In plasma etch, the chemical etchant is introduced in the gas phase. For etching silicon oxide, CF4
(tetrafluoromethane) is used. The chamber is first evacuated before introducing the gas. Radio
frequency (RF) electrodes are then used to generate the plasma that ionizes the gas. This ionized gas
attacks the oxide layer, removing the layer. Etch rates in plasma etch are ∼ 1 − 10 µm/hr, much
smaller than wet etching. So, it more suitable for thin layers, but it also provides greater thickness
control
(Plasma + chemical ) = Reactive ion etching (RIE) - very efficient process

Basic Surface Micromachining Processes:

Sacrificial Etching Process:
1. The fabrication process starts with the deposition of a sacrificial material on the silicon wafer.
2. The sacrificial material is defined by photolithography and patterned.
3. Followed by the deposition and patterning of a structural thin film.
4. The sacrificial material should ideally provide a mechanically rigid aaaand chemically reliable
support for structural layer.
5. If the sacrificial layer etching is conducted in a wet chemical solution, the liquid must then
removed to produce the final structure.
6. Ex:​ Micro Motor

Micromotor Fabrication process: ​(​* explain at least any two process)

One of the major advantages of surface micromachining is to fabricate quite small structural
heights typically 2-5µm and seldom exceeds 20µm. One of the important issues in the design of
micromotor structures is how to reduce friction and surface sticking between rotor and bearing.

The process used to fabricate this motor is a three layer polysilicon process, where the
i)first polysilicon layer is only used as a base plate.
ii)Stator and rotor are fabricated from the second polysilicon layer,
iii)while the bearing is made from the third polysilicon layer.

Process 1:
1. The processes begins with a silicon wafer.The wafer is first covered by a sacrificial thin
film,such as silicon dioxide deposited by using LPCVD method.
2. A structural material, polycrystalline silicon, is deposited on the wafer next.In this cae, the
structural layer forms the rotor.
3. A photoresist thin film covers the front surface of the wafer.The photoresist, after
development and curing, serves as a mask in a subsequent reactive ion etching step, which
transfer the pattern in photoresist to the polysilicon structural layer. The photoresist is then
removed , either using oxygen plasma(dry etching) or organic solvent (wet etching)
4. The wafer is covered with yet another layer of oxide sacrificial material. The material of the
second sacrificial layer may be different from the previous one, although in this case, LPCVD
silicon oxide is a convenient choice.
 5. Hub: ​In order to produce the hub, an anchor window reaching to the substrate is made. It is
accomplished by photolithography and wet chemical etching through two sacrificial layer.
6. A second structural layer is deposited.
7. A photoresist film covers the second structural layer and then undergoes patterning and
development.Finally, both sacrificial layers are removed by immersing the wafer into HF etch
solutions.
Process 2:
The fabrication process discussed earlier is capable of generating a basic micromotor.
However, its structure and performance is far from optimal. One major drawback associated with the
previous design is the lack of friction control. ​One way to mitigating the friction is to reduce the
contact area between the rotor and the substrate.
● Further steps refer pg no. 405 in “Foundation of MEMS” - By Chang Liu (Indian edition)

Disadvantages:
However, due to the extremely small torque generated and the short lifetime of the bearings no
commercial application have yet been found.

LIGA:
Two major drawbacks in surface & bulk micromachining are
1. Low geometric aspect ratio ( Geometric aspect ratio is the ratio of the dimension in the depth
to that of the surface)
2. Use of silicon based materials.
Another popular Micromachining process is LIGA which overcomes the drawbacks of above
machining process.
LIGA ​is a ​German ​acronym for ​Lithographie, Galvanoformung, Abformung (​Lithography​,
Electroplating​, and ​Molding​) that describes a fabrication technology used to create ​high-​aspect-ratio
microstructures.

LIGA process begins with deep X-ray lithography that sets the desired patterns on a thick film of
photoresist.X-rays are used as the light source because of their short wavelength which provides
higher penetration power into the photoresist materials.This high power penetration power is
necessary for high resolution in lithography & for a high aspect ratio in the depth.The X-rays used in
this process are provided by a synchrotron radiation source.
Ex:
1. Depositing a thick film of photoresist material(Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)) on the
surface of a substrate.

2. Masks are used in the X-ray lithography.Most masking materials are transparent to X-rays,so it
is necessary to apply a thin film of gold to the area that will block X-ray transmission. The thick
mask used for this purpose is silicon nitride with a thickness varying from 1 to 1.5 µm.

3. The deep X-ray lithography will cause the exposed area to be dissolved in the subsequent
development of the resist material.The photoresist after development will have the outline of
the product.

4. This is followed by electroplating of the photoresist with the desired metal usually nickel,to
produce the product.

5. The desired product is produced after the removal of the photoresist materials by oxygen
plasma or chemical solvents.
Advantages:
1. Large structural height and sidewall properties.
2. Thickness ranging from 100-1000 µm.
3. Spatial resolution.
4. High aspect ratios.

Disadvantages:
1. X-ray LIGA is expensive due to the equipment required.
2. Slow and Complicated process.
3. Difficulty transitioning from research to production.

​ Bulk Micromachining:
1. Involving well documented fabrication processes.
2. Less expensive in the process, but material loss is high.
3. Suitable for simple geometry, ex: micropressure sensors
4. Limited to low aspect ratio in geometry i.e., the surface dimensions are much greater than
that of the depth.

Surface Micromachining​:
1. Requires the building of layers of materials on the substrate.
2. Complex masking design and productions.
3. Etching of sacrificial layers is necessary.
4. The process is tedious and more expensive.
5. Major advantages: i) not constrained by the thickness of silicon wafers ii)suitable for complex
geometries such as microvalves.iii) wide choices of thin film materials to be used

LIGA Process:
1. Most expensive process of all
2. Requires a special synchrotron radiation facility for deep x ray lithography.
3. Requires the development of microinjection molding technology.
4. Major advantages are i) virtually unlimited aspect ratio of the microstructure geometry;
ii)flexible microstructure configuration iii)allows the production of metallic microstructures
 UNIT V POLYMER AND OPTICAL MEMS
Polymers in MEMS– Polyimide – SU-8 – Liquid Crystal Polymer (LCP) – PDMS – PMMA – Parylene –
Fluorocarbon – Application to Acceleration, Pressure, Flow and Tactile sensors​- Optical MEMS –
Lenses and Mirrors – Actuators for Active Optical MEMS
PART-A
1. Advantages of using MEMS for optical applications
2. What are the relative merits of optical MEMS devices
3. Disadvantages of using MEMS for optical applications
4. Explain PMMA
5. List out the applications of liquid crystal polymer MEMS.
6. Mechanical properties of Polymers
 PART -B

1. Classify about optical MEMS and its applications. 16M

2. Explain about different optimal MEMS mirrors/Lenses.
3. In detail explain about fabrication process for a parylene channel. 16M
4. Write a short notes on i) Polyimide 8M
ii)SU-8 8M
iii)Liquid crystal polymer 8M
iv) PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxane) 8M
v) Parylene 8M
vi)Fluorocarbon 8M

Advantages of using MEMS for optical applications:

1. Easy to manipulate Light
2. Robust
3. Simplified Packaging
4. Device size

Disadvantages of using MEMS for optical applications:

1. Difficult to achieve a smooth mirror finish on micromachined parts.
2. Curved refractive lenses, widely used in macroscopic optics,are generally difficult to realize
using microfabrication methods.

Optical MEMS Applications:

1. Digital light projection
2. Retina raster scan display
3. Fiber optics switches.
4. Integrated systems for bio optical detection.
5. Full color digital displays.

Classification of Optical MEMS:

Fiber optic components in general can be classified, based on their functions, into two categories
-passive components
- active components.

​ assive components​ are those which only pass on a signal but do not alter the signal’s basic
P
characteristics or transmission format.
Typical passive components include
1. Reflectors: Display and beam steering
2. Diffraction gratings: Spectrometer and interferometers
 3. Lens elements: refractive lens,binary lens and prisms
4. Optical Transmission lines: Optical fiber and on chip optical waveguides.

Active components​ are those which process a signal and change its basic characteristics or
transmission format. Examples include lasers, tunable lasers, transmitters, receivers, transceivers,
media converters, and transponders.
Many active components contain passive components.

Lenses:
Lens is the most recognizable component of an optical system. The most commonly
encountered lens in conventional optical systems are ​refractive lenses with two dimensional or one
dimensional curved surfaces.

METHOD 1:
Curved spherical surfaces can be realized by dropping a precise amount of liquid ( eg. liquid
from photoresist, polyimide,Teflon) onto a wafer surface. The droplets spread on the surface and then
dry to form curved surfaces.

METHOD 2:
Curved Surfaces may be formed by the thermal reflow of polymers.Polymer thin films are first
deposited and patterned photolithographically to form islands with a precision footprint and
height.When the substrate is heated, the polymer island will reflow.The profile is controlled by the
surface tension, polymer viscosity, the thermal treatment temperature and duration.
METHOD 3:
If the lens materials must be silicon and glass, alternative methods are needed.Lenses can be
etched into silicon or glass by using global etching.Conventional lithography uses a flat thin film
pattern as the mask.

METHOD 4:
In certain applications, the optical path may be within the plane of the substrate.In these
cases, two dimmensional lens profile can be achieved by photolithography. The curved profile of such
lenses can be controlled to a large extent by the planar pattern.Even negative lenses can be made
easily.

Curved lenses can also made by molding. Molded lenses can also be made of Polymer material or
silicon nitride.
 In Addition to the curved refractive lenses,lenses with planar profiles are also popular
because of their reduced mass and limited thickness.
The segmented profile in below figure still involves curved and smooth surfaces, which are difficult to
make by microfabrication.

Step-wise approximation of the curved surface is often used (below figure) to be compatible with
layer by layer microfabrication.

With each degree of approximation, the optical performance decreases, whereas the ease of
fabrication increases. One Level approximations using transparent materials(fig a) or opaque
materials (fig b)are ultimately the simplest form of fresnel lens.

Mirrors:
The optical mirror is another important class of optical components. It is found in precision
equipments and communication system. Micromirrors are circular, rectangular or square in
structures.
When light falls upon the micromirrors it is reflected. It can be used as reflector; a switch in optical
signal transmission. Micromirrors is usually hinged in the base and can be tilted by applying
electrostatic force. Any amount of tilting is achieved through the application of equivalent electric
potential. The angle of rotation could vary from 1oto45o depending upon the application
requirement. Micromirrors are produced as single element containing a single micromirror or a group
of micromirrors in a single wafer in 2 Dimension array. The array type micromirrors are used for
scanning and image display applications.
Polymer MEMS
Advantages of Polymers:

7. Light weight
8. Ease in processing
9. Low cost of raw materials and processes for producing polymers.
10. High corrosion resistance
11. High electrical resistance
12. High flexibility in structures
13. High dimensional stability

Applications of Polymers:
 1. Thin polymer films are used as electric insulators in microdevices and as a dielectric
substances in micro capacitors.
2. Polymers are widely used for electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency
interference (RFI) shielding in microsystems.
3. The ferroelectric polymers, which behave like piezoelectric crystals, can be used as a source of
actuation in microdevices.
4. Polymers are ideal materials for the encapsulation of microsensors and packaging of other
microsystems.

Mechanical properties of Polymers:

1. Wide range of Young Modulus
2. Maximum tensile strength
3. Exhibit viscoelastic behavior.When a force is applied to it, an instantaneous elastic
deformation may occur, followed by viscous, time dependent strain changes. As a result,
many polymeric materials are susceptible to time dependent deformation under a constantly
maintained stress. Such deformation is called ​Viscoelastic Creep.
4. The mechanical properties are influenced by temperature, molecular weight,degree of
crystallinity and heat treatment.

Comparison of Different Polymers:

Polyimide SU-8 Liquid Crystal PDMS (Poly PMMA Parylene Fluoroc

(Ex.HN type (Invented Polymer (LCP) dimethylsil Poly(methyl (​poly(p-xylyl arbon
Kapton) by IBM) oxane) methacrylate) ene) (​Fluoroc
polymers ) arbons,
someti
mes
referred
to as
perfluor
ocarbon
s or
PFCs)

Outstanding negative Excellent Optically Poly(methyl Electrical Provide

Mechanical, photoresist stability, transparent methacrylate) isolation, Excellen
Proper
chemical,sup . Very low , (​PMMA​), also chemical t
ties
erior (Negative moisture Electrically known as ​acrylic isolation,pre chemica
dielectric refers to a absorption insulating, or ​acrylic glass​ as servation l
 properties photoresist and low Mechanical well as by the and sealing. inertnes
and whereby moisture ly trade names Very low s,therm
Thermal the parts permeability, elastic,gas Plexiglas​, intrinsic al
properties(T exposed to Excellent permeable Acrylite​,​Lucite​, stress, stability
hermal UV become chemical and and ​Perspex Room non
stability up cross-linked resistance(un biocompati among several temperature flamma
to around , while the affected by ble others (see deposition,c bility
400o​ ​C) remainder most below), i. onformal due to
as a result of of the film acids,bases coating,che the
cyclic chain remains and solvents mical strong
bonding soluble and for inertness C-F
structures. can be considerably and etch bond.
washed long time and selectivity
away over a broad
during temperature
developme range)
nt.)

Insulator photoresist In sheets of Viscous In many different

films, can be as various liquid forms, including
substrates,m thick as 2 Thickness(sev bulk, sheets, and
echanical mm and eral microns solutions for spin
Availa
elements, aspect ratio to several coating.
ble in
adhesive >20 millimeters)
films,
stress relief
layers

Used in Integrated 1. Used as a Used in 1. Used in Used in Used as

Microwave in a number high-performa Microfluidic Microfluidics Microfluidics a
cookware, of nce substrate s Photodefinable channels,val surface
used in microdevic material for PMMA thin film is ves,retina coating,
microelectro es, high density a widely used prosthesis,se insulati
nics industry including printed circuit e-beam and X-ray nsors. on,
as an Microfluid board (PCB) lithography resist. antirefle
insulating devices, 2. Used as 2. It is a ction
materials. Scanning substrates for transparent coating
Applic
Probe space and thermoplastic or as
ations
Microscopy military often used in adhesio
(SPM electronic sheet form as a n agent.
probes) and systems lightweight or
micro shatter-resistant
needles. alternative to
glass. The same
material can be
utilised as a
casting resin, in
 inks and coatings,
and has many
other uses

1. Compared PMMA is an 1.Hydropho Used for

Photoresist with Kapton, economical bic coating
layer(100 LCP has a alternative to (moisture electrica
µm lower cost polycarbonate barriers, l
thick)​can and is melt (PC) when e.g., for
be used for processable at extreme strength biomedical insulati
masking, lower is not necessary hoses) on,adhe
molding temperature. 2..Implanted
and Bonding medical sive
building between LCP devices
Advant bonding
high aspect and another
ages 3.Sensors in
ratio substrate is and
rough
structures easier
environment friction
at low cost whereas
(e.g.,
2. Serve as Kapton is reductio
automotive
Thick often bonded
fuel/air n
sacrificial with adhesive
sensors)
layer for layer.
surface
micromachi
ning

Neither PDMS
conductive material is
nor strain not photo
sensitive. definable.It
Disadv
therfore
antage
canot be
s
spin
coatedlike
photosensit
ive resists.

Cost Low Low