Experimental Particle Physics Detectors and

Experiments
Wilson. Roy. Soc. Proc., A, vol. 87, Pl. 9.

P~~

Ryan Nichol
Outline
• Last ~15 minutes of each weeks lecture devoted to
discussing a particular experimental technique
• Topics covered may include
– The cloud chamber
– Emulsion detectors
– Scintillator
– Cherenkov detectors
– Bubble chambers
– Drift chambers
– Time projection chambers
– ...

2
 Wilson’s Cloud Chamber
• In 1912 C. T. R. Wilson published a paper describing
his development of an “Expansion
277
Apparatus”
BJHS, 1997, 30, 357-74 On an Expansion Apparatus for making Visible the Tracks of
lonising Particles in Gases and somte Results obtained by
its Use.
By C. T. R. WILSON,M.A.,F.R.S.
The most wonderful(Received
experiment in the world: a
June 7,-Read June 13, 1912.)

history of the cloud chamber 6-9.] [PLATES

• For the first

In a time this allowed
recent communication* scientists
I described to visible
a inethod of mnaking actually
the
CLINTON CHALONER-.
‘see’ fundamental particles
tracks of ionising particles through a moist gas by condensing water upon
the ions immediately after their liberation. At that time I had only
succeeded in obtaining photographs of the clouds condensed on the ions
No one will deny the produced along interest
extraordinary andofimportance
the tracks and
a-particles of ofmethod
this the corpuscles set free for
which showed by the
the passage
firsttime and in such minute detailofthe
X-rays through
effects the gas. of The
of the passage radiationsofthrough
interpretation
ionizing the photo-
a gas ...
I am personally of thegraphs
opinionwasthat
complicated to a certain
the researches extent by
of Mr Wilson in distortion arising from
this field represent onetheof the
most striking and important of thethe
position which advances
camera in atomic physics made in the last twenty years...
occupied.
It may be argued that The thisexpansion
new method of Mr
apparatus andWilson's has ofinilluminating
the mxlethod the main only confirmed
the clouds have the
deductions of the properties the radiations
both beenof improved made
in detail, andbyit other
has nowmorebeenindirect methods.
found possible to While
photo- this
is of course in some graph
respects
thetrue,
tracksI would the fastestthe
of evenemphasize importance
/-particles, the to science of
individual ionsthebeing
gain in
confidence of the accuracy of these
rendered visible.deductions that followed
In the photographs from
of the the clouds
X-ray publication of his
the drops in beautiful
many
photographs. of the tracks are also individually visible; the clouds Ernest
foundRutherford,
in the ac-ray 19271
tracks are generally too dense to be resolved into drops. The photographs 3
Rutherford refers here to the photography of particle tracks made visible as lines of
are now free from distortion. The cloud chamber has been greatly increased
 278 Mr. C. T. R. Wilson. Apparatus forr making [June 7,
How does it work?
water separates comipletely the air in the cloud chamber from that below the
plunger. The base plate rests on a wooden stand, niot shown on the diagram.
Cylindrical Cloud Chamber
The expansion is effected by opening the valve B and so putting the air
Voltage Source
space below the plunger in communication with the vacuumnchamiber C

K A
Vacuum Chamber

Water

Opening Valve
FIG. 1.

throurgh wide glass connectinlg tuLbesof abouit 2 cm. in diameter. The floor
of the clouid chamber, in conseqcuence,drops suddenly unitil brought 4to a
sudden stop, wheni the pluLnger-strikes the indiarubber-covered base plate,
How does it work?
Cylindrical Cloud Chamber

Vacuum Chamber

Water

http://www-outreach.phy.cam.ac.uk/camphy/cloudchamber/cloudchamber10_2.htm
5
The build your own version
• These days it is easy to build your own cloud
chamber using dry ice and alcohol

6
Alpha Particles
A history of the cloud chamber 373

WiVlsom. Roy. Soc. Proc., A, vol. 87, P1. 6.

Figure2. Left:Bragg's'roughillustrationsof probablepathsof the alpha-particle',Archives of the

Bragg’s 1911
Roentgen Ray (April1911),405. Right:two of Wilson'searlyalpha-rayphotographs,Proceedings
prediction
of the Royal Society of London (1912), A87, facing292.

publishedan articlein which he showed that each alpha particleproduceda detectable

7
effecton a photographicfilm.42Employingthe same process,scatteringwas observedby
the GermanphysicistsReiganum,Michl and Mayer,over the next threeyears.Walmsley
X-Rays
ll'ilson. Roy. Soc. Proc., A, vol. 87, Pl. 8.

I 2

8
 The Positive Electron
MARC II 15, 1933 I~ I-I Y8 I CA L REV I EW VOL UM E 43

The Positive Electron

CARL D. ANDHRsoN, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
(Received February 28, 1933)

Out of a group of 1300 photographs of cosmic-ray tracks curvatures and ionizations produced require the mass to be
in
• In 1929 Dirac identified
a vertical Wilson chamber 15 tracks were of positive
particles which could not have a mass as great as that of
the proton. From an examination of the energy-loss and
less than twenty times the electron mass. These particles
will be called positrons. Because they occur in groups
associated with other tracks it is concluded that they must

negative energy
ionization produced it is concluded that the charge is less
than twice, and is probably exactly equal to, that of the
proton. If these particles carry unit positive charge the
be secondary particles ejected from atomic nuclei.
Editor

electron solutions to
~[N August 2, 1932, during the course of electrons happened to produce two tracks so
his equation as equally
photographing cosmic-ray tracks produced
in a vertical Wilson chamber (magnetic field of
placed as to give the impression of a single
particle shooting through the lead plate. This

corresponding to
15,000 gauss) designed in the summer of 1930 assumption was dismissed on a probability basis,
R.
by Professor A. Millikan and the writer, the since a sharp track of this order of curvature
tracks shown in Fig. 1 were obtained, which under the experimental conditions prevailing

positive energy
seemed to be interpretable only on the basis of
the existence in this case of a particle carrying a
positive charge but having a mass of the same
occurred in the chamber only once in some 500
exposures, and since there was practically no
chance at all that two such tracks should line up

positively charges
order of magnitude as that normally possessed
by a free negative electron. Later study of the
in this way. We also discarded as completely
untenable the assumption of an electron of 20

particles
photograph by a whole group of men of the
Norman Bridge Laboratory only tended to
strengthen this view. The reason that this
interpretation seemed so inevitable is that the
million volts entering the lead on one side and
coming out with an energy of 60 million volts on
the other side. A fourth possibility is that a
photon, entering the lead from above, knocked

• In 1933 Anderson
track appearing on the upper half of the figure
cannot possibly have a mass as large as that of a
out of the nucleus of a lead atom two particles,
one of which shot upward and the other down-

measured one of these

proton for as soon as the mass is fixed the energy ward. But in this case the upward moving one
is at once fixed by the curvature. The energy of would be a positive of small mass so that either
a proton of that curvature comes out 300, 000 of the two possibilities leads to the existence of

particles using a cloud

volts, but a proton of that energy according to
well established and universally accepted de-
terminations' has a total range of about 5 mm in
the positive electron.
In the course of the next few weeks other
photographs were obtained which could be in-

chamber
air while that portion of the range actually
visible in this case exceeds 5 cm without a
terpreted logically only on the positive-electron
basis, and a brief report was then published'
noticeable change in curvature. The only escape with due reserve in interpretation in view of the

– How de we know this

from this conclusion would be to assume that at
exactly the same instant (and the sharpness of
importance and striking nature of the announce-
ment.
the tracks determines that instant to within

' Rutherford,
isn’t an electron?
about a fiftieth of a second') two independent
It
MAGNITUDE QI3 CHARGE AND MAss
is possible with the present experimental
Chadwick and Ellis, Radiations from Radio-

– How do weT. know tothis

data
active Substances, p. 294. Assuming R ccv3 and using data
there given the range of a 300,000 volt proton in air S. P.
only assign rather wide limits to the

is about 5 mm. ~ C. D. Anderson, Science 76, 238 (1932).

9
isn’t a proton?
491
 Intermediate Between the Proton and Electron
shower particles of correspond- telescope
this track consisting
as an of to
dueelectrontubes
a or
itself responsible for the opinions expressed
it should be possible to distinguish clearly such a particle
1,
proton 2, and 3 and aup,
traveling leadfor filter
the observed
ng than
The Discovery of the Muon
Anderson and Neddermyer' have shown that, L, for for
from proton by observing its track density
energies
removing shower particles, selects penetrating rays
up to Thus
lection. 300 andthe 400 natural
Mev, the assumptions
cosmic-ray showerdirected Hp valueand would
particles
magnetic indicate
deflection near a proton
the end of of 4.4&&105
its range, althoughelectron
sed:havethe energy
toward the
it is toand cloud chamber C which is in a
be expected that the fraction of the total range in magnetic
showerlosses in lead are
particles plateselectrons,
corresponding to volts
those energy thereforeof track a range is ofone
with desired approximately
ing their energy
predicted by theorylosses is satisfactory,
for electrons.
field of 3500which
range'
nearcosmic-
the endexamine
gauss. the
of its this
The
range
type
distinction
Recent studies ofone cm in the chamber. The track is clearly can
as it enters
possibility
beCommunications
made is very
the chamber
experimentally we havethat
so To
small.
usedvisible
the
should not in gener
for
and energy loss3 are not that
indicate the singlyTheoccurring
curring
above
particles
ray corpuscles,
have shown
electrons.
in the consideration
even from NOVEM
energy BER
range below
are more penetrating than shower particles of correspond-
there
400
the
|,
7 cm is 1937
Mev,
The
number
the
noin chance chamber.
arrangement
telescope
only
of
of apparatus
of emergence
consisting
possible
photographs of of
objectiontubes
high
of Fig. order
H YS I In
Pbelow.
1,
to
energy
CAL
2,
1. Theto three-counter
REVIEW reduce
and 3 and a lead filter
the conclusions
particles, the reached
VOLUME 52
zation that the penetrating rays are not L, for removing shower particles, selects penetrating rays
ing magnetic deflection. Thus the natural assumptions a cut-off of
tubeabove
group is4directed
that used
was asbending
theLETTERS countertrack A aisisincircuit
with magnetic due to
largely
aEDITOR
gestion has expressed:
have been been made the that
showerthey are are electrons,
particles so arranged that the
toward
chamber
the cloud chamber
would TO
be set THE
C which
off only
onicthe charge, and of mass
theory describing their intermediate New Evidence for the Existence of a Particle of Mass
distortion,field but
energy losses is satisfactory,
of 3500thisgauss.is very The type of track for
unlikely, desiredthe is inone so
deflection is b
those cases when near a coincident
the end of its range discharge
as it of counters
enters the 1,
chamber 2, that
and the singly occurring particles are not electrons. quite The uniform and has a maximum value greater than ten
Prompt
and 3 was publication
there is noofchance
unaccompanied brief
by of areports
discharge of 4. The
of important discoveries
In order
trippingto reduce in physics may be secured by
experiments cited above have shown from consideration Intermediate Between the Proton and Electron
of the specific ionization that the penetrating addressing
times
of the
rays are cloud
not
any
themthe distortions
this department.
tonumber
chamber
emergence
wasusually
of photographs
valve Closing
delayed of high
below.
encountered
dates
about forone
energy in the
thisparticles,
department
sec. to the are,
thinfor the first issue of the i
month,tracks
facilitatetke oftube
highgroup
areeighteenth
determination ofenergy was
of the dropa count
particles.
used asmonth,
the4 preceding cut-off
for counter
the second
along awith a circuit
issue,
track. the tkird of the month. Because of
protons. The suggestion has been made that they
so
J.arranged that
Anderson and Neddermyer' have shown that,LETTE the f
chamber would set off
beshown to only in
particles of electronic charge, and of mass intermediatethe
not
late closing
Because
andhold
of geometrical
of itself
those cases
responsible
for energies
dates for theimperfections
when
section no proof
a
for thethe coincident
TO THE
opinions
of thecan be
discharge
expressed of
C.
arrangement
1004 by counters
authors.
STREET
1, 2,
the correspondents.
The Board of Editors does
RS
a by a discharge E.
counterand 3inefficiency
was unaccompanied cut-off circuit of 4.C.
prevented
TheSTEVENSON
tripping
up to 300 and 400 Mev, the cosmic-ray shower particles
Researchof Laboratory
the cloud chamber of Physics,
valve was delayed about one sec. to
in general exceed 600 words in length.
Harvard facilitate determination of not
Communications
University, should
Cambridge, Massachusetts, the drop count along a track. expan
have energy losses in lead plates corresponding to those
Because 6,
October geometrical imperfections of the arrangement
of 1937.
and of counter inefficiency the cut-off circuit prevented
At th
New Evidence for ' the Existence of a Particle Phys.of Mass those of the proton and electron. If this is true, lent
predicted Anderson
Street and
Intermediate 'Between 2 by theory
and Neddermeyer,
the Stevenson,
Proton andPhys. for electrons.
between
Rev. SO, 263 (1936).
Rev. 51, 1005it (1937).
Electron Recent
should be possible studies
to distinguish clearly ofsuch range'
a particle Two
Neddermeyer and Anderson, Phys. Rev. Sl, 885 (1937).
from an electron or proton by observing its track density
for energies that the cosmic- e
Andersonand energy
and Neddermyer' loss3
have indicate
shown that,
and magnetic singly
deflection occurring
near the end of its range, although
densi
one
up to 300 and 400 Mev, the cosmic-ray shower particles
even tointhosethe itwhich 400 Mev,
is to be expected that the fraction of the total range in a
have energyray corpuscles,
losses in lead plates corresponding energy the range
distinction can below
be made is very small. To
other
predicted by theory for electrons. Recent studies of range' 130 t
and energy areloss3more
indicate that
Variation
penetrating
of
the singly occurring cosmic-
Initial Permeability
than with arrangement
Direction of apparatus
in Single of
of 1.correspond-
examine this possibility experimentally we have used the
shower particles Fig. The three-counter
termi
ray corpuscles, even in the energy range below 400 Mev, exhibL
are more ing magnetic
penetrating deflection.
Crystals
than shower particles of Silicon-Iron
of correspond- Thus the natural assumptions
telescope consisting of tubes 1, 2, and 3 and a lead filter
L, for removing shower particles, selects penetrating rays usual
ing magnetic deflection. Thus the natural assumptions
have been have
expressed: been
Magnetic
the shower expressed:
measurements at the
particles are electrons, shower
flux densities rangingparticles
directed toward
are electrons,
cloud chamber C which is in a magnetic
the from gauss d
about to 100 field of 3500 gauss. The
of type of track desired is one so Track
5 gauss have
the theory describing their energy losses is satisfactory, been made on single crystals f
and the the theory
3. 85 percent
singly occurring describing
silicon
particles in the their
iron,electrons.
are not The
crystallographic losses is satisfactory,
near the end of its range as it enters the chamber that
energydirections lead
there is no chance of emergence below. In order to reduce great
experiments cited$100$, above L110j
have shown from consideration
and f111). Up to this time data have
nonumber been
the that
and reported occurring are not energy particles,The
electrons.
singly rays are not particles
of the specific ionization the of photographs of high the to pe
the penetrating
on the magnetic properties tube of single 4 was usedatas a cut-off counter with a circuit
group crystals 9.6Xt
protons. The suggestion has been made that they are
particles experiments
such low
of electronic flux and
charge, cited
densities
of mass and above
intermediate have
it has generally
so arranged shown
been that from
the chamber
assumed consideration
would be set off only in
that

of the
that single crystals are magnetically isotropic at these fluxthose cases when a coincident
Zc i discharge of counters 1, 2,
If itt
specific ionization that
densities.
and 3 the
penetrating rays
was unaccompanied by a discharge of 4. The are not
tripping
as th
questit
of the cloud chamber valve was delayed about one sec. to
Large crystals were produced in an facilitate atmosphere of pure of the drop count along a track.
protons. The suggestion
hydrogen by melting silicon iron and permitting
has been made that
it to cool imperfections of thethey
determination are mass
counts
Because of geometrical arrangement
particlesvery slowly of electronic
through the freezing charge, and' Three
point. and
of counter of mass
inefficiency
specimens intermediate
the cut-off circuit prevented
eometrical
track arrangement of apparatus.
of a penetrating
i. particle
FIG. Geometrical arrangement of high FiG. 2. Track A.2. Track A. 10
comparison with A and B.
of apparatus.
cut in the form of hollow
1003 were 1003
FiG.
parallelograms. FIG. 3. Track B.
Each 25 pe
t
Proton Muon this t
The Kaon?
• Use kinematics to
SÉRIE VII. - TOME Vil. 1~° 3.

EXISTENCE PROBABLE D’UNE PARTICULE DE MASSE (990 ± 12 pour

MARS 19~6.

100) m0
determine the mass DANS LE RAYONNEMENT COSMIQUE

LE JOURNAL DE PHYSIQUE
Par L. LEPRINCE-RINGUET et M. LHÉRITIER.
of the particle Sommaire.
E 7’
La méthode de la collision élastique entre particule incidente et électron du gaz
2014

d’une chambre de Wilson a été appliquée à un certain nombre de chocs observés sur un total d’en-
LE RADIUM
viron10 000 trajectoires. Dans les cas favorables, la masse de la particule incidente peut ainsi être
mesurée. Nous avons, en particulier, observé une collision permettant d’attribuer, si toutefois elle est
élastique, à la particule incidente, la masse (990 ±12 pour100), m0, soit environ quatre fois la masse
du mésoton habituel et moitié de celle du proton.

L’observation, faite en r g4o par L. Leprince- (4) ont permis

Ginguet de préciser les c
EXISTENCE PROBABLE D’UNE PARTICULE DE MASSE (990 ± 12 pour les
m0 100)
Ringuet, E. Nageotte, S. Gorodetzky et R. Richard- expérimentales
DANS LE RAYONNEMENT COSMIQUE plus favorables à un
Foy (1) d’un cliché de collision entre un mésoton détermination de la masse. A la suite de ces
du rayonnement cosmique Par L.etLEPRINCE-RINGUET
un électron du gaz LHÉRITIER.
et M. des recherches expérimentales ont été po
d’une chambre de Wilson avait permis, en admet- au laboratoire de Largentière-la-Bessée
tant le caractère Sommaire.
élastique
2014
La méthode du dechoc,
la collision calculerentre
de élastique Alpes)
la particule situéet àélectron
incidente
d’une chambre de Wilson a été appliquée à un certain nombre de chocs observés sur un total d’en-
1o0odu m gaz d’altitude, au moy
masse du viron mésoton avec uneDans
10 000 trajectoires. assez bonne
les cas favorables, la masse de lagrande
précision. particule chambre
incidente peutdeainsi
Wilson
être (75 cm de haute
Nous avions trouvé
mesurée.
largeur, 1 o sidetoutefois
Nous avons, en particulier, observé une collision permettant d’attribuer,
profondeur)
elle est commandée p
élastique, à la particule incidente, la masse (990 ±12 pour100), m0, soit environ quatre fois la masse
du mésoton habituel et moitié de celle du proton. teurs d’électrons, et baignant dans u
Mat (240 ± 10 pour z0,
magnétique produit par la bobine san
MM. Cotton et Tsal construite en 1937
mo étant la masse
L’observation, au en
faite repos de l’électron.
L. Leprince- Ginguet (4)Palais
r g4o par ont permis préciser les conditions
de la deDécouverte.
Cette observation
Ringuet, E. Nageotte, favorable
S. Gorodetzky nous a incités
et R. Richard- expérimentales
à les favorables
plus nous avonsà une bonne
Foy (1) d’un cliché dede lacollision entre un mésoton détermination
En 1943
de la masse. A la suite de ces pristravaux,
environ 1000
développer l’étude
du rayonnement cosmique et un électron du élastique
méthode de choc en le expérimentales ontdéclenchant
gaz des recherches rayonnement été poursuiviesles comp
vue de déterminer la masse des particules du rayon-
d’une chambre de Wilson avait permis, en admet- au laboratoire traversant la chambre étant
de Largentière-la-Bessée filtré par 1
(Hautes-
nement caractère élastique du choc, de calculercapable
tant le cosmique, cette méthode étant de
la Alpes) situé plomb.
à 1o0o Nousm d’altitude,
n’avons au moyen d’une
placé I aucun écran
donner
masse du desmésoton
mesures avec sans
une assez
appel,
fairebonne précision. grande
comme font chambre de Wilson
chambre, de façon (75 cm de hauteur,
à bien ~ de
mesurer les cour
lesNous avions trouvé
autres méthodes, aux hypothèses largeur,
habituelles 1 o de profondeur) commandée par comp-

des la
trajectoires,
teurs d’électrons, et nousdans
et baignant avons adopté pour le
un champ
sur le mode Mat (240 ± 10d’énergie
de perte pour z0, particules à
magnétique une valeur dela 25oo
produit par bobinegauss environ,
sans fer de valeur
traversée de la matière. Depuis la publication du considérer,
construite àen la1937 pour des
suite
mo étant
cliché de lacollision
masse au repos de l’électron.
entre le mésoton de massePalais
MM. Cotton
240 de la
peut et Tsal le trava
Découverte.
demment cités, comme la plus favorable
et un électron, desfavorable
Cette observation nous incités à
travaux de a Richard-Foy En 1943 nous avons pris environ 10000 clichés,
(2), tion de résultats les
développer l’étude de laS.méthode de choc élastique en le rayonnement déclenchant exploitables. compteurs et
S. vueGorodetzky
de déterminer(3), la masseGorodetzky et L.
des particules du rayon- Leprince-
traversant la Nouschambre étant obtenu
avons filtré par une dizaine
de de c
10 cm
nement cosmique, cette méthode étant capable de
donner des mesures sans faire appel, comme font
plomb. Nous collision
n’avons susceptibles
placé aucun écran d’êtredansexploités.
la Si
(1) L. LEPRINCE-RINGUET, S. GORODETZKY, E. NAGEOTTE chambre, de façonsur à bien mesurerleles courbures des
lesquels primaire possède
les autres méthodes, aux hypothèses habituelles
Sc., ~g~o, 211; Pays.trajectoires,
eux, 11 un
et R. RICHARD-FoY, C. R. Acad,
sur le mode de perte d’énergie des particules à la
J. de Physique, 1942, p. 63.
Rev., considérable, adopté
et nous avons
une valeur de 25oo gauss environ,
ne pour le
permettent champ pas d’obt
valeur que l’on
H
1941, 59, p. 460; indication
traversée de la matière.C. Depuis
(2) R. RICHARD-Foy, R. Acad. publication
la du
Sc., I g~.I, 213, p. mesure,
724;considérer,
peut à ou mêmedes
la suite une travaux précé- de masse
CLOUD - Cosmics Leaving OUtdoor Droplets
• CLOUD is an active
experiment at CERN
which is investigating
the link between
galactic cosmic rays
and cloud formation
• Utilises a gigantic
cloud chamber in a
beam of particles
from the CERN PS
(proton synchrotron)

12
References
• C. T. R. Wilson, “On an Expansion Apparatus for
Making Visible the Tracks of Ionising Particles in
Gases and Some Results Obtained by Its Use”, Proc.
R. Soc. Lond. A, 87, 595, 277-292 (1912),
• P. A. M. Dirac, “A theory of electrons and protons”,
Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A, 126, 360-365 (1930)
• Carl. D. Anderson, “The Positive Electron”, Phys. Rev.
43, 491–494 (1933)
• J. C. Street and E. C. Stevenson, “New Evidence for
the Existence of a Particle of Mass Intermediate
Between the Proton and Electron”, Phys. Rev. 52,
1003–1004 (1937)

13