Teoria de Las Maq Htas Angel

MACHINE SHOP THEORY
FOR
TOOL DIE AND MACHINIST APPRENTICES

Second Edition
Developed and Edited by
W ILLIA M E. H A R D M A N
Director of Training
i
N A T I O N A L T O O L , DI E A N D P R E C I S I O N
'
MACHINING ASSO CIA TIO N
1411 K S t r e e t , N. W. W a s h i n g t o n , D. C. 2 0 0 0 5
i— i
This copy is the property of
P /VS L. .
TO THE APPRENTICE - HOW TO USE THIS BOOK.
In developing this book of fundamental machine shop theory, the
National Tool, Die & Precision Machining Association has followed its basic
training principle of compressing experience. Realizing that no apprentice,
not even you, could learn all there is to learn of shop theory in his first
year, we have attempted to select, as chapters for this book, those elements
most necessary for a basic understanding of shop practices.
You should read each chapter carefully as it is assigned. In most
cases a minimum of two readings will be necessary. The drawings and sketches
should be studied at length because they will increase your rate of learning.
No matter how carefully you read you will still have questions to be answered.
It is your duty to ask these questions during class sessions. Keep in mind,
however, that doing your homework assignments faithfully will make time spent
in class easier and more profitable. Never forget that the faster and more
thoroughly you learn, the quicker you will reach journeyman's status in this
most worthy of all trades.
The expert technical assistance of the following persons is gratefully
acknowledged: Mr. Harry Hyman, Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U. S.
Department of Labor; Mr. George Polansky, Director of Training, Arrow Tool
Company.
President - Arrow T o o l ’Co., Inc.

Wethersfield, Connecticut;
President - National Tool, Die &
Precision Machining Assn. 1961 - 1962;
Member - Federal Committee on
Apprenticeship, 1959 ~ 1965*
MACHINE SHOP THEORY
Table of Contents
Page
Oiff'IH ''N'F - STEELMAKING............ 1

Mini r,f Ore
ft*fining f'rocesses
Making Methods (Furnaces)
K; ., Foundry and Forge Processes
- T® PROCESSES OF METAL WORKING

7
K* "hining
F -rir.',ng
fi** ’ Treating
nr.** Treating Processes
CrUmy- THREE - CUTTING TOOLS AND THEIR MATERIALS

11
T m rr.ino} ogy
* Materials
i-i.fi and Clearances
breakers
* tz*'c of Lathe Tools
f-'Tr.and Grinding of Tool Bits
CHAPTER F ' 'E - KILLING CUTTERS AND K I L L I N G ____

23
Classification
Angles and Clearances
Feeds and Speeds
Classes of Milling
CHAPTER FIVE - DRILLS, REAMERS AND TAPS - ______ _

33
Point Angles
Type s
Tap Drill Formulae
(continued)
i
Table of Contents, continued.

■— — .......---- — — — Page
CHAPTER SIX - CHIP CUTTING - - ------------ - - ........ - - - 1+7
What Happens When a Tool Cuts a Chip

Kind of Metal That is Being Machined
Built-up-Edge
Chip Flow
Elements Affecting Tool Life
CHAPTER SEVEN - GRINDING THEORY- -------------------- - - - ------- 5?
What Grinding Wheels are Made of

Abrasives
Grain Size
Bonds
Typical Wheel Markings
Wheel Structure and Wheel Selection
CHAPTER EIGHT - COOLANTS - - --------------- ------------------- 6l
Funetion
Reduction of Friction
Types of Fluids
Cutting Fluid Selection
Application of Fluids
CHAPTER NINE - SCREW THREADS - ------------------------- - _ _______ 69
Terminology - types - forms - formulae

Classes of Fit
Gaging
Measurement Over Wires
The Formula
CHAPTER TEN - MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK---- -------- - ------------- Bp
Introduction
Questions and Problems
MM
CHAPTER I
STEEL MAKING
Mining Ore.
The process of steel making begins with the mining of the ore. Most
metals occur as oxides or sulphides of the pure metal in mixture with sand,
clay or rock. If the percentage of pure metal in the mixture is high enough
to warrant commercial processing, the raw material is known as ore. One
conspicuous exception to this is magnesium, whose principal source is sea
water. Very often more than one desired metal may be found in an ore.
Mining methods vary. Silver, gold, lead, zinc, copper ana tin are
usually mined underground. Occasionally surface deposits are found and mined
with power shovels. Other processes, particularly in gold mining consist of
washing down sand and gravel banks with high pressure hc-ses and processing the
loosened gold bearing sand. Often the gold bearing sand or gravel is dredged
from river bottoms. This is enough to give, you an idea of the variety of ore
mining methods. Because we are attempting to compress time and material and
speed up your learning we will concentrate on the processing of iron ore.
The geographic location of iron ore is important because of weight

and the attending transportation costs. Until quite recently location was
also of strategic importance to national defense. This is no longer true be
cause defense planners do not consider the possibility of long wars where the
national ability to continue to manufacture would be a decisive factor.
Refining Processes.
The first step in processing iron and most other metals as well is to
remove it from its ore. In the case of iron this means removing the oxygen
that is in combination with it. Such a process is known as reduction or re
ducing the oxygen content.
Most iron is produced in a blast furnace which is an apparatus for

heating the ore in the presence of an excess of carbon. This carbon is princi
pally in the form of carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide is the reducing
agent in that it combines with the oxygen present in the ore and thus reduces
the ore to iron. This may be considered a chemical reaction. In most chemi
cal reactions heat acts as an accelerator ana in this case a very high tempera
ture is required.
Machine Shop Theory, page 1

Refining Processes, continued.
The materials loaded into a blast furnace are: ore, coke, lime
stone and preheated air. For every ton of iron produced, the following
applies:
Into Furnace Results______
2 tons ore 1 ton iron
1 ton coke i/2 ton slag

l/2 ton limestone
h tons preheated air 6 tons waste gas
As the preheated air is blown in through the lower section of the

charge the temperature increases until the iron begins to settle out as
11+75 is passed. Meanwhile it has absorbed all the carbon it can hold. As
the temperature increases, the iron in molten form settles to the bottom
where it is later tapped out. The limestone combines with most of the im
purities, forms a fluid slag and is drawn off. The waste gas leaving the
furnace at the top is used to heat the preheating "stoves" where the air
pumped into the furnace must be prepared.
The product of the blast furnaces is cast into convenient forms for
handling called "pigs" and is known as pig iron. It is considered an impure
iron as it contains only about 93# iron. The pig iron in itself is of little
or no use. If it is to be used in the foundry for casting it must be re
melted in the foundry's furnace (cupola) and further purified or alloyed
there. If it is to be processed through one of the steel making methods the
molten pig iron may be run from the blast furnace directly to the steel mak
ing furnace without allowing it to cool.
Processes that refine pig iron to cast iron and steel are based on
oxidation or the addition of oxygen. The addition takes place rapidly with
heat. What is steel? Simply, it is nothing more than an alloy of iron and
carbon with a much lower carbon content than pig or cast iron. Steel contain
1.8# or less of carbon.
The three most widely used steel making processes today are: (l)
The Bessemer converter, (2) -The Open-Hearth Furnace, and (3 ) The Electric
Arc.
The Bessemer method Is the simplest and most economical. It uses

cold air for an oxidising agent and the fuel is the impurities which are to
be burned out. The cold air is simply blown up through a molten charge of
pig iron causing the temperature to increase and the impurities and excess
carbon to burn out through the top opening of the converter. About 50 tons
of steel per hour is the usual average for one converter. This is fast pro
duction yet only 11# of our steel is made in this way. Bessemer steel tends
to pick up excess nitrogen in the processes. Close percentage control of
carbon and other ingredients is not possible. Consequently Bessemer steel
is considered inferior to Open-Hearth and Electric Furnace types and is
known as an acid steel.

Refining Processes, continued.
The Open-Hearth method provides a means of removing objectionable

amounts of phosphorous and sulphur and provides a basic steel of better over
all quality. The furnace is roughly in the form of a huge dish enclosed in
brickwork. The charge is placed in the "dish" portion and flame blown across
the top. In this case the charge may contain up to 75$ scrap in addition to
the molten pig iron. (Scrap cannot be used in the Bessemer.) Various alloy
ing and controlling materials may be added. The melting rate has been, until
recently, slower than the Bessemer but closer controls may be exercised. This
method produces by far the greatest tonnage of the three processes in the
United States. About i 960 the idea of feeding pure oxygen to the furnace was
introduced. This has resulted xn a 75$» reduction in the time necessary to
produce a heat.
The Electric furnace produces only a small part of the total tonnage
of this country's steel but most of the finer grades including the stainless
types and most alloy grades are made in this manner. It is the only process
by which all of the sulphur may be removed. There is no need for carbonaceous
type fuels. The furnace atmosphere is neutral and may be controlled to oxidize
or reduce as desired. The heat is produced from the arc of three electrodes.
Up to yO tons of steel are produced per charge. Alloying may be done in the
furnace and selected grades of scrap may be used.
Other valuable products of refining are the cast irons. These are
usually grey, white and malleable iron. The latter is a processed grey iron.
These are produced by further refining of pig iron to reduce carbon and impuri
ties. They may also be alloyed. Most white iron is used to produce malleable
iron which is a ductile form of cast iron made by a heating and annealing ac
tion. All of these are made into product form by a casting process in a
foundry.
Wrought iron is still another product of refining. It is merely a

refined iron in which most of the carbon has been removed but some slag has
been purposely left. Through working a mushy mass of iron at relatively low
furnace temperatures this included slag is elongated. The structure remains
ductile in the cooled stage and is very strong on a one-direction pull. It is
somewhat more rust and corrosion resistant than cast iron and steels. It has
importance for chains, heavy pipe and ornamental iron work.
Steel Mill, Foundry and Forge Shop Processes.
Products of the blast furnace and the steel furnaces must be turned
into usable shapes.
In the case of steel, as it leaves the furnace it' is cast into ingots
which are large elongated castings weighing many tons. The ingots usually con
tain imperfections in the form of poor grain structure, inclusions, seams and
porosity. The ingot is therefore fed to the rolling mill to improve and elon
gate the grain structure as well as to reduce its size. The large ingot is
rolled down to gradually smaller forms known as blooms and billets. These
blooms and billets may then be cut and sold as stock shapes to a manufacturer,
or they may be sent on to special mills such as rail, bar, rod, tube, wire,
sheet, and plate mills.

Steel Mill, Foundry and Forge Shop Processes, continued.
Several, of the large steel manufacturers are presently experimenting

with ways to develop a continuous process from furnace to mill to finished
product. It can be expected that this idea will become a reality in the
very near future.
Forging consists of squeezing or pounding the steel into its desired

shape while in a heated but not molten state. It may be done by hand hammer
ing or by machine, in a confining die or by free forging.
The forging process gives a controlled grain flow direction and a

generally denser, tougher structure with desirable grain characteristics.
Castings produced by modern foundry methods now approach the strength-to-
weigbt ratio of forgings but grain structure, general toughness and impact
resistance may still be regarded as better and more uniform in forgings. A
forging 'unless it be in the form of stock bars leaves the forge shop in the
desired part shape requiring only machining of working, bearing or mating
surfaces.
The foundry makes castings by pouring molten iron, or most any other
commercial metal into molds. The iron is melted in a type of foundry furnace
resembling a blast furnace ana known as a cupola. Pig iron, scrap iron and
various alloying and purifying materials are charged into the cupola. The
molds are made by ramming special types of molding sands around wood or metal
patterns. The patterns are withdrawn, leaving a cavity the desired shape to
be east. The molten iron is poured through holes to fill the cavity. The
sane mold is broken away leaving the casting. After trimming and cleaning
by the foundry the casting is in the desired part shape and needs only machin
ing of working, bearing or mating surfaces. Other refinements or improvements
of the standard sand casting process described above are:
(1) Shell mold casting in which the pattern is sprayed with a part
ing material, then covered with a thin coat of extremely fine sand. This face
coating of fine sand is then sprayed with a plastic material. A coarser grade
of sand is applied and also sprayed with plastic. After about l/l inch has
been built up the plastic soaked sand is allowed to cure. The pattern is with
drawn leaving a thin shell mold with an excellent mold cavity finish. The
plastic gives the mold strength, the mold weight and floor space requirements
are reduced, the dimensions of the casting may be closely controlled and the
casting finish is excellent. In some cases the mold may be used again. The
process is suited to all sizes of castings except extremely large sizes.
(2) host-wax or Precision Investment casting in which a wax pattern

or replica of the desired part is coated with a soupy plaster-like material
known as the "primary investment". This forms the lining or face coat for the
mold cavity later. The coated wax pattern is then packed with secondary in
vestment material, a fire-clay like substance to give body to the mold. Pour
ing holes are provided. The mold is then baked. In the baking process the
wax pattern melts and drains away leaving the mold cavity. The molten metal
is then poured into the mold. This provides a casting with excellent finish
and dimensional control. It is sometimes unnecessary to do any machining on
these castings. The process is limited to small sizes.
Machine Shop Theory, page k

Steel Mill, Foundry and Forge Shop Processes, continued.
(3 ) Die casting, in which the metal is usually limited to special

aluminum and zinc alloys. The molten metal is forced under pressure into a
highly finished steel die which has built-in cooling and ejecting mechanisms.
The process results in a casting with excellent finish and dimensions as well
as rapid production. However, the initial die costs are high and strength is
limited by the type of metal necessary for the process. Usually confined to
small parts because of die expense, except for high production items where
die expense is amortized over long runs.
(if) Centrifugal casting in which the mold is rotated on the periphery

of a wheel-like mechanism while the molten metal is fed from the center point
through feeder lines to the mold. This results in a denser ,structure with no
porosity or bubbles.
References :
"Steel Making in America" - Fisher

(U. S. Steel Corporation Publication)
"Elementary Metallurgy" - Frier
"Readers' Digest" - September, 195^
"Oasting and Forging Methods" - Campbell
Research also included consultations with technical personnel of

the Republic Steel Corporation and the Carpenter Steel Corporation.

CHAPTER II
TEE PROCESSES OF METAL WORKING
Machining.
Machining is a secondary process coming after the metal has been re
fined and processed into stock shapes by the steel mill, or into castings and
forgings by the foundry or forge shop. The term is best defined as the pro
cess of cutting metal to very specific sizes and shapes through the use of
metal cutting tools and manufactured abrasives.
For practical purposes almost all machining can be classified under

two general headings: metallic cutting tools and abrasive tools. The funda
mental machine tools are the engine lathe, drill press, milling machine, band saw,
shaper and planer. Each of these is a piece of machinery designed to do par
ticular operations 'by providing the power and traction for metal cutting tool
bits of one type or another.
Through the years there have been a myriad of variations, adaptations

and improved forms of these basic machine tools.
Machine tools which make use of abrasives are: cylindrical grinders;

internal grinders; surface grinders; honing machines; lapping machines and
cut-off machines.
Not unlike the metal cutting machine tools, these machines also have
a wide variety of modernized applications. The manufactured abrasives which
they provide the power for are usually in the form of wheels or compounds made
from either silicon carbide, aluminum oxide or diamond.
The following chart offers a comparison summary of the advantages and

limitations of both abrasive ana metallic tool machining:
Metallic Tool Machining Abrasive Machining
1. Close tolérance and excellent 1. Close tolerance and excellent

finish not always possible, but finish possible with fair to
when possible is slower and good production rate.
more costly.
2. Heavy stock removal relatively 2. Heavy stock removal difficult
easy. and expensive.
Q Not possible to machine parts 3* Only means of machining parts
of high hardness. of high hardness.

Forming.
Forming may be defined as bringing sheet- metal to a desired shape

through distortion of the metal without stock removal. Usually the metal is
C O ld .
Forming may be accomplished by bending, stretching, hammering, twist

ing, etc. or a combination of two or more of these processes.
Any method of cold forming, tends to produce a condition in the metal

known as "work hardness". This must be relieved through heat treatment,
often several times during a forming operation or the piece will crack.
Common forming methods are:
Hand forming - in which sheet metal is hammered into shape

over a formed pattern or over special form tools inserted in a
blacksmith anvil.
Press - in which dies are mounted in a hydraulic or even a

mechanical press and the sheet metal part is formed between the dies.
Some types of presses form by using only a female die and bulging the
sheet metal into shape against the die through hydraulic pressure or
a rubber pad. The first method above is known as drawing, while the
next, depending on the exact process, is known as bulge forming or
Hydroforming,
Drop hammer - in which dies are mounted in a drop hammer

machine similar to that used in forging. The sheet metal part- is
formed by the impact of the punch against the mating die with, of
course, the part between the two. This method reduces "spring-back"
of sheet metal and is quite rapid.
Roll - in which sheet metal is formed by rolling through a

series of contoured rolls to produce the desired shape. Cross section
shape is controlled by the shape of the rolls and the overall length
may be bent into a circle or radius by changing position of the rolls
on the machine.
Brake - in which the sheet metal is formed by bending. The

machine majr be set to put almost any type and degree of regular bend
or series of bends in the part.
Spinning - in which the sheet metal is formed over a form

block on a special type lathe. The sheet metal is rotated while a
blunt spinning tool is held against it to press against the form block.
This method will produce regularly contoured round shapes and is well
suited to jobs requiring only a few parts. With this method no expen
sive dies are needed.

Forming, continued.
Floturning - this is a process developed in the aircraft

industry. It is actually an improved spinning method requiring a
special lathe. Grain structure is better controlled as are dimensions.
More severe contours may be formed than by spinning.
Stretch forming - applies the principle of stretching or pull

ing metal over a fora block or die by means of hydraulically operated
jaws. It was designed principally to overcome the spring-back factor
which was difficult to compensate for on certain shapes, such as heli
copter blades.
Explosive forming - uses explosive power to save time and tool

ing. It exerts equal pressure over the entire surface of the metal and
is instantaneous in its' application. By this means, metal, even high
grade stainless- steel, can be shaped over male or female dies or form
blocks.
iiea+.o T'-r
Most metals used in the construction of product parts or tooling may be

advantageously heat treated by one or more processes to bring out desirable
characteristics such as hardness, toughness, ductility, flexibility, stress
relief, etc.
Steel and iron are more frequently heat treated than the non-ferrous
metals and usually more positive results are obtained with these metals. Some
non-ferrous metals may be advantageously heat treated. Aluminum alloys and
brasses are commonly given heat treatments.
Steel depends on the amount of carbon present for its degree of harden-
ability. This applies for both plain carbon steels and alloy steels. Low car
bon steels will show little or no increase in hardness through a heating and
quenching treatment while high carbon steels will harden considerably. Some
alloying elements tend to modify the effect of the carbon.
Beat Treating Processes,
(l) Hardening
Basically, steel is an iron and carbon alloy, ana although the amount
of carbon is important, the way it is distributed in the ron is more impor
tant. It is this distribution which will determine the properties of the
steel. Alloying elements other than carbon are added but their main effect is
to alter the rate of reaction in the steel which, in turn, may alter the carbon
forms durine: heat treatment.
When unhardened steel is heated to a temperature of about 1500°F. its

molecular structure becomes arranged in patterns referred to as austenite.
Austenite is a desirable form to cool from because through carefully controlled
cooling, the forms of maximum hardness can be achieved. A definition of harden
ing would be to heat steel to above its critical temperature (the point at which
Austenite begins to form - 1500°) and quench it in brine, water, oil or air, de
pending on the alloying elements.
Machine Shop Theory, page

Heat Treating Processes, continued.
(2) Tempering
Reheating after quenching to remove some of the extreme stresses

usually set up by quenching. This is a relatively low temperature treatment.
(A) Annealing - the process of softening steel and conse

quently reducing internal stresses in the process. With older methods
this process consisted of heating steel to critical range or above and
cooling very slowly. Modern cycle annealing methods permit this pro
cess to be accomplished in a short time.
(b ) Normalising and stress relieving - Normalizing is usually

confined to castings and forgings and is a heat treatment designed to
bring grain structure back to normal after grain enlargement or slip
page due to working or to correct poor initial casting or forging
microstructure. Stress relieving is a similar process but more appli
cable to sheet metal. The purpose is to relieve stresses set up by
working the metal.
(C) Stabilizing - A process sometimes known as aging. Pur

pose is to kill as much of the potential molecular action as possible
in the steel or cast iron. (Sometimes used on other metals.) This
prevents growth or shrinkage in actual size which sometimes occurs to
a slight degree and is very detrimental in extremely close fitting
assemblies by' exposing the metal to extremes of weather for several
years.
(3 ) Case Hardening
(A) Carburizing - process of adding carbon to the surface of

low carbon steels to make them hardenable. This results in a part
with a hard surface or case from .020 to .060 deep and a relatively
soft, ductile core after hardening. Carburizing is accomplished by
producing a carbon atmosphere in the furnace or packing the parts in
a carbonaceous material such as charcoal, bone black, etc. Tempera
ture is 1550 ° to 1700 °.
(B) Nitriding - adding nitrogen to the surface of steel to

produce a case hardness even greater than through a high carbon con
tent. Case depth limit is approximately .020. Part is heated at 1000°
in atmosphere of nitrogen caused by introduction of ammonia gas. No
quenching is needed and no oxidation occurs. In most cases part may
be machined to final size before nitriding. Process is limited to
steel alloys which will accept nitrogen.
(c) Carbo-nitriding - a combination of the carburizing and

the nitriding processes involving absorption by the steel of both car
bon ana nitrogen at a lower temperature than carburizing (1 A 500 to
1500°F.). Case depth limit is about .025» Oil quench is required
but distortion is not serious. Little oxidation occurs. Provides a
rather inexpensive method of getting a hard, wear resistant case on
a cheap steel. Not suitable when a deep case is required.

CHAPTER III
CUTTING TOOIS AND THEIR MATERIAIS
Correct tool terminology should be acquired by the apprentice early

in his career, and he should always use these terms, mailing them part of his
new shop language and mating himself thereby a better communicator,
Tool terminology consists of both tool elements or parts and also

tool angles.
The most common and important tool elements are shown in Fig. 1,
The tool angles are shown in Fig. 2.
The terminology mentioned here has been chosen because it is common

in tool catalogues and in tool and die shops. These terms and their appli
cation should be learned early in the career of the apprentice.
LPv’li

CHAPTER III
CUTTING TOPIS AND THEIR. MATERIALS
Correct tool terminology should be acquired by the apprentice early

in his career, and he should always use these terms, making them part of his
new shop language and making himself thereby a better communicator.
Tool terminology consists of both tool elements or parts and also

tool angles.
The most common and important tool elements are shown in Fig. 1.
The tool angles are shown in Fig. 2.
The terminology mentioned here has been chosen because it is common

in tool catalogues and in tool and die shops. These terms and their appli
cation should be learned early in the career of the apprentice.

Tool Terminology,
-------------------------------------------------------------
continued.
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Ss D E
-S+fe-fjC 4UE.
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TO O L A N G LES
Fui Z
S «*-
Tool Materials,
Cemented carbide, the hardest metal made by man, is a product pro

duced by a modern process called powdered metallurgy. It was introduced com
mercially in this country in 1928. The basic ingredients of cemented carbides
are: Tungsten, Carbon, Cobalt, Tantalum and Titanium. This material is used
in high production where wear is excessive and tools must keep their cutting
edges for long periods of time. Carbide is used on all types of cutting tools
including drills.
■Stellite, a nonferrous metal, consisting chiefly of ¿+3-48$ cobalt,

7I_'i o1
-y<: ten, 30 -35 $ chromium, 5% carbon, is shaped by casting.
It cannot be forged because of its brittleness. It should always be ground on
"tiis end. TTis/t is opposite the notch with the notch facing downward. Except for
slight changes in color, stellite is not affected by temperature up to lyOOrF.
Ix is tougher and cuts better at dull red heat than when it is cold. Stellite
also withstands the abrasive action of cast iron and similar materials excep
tionally well.
Cobalt steels are sometimes called super-high-speed steel. Molybdenum

high-speed steel has the tungsten partially or wholly replaced. These are
only two of the many variations of high speed steel. High-speed steel will
retain its hardness at temperatures up to 1100°F.

Tool Materials, continued.
Cutting tools made of high-speed steel are still widely used in pro
duction although they are exceeded by the number of carbide tools in use.
However, in tool rooms the high-speed tool is still the most commonly used.
Carbon Tool Steels.
Carbon tool steel is the oldest tool material and is used very little
as a cutting tool today. The development of high-speed steel has made the
carbon steel tool virtually obsolete. It is rare to see it being used in the
tool rooms of American industry today. Occasionally one might observe an old-
time tool maker take a small carbon steel bit from his tool box and use it on
some extremely small work at a very high spindle speed, but this assignment
might better be filled by a modern high-speed steel tool. Carbon tool steel
at best only withstands cuts producing temperatures up to l+OO^F.
Tool A m
The rake (or slope) of the face of the tool should be regulated accord
ing to the type of material being cut and will be discussed in another section.
When using high-speed steel tools on ductile metals a large rake angle is re
quired -- 10° to 1 5 ° -- whereas brittle metals require small rake angles
0°~ 5° " on the tool. The degree of ductility or brittleness of a metal de
termines, to a large extent, the degree of rake to select for a tool.
Another important factor in determining rake is tool material. If a

material, such as carbide, can withstand tremendous temperatures then a smaller
rake angle can be used and a faster cut taken. Cast tools usually take smaller
rake angles. Carbide tools which are capable of withstanding very high speeds
take about half the rake angle of high-speed steel tools. One of the reasons
a smaller rake can be used is because the high speed will provide a good finish
Cemented carbide tools being strong in compression, more brittle than

high-speed steel and having the ability to withstand very high speeds, have
rake angles which are generally one-half of those used with high-speed steel
tools. Less rake can be used on this tool material because the increased speed
will insure finish. Therefore, less rake is needed to dispose of the built-up
edge which, if present, would be detrimental to the finish.
When a chip is parted from the work by a tool, the chip has a tendency
to move across the face of the tool at right angles to the cutting edge. (Fig.
Therefore, the effective rake is measured in that direction. Following

this reasoning then on a turning tool, the back rake is of less importance to
the cutting action than the side rake is. The back rake will help to control
the direction of the chip flow only.
In choosing between side rake and back rake, the direction of feed of
the tool should be considered so as to give effective rake in that direction.
A cut-off tool should have back rake only. See Fig. 3*

Tool Angles ; continued.
The strength of the tool is greatly affected by the amount of rale on

the tool. Although a small increase in the sise of the rake angle does not
remove sufficient material to weaken a tool, it does change the direction of
the chip pressure on the tool face, thereby weakening the tool considerably.
Fig. 4 shows the change of direction of chip pressure on the tool as

related to rake.
Machine Shop Theory, page lì

Tool Angles. continued.
The shape of a rough turning tool is an important factor in the effi

cient- machining of a part and the life of a tool. A rough turning tool sharp
ened as shown in Fig. 5* with a side cutting edge angle has the cut distributed
over a longer cutting edge, than when sharpened without one as shown in Fig. 6.
Compare Fig. 5 with Fig. 6. The tool which has a side cutting edge angle will
have a longer tool life, because there is more cutting edge in contact to with
stand the cutting pressure; therefore, less damage is done to the tool.
T O O L WiTrtOlfT
fetDE CLTT1W4
E04-E feW 4 LE
pi<a. &
It is also advantageous to have a side cutting edge angle on a tool so

that it will first contact the work at a point back from the cutting edge where
it is strong, shown in Fig. 7 as compared to Fig. 8. Because of the brittle
properties of carbide tipped tools, the side cutting edge angle as explained
above is necessary from the standpoint of tool life.

Tool Angles, continued.
A side cutting edge angle will divert part of the cutting pressure
back thrpugh the shank of the tool, thus preventing the tool free pulling it-
sei .p into the work. Th is tool also has less side pressure as shown in Fig.
O', o
In Fi g. 10, the tool ha s the cutting pressure entirely in a sideward direct!
whi.ch may cause the too 1 to swing in the toed post.
When a tool leaves the end of the work piece, as in Fig. 11, a side
cutting edge angle car. be used so that the tool will leave the work gradually
and therefore leave vergo little burr on the end of the piece. If no side
cutting edge angle is used, as in Fig. 12, then a ring of metal will be
pushed off the end of the piece leaving a large burr. Generally the side
cutting edge angle will range from 0 deg. to 15 deg. An exception to the use

ol a siae cutt eg edge angle is on cuts where hard scale is to be penetrated

such as chilie cast iron. It is advantageous to have a tool with no side
cu c* edge angle, thereby concentrating the cutting pressure over, a short
cuttins edge. More pressure can be gained from the tool by this method; hov-
ever « t :ool vi stand well. This method is used when othei
D6“ ;ale.
The end eutting- should be small to give strength to the

the tool, yet it must be large enough to clear the work and prevent
lose of the
irag. On ordinary turning and facing jobs , the end cutting-edge angle has a
oractical ranee of 6 deg. - 15 deg.
Sometimes when chatter occurs, the end cutting-edge angle may be in
creased sligntly in order to cut down the possibility of the tool dragging on
the work piece. The practice of having a larger end cutting-edge angle is
also used when machining magnesium.
clearance angle should be gres enough to nrevent the side of

jU clJ_ iron rubbing on the work.In lathe work it should be large enough on
the fees Lae of the tool to allow for the feed helix angle on the shoulder
ui she work. In general, it should be small for hard metals, and a little
larger for soft metals. From 6 deg. to 8 deg. is generally used when cutting
steels, and from 8 deg. to 10 deg. for magnesium and aluminum or other highly
machineabie metals where large feeds are used. Carbide tools have a compound
clearance angle as shown in Fig. 13 to prevent the loading of the diamond fin
ishing wheel with the soft steel shank of the tool.
S T O 9 \ ‘SsT'Enr* cL
i. Ca,
The size of the clearance angle does not influence the cutting action
(unless it is so small that the flank will rub), but it should be as small as
possible to increase the strength and endurance of the tool.

The radius on a tool has a definite influence on the tool life and
on the finish of the part being cut, A large radius will permit higher cut
ting speeds because the tool is much stronger on the nose where the cutting
pressure is received. However, the size of the radius should be considered
for a particular depth of cut. Fig. ih and 15 show the same depth of cut
being taken by tools with different radii. The nose radius of a tool, influ
ences the chip shape. When a nose radius is used on a tool, one edge of the
chip is thinned out: and. the extent of this thinning depends upon the size
of the radius as compared with the depth of cut. Fig. lh shows the chip
shape when a small radius is used, whereas Fig. 15 shows the same depth of
cut with a larger radius. Note the increased amount of thinning of this
chip. Too much thinning of the chip will produce tool wear especially on
carbide tools.
The radius for carbide should be kept small, generally from l/32"
to 3/32". High-speed steel tools utilize somewhat larger radii to produce
a good finish and maintain strength. A large radius on high-speed steel
tools will give a better finish because the feed lines will be smaller. How
ever, too large a radius will sometimes cause chatter because of too much
tool contact and subsequent dragging.
Chip Breakers.
In modern metal cutting, chips are made to break quickly either as

small bits or as very short, tightly curled pieces. Long, curling chips and
long hot chips are a thing of the past, generally.
In order to break chips the safe and efficient way several things
can be done. Feeds, speeds, depths of cut or tool settings can be changed.
There is also another popular and effective way and that is by grinding a
"chip breaker" into the nose of the tool.
The chip breaker, a shallow groove along the cutting edge of the tool,
should have dimensions depending upon the particular job on which it is used.
A chip breaker may work excellently under one set of conditions (speed, feed,

Chi Breakei nnuec
etc.) and yet be un satisfactory under another. This means that if a chip
breaker works well on a job, then the dimensions of the breaker should be
noted and adhered t o for this job. Other jobs will probably require a chip
breaker of another size.
Fig. 16 shows two common shapes for chip breakers with dimensions
within which most chip breakers are ground.
D - D EPTH OP cS.g.QQv'E = E.Qti&u TO PE.E.D UP T O . 0 3 0

t *2.
W= W----------------------
I D T H OP COEOOVE ; F E o ^ ì -\O-, T O i~ D E P E u D I * *
OK) S P E E D U S E D
ÌcSs. i
Single Point Tools for the Engine Laf h e .
The cutting tools that are used on an engine lathe are generally
ground on the end of a tool bit. A tool bit is a piece of tool material
generally 3/l6" to l/2" square and 3 inches or so in length. The size of
the tool bit will vary with the size and kind of work, and the kind of engine
lathe that is used. The nool bit material may also vary from job to job.
TPig. 17 several hinas UOOl DI'
Machine Shop Theory, page 1 o

Single Point Tools fc ;ne £ng 2 continue
'K Gx
,To^.*4 S>4Cx =bQ V^ O ^ x l
F Ot5.rv\ V^CÀKiCb. ~THe.A.^5«KiGx
H = C nì -C- c=s!A^v^4<
\ivivJ>R-U.V vi Gx Tv-VKovs/
F l d . il

Grinding Single Point Tools
The high-speed steel tool bit is

ground on an aluminum oxide wheel, 30
to 60 grain size, 9 grade, vitrified
bond (or similar wheel), operating at
5000 to 6000 S.F.P.M. The wheel
should rotate down against the cutting
edge of the tool. The wheel should be
kept sharp by frequent dressing.
To rough grind a tool bit, start

by shaping the end flank of the tool
bit, utilizing the 15 deg, slope al
ready on the end of the tool. Shape
the side flank next and then the top
face. (See Fig. 18)
Always have the tool in such a position that the wheel will be
rotating against the cutting edge as shown in Fig. 19• When grinding a tool,
always keep it moving to prevent burning or checking, and to give fast grind
ing.

Grinding Single Point Tools
The high-speed steel tool bit is

ground on an aluminum oxide wheel, 30
to 60 grain size, 9 grade, vitrified
bond (or similar wheel), operating at
5000 to 6000 S.F.P.M. The wheel
should rotate down against the cutting
edge of the tool. The wheel should be
kept sharp by frequent dressing.
To rough grind a tool bit, start

by shaping the end flank of the tool
bit, utilizing the 15 deg. slope al
ready on the end of the tool. Shape
the side flank next and then the top
face. (See Fig. 18)
Always have the tool in such a position that the wheel will be
rotating against the cutting edge as shown in Fig. 19- When grinding a tool,
always keep it moving to prevent burning or checking, and to give fast grind
ing.

Grinding Single Point Tools, continued.
The movement consists of

2 motions, rocking and moving
the tool back and forth, as
shown in Fig. 20.
Keep the tool cool by

dipping in coolant. However,
carbide tools should never be
dipped.
To finish grind the tool,

start with the top face and
finish with the front ana side
flanks. This sequence will
give the best cutting edge to
the tool. To complete the
grinding, grind the nose
radius using light pressure.
Keep the proper clearance on
the radius.
The tool should then be stoned to give a finer cutting edge by remov
ing the feather edge and the coarse wheel marks. Fig. 21 shows the proper
method of stoning. The tool should be placed on a solid surface and the
fine grained hand stone moved up and down (held firmly and yet lightly)
against the front or side flanks. Be very careful not to round-over the
cutting edge.

CHAPTER IV
MILLING CUTTERS AND MILLING
Now that the principle of single point tools has been explained, we
can discuss other types of cutters. All of the tools which were illustrated
in the last chapter were lathe tools. Another machine which uses an even
greater variety of cutting tools is the milling machine. All of the various
sizes and shapes can be placed into a few definite groups.
One of the simplest ways of grouping milling cutters is by the relief

or back-off that is ground upon them. This reduces them to three groups:
(l) Profile cutter - relief is obtained by grinding a narrow land

back of the cutting edge on each tooth; this class contains both solid and
inserted tooth cutters such as face mills, end mills, etc.
(2) Shaped profile cutter - these are cutters with irregular or

curved shape; they are sharpened the same as the profile cutter but generally
special equipment is needed.
(3) Formed cutters - the relief on these cutters has the same con
tour as the cutting edge; it is put on when the cutter is made. The grinding
for sharpening is done only on the front face (or rake) of the tooth. As Ion
as the rake angle doesn't change, the contour of the tooth does not change.
When classified by the method of mounting the cutter on the milling

machine, three types of cutters are considered standard:
(1 ) Arbor cutters - these are cutters that, havi:ng a hole thru the
center, can be slid on the arbor and held in position by spacers, and kept
from slipping by a key in the keyway of the arbor and the cutter. (Note: e
properly mounted cutter always has a key. This helps to ; prevent breakage.)
(2) Shank cutters - Milling cutters having either a straight or

tapered shank made in one piece with the body. They are made to be held
directly in the spindle nose or in an adapter.
(3 ) Facing cutters - these are designed to be either attached to the

end of the spindle or to a stub arbor. These cutters always cut in a plane
at right angles to the axis of the spindle.
When classified as to the type of teeth, there are two basic types:
(l) Solid tooth or integral-tooth - the teeth are cut from the
body of the cutter.

Classed as to Type of Teeth; continued.
(2) Inserted-blade or inserted-tooth cutter - these cutters gener

ally have forged steel bodies. The teeth or blades are bolted or clamped
into the slots. These blades are made of high-speed steel, carbon steel,
non-ferrous cutting materials or pieces of steel on which carbide tips are
brazed.
Classification of milling cutters according to the cutting material

employed results in four general groups:
(1) High-Speed Steel

(2) Super High-Speed Steel
(3 ) Cast non-ferrous Cutting Alloys (such as stellite)
(k) Cemented Carbide
These four groups have a property which is used in referring tc the

metal's ability to resist heat treatment which might result from use of the
tool. This is called "red hardness" but actually has nothing to do with the
color red. It simply means the property of a steel to withstand heat while
in use and not lose hardness when it cools.
Machine Shop Theory, page 2k

Red Hardness, continued.
In steels, alloys like tungsten, molybdenum, chromium and vanadium

when properly combined make a steel red hard. In super high-speed steels
alloys have to be used in larger amounts. This makes them very expensive.
A high tungsten steel will remain hard enough to cut while the cutting edge
is up to a dull red temperature or about lOOORF'.
Rake Angle
The rake angle is defined

as the angle formed by the face of
the tooth and a line drawn from
the axis of the cutter to the cut
ting edge. Several factors govern
the rake angle:
(1) Strength of the tooth

(2) Material to be cut
(3 ) Part to be milled -
whether it is a heavy,
thin or weak section.
In practice, rake angles

ranging from 10° to lp° are commonly
used for general purpose work.
The strength of the tooth has to be maintained to prevent breakage.

The rake angle has little effect when milling a brittle material such as cast
iron or brass, but there is a pronounced difference when milling such ductile
materials as soft steel, bronze and aluminum. In the latter group there is
an increase in cutter efficiency as the rake angle is increased. For example,
in some case milling aluminum a rake angle of 35° can be used. When millin
WJ (O
thin sections, a cutter with too much rake has a tendency to "hog in". T’hi
is caused by vibration of the part, thus causing the cutter to take an uneven
depth of cut. In some of these cases a negative rake angle has been found
to be more efficient.
It should be remembered also that a large rake angle tends to lift

the work from the holding device (up milling). If the setup is not rigid, a
"ripple" finish will be produced.
Clearance
The clearance angle or relief angle of a plain milling cutter may be

defined as the angle formed by the "land" in back of the cutting edge and a
line drawn tangent to the circumference of the cutter at the cutting edge.
In face mills, shell end mills, side milling cutters, or any cutter
in which the cutting edge is rotating in a plane parallel to the finished
surface, the clearance angle or relief angle of the side cutting edges of
the teeth are formed by the land, a line drawn from the cutting edge in a
plane at right angles to the cutter axis. This clearance is usually between
one and three degrees but never greater than five degrees. This applies to
the sides of the teeth only.
Clearance, continued.
The "land'' is ground on at an

angle so that there will he no inter
ference between it and the work.
This is called the "primary clearance".
The minimum permissible angle of this
clearance is controlled by the width
cf the land. This is kept, as a
general rule, from 1 /3 2 to i/l6 of an
inch in order that the angle at the
cutting edge may be kept as small as
possible. In back of the primary
clearance there is what is called a
secondary clearance. This is ground
on to keep the heel of the cutter
from rubbing on the work, to give
more chip clearance and to make re-
grinding easier thru the reduction
of material to be ground.
The proper clearance is very important; it is lack of clearance that

causes a good deal of breakage. Too small a clearance angle with too wide a
land along with a high feed will cause the piece to work-harden. Many times
an operator will assume that there are hard spots in the material when in
reality it is the cutter that is at fault. Through lack of clearance a
rubbing a ex-ion is set up which, by putting pressure on the piece, causes it
to become work-hardened. It can be seen that when a cutter lacks sufficient
clearance, material will be trapped between the primary clearance land and
the work surface causing radial pressure on the tooth. This results in
either quick dulling of the cutter or, in many cases, breakage.
Tooth Spacing.
It has been proven that less power is needed to remove a given amount
of metal using a cutter with few teeth, rather than one with a large number
of teeth. In all machining operations the generated heat is the limiting
factor in the speed of the operation. To increase this speed we must have a
way to get rid of the increased heat. We know that most of the heat passes
off thru the chips. If we have a twelve tooth cutter running at a certain
speed and feed, we are going to have so many chips and a certain' amount of
heat generated in a certain length of time. If we reduce the number of teeth
to four and triple the speed, we will get the same number of chips in one-
third of the time. With the four tooth cutter we can increase the feed (from
200 to 300 $>), thus increasing the width of chip at least fifty per cent.
Therefore, with the shorter time for the cut and a larger chip to carry off
more heat we have increased the dissipation of heat.
Also with a large number of teeth there is a good dead, of slipping

action because of the small chip; before there is pressure enough for a
tooth to sink into the metal some have already slipped by, thus generating a
great amount of heat in the piece and the cutter. This heat is mostly at
the cutting edge where it will do the most damage. We must remember that the
thinner the chip is the finer the edge of our tool must be. A properly groan
milling cutter has an edge with about .0005 radius.
Machine Shop Theory, page 2 6

Tooth Spacing, continued.
There are no definite rules for determining the number of teeth in

a cutter because there are many factors to take into consideration, such as:
(l) Thickness of chip desired,, (2) Power available, (3 ) Finish required,
(4) Speed, (5 ) Feed.
One rale that is generally followed is to take the diameter of the

cutter and add two. This rule is used for coarse tooth milling.
Example : If we have an 8" cutter, we should have approximately

10 teeth.
( 8 + 2 = 10)
Speeds.
It is our express intention before getting into the technical ma

terial of this chapter to point out to both apprentices and their instructors
the importance of knowing how to properly calculate feeds and speeds. As we
will continue to mention throughout this volume, production, quality and
earnings stem from the amount of work passing the cutter. Hence it is impor
tant to be able to come close to the ideal speed at first setting-. The only
way to accomplish this is to understand the theory of machining and to know
by heart, the necessary formulas.
We deem this so important that we urge on all apprentices and their

instructors the following:
A. Feeds and speeds should be maximized within the limits

of what the work and equipment will stand and still maintain
safety and quality.
B. We further suggest that when chatter occurs in a tool,

that a higher speed be tried as well as a lower one.
In determining speeds many factors must be taken into consideration:

material to be milled, depth of cut, width of cut, power available, accuracy
and finish desired, type of cutter, material in cutting teeth or blades,
rigidity of the machine, fixture and work, type of cutter set-up and type of
cutting fluid used.
A great percentage of cutter failure may be traced directly to incor

rect cutting speeds. While no fixed rules can be established because of such
a variety of conditions, we do have a general rule -- that the speed should
vary inversely as to the hardness of the material being milled. We know that
increasing the speed increases the amount of heat until it is generated faster
than it can be conducted away. At this stage, the work piece and the cutter
become heated, causing rapid abrasion of the cutter teeth and then breakdown
of the cutting edge if this action is allowed to continue. From this we can
see that over-heating is the limiting factor in establishing cutter speed.
The most efficient cutting speed is one which gives the best compromise be
tween maximum cutter life and maximum production.

Speeds , continued.
In the foil owing tables the figures are conservative; they are given
as a safe starting speed for different conditions. Speeds for finish milling
may be increased as much as 80 to 80 per cent over the recommended speeds for
rough milling. To convert the cutting speed in feet-per-minute to E.P.M .,
the formula is r
R .M. .F.P.M. x 12
dia. x 3.1816
for shop practice use - E.P.M. = S.E.P.M. x 8
aia.
S.F.P.M. - surface feet ner minute
Example
A piece of machine steed o X 1^ X
v •\r jC
f*
_?ci X
lS h-
H r*
4-O be faced to 6" x 8 ”
3-1/2". What E.P.M. would be used? A 3" shell end mill is available.
E.P.M. = 70 x 8
7
E.P.M. = So
E x a m p le :
oi a.luminun stock is to have a groove cut in it 8" long;
’'h" ñí
_l/ e wide ana 3/4" deep. A side milling cutter 6" x 1/2" is available.
What would be the E.P.M.?
E.P.M. = --—
S00 —!
x--8
c
E.P.M. =
. shop practice the E.P.M. should be figured mentally. It isn •t

necessary to figure the E.P.M. to the exact number because we have a liimi ted
selection on the machine. A close approximation will be sufficient.
Machine Shop Theory; page 28

TABLE OF CUTTING SPEEDS.
(Surface Feet Per Minute)
EICS SPEED
STEEL CARBIDE-TIPPED
MATERIAL Rough Finish Rough Finish COOLANT
Cast Iron 50-60 80-110 180-200 350-LOO Dry
Semi-steel ¿AO-50 65-90 lLO -160 25O-3OO Dry
Malleable Iron 80-100 HD -130 25 O-3OO too-500 Soluble, Sulphurized or

Minéral Oil
Cast Steel 1+5-60 70-90 I 5O-I8O 2OO-250 Soluble, Sulphurized,

Mineral or Mineral lard
Oil
Copper 100-150 150-200 6OO 1000 Soluble, Sulphurized or

Mineral lard Oil
Brass 200-300 200-300 600-1000 600-1000 Dry
Bronze 100-150 150-180 600 1000 Soluble, Sulphurized or

Mineral Lard Oil
Aluminum Loo 700 800 1000 Soluble or Sulphurized

Oil, Mineral Oil and
Kerosene
Magnesium 600-800 1000-1500 1000-1500 1000-1500 Dry, Kerosene, Mineral

lard Oil
SAE STEELS.
1020 (coarse 60-80 60-80 300 300 Soluble, Sulphurized
feed) Mineral or Mineral Lard
Oil
1020 (fine ft if 'F
f eed ) 100-120 100-120 L 50 L50
ff ?! f!
1035 75-90 90-120 250 250
?» ft ?!
X-I 315 175-200 I75 -2OO too-500
LT\
0
0
0
0
1
f! !f ?!
IO 5O 60-80 100 200 200
ÎÎ ft ff
2315 90-110 90-110 3OO 300
ft îf ÎÎ
3150 50-60 70-90 200 200
L3 L0 to-50 60-70 200 200 Sulphurized and Mineral
Oils
ft ?! ft
Stainless Steel 60-80 100-120 2 LO-30O 2L0-300
NOTE: Feeds should be as much as the work and equipment will stand,
provided a satisfactory surface finish is obtained.

Feeds.
Production on virtually all machines depends upon the rate that the
work passes the cutter or vice versa. This is known as "feed". All the
factors that must be taken into consideration when determining speeds must
also be taken into consideration when determining feeds. The highest feed
rate that can be attained with economy when using milling cutters is limited
to the lowest rate determined by the following requirements:
(1) The feed rate must not be so high as to load the machine
beyond its rated horsepower.
(2) It mast not be so high as to produce an excessive load on

the teeth of the cutter - for a known material and depth
of cut this load is determined by the feed per tooth.
(3) It must not be so high as to leave the "revolution marks”

too far apart.
In shop practice these are called "feed lines". These feed lines
are determined by the feed per revolution. The following table will give
the permissible feed per tooth for different type cutters on different work
material.
By using the table on the following page, the starting feed in inche
per minute can be determined. For example, a 6 " side milling cutter with 8
teeth is to be used to mill S.A.E. 1020 steel. What will the feed be? The
chip load per tooth as found in the table for this cutter is .007 per tooth
per revolution. This means that if one tooth will remove .007 stock per
revolution, then 8 teeth will remove ,0p6 stock per revolution. If the
cutter runs at a predetermined speed of 66 revolutions per minute, then
66 x .056 will be the amount of stock that will be removed in one minute.
This will be 3*696 inches per minute, or roughly, 3-1/2 inches per minute.
Therefore, to determine the starting feed of a milling job, the following .
formula can be used:
Feed = Chip load per tooth x number of teeth x R.P.M.
NOTE: A general rule for apprentices to keep in mind at all times is

as follows:
Speed and feeds should always be maximized as long as

they are consistent with safety and required finish.

PERMISSIBLE FEED PER TOOTH
For High-Sp¡eed Steel Milling Oatters
Feed per Tooth - In ches

Work Material Face Helical Slotting & End Form
Mills Mills Side Mills Mills Cutters Saws
Aluminum and Soft Bronze 0.022 O.OI7 O.OI3 0.011 0.006 O.OO5
Medium Bronze and Soft

Cast Iron 0.018 O.OI8 0.011 O.OO9 , O .995 O.OO8
Malleable Iron and

Medium Cast Iron O.IOI5 0 .10 12 O.OO9 0.008 O.OO5 O.OO8
SAE X-1112 Steel and

Hard Cast Iron O.OI3 0.010 0.008 0.006 O.OO8 O.OO3
SAE 1020 Steel and

SAE X-I335 Steel 0.011 O.OO9 O.OO7 0.005 O.OO8 O.OO3
SAE IO83 and Cast

Steel O.OO9 O.OO7 O.OO6 0.005 O.OO3 O.OO3
Alloy Steel - Medium 0.008 O.OO6 O.OO5 0.008 O.OO3 0.002
Alloy Steel - Tough O.OO7 O.OO5 O.OO8 0.008 0.002 0.002
Alloy Steel - 25 to 3OO

Brinell O.OO6 O.OO5 O.OO8 0.003 0.002 O.OOI5
Alloy Steel - Hard -

3OO to 360 Brinell O.OO5 O.OO8 O.OO3 0.003 0.002 O.OOI5
Example : Determine proper Speed and Feed for a 5" dia. face mill with
10 high speed teeth,, milling medium Cast Iron.
Sc Hi X 4
R.P.M. =
Dia •
Use 80 SFHi (see table, page 28)
R.P.M.
80 X 8 _ 320 _ 61
5 5
Feed = Feed per tooth x Ho. of teeth x RHi
Use .,018 Feed pe: ■ tooth (see table above)
Feed = .018 x 10 x 68 = 1 1 .5 2 inches per minute.
Machine Shop Theory, page 3 I

Milling operations fall Into two main classes :
(l) Face Milling.
In face milling the cutter face is parallel to the surface being

milled. It is poor practice to "bury" the cutter in the work. By "bury"
we mean using a face mill that is smaller in diameter than the width of the
cut. "Burying" causes a binding action on the cutter which in turn causes
excess nibbing of the ;eeth, consequently mai l for shorter cutter life,
In some cases the cutter will b nd enough to cause it to hog into the work;
thus spoiling the piece and breaking the cutter teeth. By using a cutte;
that is too narrow, it is almost impossible to get a smooth, flat finish
On most operations it is advisable to use a face mill that is about ten per
cent larger in diameter than the width of the cut. A cutter with this much
overhang will be the most efficient. If the cutter is too large, there will
be time wasted in approaching and leaving the cut.
On a rough cut the cutter may be stopped when the leading edge reaches
the end of the work piece, but on a finish cut, to insure flatness, the whole
cutter should be allowed to pass off the work piece.
(2) Peripheral Milling (including slab and form milling).
In peripheral milling the surface being milled is parallel to the

peripheral of the cutter.
In peripheral milling there are two methods used which are the exact
opposite of each other. One method is called "up milling", the other "down"
or "climb milling".
1
CHAPTER V
DRILLS - REAMERS - TAPS

uri11s, continued
Drill Terminology
Snarl - - - - - - - - - - The end of the drill by which it is held and

driven.
Taper S h a d - - - - - - - The tapered s h a d is a means of centering and

holding the drill in the machine.
Straight Shank - - - - - The s h a d is straight and same size as body of

drill.
Body - - - - - - - - - - The fluted portion of the drill.
Flute - - - - - - - - - - The groove to provide cutting edges at the

point, chip passage and lubrication.
Helix - - - - - - - - - - Angle of the flutes to the axis of the drill.
Back Taper or Taper from point to shank to prevent rubbing

Longitudinal Relief - - - while drilling.
Body Clearance - - - - - The difference in diameter between the margin

and the land. It is the relief of the drill
behind the margin.
Margin - - - - - - - - - The narrow cylindrical ground strip along the

edge of the flute.
Web - - - - .......... The metal which separates the flutes.
Point - - - - - - - - - - Entire cone shape surface at the cutting end

of the drill.
Dead Center - - - - - - - The sharp chisel edge at the point of a drill

formed by the intersection of the two properly
ground lips.
Lip Clearance - - - - - - The clearance behind the cutting edge.
Tang - - - - - - - - - - The flattened portion on the end of the shank

to prevent the drill from twisting in the socket,
and to allow removal of drill from socket or
sleeve with a drift.
Drills are sized :in the following ways: by fractions: b y letters

(A thru Z); by numbers (l thru 80); by millimeters (MM). Conversion chart,
are provided by all drill manufacturers•
Machine Shop Theory, page 3^

Drills, continued.
There are several factors which must always be considered when pre
paring a drill bit for use:
Cutting edge relief or lip clearance

Web thickness
3* Sharpness
if. Proper included angle of point
c;• Lip lengths must be equal.
J
Most manufacturers’ stock drills are ground at an included point

angle of 118 degrees and the user regrinds this to his own needs or orders
special drills.
Usually drill grinding is done on a production basis by a drill

grinding machine which also comes equipped with a web thinning device. How-
ever, all journeymen are expected to be able to grind drills free hand with
expert results. Apprentices must master this art early in their careers. A
drill grinding gage should be used to insure lip centrality and proper angles
of point.
A general rule for the included angle of drill points is as follows:

For deep hole drilling of the tougher steels, the point should be flattened
out to near ikO degrees while in the brittle materials like cast iron, the
angle should be steepened to around 90 degrees.
REAMERS
Reamers are secondary or finishing tools and are used, once a hole
has been generated, to produce a highly finished inside diameter oo a very*
close tolerance. Reaming is also used to improve concentricity of stepped
holes when machined with a piloted tool or stepped reamer.
There are two general classes of reamers: hand reamers and machine.
These two classes differ in three respects. (l) The hand reamer generally
has a square to fit into a hand reamer -wrench whereas the machine reamer is
held by a straight or taper shank. (2) The primary cutting edge of the
hand reamer is a taper about 5/8 inches long at the bottom of the reamer.
The primary cutting edge of the machine reamer is a ¿+5 degree chamfer at the
bottom of the reamer. (3 ) The hand reamer is designed to remove less stock
than the machine reamer.
H k N D REMAE.E- REhtnEg

A w ^ c~>

Reamers , continued.
The flutes reamers may be straight, helical c dne same nana as

the teeth, or hell of the opposite hand of the teeth nost reamers have
right hand helix. Straight fluted reamers have a tendency to chatter and tc
cut unevenly and for this reason straight fluted reamers "he re irregularly
spaced teeth to break up and tendency to synchronize slippage and torsional
deflection which is the cause of the chatter. The straight fluted reamer
cuts brittle materials as effectively as the helical fluted type. It can be
substituted at times for a helical fluted reamer if the helical type has a
tendency to feed itself into the work too fast. The straight fluted reamer
allows heavier flov coolant to the cutting edge. It is easier to grind
or hone a straight fluted reamer than it is the helical type.
Helical ¿lutee reamers have a tendency to cut more smoothly than

straight fiuti types -- there is less tendency to chatter and the teeth do
not have to be irregularly spaced. Helical fluted reamers can be used to
ream' holes having an interrupted cut, such as keyways, where it would be im
possible to use the straight fluted type. If helical reamers of the same hand
as the teeth have a tendency to feed into the work too fast, helical reamers
of the opposite hand of the teeth may be substituted. The helical fluted
reamer with the same hand as the teeth is best for ductile materials due to
the increased effective rake angle.
Reamers generally have a slight positive rake due to the shape of the
flute and to helical fating. Helical reamers having flutes of the same hand
as the teeth have definite rake. Straight fluted reamers generally have no
rake or only a slight positive rake. Helical reamers having flutes of oppo
site hand to the teeth generally have negative rake but occasionally this is
increased to radial or to slight positive rake. This type of reamer is de
signed to prevent biting into the work.
On the taper of the hand reamer, the teeth are backed off right up to
the cutting edge, giving positive clearance to the cutting edge removing most
of the stock. The chamfer of the machine reamer, the chief cutting edge of
the tool, is always given clearance.
Above the taper and chamfer of the hand and machine reamers respect
ively, the teeth are not given cutting edge clearance to improve the actual
cutting but to reduce friction and make chip room. There is a narrow circular
margin directly behind the cutting edge, which varies from a few thousandths
up to a thirty second of an inch or more in width.

Reamer Terminology
Reamer. A toe ised for enlax or finishing to size & hole previously
iormea.
Lengths. All measured parallel to the axis.

T T T Overall Length. The extreme length of the complete tool from
end to end, but not includi:
Cb) Flute Length. The cutting ,
/ \
Shank Lengtn « The length f:
cess cxr to the flut es c
(d) Recess Length. The length of the section between the shank
and the flutes.
Size. The diameter measured across two margins, at the cutting edge,
on & diametral line.
Is / Nominal size. The designed size.
(b) Actual size. The actual measured size, usually slightly larger
than the nominal size to allow for wear.
Chamfer. The conical shaped portion at the front or entering end of the
reamer.
(a) Chamfer length. Distance measured parallel to the axis from
the greatest to the smallest diameter of the chamfer.
(b) Chamfer Angle. The angle between the axis and a continuation of
the cutting edge of the chamfer.
(c) Chamfer Relief Angle. The angle between a plane perpendicular
to the axis ana the intersection of the chamfer with the margin.
(d) Chamfer Relief. The relief prat on the chamfer cutting edge to
allow the reamer to cut.
land. The periphery of that portion of the flute length which is not cut
away by the flutes.
(a) Land Width. The distance in a diametral plane between the cut
ting edge and the heel.
(b) (Cutting Edge. The leading edge of the land.
(c) Heel. The following edge of the land.
(d) Core Diameter. The diameter of the largest cylinder which would
not project into the flutes.
(e) Relief. The portion of the land ground away to enable the reamer
to CU o «
(f) Relief Angle. The angle between the relief and a tangent to the
outside diameter circle at the beginning of the relief.
(g) Margin. The cylindrical part of the land adjacent to the cutting
edge.
(h) Rake Amgie. The angle formed between the cutting face and radial
nir /awn to tne cutting ease.
Flute. That portion of the reamer which is cut away between the lands.
Flutes may be either straight or helical. A reamer may have one or
more flutes.
(a) Straight Flutes. The grooves ana lands are parallel to the
axis.
(b) Helical Flutes. (Sometimes called Spiral.) The grooves and
"s form a helical path around the axis.

Reamer Terminology, continued
;e, continued.
(c) Helix Angle. The angle made by the leading edge of the land
with the axis of the reamer.
Shank. That portion between the back end of the flutes and the back end
of
(a) Straight Shank. tank.
square mi bled on the back end.
(b) Squared Shank. A shank having a squ;
(c) Taper Shank, 1 shark: is ground to fit a
taper socket.
; end of’ -r'he shank designed to
assist in driving the reamer.
8 . Starting taper. The slight taper on the front end to facilitate the
reamer entering the hole.
9 . Pilot. A cylinder on the entering end of the reamer to keep the reams
in proper alignment.

laps are cutting tools used to produce internal threads. When usin
W <u
them it should be borne in mind that manuiaccurer will guarantee the sis
of a tapped hole, only the p itooi-p
itself. The size of the hole depends upon many
factors. Some of these ■ctors are the condition and size of the drilled hole,
the equipment being use the material, the operating speed, alignment and
lubri cant.
TATr3 —
Machine Shop Theo: cage 4e

'lei ^2à2£L
Surface Foot Per Minute (S.F.P.M.) - The distance that a rotating tap
travels at a given number of revolutions per minute. This is deter
mined by multiplying the Major Diameter of the tap by 3-l4l6, then
multiplying the result by ohe number of revolutions the tap revolves
in a mxmr and then dividing by 12. Or when expressed in a formula
SEEM = REM >: D
Angle of Threai
bread - The angle of thread is the angle included betweer
sides of ' 1 thready measured in an axial plane.
Axis of Tap - The

! longitudinal central line through the tap.
Base of Thread
vween the two adjacent roots.
Body - The threaded and fluted part of tap.
Chamfer - The tapered outside diameter at the front end of the threaded
section.
Crest or Fiat - The top surface joining the two sides of a thread.
Cutting Race - The front nart of the threaded section of the land.
Depth of Thread - The depth, in profile, is the distance between the top
or crest and the base or root of thread measured perpendicular to the
axis of the tap.
External (Male) Center - Sometimes termed male center and is the cone
shaped end of the lap. It is incorporated for manufacturing purposes
and usually at the threaded end of small taps only.
Elute - The groove providing for the cutting faces of the threads or teeth,
■chip passage and lubrication.
Heel - The back part of the threaded section of the land.
Helix Angle - The angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch dia
meter with a plane perpendicular to the axis.
Hook - The curved undercut of the cutting face of the land.
Internal (Female) Center - Sometimes termed female center and is a small

drilled and countersunk hole at the end of the tap, necessary for
manufacturing purposes.
land - The threaded web between the flutes.
Machine Shop Theory, page 4l

Tap Terminology, continued.
Lead - The distance a thread advances axially in one turn. On a single

thread the lead and pitch are identical; on a double thread the lead
is twice the pitch, etc.
Major Diameter - Commonly known as outside diameter. The diameter of the

threaded section over the full threads measured perpendicular to the
axis.
Mino: 1 Diameter - Commonly known as the "root diameter”, The root diameter
of the full threaded sections or the distance between the two opposite
roots measured perpendicular to the axis.
Number of Threads The number of threads or teeth in one inch of length.
Pitch Diameter - On the full threaded sections the pitch diameter is the
diameter of an imaginary cylinder which would pass through the threads
at such points as to sake the width of thread and the width of the
spaces between the threads at these points equal.
Point Diameter - The outside diameter at the front end of the chamfered
portion.
Radial - The straight cutting face of a land which, if continued, would

pass from the point of the cutting face to the axis.
Rake - The angle of the cutting face of the land in relation to a straight
line from the point of the cutting face to the axis.
Root - The bottom surface joining the sides of two adjacent threads.
Shank - The part behind threaded and fluted section of tap.
Side of Thread - The surface of the thread which connects crest with root,
Square - The squared end of the top shark.
Thread - The cutting tooth of the tap which produces the thread in a
tapped hole.
Thread Relief (Radial) - A clearance providing a gradual decline in the

major, pitch and minor diameters of the lands, back of the cutting
face. This style of relief is applied only to certain sizes and types
of taps.
Taps may be generally classified into the following types :
1. Standard Hand Taps

Taper - Plug - Bottoming
2. Serial Hand Tans

#1 - #2 - #3
Machine Shop Theory, page k2

Types of Taps, continued.
3. Interrupted Thread
k. Collapsible
5 « Machine Taps
6. Taper and Straight Pipe Taps
There are other types of taps also made but since they are not used
in this industry, no further mention will be made of them.
Hand Taps
Eand taps are used for both hand and machine tapping and have
short square end shanks.
Taper, Plug and Bottoming Hand Taps:
These taps are identical in thread and form and size, the
only difference being in the chamfered portion at the point.
The tapered tap is tapered for about seven to ten threads;
The plug tap is tapered for about three to five threads; and
The bottoming tap is tapered for about one thread.
“T A P C P P u o G» 'Ê Æ T T T OWN VO Cs
V'TH'O.
Machine Shop Theory, page 1+3

Taper, Plug and Bottoming Hand Taps, continued.
The taper tap is used for tapping through holes where the length of
the hole does not exceed one and one-half times the diameter. The taper tap
is not suitable for deep holes because the long cutting edge in contact re
quires excessive torque, oftimes resulting in tap breakage.
The plug tap is the type most generally used especially' for machine
tapping. The hole must be deep enough to prevent bottoming, otherwise tap
breakage will result.
The bottoming tap is rarely used except for cutting threads to the
bottom of a blind hole. The short chamfer on a bottoming tap has a tendency
to cut oversize if used alone and it is for this reason that it is used in
conjunction with a plug tap.
In the case of closed or blind holes when tapped to the bottom by

hand, all three taps, taper, plug, and bottoming, should be used in the
order named.
Serial Hand Taps.
These taps are recommended for tapping deep, open or blind holes.
They are similar to Taper, Plug and Bottoming Taps, except that each one
only cuts a portion of the thread.
K io j K iO .Z V4 o 3
'I-n O
J
10*4 Cb
Machine Shop Theory, page it-4

Serial Hand Taps» continued«
Very often in work where accurate threads in blind holes are de
sired, the holes are machine tapped with either a #1, or #2 serial tap and
later, at a bench, hand tapped with a $3 serial tap to give the final size.
Serial hand taps may be identified by rings around the shank near
the square. One ring indicates first rougher, two rings indicate second
rougher and three rings indicate the finishing tap.
Dividing the working strain among the three taps greatly lessens
the possibility of tap breakage, and simplifies the hand tapping of many
difficult jobs.
Machine Shop Theory, page k-5

CHAPTER VI
CHIP CUTTING
A thorough understanding of the following principles assists the

machinist, tool, or diemaker in several ways to solve cutting tool problems.
First, it makes possible the quick visualization of the scope of problems
that can affect M s work. Second, it helps him tc reason which of the
possible causes are the most probable and third, it allows him to visualize
the results of any corrective actions which he may take.
Action based on anything other than these sound principles is nothing

more than trial and error and can prove costly in loss of time and quality.
The basic factors or principles of cutting tool action are simple and easy
to understand. Once the machinist has grasped them thoroughly, a large por
tion of his cutting tool problems will disappear.
The principles presented here will apply to all types of cutting

tools although the single point tool will be used to explain and illustrate
the various principles involved.
Kind of Metal That is Being Machined.
One of the most important factors to be considered when determining

a type of tool sharpening or when choosing a cutting tool, is the kind of
metal that is to be cut. The kind of metal is a major factor influencing
the cutting done by the tool. The property of a metal which will give the
machinist help in determining tool sharpenings, is its ductility or brittle
ness. Briefly, the machinist should think of the metal as being either
brittle or ductile.
If a piece of metal frac

tures as shown in Fig. 1 when
pressure is applied, then this
metal can be classed as being
a brittle metal. Such a metal
breaks cleanly without deforming.
Cast iron is a good example of
a brittle metal. Fig. 2 shows a
lathe tool cutting a piece of
brittle metal. Notice how this
action of the metal being cut
compares with Fig. 1. In both
cases the actions are similar.
When the brittle metal is cut it
is being subjected to pressure
by the cutting tool and it breaks
cleanly, or we may say that it is
Machine Shop Theory, page k j

Kind of Metal Being Machined, continued
a free cutting metal. Semi-

brittle metals and metals
which tend to act brittle are
referred to as clean cutting
or free cutting metals.
Haring machining, brittle BOTAmow of w ofe.

acting metals produce a more
or less discontinuous chip FEED OF TOOL. *
that is brittle and easily-
~— — — - i -Xr.v
broken. r* >
C O M P R E S S IV E ^
When a piece of ductile FO RCE o f t o o l. TO O L
metal is subjected to pres fc ifra v í S T A W t l T T U L ™ _
sure, as shown in Fig. 3* it M ETAL
f
is forced out of shape without
breaking. The ductile metals
tend to be draggy and will go f u l z
out of shape rather than break
cleanly when they are sub
jected to pressure. Aluminum
is an example of a ductile metal.
Kow compare Fig, 3 with

Fig. 4 . In Fig. 4 a lathe
turning tool is exerting pres
sure on a piece of ductile
metal forcing it slightly out
of shape immediately above the
tool prior to the parting of
the chip from the work piece.
This action is similar to the
action shown in Fig. 3 «
Metals which are ductile

or tend to act ductile produce
a continuous chip that is long
and string}’.
All metals possess some

degree of brittleness or duc
tility. Some are brittle,
others are ductile and still
others fall somewhere in be
tween.
Cast iron, magnesium,

free cutting steels, screw
stocks, some brasses and
bronzes are metals of the

Kind of Metal Being Machined, continued.
brittle type while aluminum, zinc, lead, babbit, some brasses, and soft
steels are of' the ductile type.
Next we will discuss a cutting action and see why the degree of
brittleness or ductility should be considered when deciding how to sharpen
a tool.
Built-Up- Edge.
An enlarged view cf a tool cutting a chip showing only the extreme

point of the tool is shown in Fig. 5* The metal which is trapped and com
pressed immediately ahead of the tool face, is called the built-up edge an
is an important factor in deter
mining finish and tool life as well
as the temperature developed dur
ing cutting. This collection of
metal is not ordinarily welded to
the tool but merely rides on top
of the tool. The built-up edge
remains in this position and appear
to be the actual medium for separa
ting the chip from the work. It is
continually gaining metal from the
work and losing portions of itself
to the chip. These portions adhere
to the underside of the chip as
shown in Fig. 6 .
The size of the built-up edge,

or the accumulation between the
tool and chip indicates the charac
ter of the metal being cut. A
large built-up edge is characteristic of a ductile metal. On the contrary,
a brittle metal would show a very small built-up edge or possibly, none at
all.
If the built-up edge be

comes too large in a cutting
operation, fragments of it are
likely to pass between the tool
and the work, adhering to the
work and resulting in a poor
finish.
As the work advances and

the tool cuts, the line of shear
becomes work-hardened. This
work-hardened area is caused by
the movement of metal particles over one another in the bulge aheaa of the
tool pressure. (Fig. 7) This action is similar to the work-hardening of
a piece of metal when it is pounded by a hammer.
Machine Shop Theory, page A9

Built-up Edge, continued.
As the work advances the work

hardens deeper and deeper following
the lower edge of the previously
hardened plane and the work shears
deeper following the lower edge of
the work-hardened region. The deeper
the work shears, the more soft metal
there is above the work-hardened re
gion, until presently the soft area
becomes the line of least resistance
for further shearing. The lifting
effect of the tool on the chip aids
this action of changing the line of
shear from below the work-hardened
region to above it. This process
is repeated rapidly during a cut,
thus giving the finish a saw tooth
effect. (Fig. 8 )
These step-like depressions collect small deposits of the built-edge

in their angular recesses causing an unsatisfactory finish on the work.
There is always some vibration of the tool which will cause momentary
gaps between the work and tool, (Fig. 9) and these momentary gaps also per
mit fragments of the built-up edge to pass on with the work. When the built-
up edge becomes too large, the cutting pressure and temperature become ex
cessive, then the built-up edge welds itself to the tool forming a "bug" on
the tool. (Fig. 10) Therefore, to obtain a good finish, the built-up edge
should be kept as small as possible.
FRAGMENTS OF BUILT-UP EDCE TRA PPED iN

SAW TOOTH OF TH E MACHINED SU R FA C E

A built-up edge is not bene
ficial as far as finish is concerned
but it does affect tool life. A
small built-up edge localizes the
rubbing of the chip against the tool
at a distance away from the cutting
edge. (Fig. 11) A tool which is
cutting a ductile metal first shows
signs of wear at some distance from
the cutting edge where a very min
ute crater will be formed. (Fig 12)
This happens because the built-up
edge has been protecting the cutter
edge. When a tool is used on a
brittle metal such as cast iron,
first signs of wear show on tide
flank and the cutting edge of the
tool because there is no built-up
edge to deflect the chip from the
Controlling the Size of the cutting edge. (Fig. 13)
Built-Up Edge.
As previously stated, a good

finish will result more easily if the
built-up edge is kept to a
minimum size, therefore,
'r'ÆoR.e.w vÆtU V J r\Ç**~C
the size of the built-up
Co !. ‘ l COTT-sisKa
edge must be controlled.
There are several ways by
which the size of the VvycTTAOw
built-up edge may be kept
small, sometimes one will
do the trick but more
often several of these
factors must be considered
for satisfactory results.

.built-up M g e , continued.
A built-up edge is not bene

ficial as far as finish is concerned
R O T A T 1,©»-! RUBBING a c t io n but it does affect tool life. A
O F W ORK. L Û C AUZ-E» H E A R small built-up edge localizes the
rubbing of the chip against the tool
at a distance away from the cutting
edge. (Fig. 11) A tool which is
SK I ALL B u su T- cutting a ductile metal first shows
UP EPkZ signs of wear at some distance from
GIVES LtTTuC the cutting edge where a very min
PROTECTION ute crater will be formed. (Fig 12)
TO CUTTING This happens because the built-up
EDGE edge has been protecting the cutter
S E MI - S R IT rt-£ edge. When a tool is used on a
WO R K PvE.cC brittle metal such as cast iron,
7 F i o ~ OF TÔÔU FKS.lt first signs of wear show on the
flank and the cutting edge of the
tool because there is no built-up
edge to deflect the chip from the
Controlling the Size of the cutting edge. (Fig. 13)
Built-Up Edge.
As previously stated, a good

finish will result more eas Lly tne
built-up edge is kept to a
minimum size, therefore,
the size of the built-up
edge must be controlled.
There are several ways by
which the size of the
built-up edge may be kept
small, sometimes one will
do the trick but more
often several of these
factors must be considered
for satisfactory results.

Rake Anele
The rake angle (slope of the top face of the tool) is an important-
factor in 'the controlling of the size of the built-up edge. Increased rake
(more slope) allows the built-up edge to pass off more rapidly with the chip
thus keeping the size of the built-up edge small. Therefore, when sharpen
ing a tool to be used on a ductile metal where the built-up edge tends to be
large because of the nature of the material, a large rake should he used on
the tool. Metals which are brittle will require a small rake because it is
characteristic of this type of metal to produce a very small built-up edge
as shown in Fig. 14«
This method of determining by types of material whether a large or

small rake angle should be used applies to all types of cutting tools.
Shown in Fig. Ip and Fig. 16 are examples or rake angles on other cutters
as related to the materials they are to cut.

Sharpness and Smoothness,
The sharpness and smoothness of the cutting tool is important. A

roughly ground tool will offer resistance to the flow of the built-up edge
down the rake of the tool. Also* as shown in Fig. 17 and 18, a rough edge
will break down more quickly than a smooth edge. Each of the small projec
tions has very little strength in itself and will break down rapidly, and
throw its previous load to an adjacent projection until finally the whole
edge is gone.
Therefore, to aid better cutting, keep the tool smooth and keen so
that the size of the built-up edge will be as small as possible.
Work Speed.
The work speed is a very important factor in a cutting operation

where a good finish is desired. The size of the built-up edge is directly
affected by the work speed,
thus determining the result
ing finish. A fast work
speed tends to prevent the
growth of the built-up edge,
■while a slow work speed will
produce a large built-up
edge. Therefore, to obtain
smooth finishes the work
speed should be as high as
the material, tools and
machine will permit for
the operation. (Fig. 19)
Low work speeds

produce a torn finish and
decrease the tool life.

Depth of Cuts
The size of the built-

up edge and consequently the
finish is affected by the depth DEPTH OP CUT
of cut, (Fig. 20) A large
depth of cut causes higher
pressure on the cutting tool
because more material is being
deformed ahead of the tool.
This increase in the amount
of deformation ahead of the
tool tends to increase the size
of the built-up edge and gives
a rough finish. This., of
course, is permissible on rough
ing cuts but when a good finish
is desired the size of the
built-up edge must be kept small
by a decrease in the depth of
cut.
Feed.
The feed (Fig. 21),

similar to the depth of cut,
will deform more metal ahead
of the tool if it is too heavy.
Similarly, an increase in tool
pressure will increase the
size of the built-up edge and
produce a poor finish. When a
good finish is desired, a light
feed should be used.
Cutting Fluid.
A cutting fluid will aid the cutting action in two ways, first,
by cooling and second, by lubrication. Any cooling that is received from
the cutting fluid will help to prevent the built-up edge from welding to
gether and welding to the tool to form a "bug'’. Some cutting fluids have
anti-welding materials such as free sulfur added to them to prevent the
"bug" from forming. These cutting fluids tend to help produce goo-d finishes
A cutting fluid may also lubricate the surface where a chip slides
across the tool, thus reducing friction and pressure. A reduction of pres
sure reduces the size of the built-up edge and, therefore, helps to produce
a good finish.
Machine Shop Theory, page

Briefly, the tool factors that will aid the quality of a finish are
1 . Rake
2. Sharpness and keenness of the tool
3. Speed
k. Depth of cut
5* Feed
6 . Cutting fluid
7. Tool rigidity.
on. rigidity of the work piece ana machine

siderei in problems relating to finish«
The application of these factors to a given job rests with the

machinist.
vn

CHAPTER VII
GRINDING THEORY
We have talked at length in this course about single and multiple

point tools and ve have also talked briefly about the other kind of metal
removal tools (grinding wheels). This kind of metal removal is usually re
ferred to as abrasive action or grinding. However, upon closer examination
it becomes apparent that grinding is the cutting action of multitudes of
single point tools (abrasive grains) on the surface of the grinding wheel.
These tools or grains cut tiny individual chips from the work. Understanding
this then, we can also accept the fact that a grinding wheel is another kind
of cutting tool.
The two main types of grinding most frequently encountered by the

toolmaker are: offhand grinding such as tool sharpening and burring, and
precision grinding which the toolmaker accomplishes through the use of the
surface grinder and the cylindrical grinder. The precision grinding of
cutters should also be included here.
It is machines like the surface grinder and the cylindrical grinder

which permit the tool or diemaker to achieve the fine finishes and precise
accuracy which are the hallmarks of his trade.
What Grinding Wheels are Made of.
There are three abrasives which are most commonly used in the metal
cutting industry. The two which are used preponderantly in both production
departments and the toolroom are aluminum oxide and silicon carbide. Grains
of these abrasives are held together in the shape of grinding wheels by
various bonding substances which will be described in this chapter. The
particular arrangement of the bonding substance and the abrasive grains form
what is referred to as structure. Structure can take a variety of forms
such as straight wheels, cup wheels and dish wheels. The third abrasive is
crushed diamond, which is used mostly to grind carbide tools.
Abrasives.
When one chooses a grinding wheel he is choosing, primarily, an

abrasive, so it is important that he know what kind of work it is best suited
for.
Aluminum oxide is first thought of in connection with hardened, high

tensile strength steels and metals of similar properties such as hard bronzes
and wrought iron. It is the most widely-used abrasive in industry. Wheels

Abrasives, continued.
made of aluminum oxide cut with a fast action and hold their form for amaz
ingly long periods. This, of coarse, cuts down on the time spent in dress
ing the wheel.
Silicon carbide is used for softer, low tensile strength materials

such as the lower grades of stainless, brass, copper and aluminum, and cast
iron.
In choosing an abrasive it should be remembered that the objective
is to pick a "wheel whose grains will stay sharp longest.
Grain size:
Numbers which refer to grain size actually refer to the openings

per inch in the screens which are used to sort the grains. Sizes range
from powder up to grains so large that only about ten holes to the linear
inch are required to screen them.
Grinding wheels are also graded and, in this case, grade refers to
the strength of the material (bond) holding the grains together. Bonding
materials serve as fillers and the more that is packed among the grains,
the more compressed and harder the wheel becomes. Hence, grade becomes an
important consideration in choosing a grinding wheel for a particular job.
Bonds :
The most commonly used bonding materials for abrasive wheels are:
shellac; silicate; resinoid; rubber; and vitrified. The last one, vitrified,
is included in the vast majority of grinding wheels used in American industry.
This vitrious material allows porosity coupled with high strength. These
factors help in attaining good finish and the wheels are not materially af
fected by oils, water, or normal variations in shop temperatures.
Shellac bonded wheels are used when extremely high finishes are
desired. Shafts and rolls which are ground to the highest micro-specifica
tions would require shellac bonded wheels.
Rubber bonded wheels are used for cut-off operations and for portable
grinders doing rough burring.
Resinoid bonds are used on wheels which will be operated at high

speeds (9500 to 12000 SFFM). This includes cutter grinding (diamond) and
thread grinding.
Silicate bonds are the least adhesive and let loose of their grains
easier than any of the other bonding materials. They are used where gentle
action and a minimum of heat is required.
As a tool or die maker you will often be required to select the pro
per grinding wheel for jobs which have been assigned to you. While you are
still learning to do this important job correctly, it would be wise to jot
down, each time it occurs, the conditions of the job, namely: the kind of

Bonds, continued.
metal you are going to grind, the type of machine you will use, the finish
called for on the print, ana how large an area of contact you expect to
have. Your task is to then choose a wheel which «111 best satisfy al1 four
of those conditions.
At this stage of your training, it would be best to learn some rules

of thumb which will point you in the right direction. First then to remem
ber is that aluminum oxide is for steel and steel alleys, while silicon
carbide is for cast iron, non-ferrous metals and non-metallic materials.
Most grinding rules are defined in terms of opposites. In choosing a grain
size, use the rule of: fine grain for hard, brittle materials and coarse
grain for soft, easily abraded materials. ¿Iso consider the rule: hard
wheels for soft materials, soft wheels for hard materials.
In adapting a wheel to a type of machine, both grain size and bond

strength are important. What would be a fine grain on a rough grinding
operation would very likely be much too coarse for cutter grinding. The
terms "fine” and "coarse" are quite relative when used in connection with
a snagging wheel as opposed to a cup wheel. Harder, stronger wheels are
used for rough burring (snagging) and softer grades for jobs where precision
is required.
When thinking in terms of finish, the grain size and bond are the
main factors. Fine grains for fine finishes, vitrified bonds for most jobs,
but resinoid, rubber, and shellac for the highest micro-specifications.
In satisfying the area of contact requirement, grade, grain size

and structure are important. Hard wheels for small contact areas and fine
grain sizes. Close spacing of grains works best on small areas of contact.
TYPICAL WHEEL MARKINGS
Analysis of a typical ------ Norton DIAMOND Wheel Marking (D100-N100B l/8 *)
D IO O -N IO O B *
G R U SIZE' BOND MODIFICATION

2k 120 Loos GERADE CONCENTRATION BOND 'TYPE Numeral to designate
36 150 500 Res . Metal Vit. (Low) « 25 B » Resinoid special bond modifi-
ko 18C 500s cation Example .*
60 220 600s HR LP HP (Medium)«» 50 M = Metal Resinoid — 6 and 11.
80 2k0 800s J NR JR
100 32O 1200s L or nr (H igh) - 100 V = Vitrified This symbol may be
100s koo 1500s N N sometimes omitted.
Note: No grade or concentration is shown for Hand Hones

Copyright 19LL by Norton Company *Manufacturer's Identification Symbol.
Analysis of a typical — — Norton (BINDING Wheel Marking (32A48-B3VG)
Copyright l$kk by Norton Company
■^Structure numbers are not always shown in the marking. However, such products may
nevertheless be made to a definite structure.
REPRODUCED BY PERMISSION CF THE NORTON COMPANY

CHAPTER V III
COOIANTS
We mentioned in an earlier chapter that production depends upon how

fast the work travels against the cutter, or vice versa. Coolants are a
powerful factor in helping to determine this rate of speed. Coolants lessen
wear on cutting tools, help to maintain accurate dimensions and are quite
important to the quality of the finish produced.
The most important function of any cutting fluid is that it removes

heat as rapidly as produced by the cutting tools. In order to minimize dis
tortion and hold the work to close tolerances, the cutting fluid must also
keep the work at as nearly a uniform temperature as possible. It is neces
sary to keep the tool cool in order to prevent the point from becoming burnt
and to reduce wear and abrasion which, of course, increases as the tool sof
tens due to increase in temperature. The cooling action of the cutting fluid
also helps to contract the chip causing it to begin to curl and pull itse lf
away from the tool. This action also makes it easier to break the chips.
The heat produced by metal cutting is not only a result of the chip
being tom from the work, but by the friction of the chip moving under high
unit pressure and velocity against the face of the tool. If adhesion occurs
between the chip and the tool edge, a 'built-up edge" is created, thereby
further increasing friction.
When we consider the tremendous pressures existing between the chip

and the face of the tool, and between the cutting edge of the tool and the
work, and the resulting temperatures, it would seem impossible to maintain
a lubrication film-. However, there is considerable evidence to indicate
that lubricating action takes place. For example, in machining operations
where the cutting fluid is applied by a brush and, of course, where the
cooling action of a cutting fluid flowing over the work and the tool is not
present, cutting fluid does prolong the life of the tool and aids in securing
a better finish on the work. The cutting fluid does provide a thin molecular
film between the chip and the face of the tool, and while it probably does
not lubricate in the fu ll sense of the term, that is, it does not entirely
prevent metal to metal contact, it does aid in reducing the friction between
the chip and the tool and in this manner it facilitates the flow of the chip
and reduces power consumption. This is further supported by the fact that
the most effective agents found for reducing the friction between the chip
ana the tool are certain compounds which have great film strength character
istics, such as fatty oils (lard o il, tallow o il, sperm o il, cottonseed
o il, etc.), chemically combined with sulphur and/or chlorine.
It has been determined by experiments that the cutting fluid should

be introduced between the tip or nose of the tool and the workpiece imme
diately below or behind the cutting edge, that is, between the chip and the
Machine Shop Theory, page 6l

tool edge. The microscopic vibrations of the tool provides momentary minute
openings, thru which the cutting fluid is drawn into this high pressure area
by the suction that is produced when the metal breaks away from the work.
By entering at this point the cutting fluid not only reduces the friction
between the chip ana the face of the tool, but lessens the formation of a
built-up edge by also reducing the friction at this point.
The minute size of these openings demands a cutting fluid to be thin

enough (low viscosity) to be drawn into the crack when it opens, yet the
fact that the cutting fluid must adhere to the surfaces of the chips, the
tool, and the work in order to reduce the friction when they rub against
each other, means we must have .an oil of great film strength. In is inadvis
able to use mineral oils of a very low viscosity (kerosene) because of their
low flash point which creates a fire hazard.
If too much material accumulates on the cutting edge, the tool then
pushes and drags with the work rather than shearing, thereby ruining the
finished surface of the work and increases heat generation. It also is
necessary to keep the chip moving smoothly over the edge of the tool in or
der to prevent the periodic seizure and consequent vibration, deflection of
the tool and chatter marks on the work. This not only lengthens tool life,
but it greatly improves the finish of the work.
It is important that a cutting fluid does not cause rust and corro
sion of work. It should leave a thin coat of oil on the work after the
operation is completed.
A cutting fluid should be thin enough and applied with enough pres
sure and volume sc that it washes the chips away from the work and from the
cutting edge of the tool. This helps insure a better finish on the work b e
cause there is less chance of chips getting jammed between the tool and the
work. This is especially to be desired in drilling, reaming and tapping.

Types of Cutting Fluids
lard Oil
One of the first- cutting fluids ip.ec retai cutting or sat;i or was
lard oi. Lard oil wa s e a because it had very great airiness ana produced
a low coefficier oi ?k on even when only a very thin film was available.
It has 3^-:r r or wetting power, JrT Q f -
ty -- W U A Ì J .Ì ¿adc it
used, where a fine finish i= required.
that it becomes rancid and develops

disagreeable odoi conge in cold weather, sludges with use and heat, makes
-P-:. chins will not setxle out, may con-
reclaiming almost impossible because f
tribute to skin trouble, and the cost is very high.
Mineral Oils,
Lght mineral oils can only be used on gobs where the friction
ducing demands are right. Their use is on light metal where .grn
the rule.
The most important cutting iluids compounded mineral oil: These

compounds lave fatty oils added in order to increase the ¡tion-reaucir
value of the mineral oil. The oiliness anc Lng properties of lard, sperm,
tallow and vegetable oils are often desired, but these properties can be ob
tained to a large degree by compounding mineral oils and fatty oils.
The most important types of cutting oil today are mineral-sulphurised

fatty oil compounds. Some sulphur is found in most mineral oils, but addi
tional sulphur is chemically combined with the fatty oil in order to increase
zhe I'riction-reducing action. It has been discovered that the active sulphur
cutting oil is given off gradually by the oil during the cutting opera-
.on Chis sulphur combines with metal of the work, the tool anc
and forms sulphide so the load carrying ability of the compound is gradually
reduced.
Harmful sulphuric compounds are formed by the heat of cutting metaxs.

Experiments have shown that too high a sulphur content deads to duxl coons and
rough finishes. This is particularly true with carbide tools. Excessive ac
tive sulphur also stains most metals.
Chlorine is also added to cutting oi an trie same man and for the
same purpose as sulphur.
Soluble Oils & Pastes.
"Soluble" oil ana soap paste compounds form emulsions with water, b e
cause the cutting oils are formed into an infinite number of small droplets
dispersed throughout the water. The droplets are sc small that they give the
mixture a milky or creamy white color. The oil and water will not emulsify
by themselves. An emulsifying agent, such as soap, that may be soluble on
both oil and water, must be used.

El of Cutting Fluids
la r d 013
On* - of the irst cutting fluids used on metal cutting operations was
lara oil. lard oi.1 was used because it had very great oiliness and produced
a low coef: 'icier of friction even when only a very thin film was available.
it nas very spreading or wetting power. For this reason, it is still
used vnere finish is required.
The disadvantages of lard oil are that it become rancid sard develops
disagreeable odors, congeals in cold weather, sludges wj and her mat:
reclaiming almost impossible because fine chips will not settle out, may con'
tribute to skin trouble, and the cost is very high.
Mineral Oils.
Straight mineral oils can only be used on jobs where the fi a eta on 0 -
ducing demands are light. Their use is on 11gh t metals where light cuts aU¡'■ O
the rule.
The most important cutting fluids are compounded mineral oils. These
compounds have fatty oils added in order to increase the friction-reducing
value of the mineral oil. The oiliness, and we ng properties of lard, sperm,
4L-clJ_LCJvv and vegetable oils are often desired, but these propert: ob-
tained to rge degree by compounding mineral oils and fatty oil:
The most important types of cutting oil today are mineral-sulphurized

fatty oil compounds. Some sulphur is found in most mineral oils, but addi-
-fer.-h-v- oil in order to increase
tional sulphur is chemically combined with the xanxy
the friction-reducing action. It he jeez h e active sulphur
in a cutting oil is given off gradually by the oil during the cutting opera
tion. This sulphur combines with metal of the work, the tool and the chip
and forms a sulphide so the load carrying ability of the compound is gradually
reduced.
Harmful sulphuric compounds are formed by the beat of cutting metals.

Experiments have shown that too high a sulphur content leads to dull coons ana
rough finishes. This is particularly true with carbide tools üxcessivi ac-
tive sulphur also stains most metals.
Chlorine also added tc cut:sing oils in the same manner and for the
same purpose as sulphur.
Soluble Oils & Pastes.
"Soluble" oil and soap paste compounds form emulsions with water, b e
cause the cutting oils are formed into an infinite number of small dropiexs
dispersed throughout the water. The droplexs are sc small thax xney give xne
mixture a milky or creamy white color. The oil ana water wall nox emulsify
by themselves. An emulsifying agent, such as soap, Xhat may be soluble in
both oil and vatei mas oe usee
Shop Theory
Soluble Oils & Pastes, continued.
Water is by far the best cooling agent that can be used., but unfor
tunately water is a poor lubricant, water has a specific heat (ability to
conduct heat) of 1 where most cutting oils, regardless of their viscosity,
have a specific heat of about 0.5, meaning that water conducts heat twice
as fast as oil does.
"Soluble" oil and soap paste compounds are of great value where heat
generation is very high and high grade finish is not required. Most of
these compounds do very little to reduce the friction, ana must be used
chiefly as coolants.
A good "soluble" oil emulsion must be stable, must not turn rancid,
mast not be injurious to men, machines, or work, must be economical by meet
ing the requirements with relatively low emulsion concentration, mast not
promote rusting, mast give good tool life and must not deposit a gum.
Cutting Fluid Selection.
It has been discovered that one surfaces of the work and the tool
are generally covered with films of oils, gases, and oxides. These films
are strongly absorbed into the surface and are not easily removed. Con
sequently, when the cut begins there is a relatively low coefficient of
friction between the chip and the tool. This will mean that no built-up
edge should, be present and the surface of the work will be smooth, but if
the machining is being done in the absence of a suitable cutting fluid, the
tool face will be quickly robbed of this protective film by the sweeping
action of the hot, dry chip passing over it, and metallic contact will occur.
This will cause the coefficient of friction to rise rapidly and seizure will
take place causing a built-up edge, increasing tool wear and a very rough
work surface.
As we have already seen this is not the only need for cutting fluids.
The cooling and rust preventative action of a cutting fluid may be far more
important on certain jobs than the friction-reducing action.
The selection of the proper cutting fluid for a particular job mast
take into consideration the type of metal being machined, the type of machine,
the type and the material of the cutting tools, type of operation, speeds and
feeds, and finally the quantity, finish and accuracy requirements.
In considering cutting fluid selection we shall consider metal cut

ting (such as lathe, miller and drill press operations) and grinding as two
separate fields.
The first thing we shall consider under metal cutting is the type of
material. Average operations on soft, highly ductile steels or high-nickel
alloys require a sulphurized mineral oil to meet the friction-reducing re
quirement . However, high-speed finish cuts on these metals call for lower
percentages of sulphur ana added lard oil or other fats in order to secure
desired finish and to prolong the tool life.
Machine Shop Theory, page 6k

Cutting Fluid Selection, continued.
rougher types of alloy steel also call for a highly sulphurized

E in e r s oil.
Copper base alloys can usually be machined with mineral-lard oil mix
tures , but some of the tough wrought copper alloys need a sulphurized cutting
oil in order to produce a good fi nish and increase tool Although mosi
copper alloys, it is possible to obtain s' .phur-
tain copper
sulphurized oil will stain
ized oils that will not. Water emulsions often bs id on sued one
tions and can be used on castings of this type of metal.
Aluminum is often machined with the aid of an emulsion of water and

"soluble" oil. This is very good except on finish operations, because of
the fact that in roughing operations, cooling is the most important function
of the cutting fluid. In order to obtain a high grade finish on aluminum,
it is necessary to use mineral oil or mineral-lard oil compound.
Magnesium and cast iron are usually cut without the use of cutting
fluids, but in order to obtain a better finish and to prevent magnesium fires,
light mineral oil (mineral seal) or mineral-lard oil compound is used on
finish operations on magnesium.
(Catting fluids containing water must never be used on magnesium.

Magnesium dust moistened by water is highly inflammable and once a fire has
started, water increases the fury of the fire and may cause an explosion.
The type of machine is important because of the fact that on some

machines water emulsions can be very harmful to bearings, ways, etc. because
they thin or replace the lubricating oils and greases.
Certain tools such as broaches, taps and dies require cutting fluids
that reduce friction by clinging to the cutting edges rather than by flowing
over the tool and work. Consequently, a highly sulphurized lard-mineral oil
is used. Deep hole drills require a thin cutting oil that will flow readily
to the point, cool the drill, and force the chips out of the hole. A light
mineral oil or mineral oil thinned with kerosene is usually used with this
type of tool.
Water emulsions of "soluble" oil can be used on carbide tool opera

tions having a cutting speed of over 200 f.p.m., as above this speed cooling,
rather than friction-reduction, is paramount. Below 200 f.p.m. a mineral-
sulphurized lard oil addition should be used, the type ana concentration de
pending on the material of the work and the finish desired.
Finish cuts with high speed tools usually call for a mineral-lard oil
compound.
The forming of the chip and the tendency of formation of a built-up

edge is greatly influenced by the way the tool is designed and ground. When
a certain cutting fluid is preferred for any particular reason and yet does
not give required tool performance, it may be vise to change the tool design
to overcome the trouble.

Cutting Fluid Selection, continued.
T h e type of operation often determines what type cutting fluid

should be used. The length of the cut, the heat conduction of the part, the
chance of distortion, the finish required, and the tolerance allowed often
determines the cutting fluid. When deciding on a cutting fluid it is impor
tant to remember that cooling comes first. Decide whether the operation
needs a water emulsion, light mineral oil, or light mineral-lard-oil mixture
for cooling, a highly sulphurized compounded oil for friction-reduction and
for wetting action and high grade finish. Remember that a water emulsion
should always be used if possible. When in doubt always try this first.
Since water has a specific heat of 1 and the average cutting oil has a speci
fic heat of 0.5, it can be seen that water is twice as good a coolant as oil.
It is also very evident that because of its large percentage of Water, an
emulsion is far cheaper than any cutting oil. When using an emulsion it is
.important to be sure that it contains enough oil to give some degree of lub
rication. If work rusts quickly it will be necessary to use another coolant.
The speed of the tool or the work often governs the choice of a cut
ting fluid. With a low speed and a shallow cut, there is little need for
either cooling or friction-reduction, consequently a cutting fluid will o n l y
be needed to insure a better finish. Any type may be used.
A low speed with a heavy cut calls for a very high friction reducing
value, particularly if the material is tough. A cutting oil of relatively
high viscosity should be used. A high speed with a shallow cut is usually
used for finish operations and a light oil is needed. A mixture of about 10
parts of water to one part "soluble" oil would be used on steel and nickel
alloys when carbide-tipped tools are used. A high speed and a heavy cut
calls for a generous supply of coolant properly placed.
On a great majority of the grinding operations we use water emulsions

of "soluble” oil because of the cooling that is made necessary by the opera
tion. There axe different types of "soluble" oils and soap pastes and they
vary only slightly in results. The proportion of water to oil varies with
the type of operation.
Thread grinding and gear tooth grinding are usually done with grind
ing oils. These oils are usually compounds of sulphurized fatty mineral
oils. They are used because of the high pressure between the work and wheel
to prevent the grinding cracks resulting from the cool water emulsion quench
ing the hot surface being ground.
There are so many companies marketing many different cutting oils

that the selection of a cutting oil would be very difficult if it were done
on the basis of trade name only. Many of the products on the market are
similar and produce comparative results, but they vary widely in cost.
Operators and foremen have "pet” coolants which they choose in pre
ference to other brands. In a large shop this leads to unnecessary dupli ca
tion and expense in purchasing, storage and handling facilities. Recognizing
this condition, some shops have set up specifications for coolant control.
Each specification is giver, a number and sets the standards which the product
must meet. In this manner all cutting fluids in use conform to one of these
specifications.

Patting. Fluid Selection, continued.
Under the control system, when a quantity of oil is needed, the

purchasing department is informed and it then contacts the various vendors
for quotations on oils meeting the specifications. In this way purchases
can be made at the most advantageous price, and duplication is eliminated.
Application of the Fluid to the Tool and Work.
To obtain best results it is necessary to have a constant flow over

the tool and over the point of contact between the tool and the work. The
cutting fluid roust get to the point of action. It must cause a film' over
the tool, the chip, and the surface being machined. A cutting fluid should
never be allowed to splash. A splashing fluid does not cool as well because
of its intermittent contact and it may not get to the point of action. This
is particularly true where close tolerances mast be met. Work pieces often
expand because of heat generated through cutting action and therefore have
to be kept cool. The cutting fluid should be cooled if possible between the
time it passes over the work and the time when it is applied to the work
again. If it does not receive proper cooling in the regular circulating sys
tem, a cooler may have to be added to the line.
The cutting fluid must always be kept clean. This is especially true
with grinding. The grains of metal and abrasive mast settle out of the cut
ting fluid before it returns to the work. It may be necessary to have a fil
ter in the line. A piece of cheese cloth can be used for this purpose. Dirt
cutting fluid means poor finish, work burrs, etc. When a poor finish is ob
tained, check the cleanliness of the fluid. The pressure of a cutting fluid
has little effect. It is the quantity that counts.
On operations, such as milling, where the chips are discontinuous,

it is very important that the flow of the cutting fluid is so directed that
it rapidly washes the chips away from the cutting edges of the tool. This
may require pressure as well as volume. Unless the chips are removed as fast
as they are formed, the surface of the work may be damaged.

CHAPTER IX
SCREW THREADS
A screw thread is defined technically as a ridge of uniform sections

in the form of a helix on the external or internal surface of a cylinder or
in the form of a conical spiral on the external or internal surface of a
cone«, From this definition then we do not think of a screw thread as a ser
ies of grooves cut into a cylinder, but as a series of evenly spaced ridges
would around a cylinder; for example, winding a string around a pencil. The
string would represent the thread»
There are two types of thread ;: external, on the outside cyxxr

de and EL, on the inside of cylinder.
To discuss and understand threads it is necessary to know thread

terminology. The following terms are used in thread practice:
(1) MAJOR DIAMETER - The largest diameter of the thread of the screw
or nut. The term major diameter replaces the term "outside
diameter" as applied to the thread of the nut.
(2) MINOR DIAMETER - The smallest diameter of a screw or nut, This
replaces the term "inside diameter".
(3) PITCH DIAMETER - On a straight screw thread, the diameter of an
imaginary cylinder, the surface of which would pass through the
threads at such points as to make equal the width of the threads
and the width of the spaces cut by the surface of the cylinder.
(a) On a taper screw thread, the diameter, at a given
distance from a reference plane perpendicular to the
axis of an imaginary cone, the surface of which would
pass through the threads at such points as to make
equal the width of the threads and the width of the
spaces cut by the surface of the cone.
NOTE: The pitch diameter is very important because the thread
is measured from it and it controls the class of fit for
the thread»
(¿l) PITCH - The distance from a point on a screw thread to the same
point on the next thread measured parallel to the axis.
Pitch in inches = — — —— — —
Number of threads per inch
(5) IEAD - The distance a screw thread advances axially in one com
plete turn. Theoretically the lead is equal to the pitch on a
single thread screw5
7; on a double-thread screw7 the lead is twice
*
the pitch; on a triple-thread screw the lead is three times the
pitch, etc.

rPnr>, Tentinolo continued*
S C E E .W T H ^ e ^ D T E E rn \ w O L O ^ V
-MfMoE. — 1
------------ P I T C H D ik-
M MOÈ, 0\&,
Machine Shop Theory, 7A

ige f^
Thread. Terminology, continued.
(6j ANGIE OF’ THREAD - The angle included between the sides of the thread
measured in an axial plane.
(?) HALF ANGIE CF THREAD - The angle included between the side of the
thread and a perpendicular to the axis.
(S) HELIX ANGIE - The angle made by the helix of the thread at the pitch
diameter with a plane perpendicular to the axis.
(9 ) CREST - The surface of the thread from which the major diameter is
measured.
(10) ROOT - The surface of the thread from which the minor diameter is
measured.
(11) SIDE OR FLANK - The surface of the thread that connects the crest with
the root.
(12) AXIS - The longitudinal line through the center of the screw.
(it) EASE OF THREAT1 - The bottom section of the thread; the distance between
the two adjacent roots.
(id) DEPTH OF THREAD - The distance between the crest and the root measured
perpendicular to the axis.
(15) NUMBER OF THREADS - Number of threads in one inch of length.
(lo) DEPTH OF ENGAGEMENT - The depth of thread contact of two mated parts,
measured radially.
(17) LENGTH OF ENGAGEMENT - The length of contact of two mated parts, mea
sured axially.
(lb) PITCH LINE - Refer to pitch diameter - one element of the imaginary
cylinder.
(19 ) THICKNESS OF THREAD - The width of the thread measured along the pitch
line.
(20) MEAN AREA - The term "mean area" of a screw, when used in specifications
.and for other purposes, designates the cross-sectional area computed
from the mean cf the basic pitch and minor diameters.
(21) BASIC SIZE - The theoretical or nominal standard size from which all
variations are made.
(22) CREST CLEARANCE - Defined on a screw form as the space between the crest
of a thread and the root of the mating thread.
Allowance and Tolerance.
Tolerance is the amount of variation permitted in the size of a part.

Tolerance, as applied to the hole, is plus; to the screw, minus.
Allowance is the intentional difference in dimensions of two mating

parts; it is the maximum interference or the minimum clearance.
Tolerances on screw threads are figured from the basic pitch diameter.
The allowance is the difference between the minimum pitch diameter of the
nut and the maximum pitch diameter of the screw.
E x . I - Min. P.D. of nut .4500 Ex, 2 - Min. P.D. of nut .AROC

Max. P.D. of screw «4504 Max. P.D. of screw .447b
Allowance - negative .0004 Allowance - positive .0022
From the above examples we see that there is a positive allowance ana a nega
tive allowance. This simply means that if we have a bolt with a pitch diameter

Allowance and Tolerance, continued.
of «9524 and a nut with a P.D. of .9514 the holt is larger than the nut,
therefore, we have interference and, therefore, a negative allowance; but
if the bolt P.D. is smaller than the nut r .D. we have clearance and, there
fore, a positive allowance.
Multiple Threads.
Confusion is often caused by the indefinite designation of multiple-

thread screws (double, triple, quadruple, etc.). The expression "4 threads
per inch, tripie”, for example, is not to be recommended. The right expres-
sion is !fl/4 inch lead, l/l2 pitch, triple thread." To cut this thread the
lathe would b e set to cut four threads per inch, but they would only be cut
to the depth required for twelve threads per inch. This means that there
will be three separate cuts from three different starting points. This is
accomplished by changing the relation between the head spindle and the lead
screw.
If a face plate is being used we can change the location of the dog
lag; however, this can only be done if the number of slots in the face plate
is divisible by the number of the multiple threads wanted. Another method
is to change the relation of the spindle and lead screw by changing the re
lation of the gears to each other in the gear box. For example, if the lead
screw gear has 24 teeth and we want to cut a double thread of 1/8 pitch, we
will first cut a thread of l/4 pitch to the depth of 1/5 pitch. Then by
marking the lead screw gear at the point of contact with the spindle gear,
we can count around twelve teeth and make this new point the point of con
tact with the spindle gear. We will have then changed the relation of the
spindle and the lead screw so that the next- thread will starn just opposite
from the first thread.
Thread Forms.*
1
There are many thread forms but we will discuss only the ones that we
are most likely to contact.
(1) SHARP VEE THREAD - the sides of^

this thread form an angle of 6o°
with each other. The top and
bottom are theoretically sharp,
but in machining it is necessary
to make the thread with a slight
fiat which is usually l/25 of
the pitch.
There is a modified V thread

in use, especially in locomotive
boiler tap work, that has a depth
of .£ X pitch. P = p n c H
D - D £ P T H

Thread Forms, continued.
(2) AMERICAS NATIONAL FORM THREAT' - This form or profile was formerly known
as the UoSc Standard, The system now known as the American Standard
Screw Thread was formerly known as the National Standard and is still
officially designated as the American National Form, retains the symbols
of the National Standard, such as NC, NF. etc. This form has a crest
that is l/8 X pitch.
(3) SQUARE THREAD - This thread was formerly used extensively on adjusting
and power conveying screws.
(a) It is the most efficient thread but is the hardest to machine and
the adjustment for wear is difficult to make.
i
r
7*
2 ^
*
(k) AMERICAN STANDARD GENERAL PURPOSE ACME THREAD - This thread has replaced
the square thread because of the difficulties in machining the square
thread.
(a) It is not as costly as the square thread and the adjustment for
wear can be accomplished by using nuts split lengthwise.

Thread Fc continuea.
(À) American Standard General Purpose Acme Thread, continued.
.010 ADDED TO THE DEPTH FOR

CLEARANCE OF l/lO PITCH THREADS
OF: COARSER. .00/ ADDED TO
FIBER PITCHES.
THE ROOT IS NARROWER THAN THE CREST;

THIS VARIES WITH THE PITCH
This thread is used on feed or lead screws of machine tools to reduce

backlash. It Is used any place where motion is translated, such as desk
chairs, shop stools, piano stools and the like.
o
(5) AMERICAN STANDARD 29° STUB THREAD
.010 ADDED TO THE DEPTH FOR

CLEARANCE OF 1/10 PITCH THREADS
OR COARSER. .00/ ADDED TO
FINER PITCHES.
•"50Q?
THE ROOT IS NARROWER THAN THE CREST;

THIS VARIES WITH THE PITCH.
The root is narrower than the crest.

'This thread is used where a shallow thread desired.
(5) AMERICAN STANDARD 60° STUB THREAD
Machine Shop Theory, page J k

Thread Forms, continued.
(7) 29° WORM THREAD
The worm thread is used for steady transmission of power when a large
reduction in velocity is required, and when applied force must overcome
high resistance to motion.
(8) BUTTRESS THREAD - This thread was designed to resist heavy loads with the
force in one direction.: The flat side has the efficiency of the square
thread and the angle side permits adjustment by means of a split nut.
The pitch of the thread may be the same as for the American Standard or
the Whitworth Standard. According to one rule the pitch P = 2 X screw
diameter - 15- The thread depth may equal 3/^+ X P with a crest of l/8 P
or it can be 2/3 X P with a crest of l/l6 P. The load resisting side, or
straight side, may be inclined from 1 to 5 degrees to avoid cutter inter
ference in milling the thread.
(9) AMERICAN STANDARD PIPE THREAD - This thread is both straight and tapered.
The taper is 3/^" Per foot or l/l6" per inch.
The threads are cut parallel to the axis. To insure tight fitting threads,
the taper has to be correct. This is important, especially, for example, on
an oil line with high pressure.

unread Forms, continued
(lO) AMERICA!;’ STANDARD ROLLED THREADS - This thread was originally made for
use in screw shells of electric sockets and lamp bases. The thread
form is composed of two circular segments tangent to each other and of
equal radii. However, in some uses of this form the radii are of dif
ferent sizes.
Classes of Fits.
There are five classes of fits; the Class V fit is very seldom used and
in many cases is not given in mechanical hand books.
These classes of fits are produced by the application of specific toler

ances to the basic pitch diameter of the thread which is the same for both
internal and external threads of like size and pitch. This means then, that
the pitch diameter will control the class of fit. The tolerances throughout
are applied as plus to the hole, and minus to the bolt.
Class I fit - Loose fit - used in screw work that must be assembled
readily.
Class II fit - Free fit - used in the major portion of interchangeable

screw thread work, finished and semi-finished bolts, nuts, machine screws, etc.
Class III fit - Medium- fit - includes the highest grade of interchange
able screw thread work.
Class II and III fits are used extensively in the Automotive and Aircraft
industries. Class III fit is used only when the fit wanted warrants the extra
expense of making the thread. Class IV fits are used only in cases of special
application of a screw thread; in this class a screw driver and wrench are re-
quired to assemble mating parts.
Class IV fit - Close fit or Selective fit - This is screw thread work
that requires a snug fit. There is interference between the mating parts and
a selective assembly of parts may be necessary.
Class V fit - Wrench fit or Force fit - used mostly for studs that are to
be set in permanently.
American National Form Thread Series.(

)
l
(l) AMERICAN NATIONAL COARSE THREAD SERIES.

To specify a threaded part l" in diameter, 8 .threads per inch,
Class 1 fit. (This is just an example of "one" thread of the coarse
thread series.) This thread is found in general use in engineering work,
machine construction or any use of bolts, screws and nuts where quick and
easy assembly is desired.
A general purpose thread that is used in all cases where there
are no special requirements or conditions.
Symbol: 1" 8 NC - 1
Machine Shop Theory, page j6
American National Form Thread, Series, continued.
(2) AMERICAN NATIONAL FINE THREAD SERIES.

To specify a thread part 1" in diameter, lU threads per inch,
Class k fit. (This is just an example of "one" thread of the fine thread
series.)
Symbol: 1 ” - Ik NF - 1
This thread is used when nuts and holts have to be pulled very
tight or where vibration has a tendency to shake loose a nut or bolt. It
is used where a fine adjustment is needed, such as precision tools. It
is also used viien it is necessary to use a thin nut or when working with
a thin wall section or when a stronger core needs to be maintained in the
body. This thread is in general use in the manufacture of automotive and
aircraft engine parts and in the making of precision tools. Fine threads
are easier to strip or shear off and therefore are not suitable for
thread work on brittle materials.
(3 ) AMERICAN NATIONAL 8-12-16 PITCH SERIES.

To specify a thread - 1-1/2" diamete: 12 threads per inch, Class
3 fit.
Symbol: 1-1/2" - 12 N - 3
This is a series of uniform pitches ' 'oughout a given range of
diameters.
The 8 pitch series has a range of diameters from to 6 ”. This
series is used for cylinder head studs, bolts for high pressure pipe
flanges or any fastening requiring initial tension.
The 12 pitch series has a range of diameters from l/2" to 6".
This series is used in boiler practice and also on thin nuts on shafts
and sleeves.
The 16 pitch series has a range of diameters from 3/V' to A".
This series is used on threaded adjusting collars, bearing retaining nuts
or any application requiring a fine thread.
(4) AMERICAN NATIONAL F0P.M SPECIAL PUCE.

To specify 1 diacene i , — - per inch, C j 3 Thi
sries has a range of diameters for given pitches. In most cases this
thread is used for special application and the pitch diameter is given
on the blueprint. It is also usi id to give a fine thread on a lor.
diameter where a special fit is Jleeded.
Symbol: 1" - 18 NS - 3
(p) AMERICAN NATIONAL FORM EXTRA FINE SERIES.

To specify l" diameter, 20 threads per inch and Class 3 fit.
This series was developed by the U.S. Air Corps but is not extensively
used. It is used mostly on thin walled sections such as thin tubing
where there is excessive vibration.
Symbol: 1" - 20 KEF - 3
(6) AMERICAN NATIONAL TAPER PIPE, THREAD.

To specify I" diameter, H - l / 2 threads per inch.
The taper is ?>/h inches per foot.
The thread is so cut that the thread is at right angles to the
pipe axis. This thread is used where tight connections are wanted, such
as high pressure oil lines, air lines, etc.

American National Form Thread Series, continued.
(6) AMERICAN NATIONAL TAPER PIPE: THREAD, continued.

. threads in these series are designated by the
letters class of fit.
In all National taper pipe thread specifications the first num
ber, such as the 1" in the above specifications, is the inside diameter
of the nipe.
- 11-1/2 KPT
American Standard Machine Screw Thread
This thread has the same profile as the American National Form. They
are •used on diameters under one-half on an inch; are in both coarse and fine
serr es. The major diameter is designated by numbers from 0 to 30, hut because
diamieters above number lb are seldom used, only 0 to lb are carried in stock
by 0,he manufacturers. All others above lb are considered special. The num-
ber "0" represents a diameter of ,060 and in each succeeding number the dia
meter increases .0 13 «
0 = .060 : 1 = .073; 2 = .086; etc.
A. Machine Screw Thread designated 9 - 32 would mean a major diameter
of .177 and 32 threads to the inch. The tolerances of a Machine Screw Thread
conform to the Class II fit of the American National Form.
Methods of Forming Threads.
There are several methods of forming threads. Of these, the most

commonly known are taps and dies. Taps are used for internal threads; dies
for external threads. Both these operations may be done by hand, or by
special machines or plain drill presses as in production. Another method is
cutting threads on a lathe, which is a slow process and is not recommended
for production. This method is generally used for special jobs, such as are
done in tool room work.
ng is done
T h re a d n c j Lth either a single cutter or multiple cutter.
This method is used t good advantage on shoulder work or blind holes; sorns
cases this is the or ly way It is more efficient than the single point tool
and gives a smoother an more accurate finish. This method is advanta-
geously on spanner nuts
The most accurate method of forming.precision threads is by grinding.

In some cases the threads are chased first on a lathe; this is especially
true of pieces with coarse pitches. Grinding is only done when the finish
and fit required are worth the extra expense. Typical of the type of screw
thread work that is ground are thread plug gages.
Measurement of Screw Threads.
The thread micrometer is sometimes usea to measure the pitch diameter

of taps and screws. As it does not give any indication of lead and angle
errors, the reading of a thread micrometer cannot be taken as conclusive

Mes -ement of Screw Three continued.
read Micrometer, continue
Thread Sue iges.
Snap C-ane :
A thread snap gage is generally adjustable, having contact points con

sisting ox (l) cone-pointed anvils, (2 ) wedge shaped prisms with rounded edges,
(5 ) serrated or grooved plates, and (l) grooved or threaded cylinders adjust
ably mounted and correctly spaced in a "U" shaped frame. This type gage is
used on external threads by simply being passed over the work. A thread snap
gage is used preferably as-- 'onot
-— gage. It quickly and accurately checks
threads for error in lead, pitch diameter, form, out-of-roundness and straight-
ness. Because the rolls rotate, binding from chips and dirt is negligible and
wear is held to a minimum. Left-hand and right-hand threads can be checked on
the same gage because the gage rolls being similar there is no interference b e
tween then and. the helix angle. Thread snap gages are adjustable and can be set
to a thread plug gage. After the gage is set it is sealed. The length of the
gage rolls should be approximately the length of the screw thread as this gives
a full check over the length of engagement.

Measurement- of Screv Threads, continued
Thread Ring G-age.
The thread ring gage is extensively used in production. It is usually

made to a setting gage. On production a "go” and "not go" is used. The "go1'
gage should be distinguished from the "not go" gage by having a noticeably
larger chamfer. The end threads should not be chamfered but the first half
turn of the end thread should be flattened to avoid a feather edge. "Not go"
ring gages should check the pitch diameter only. This is done by removing
the crest of the thread and also removing part of the root.
Thread Comparator.
Thread comparators may differ in design. However, they all work on

the same principle which consists of (l) a source of parallel light, (either
a mercury arc or a concentrated filament lamp with condensing lens system),
(2) a projection lens system, (3 ) a screen on which the magnified shadow
image of the work is projected and (4) a holding device to hold the work be
ing checked. The common practice is to have a chart of the thread on it.
This enlarged shadow image when compared with the chart will show up errors.
In addition to giving a rapid indication of whether or not the elements of
the screw lie within the limiting dimensions specified, such instruments fur-
ni sh more detailed information as to errors in thread form, lead and diameter
than do mechanical gages. There have been two comparators designed for in
ternal threads; one is called an "optical coincidence thread gage" arid the
other a "stereoscopic thread gage".
Indicating Gages.
Indicating gages have movable contact points which are set to a set
ting gage and by a system of multiple levers transfers the motion to a dial.
This method is used to show the exact variation of a thread instead of just
showing whether it is within limits as is the case with limit gages. They
are made in a variety of designs; for example, some check just the lead error,
some just the pitch diameter and others check the major and minor diameter at
the same time. They can be made to check the desired dimension.
Thread Plug Gages.
The most practical way of checking threaded holes and nuts is by use
of the thread plug gage. When the threads are to be kept- within specified
limits, a "go" and "not go" gage are used.
The "go" gage should be larger than the "not go" gage to permit ease
of recognition. End threads on thread plug gages should not be chamfered
but the first half turn of the thread should be flattened to prevent a feath
ered edge. Inspection and working thread plug gages should have a groove
from one to four threads in length to collect dirt if any is present when
gaging. The gage should be marked "go" and "not go" and have the maximum and
minimum dimensions marked on the handle. All dimensions should be marked
with at least three decimal places even if the third number is "0".

Measurement of Screw Threads, continued.
Tsner Thread Plug Gage.
Taper thread plug gages are classified as master, reference, inspec

tion and working gages. The master gage is used to check the reference gage;
the reference gage is used to check the working gage; the inspection gage and
the working gage are used to check the product. Taper pipe threads usually
have two gaging notches, one representing the ,!not go" and the other the "go".
On gages having only one notch, a basic size is held when the end of the
thread is flush with the notch. One turn in from this point represents the
maximum size and one turn out the minimum size.
Each gage should be marked to clearly indicate the normal size of the
pipe, number of threads per inch and the proper symbol to devote the thread
form.
Taper Thread Ring Gage.
Taper thread ring gages are also classified as master, reference, in
spection and working gages. In using the ring gage it is screwed up tight by
hand on the part to be checked. The thread is within the permissable toler
ance if the gaging face of the gage is within one turn, either way, of being
flush with the end of the thread. The gage should be clearly marked, indica
ting the normal size of the pipe, number of threads per inch and the proper
symbol to identify the thread form.
Flair. Gage.
The plain gage is used to check the minor diameter of the drilled
hole. A plain ring gage or snap gage is used to check the major diameter of
the screw. They are made as "go" and "not go" gages.
'Gear Tooth Caliper.
A gear tooth caliper is used to check the thickness of the thread..

With this method the depth at which the measurement at the pitch diameter is
to be taken can be controlled.

Measurement of Screw Threads. continued
Three Wire Method.
The most accurate method of measuring the effective or pitch diameter

of a screw thread is by using micrometers and three wires of equal diameter.
This method is extensively used in checking plug gages and other precision
screw threads. The reason for using three wires is to keep the micrometer
perpendicular to the axis, by having two wires on one side and the third
opposite the two. In the middle of the two wires the micrometers will be
kept perpendicular and not at an angle, as would be the case with only two
wires. An ordinary micrometer can be used for this operation.
Wires.
The wires are accurately finished hardened steel cylinders of the

maximum possible hardness without being brittle. The surface has to measure
3 micrometer inches or less. A set of wires must be the same diameter within
,00002 inch and this diameter has to be within .0001 inch of the known best
wire size.
The correct wire size, or "best wire size" as it is called, is one

that lies on the pitch line. This is important, especially in precision
work, because the further the wire is from the pitch line, the more chance
for error because of the helix angle. In measuring over wires the helix
angle Is disregarded because if the best wire size is used, or a size close
to it, the effect of the helix angle at this point is negligible.

TRh FORMULA
In keeping with the teaching technique employed throughout HTDPMA.

courses, we continue to compress experience by emphasizing only those things
most necessary to the success of the beginner, In this chapter we only sug-
gest he learn the formula for best wires.
Later the apprentice will learn to use Machinery's Handbook, and he

will find r.1"t of the formulas in it that apply to his trade. For now we
suggest committing to memory only this necessary one.
Letters used in the folio-wing formula have these designations:
M r~_ measurement over wires
W - wire size
P = pitch-
E = pitch diameter
D = depth
MD .major diameter
TD = tap drill size
N zz number of threads per

The Formula, continued.
To find the best wire size for a thread we have the formula .57735 P
P = pitch
1/2 P X .57735 = AO
.288675 P = AO = radius of wire
2 X .288675 P = -57735 P = dia. of wire

CHAPTER X
MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK
Machinery*s Handbook is more than a text or an encyclopedia. It is

the storehouse for a wealth of practical information to help the machinist
solve his many and varied problems. While it deals with some items of in
terest to the beginner, it is in general highly technical and prepared spe
cifically for the experienced machinist, mechanic, toolmaker and diemaker.
You will note from the table of contents that it is not divided into
chapters, however, similar items have been grouped and identified by thumb
markings on the edge of the book and are of some help in locating these gen
eral areas. If you have a general question or wish to "browse", the table
of contents or the thumb markings would be most helpful. If you have a
specific question, the index will be most useful in locating the answer.
Continuous practice in using the index is indispensable. Footnotes, (*, **,
■f-, 1, 2,) must be given constant consideration.
The book is concerned chiefly with accepted standards of: composition

and strength of materials; structural design; and operations procedure. The
first part of the book you will notice deals with mathematical processes
and tables.
It is not expected that you will memorize the material in this book.
Nor will this course provide instruction in the various phases of machine
work considered in this book. For example, we will look up later the chordal
thickness of a gear tooth. It will not be expected, however, that you mem
orize the answer to the question, nor will we go inuo any detailed discussion
of gear cutting.
It is hoped, on the contrary, that in the process of looking up the

ans-wers to specific questions you will learn:
1. The general types of information found in the book.

2. The procedures involved in locating the answer to a specific
question.
3. The methods of interpreting data in table form.
The usefulness of the book in the solution of actual shop problems.

MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK
Questions and Problems
In completing the following exercises, write the answers and page on

which you found it in the space provided. If additional space is needed,
use the back of the sheet.
1. A taper of 3" per foot is required. What will be the included angle?
2, A standard hex head is to be milled on a 1" bolt. What should be the

width across the flats?
5• A Class 3-A, 1/2"-13 thread is to be ground. What are the pitch

diameter limits?
h. I65 teeth are to be milled on a gear. What circle and movement would
be used on a Cincinnati miller index head?
A part mounted on the index head in a Cincinnati miller must be re-

volved 10 ° 32 ' 12 " . What circle and movement would be used?

Machinery*s Handbook Questions, continued.
6. A 2" shaft is to be ground for a medium f it in its bearing. What is

the maximum allowance between the shaft and its bearing?
?. What is the basic pitch diameter of a 5/8 - 24 U.N.E.F. thread?
8. A 1/4" steel wire spring with 12 coils and a mean diameter of 1-1/4"
is compressed 1". What load is required?
9. What is meant by the "shut height" of a die?
10. What is the total length of a #6 Morse taper sleeve?
11. A hole is to be countersunk to take the head of a 9/l6 fla t head

machine screw. What diameter should it be?

Machinery*s Handbook Questions» continued.
12, A miller is to be set up to take a 2-3/4" diameter arbor-type Woodruff

key-slot cutter. What size arbor will be needed?
13. A 1/4" x 1" Woodruff key is to be set in a shaft. How far should it
project above the surface of the shaft?
14. Give reliable rale for calculai tap drl size,
15, For what is a rotary diamond lap used?
16 . A 20 tooth gear has a diametral pitch of 4, What is the pitch

diameter?

Machinery*s Handbook Questions, continued
1?. What is the setting for a 5±° 38 * angle on a 5" sine bar?
18. What is the width across the wings of a 7/16" wing nut?
19. What is the proper R.P.M. for a 15/16" drill cutting at l60 S.F M.?
20. What is the decimal equivalent of a letter "C" drill?
21. A finish cut is to be milled on a steel casting with a carbide

tooth milling cutter. What S.F.P.M. is recommended?

Machinery1s Handbook Questions, jontmuec
22. What is the chordal thickness of the teeth on a #4 spur gear cutter
having a diametral pitch of 5"?
23. A shell 3" in diameter and 2” long is to be drawn in a die. What

should be the blank size?
24. What is the total length of a 1" shell reamer?
25. A l-l/2" diameter bar of aluminum 27” long weighs how much?
26. A T slot is to be made for a 5/8" T bolt, What is the minimum

diameter of the cutter to be used?

Machinery's Handbook Questions, continued
2?. A bend is to be made in G.R. sheet steel. What is the formula for
figuring the bend allowance?
26. What is the shank size (-number) of a l/2" taper shank drill (Morse
taper)?
29. What is the range in carbon content of the steel commonly used in
die blocks?
30 An American National Standard thread is to be measured over wires,

What is the formula for determining the measurement?
31. Compare the specific gravity of aluminum with that of titanium.

Machinery's Handbook Questions, continued.
32. What cutting fluids are recommended for grinding?
33* Describe a method of laying out angles accurately.
34, A carbon steel shaft is to be tempered at ¿¡-80° F, What color would

it be at this temperature?
35. Dor what are resinoid bond grinding wheels used?
36. What does this weld symbol mean?

Machinery*s Handbook Questions, continued.
77
J (* What force is required to lift a 400 lb, weight with a 5 strand
pulley block?
38. What is the area of trapezoid 16" high and with bases of 19" and 28"?
39* What is the cotangent of bb 2V f r
40. An arc with a 3" radius and a central angle of 113° is to be laid out.
What is the length of the arc?
41 A chord 2.380" long is to be laid out on a 4" diameter circle. What

central angle is subtended?

}fechineryss Handbook Questions, continued.
42. What is the volume of a cone 6" in diameter and 4" high?
43. What is the area of circular disc 37-3/4" in diameter?
44. A wheel 117" in diameter rolls one complete turn. How far does it
travel?
45 . A circle having an area of 3552 sq. in. is to be laid out.

radius will it have?
What
46 . What are the prime factors of 1275?

Machinery* e Handbook Questions, continued.
4?. Find: (Hint: Use table of powers and roots)
,2
(643 Y ,
b, ■rr^rr
S/ 1234 c. —
13 d. (9 e. ( 79 - 5 / 8 )
244
48, What is the width of the head of a 3/4 - 10 T-bolt?
49. What is the O.D. of a round split, adjustable threading die for a
l/2" thread?
A casting is held in place with an 8" strap, one end resting on the
casting, the other end on a block. The bolt is 6" from the casting.
The nut is tightened until there is 50 lbs, pressure on the casting.
What is the pressure on the nut?

Machinery's Handbook Questions, continued
en * The angle between two flat surfaces is to be measured with two round
discs 1/2" in diameter. When the discs are in contact with
both fiat surfaces, their center-to-center distance is 2". What is
the angle between the two surfaces?
52. In order to just clear the surface, how deep would a hole have to be
counter-bored to take the head of a 9/16 cap screw? (hex socket head)
53. It is required to divide the circumference of a 12.250 diameter circle

into 28 equal parts. To what dimension would you set the dividers?

Machinery* s Handbook Questions, continued.
5^. Three holes are drilled in a circular flange on a 12” radius. The
and the three are equally spaced on the basis of 10,
Locate the holes laterally and longitudinally.
55* Locate the information on the following:
a. Slide rule
b. Drawing an ellipse
c. Types of boring bars
d. Types of broaching machines
e. Knurling
f. Types of roller bearings

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MACHINE SHOP THEORY

TOOL DIE AND MACHINIST APPRENTICES

Developed and Edited by

In developing this book of fundamental machine shop theory, the

training principle of compressing experience. Realizing that no apprentice,

most necessary for a basic understanding of shop practices.

You should read each chapter carefully as it is assigned. In most

most worthy of all trades.

The expert technical assistance of the following persons is gratefully

acknowledged: Mr. Harry Hyman, Bureau of Apprenticeship and Training, U. S.

Department of Labor; Mr. George Polansky, Director of Training, Arrow Tool

President - Arrow T o o l ’Co., Inc.

Oiff'IH ''N'F - STEELMAKING............ 1

- T® PROCESSES OF METAL WORKING

CrUmy- THREE - CUTTING TOOLS AND THEIR MATERIALS

CHAPTER F ' 'E - KILLING CUTTERS AND K I L L I N G ____

CHAPTER FIVE - DRILLS, REAMERS AND TAPS - ______ _

Table of Contents, continued.

CHAPTER SIX - CHIP CUTTING - - ------------ - - ........ - - - 1+7

What Happens When a Tool Cuts a Chip

CHAPTER SEVEN - GRINDING THEORY- -------------------- - - - ------- 5?

What Grinding Wheels are Made of

CHAPTER EIGHT - COOLANTS - - --------------- ------------------- 6l

CHAPTER NINE - SCREW THREADS - ------------------------- - _ _______ 69

Terminology - types - forms - formulae

CHAPTER TEN - MACHINERY'S HANDBOOK---- -------- - ------------- Bp

The geographic location of iron ore is important because of weight

Most iron is produced in a blast furnace which is an apparatus for

Machine Shop Theory, page 1

2 tons ore 1 ton iron

1 ton coke i/2 ton slag

h tons preheated air 6 tons waste gas

As the preheated air is blown in through the lower section of the

The Bessemer method Is the simplest and most economical. It uses

Machine Shop Theory, page 2

The Open-Hearth method provides a means of removing objectionable

Wrought iron is still another product of refining. It is merely a

Steel Mill, Foundry and Forge Shop Processes.

Machine Shop Theory, page 3

Several, of the large steel manufacturers are presently experimenting

Forging consists of squeezing or pounding the steel into its desired

The forging process gives a controlled grain flow direction and a

(2) host-wax or Precision Investment casting in which a wax pattern

Machine Shop Theory, page k

(3 ) Die casting, in which the metal is usually limited to special

(if) Centrifugal casting in which the mold is rotated on the periphery

"Steel Making in America" - Fisher

Research also included consultations with technical personnel of

Machine Shop Theory, page 5

TEE PROCESSES OF METAL WORKING

For practical purposes almost all machining can be classified under

Through the years there have been a myriad of variations, adaptations

Machine tools which make use of abrasives are: cylindrical grinders;

The following chart offers a comparison summary of the advantages and

Metallic Tool Machining Abrasive Machining

1. Close tolérance and excellent 1. Close tolerance and excellent

Machine Shop Theory, page 7

Forming may be defined as bringing sheet- metal to a desired shape

Forming may be accomplished by bending, stretching, hammering, twist­

Any method of cold forming, tends to produce a condition in the metal

Common forming methods are:

Hand forming - in which sheet metal is hammered into shape

Press - in which dies are mounted in a hydraulic or even a

Drop hammer - in which dies are mounted in a drop hammer

Forming may be accomplished by bending, stretching, hammering, twist

Stretch forming - applies the principle of stretching or pull

Explosive forming - uses explosive power to save time and tool

(A) Annealing - the process of softening steel and conse

(C) Stabilizing - A process sometimes known as aging. Pur

Cemented carbide, the hardest metal made by man, is a product pro

The shape of a rough turning tool is an important factor in the effi