Running header: PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 1

Public Diplomacy Seminar Research Paper

Name

Institution
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 2

Introduction

Public diplomacy is a tool that governments and leaders can use in addressing terrorism.

It is preventive in nature as it is an alternative to the use of military or the police and, therefore,

ensures that the level of enmity between the perpetrators of terrorism and the victims is reduced.

Importantly, terrorists recruit new members from the general public through the use of

sophisticated messages that are centered around propaganda. As such, public diplomacy should

be structured such that it involves the implementation of measures that directly address the

public in a similar manner as the terrorists plan their propaganda (Seib, 2011). However, for

governments and leaders, the approach should be different. Their communications of terrorist

organizations should focus on truthful assertions since blatantly lying can adversely affect the

states credibility, authority, and effectiveness of the mode of communication used (Maley, 2018).

Importantly, there are dynamics which should be considered since there is a need for

them to be persuasive, multidimensional and integrated. Care should also be taken since the

messages can be formulated poorly and this may result in misinterpretation because they may be

directed at different types of audiences (Maley, 2018). Although political leaders frame their

messages differently, their main motivation is the need to achieve their political objectives within

the international arena. They use public diplomacy to depict their side of the story with regards

to terrorism (Yarchi, 2014). In the early 2000s, the approach that the United States should have

used at that time required it to detail why it was fighting the terrorism and why it was important

for other nations to join its campaign. The government needed to tell the story of the threat that

terrorism had on America’s national security and subsequently come up with foreign policies
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 3

surrounding its war on terrorism that would ensure it received cooperation from other countries

(Peterson, 2002).

Based on this understanding of public diplomacy, this paper seeks to identify how

communications by political leaders are manipulated in accordance with the country’s morals

and beliefs. This is termed as the use of frames. A frame is the packaging of a message such that

when interpreted it portrays a certain explanation of the events that have been highlighted by the

media, such as terrorism. The media can give different accounts of a single event whereby some

aspects are suppressed while others are highlighted. The latter approach is aimed at promoting a

certain way of interpretation, moral evaluation, or treatment by the audience. Besides the media,

the politicians also use frames in order to sway public opinion. Governments also use them in the

international arena in order to depict their identity, explain their approach to situations, and

identify their enemies and allies, among others.

The study will look at four different countries, namely Israel, India, the United Kingdom,

and South Africa. The methodology will involve content analysis which will mainly focus on

looking at news articles, videos, and social media pages with the aim of coming up with data

about the events that happen within these four countries. Additionally, in the study, a quantitative

scale will be developed to measure the terrorism events in these nations. Consequently, an

analysis of the problem, their causes and solutions will be carried out. Notably, the scale

mentioned above will factor information such as the number of terrorist attacks within these

countries which have sparked conversations by political leaders regarding the same and caused

the prosecution of the perpetrators. Ultimately, the study will show how the four nations have
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 4

experienced terrorism and how, through its leaders, they have expressed their opinions on the

subject.

Literature Review

Various developments have resulted from the September 11th terrorist attack in New

York. Firstly, the United States has, over time, invested a vast amount of resources into

counterterrorism in order to ensure that a small group of individuals does not cause major

damage to the nation. Notably, the terrorist attack, which took place during George W. Bush’s

regime led him to declare a war on terror. This came in the form of diplomatic efforts, sanctions,

and military action. Besides the reactive efforts on the part of the government, the attach flared

the emotions of the citizens who consequently became blinded by anger and fear. As such, they

did not have the patience to deal with the root causes of terrorism and deal with it from the

foundational level and not on a reactive basis (Corbin, 2011).

The policies meant to tackle terrorism are categorized into two groups, namely direct

action and defensive approaches. The former entails attacking the terrorist training stations,

freezing assets, retaliating when the terrorists’ sponsor is a sovereign nation, or gathering

information. The latter involves measures such as securing the border and using equipment

which detect weapons and metal. The direct-action approach is considered the most effective and

has been used by the United States and other nations around the world (Corbin, 2011).

For instance, in 2016, the United States’ Senate passed the Justice Against Sponsors of

Terrorism Act (JASTA) which was aimed at removing a country’s sovereign immunity. In this

case, Saudi Arabia was the country in question. The act would subsequently make it possible for
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 5

victims of the attack to sue the Saudi government and get compensation. Notably, JASTA was

not only constrained to Saudi Arabia but also any other country that was found culpable to have

facilitated a terrorist attack in the USA. The Saudi government was against this law stating that it

would set a precedence which would make the existing international justice system which had

existed based on the rule of law turn into the “law of the jungle” (Reuters, 2016).

Notably, the Obama administration was against JASTA and outrightly stated that it

would veto the law. This was based on the premise that it would increase the United States’

vulnerability. According to the White House spokesperson at that time, Josh Earnest, it would

make it possible for other nations to sue the USA under the guise of its involvement in terrorism.

Backers of the legislation, such as Senator Charles Schumer, said that the move by the senate

was aimed at ensuring that the families of the victims held the perpetrators accountable even

though it was a nation (Reuters, 2016).

Other countries have also experienced terrorist attacks. On 7th July 2005, four suicide

bombers carried out a coordinated attack in London killing scores of people and injuring many

more users of the London transport system. As stated earlier, such events cause emotional

reactions whereby the citizens of a given country harbor anger and live with fear. The London

bombings led to an increase in the hate crimes targeted at Asians and Arabs. A study showed that

there was a significantly higher number of cases reported in the 12 months following the 7/7

bombings. Initially, the figures were 27% higher immediately after the incident but this fell to

20% after four months and further down to about 10%. Similar statistics were documented for

the 9/11 attacks (Hanes & Machin, 2014).

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 6

In 2008, 10 gunmen unleashed terror on Mumbai. Over a period of four days, they

attacked a railway station, a religious center, two hotels, a hospital, and a restaurant killing 164

individuals. According to media accounts, Indians described the attacks as their version of 9/11.

Notably, the November 26th attacks greatly affected the efforts to foster peace between India and

Pakistan because it was carried out by a Pakistani group. The two countries had had a territorial

dispute that had soured their relations and there was hope that a lasting solution would be found

through negotiations that had started as far back as the 2000s. However, the attacks increased the

tension (Kugelman, 2018).

Like in the cases mentioned above, the 2008 attacks in India led to an increase in anti-

Muslim and anti-Pakistani rhetoric which constituted hate speech. Importantly, this was a

common phenomenon in the country since politicians used it to advance their cause during

electoral campaigns. According to CNN, the then ruling party was likely to use the attacks in the

elections that were scheduled for 2009. Nonetheless, the terrorist attacks also prompted drastic

changes backed by policymakers. For instance, it led to an improvement in maritime security as

part of the military modernization plan. Legislators proposed and announced this move and it led

to an increase in the number of vessels owned and operated by the coast guard. This was also

accompanied by an improvement of the monitoring system. On the downside, however, the

Mumbai attacks became a model that terrorists would use in subsequent attacks in different parts

of the world. The replicators would attack establishments in small groups. For instance, in 2013,

gunmen attacked a mall in Nairobi (Kugelman, 2018).

The 2013 case on African soil is not the first. In 1998, terrorists bombed US embassies in

Nairobi and Dar es Salam. Subsequently, the mastermind, Khalfan Khamis Mohammed was
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 7

arrested in South Africa where he had sought asylum under a false identity (Bester, 2005). In

Africa, there has been confusion with regards to whether the organized nationalist organizations

and movements that took part in the struggle for independence can be termed as terrorist groups.

Makinda in a 2006 seminar presentation claimed the actions of such groups, for instance,

guerrilla, subversive, and revolutionary wars in addition to insurgency can now be termed as

terrorism. In this regard, terrorist attacks are not new to the continent as they started in the 20th

century during the struggle for independence. In the 1970s, however, foreign elements started

intruding the continent by carrying out attacks. In 1976, an aeroplane destined for Uganda was

hijacked by Palestinians and this was because the Africans had contributed their opinions to the

Israeli-Palestinian conflict (Makinda, 2006).

Subsequent attacks developed from this period leading to rising concerns about the

existence of extremist elements within the borders of African Countries. It was noted in a 2003

study that these groups could develop into terrorist cells which would make the African variant

of terrorism an existing fact. As such, the recommendation was that African countries should

take the matter seriously since it was a threat to the “regions vitality” due to the possible

economic effects (Bester, 2005).

In all these cases, political actors commented on the attacks. An analysis of the framing

of their communication will, therefore, be based on the findings of a study by Yarchi (2014).

This researcher sought to establish the frames that different political actors espouse in the war

against terror. He also probed the influence that differences in the cultural values of the leaders

and a country’s position in the international arena has on how the frames are structured.

Importantly, a topic cannot be accurately interpreted if the focus is not shifted from the
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 8

phenomenon to other aspects such as the cultural setting. This lends credit to the fact that frames

are influenced by social and political factors and context. This present study will borrow from

these assertions and subsequently analyze communications by leaders from the four countries

mentioned above based on the social context. In this case, it entails the culture, rules, and

traditions that the leaders are supposed to follow (independent variables) (Yarchi, 2014).

Notably, Hofstede’s five value dimensions, Schwartz’s seven values, and Inglehart and

Welzel’s axes of values will be used in the analysis. Hofstede’s dimensions include power

distance, individualism, long-term orientation, masculinity/femininity, and uncertainty

avoidance. Schwartz’s seven values are grouped into three scales, namely egalitarianism vs.

hierarchy, mastery vs. harmony, and autonomy vs. conservatism. Lastly, the duo’s axes of values

include self-expression vs. survival and traditional vs. secular rational values (Yarchi, 2014).

Theoretical Framework

The four countries have experienced varying levels of terrorist attacks and this is

summarized in Table 1 below. It shows the number of incidents between 2000 and 2017 and also

includes the number of people killed and injured as a result.

Country Incidents Deaths Injuries

India 8918 9999 18104

United Kingdom 1061 142 1396

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 9

Israel 1173 987 4731

South Africa 130* 83* 114*

Table 1: Summary of Terrorist Incidents, Fatalities, and Injuries by Country between 2000 and

2017 (Roser, Nagdy, & Ritchie, 2018)

*South Africa does not have complete data for all the years between 2000 and 2017. It lacks data

for 2001, 2003,2004, 2005, 2009, 2010, and 2011.

Table 2 below shows the cultural values of the political actors according to an analysis of

the culture and traditions of the countries they represent. This is a summary of the Hofstede’s,

Schwartz’s, and Inglehart’s and Welzel’s value dimensions.

Value India Israel United Kingdom South Africa

Dimension

Power Distance Inequality Equality Equality Inequality

Uncertainty Not avoiding Avoiding Not avoiding Not Avoiding

Avoidance uncertainty uncertainty uncertainty uncertainty

Individualism/ Center of scale Individualism- Individualism Individualism

Collectivism toward toward center of

individualism the scale

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 10

Masculinity/ Masculinity Center of scale Masculinity Masculinity

Femininity toward

Femininity

Long/ Short- Center of scale Short-term Short-term Short-term

term orientation toward long-

term

Conservative/ Intellectual Intellectual Intellectual Intellectual

Intellectual autonomy autonomy – autonomy autonomy

Autonomy toward center of

the scale

Conservatism/ Affective Affective Affective Affective

Affective autonomy autonomy autonomy autonomy

Autonomy

Hierarchy/ Hierarchy Center of scale Center of scale – Hierarchy

Egalitarianism toward toward

Hierarchy egalitarianism

Mastery/ Mastery Mastery Mastery – Mastery

Harmony toward the

center of the

scale
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 11

Traditional/ Rational Rational Rational Rational

Secular

Survival/ Self- Self-expression Center of scale Self-expression Self-expression

expression toward self-

expression

Table 2: Cultural Values (Yarchi, 2014; Hofstede Insights, n.d.)

Methodology

As stated earlier, content analysis will be used to collect data from a small sample

(N=22). Additionally, the messages will be analyzed using Entman’s definition of framing which

is categorized into three parts, namely the problem, the cause, and solution.

Results and Discussion

The United Kingdom (N=6)

Presently, the main concern in the UK is the effect that Brexit will have on national

security. Comments by leaders show that the country will be more vulnerable because leaving

the European Union will limit its access to vital security measures and systems that are only

meant for EU member countries. As such, some political actors are of the view that the

government should strive hard to ensure continual corporation with the EU post-Brexit (Barnes,

2019). Others were of the view that the country should continue applying sanctions against

terrorist organizations even after leaving the EU. This is based on the fact the groups that the UK

considers to carry out terrorism have been defined as such by the EU law (Kerstein, 2019).
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 12

Additionally, following a spate of terrorist attacks that culminated in the London Bridge

attack in 2017, the government announced that it would intensify its counterterrorism efforts.

The main approach was to deal with the Islamist radicalization within the country given that

ISIS, a terrorist group, had claimed it was behind the attack. The government would stifle the

growth of terror cells by restricting the safe environments that they need to grow both on the

internet and on the ground (Erlanger, 2017). Additionally, other leaders claim that increasing the

police presence in the streets would go a long way in improving security. These were sentiments

by leaders in 2015 (BBC, 2015) and 2019 (Gayle, 2019). Nonetheless, some leaders are of the

opinion that the terrorist activities perpetrated in the United States and the UK are due to the

countries’ involvement in the war. For instance, the Iraq war and the attack on Afghanistan

(Simcox, 2018).

As such, according to Entman’s ‘framing definition which contains three elements,

namely problem, cause, and solution, the analysis of communication by political actors in the

UK yields important information. A majority of them are of the opinion that the main problem is

terrorist which is caused by factors such as Brexit, ISIS (radicalization), and the UK’s invasion

of other nations. Also, the solution lies in stifling the efforts of the terrorists to spread their

propaganda with the aim of recruiting new members. The leaders also opine that increasing

police presence in the streets will help improve security.

Israel (N=5)

Palestinians have posed the greatest threat to security in Israel due to their attacks against

soldiers and civilians. A majority of these incidences involve lone attackers who mostly use

kitchen knives although guns and bombs are also common. The president described the attacks
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 13

as “a new kind of terrorism” because it does not conform to the earlier pattern (Eglash, Booth, &

Cameron, 2019). In other cases, the stabbings are carried out by groups with the main aim of

inspiring other terrorists to carry out similar attacks (Gross, 2019). Previously, Hamas was often

behind the attacks in Israel. According to Israeli officials, the organization’s elaborate plans and

network, however, make their attacks easier to foil than those carried out by lone attackers

(Kubovich, 2018).

Besides Hamas, Israeli officials are also conscious of other organizations such as the

Lebanese Hizb Allah and Jabhat al-Nusra, an al-Qaeda affiliate. The current threat is ISIS and

the president has been vocal of the efforts by Mossad, Israel’s intelligence agency, to foil

terrorist plots in different parts of the world (Visser, 2019). It is worth noting that the general

position among the political actors is the fact that the government is determined to promote

conciliation with its neighbors and the Palestinians. Its foreign policy entails preventing hostile

forces from accessing weapons that could threaten the security of Israel and its neighbors. As

such, the government instituted measures that would prevent certain groups in Syria from

possessing the weapons that were once in the custody of the Syrian government prior to the civil

war. As such, in so doing, the country was thwarting the emergence of breeding grounds for

terrorists (Perliger, 2013).

Evidently, the problem includes terrorist organizations such as ISIS, Hamas, and Hizb

Allah in addition to individual Palestinian attackers. The cause of the problem, particularly the

lone wolf attacks, is the Israel’s military occupation of regions considered Palestine (Eglash,

Booth, & Cameron, 2019) and their subsequent attacks on the Palestinian protesters. The solution
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 14

of the problem includes increasing police presence, using the country’s intelligence agency, and

promoting conciliation in other countries.

India (N=6)

According to the scale in Table 1 above, India ranks the highest with regards to the

number of terrorist attacks. As stated earlier, politicians in India use terrorist attacks as a

campaign tool. This was the case as the prime minister, Narendra Modi, sought re-election in

early 2019. Modi appealed to the fear of the Hindu majority through his campaigns which were

centered around detailing the threats posed by the Muslims and Pakistanis in the country

(Gettleman, Goel, & Abi-Habib, 2019; Bal, 2019).). Political actors have always placed the

blame on Pakistan for being the breeding ground for various military groups which then carry

out the attacks in India (Staniland, 2009).

The prime minister also directed his independence message to Pakistan, a country he

accused of sheltering, supporting, and exporting terrorism (PTI, 2019). The military operations in

Kashmir are a reflection of the stance by the Indian government as the main goal is to strip the

area of terrorism (Pokharel, Saifi, & Said-Moorhouse, 2019). It is also worth noting that Pakistan

is privy to the existence of military cells in the country. The Pakistani government claimed that

there were at least 40 suchlike groups. On their part, the Indian political actors were glad because

of this acknowledgement (Haidar & Singh, 2019). In this regard, the problem is Pakistani

militant groups and the reluctance of the Pakistani government to deal with the issue. The cause

is the inadequacy of Indian counterterrorism infrastructure which has ensured that terrorism

continues unchecked. The solution, therefore, lies in addressing the security loopholes in order to

anticipate the attacks and capture the terrorists (Staniland, 2009).

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 15

South Africa (N=5)

South African leaders are often vocal about terrorist attacks occurring in other countries.

For instance, lawmakers collectively condemned the Pulwama attack and recommended that

Pakistan should seek the perpetrators of the strike (Press Trust of India, 2019). Similarly, the

president condoled with Sri Lanka following a series of attacks that led to the death of more than

300 people. He then vowed that the country would work with the United Nations in order to

prioritize the fight against the vice (SA News, 2019). However, the country has also been on the

spot for promoting terrorism through its support of Hamas, an organization that is on the

forefront of carrying out violence in Israel and Palestine (Rubin, 2018). It is worth noting that

there are very few cases of terrorism in South Africa. The government attributes this to the fact

that the country has not declared war on terrorist outfits such as ISIS (Head, 2019). Nonetheless,

the threat is still alive based on the 2018 attacks in Durban (Daniel, 2018).

Due to the rarity of terrorism cases in South Africa, the comments by political actors are

often based on attacks in other countries as a show of solidarity. In this regard, the leaders

acknowledge the existence of extremist groups (problem). Their comments do not, however,

show the cause of the issue. Nonetheless, the solution is in the form of strengthening the United

Nations in the fight against terrorism (SA News, 2019).

Conclusion

Framing has yielded a detailed analysis of the comments by leaders in the four different

countries mentioned above. Most of the leaders note that the problem is the existence of

extremist groups whose members carry out the attacks. The causes include the availability of
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 16

favorable conditions for radicalization. The solutions the leaders give include increasing the

police presence in the streets and strengthening the intelligence agencies among others.

Nonetheless, the underlying conditions vary from one country to another and the comments

given are, therefore, different.

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 17

References

Bal, H. (2019). Opinion | Modi’s Campaign of Fear and Prejudice. Retrieved 17 August 2019,

from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/17/opinion/modi-india-

election.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FTerrorism%20in%20India

Barnes, J. (2019). Boris' Brexit plan could leave UK vulnerable to terror attacks, British EU chief

warns. Retrieved 4 August 2019, from

https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/1157667/Brexit-news-UK-EU-Boris-Johnson-Julian-

King-terror-latest-update

BBC. (2015). Livingstone: Blair to blame for 7/7. Retrieved 4 August 2019, from

https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-34941658

Bester, P. C. (2005). The economic consequences of terrorism: A South African perspective.

Unpublished manuscript, Department of Public Management, Tshwane University of

Technology, Pretoria, South Africa

Corbin, I. (2011). An Empirical Analysis of Terrorism in the Middle East and Africa. Wartburg

College.

Daniel, L. (2018). Durban ‘bomb plot’ links ISIS terrorist threat to South Africa. Retrieved 17

August 2019, from https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/isis-in-south-africa-durban-

bomb-terrorism/
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 18

Eglash, R., Booth, W., & Cameron, D. (2019). ‘A new kind of terrorism’ in Israel. Retrieved 16

August 2019, from https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/world/israel-palestine-

deaths/

Erlanger, S. (2017). After London Attack, Prime Minister Says, ‘Enough Is Enough’. Retrieved 4

August 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/04/world/europe/uk-london-

attacks.html

Gayle, D. (2019). Home secretary Priti Patel criticised over wish for criminals ‘to feel terror’.

Retrieved 4 August 2019, from https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/aug/03/priti-

patel-home-secretary-wants-criminals-to-literally-feel-terror

Gettleman, J., Goel, V., & Abi-Habib, M. (2019). In India’s Election Season, a Bombing

Interrupts Modi’s Slump. Retrieved 17 August 2019, from

https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/11/world/asia/modi-india-

election.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FTerrorism%20in%20India

Gross, J. (2019). Netanyahu: Security forces closing in on terrorists behind deadly stabbing.

Retrieved 16 August 2019, from https://www.timesofisrael.com/netanyahu-security-

forces-closing-in-on-terrorists-behind-deadly-stabbing/

Haidar, S., & Singh, V. (2019). India may move terror funding watchdog over Imran Khan

remark on militants in Pakistan. Retrieved 17 August 2019, from

https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-may-move-terror-funding-watchdog-

over-imran-khan-remark-on-militants-in-pakistan/article28701584.ece
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 19

Hanes, E., & Machin, S. (2014). Hate crime in the wake of terror attacks: Evidence from 7/7 and

9/11. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30(3), 247-267.

Head, T. (2019). Terror threat debated as 100 South Africans return home from "Isis camps."

Retrieved 17 August 2019, from https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/south-african-

isis-members-return-home/

Hofstede Insights. Hofstede Insights. Retrieved 2 August 2019, from https://www.hofstede-

insights.com

Kerstein, B. (2019). UK Minister Confirms Existing Terror Sanctions on Hamas Will Remain in

Place Post-Brexit. Retrieved 8 August 2019, from

https://www.algemeiner.com/2019/07/29/uk-minister-confirms-existing-terror-sanctions-

on-hamas-will-remain-in-place-post-brexit/

Kubovich, Y. (2018). Attempted terror attacks in West Bank on the rise, say Israeli security

officials. Retrieved 17 August 2019, from https://www.haaretz.com/israel-

news/.premium-attempted-terror-attacks-in-west-bank-on-the-rise-say-israeli-security-

officials-1.6729487

Kugelman, M. (2018). The deep legacy of India's 9/11, a decade on. Retrieved 1 August 2019,

from https://edition.cnn.com/2018/11/25/opinions/10-year-anniversary-mumbai-terror-

attacks-intl/index.html

Makinda, S. M. (2006). History and root causes of terrorism in Africa. Understanding Terrorism

in Africa: In Search for an African Voice.

PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 20

Maley, W. (2018). Terrorism, Diplomacy, and State Communications. International Centre for

Counter-Terrorism.

Perliger, A. (2013). Israel’s Response to the Crisis in Syria – Combating Terrorism Center at

West Point. Retrieved 17 August 2019, from https://ctc.usma.edu/israels-response-to-the-

crisis-in-syria/

Peterson, P. G. (2002). Public diplomacy and the war on terrorism. Foreign Aff., 81, 74.

Pokharel, S., Saifi, S., & Said-Moorhouse, L. (2019). Kashmir's autonomy was stripped to free it

from 'terrorism,' Modi says. Retrieved 17 August 2019, from

https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/08/asia/india-modi-kashmir-address-intl/index.html

Press Trust of India. (2019). South African Parliament passes resolution condemning Pulwama

attack, asks Pakistan to find perpetrators of 'dastardly' terror strike - Firstpost. Retrieved

17 August 2019, from https://www.firstpost.com/world/south-african-parliament-passes-

resolution-condemning-pulwama-attack-asks-pakistan-to-find-perpetrators-of-dastardly-

terror-strike-6121791.html

PTI. (2019). Narendra Modi: India will keep exposing those sheltering and exporting terror |

India News - Times of India. Retrieved 17 August 2019, from

https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-will-keep-exposing-those-sheltering-and-

exporting-terror-pm-modi/articleshow/70689494.cms

Reuters. (2016). US Senate passes bill allowing 9/11 victims to sue Saudi Government.

Retrieved 1 August 2019, from https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-05-18/us-senate-

passes-bill-allow-september-11-victims-to-sue-saudis/7423730
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 21

Roser, M., Nagdy, M., & Ritchie, H. (2018). Terrorism. Retrieved 2 August 2019, from

https://ourworldindata.org/terrorism

Rubin, M. (2018). South Africa may become the next big promoter of terrorism and piracy.

Retrieved 17 August 2019, from http://www.aei.org/publication/south-africa-may-

become-the-next-big-promoter-of-terrorism-and-piracy/

SA News. (2019). Cyril Ramaphosa on Sri Lanka attack: "South Africa will prioritise terrorism

at UN." Retrieved 17 August 2019, from https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/cyril-

ramaphosa-sri-lanka-attack-south-africa-prioritise-terrorism-un/

Seib, P. (2011). Public diplomacy, new media, and counterterrorism. CPD Perspective on Public

Diplomacy.

Simcox, R. (2018). Jeremy Corbyn Has a Soft Spot for Extremists. Retrieved 13 August 2019,

from https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/10/03/jeremy-corbyn-has-a-soft-spot-for-extremists-

ira-hamas-hezbollah-britain-labour/

Staniland, P. (2009). Improving India’s Counterterrorism Policy after Mumbai – Combating

Terrorism Center at West Point. Retrieved 17 August 2019, from

https://ctc.usma.edu/improving-indias-counterterrorism-policy-after-mumbai/

Visser, Y. (2019). ANALYSIS: Israel's Increasing Role in the Global War on Terror - Israel

Today. Retrieved 17 August 2019, from https://www.israeltoday.co.il/read/analysis-

israels-increasing-role-in-the-global-war-on-terror/
PUBLIC DIPLOMACY SEMINAR RESEARCH PAPER 22

Yarchi, M. (2014). “Badtime” stories: The frames of terror promoted by political

actors. Democracy and Security, 10(1), 22-51.