J. Vis. Commun. Image R.

20 (2009) 505–510

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

J. Vis. Commun. Image R.

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvci

Fractal image compression based on spatial correlation and hybrid

genetic algorithm
Wang Xing-yuan *, Li Fan-ping, Wang Shu-guo
School of Electronic & Information Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In order to solve the high complexity of the conventional encoding scheme for fractal image compression,
Received 6 March 2007 a spatial correlation hybrid genetic algorithm based on the characteristics of fractal and partitioned iter-
Accepted 4 July 2009 ated function system (PIFS) is proposed in this paper. There are two stages for the algorithm: (1) Make
Available online 21 August 2009
use of spatial correlation in images for both range and domain pool to exploit local optima. (2) Adopt sim-
ulated annealing genetic algorithm (SAGA) to explore the global optima if the local optima are not satis-
Keywords: fied. In order to avoid premature convergence, the algorithm adopt dyadic mutation operator to take
Fractal image compression
place of the traditional one. Experiment results show that the algorithm convergent rapidly. At the pre-
Block coding
PIFS
mise of good quality of the reconstructed image, the algorithm saved the encoding time and obtained
Spatial correlation high compression ratio.
Hybrid genetic algorithm Ó 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Simulated annealing
Neighborhood
Dyadic mutation operator

0. Introduction [9] proposed a kind of neighborhood matching method based on

Fractals exist in nature widely. Fractal images contain few
amount of information, but posses high-level of visual complexity
[1]. At present, fractal image compression has become one of the
most promising encoding technology in the new generation of im-
age compression [2] for its novel idea, high compression ratio and
resolution independence. In 1988, Barnsley [3–5] proposed the
idea of fractal image compression for the first time. Jacquin [6]
bring forward fractal block encoding which has taken a substantive
step in the practice of fractal encoding study. The theoretical basic
of fractal image compression is PIFS, which makes use of the sim-
ilarity of an image between different subimages. For this encoding
method, each range block needs to find a best-matched domain
block from the domain pool. The traditional encoding method,
i.e. full search method must do a large amount of similarity compu-
tations in order to find the best-matched domain block, so it is
time-consuming. Moreover, in order to obtain global optimization,
the absolute positions of the matching blocks have to be recorded
and thus the fractal codes require a large space for saving. Based on
faults just mentioned, the focal aims of fractal image compression
are reducing the encoding time and increasing the compression ra-
tio. So far, some improved approaches have been presented. Fisher
and Wang et al. proposed their classification methods [7,8] based
on the feature of the domain blocks, respectively. Truong et al.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wangxy@dlut.edu.cn (W. Xing-yuan).
spatial correlation which makes use of the information of matched
range blocks and effectively reduced the encoding time.
SAGA is a kind of optimizing algorithm combining the conven-
tional genetic algorithm and simulated annealing algorithm (SAA).
Genetic algorithm (GA) is an adaptive randomization global search
technique mimicking the natural selection and natural genetic
[10,11,15]. In the past, some researchers applied GA to the match-
ing searching problem for fractal image compression, and have re-
ported some results. For example, Vences and Rudomin [12] and
Mitra et al. [13] proposed some search strategies using GA, respec-
tively. Wu et al. [14] proposed a Spatial Correlation Genetic Algo-
rithm (SC-GA), which speeded up the encoding time and
increased compression ratio. In this paper, a fractal image com-
pression algorithm based on spatial correlation and simulated
annealing genetic algorithm is proposed. Results show that pro-
posed algorithm reduced the coding time and retained high com-
pression ratio under the premise of good image quality.
1. Theoretical basics of fractal image compression
The fractal image compression is based on the local self-similar-
ity property and PIFS. The related definitions and theorems are sta-
ted as follows.
Definition 1. Let X be a complete metric space with metric d. A
map w: X ? X is said to be contractive if there exists sð0  s < 1Þ
such that

1047-3203/$ - see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvcir.2009.07.002
506 W. Xing-yuan et al. / J. Vis. Commun. Image R. 20 (2009) 505–510
dðwðxÞ; wðyÞÞ 6 s  dðx; yÞ 8x; y 2 X: ð1Þ
We normally refer to the real numbers of s satisfying Eq. (1) as
the contractivity of w.
Definition 2. An iterated function system (IFS) consists of a com-
plete metric space (X, d) and a series of contractive mappings wn:
X ? X defined on it. The contractivities are sn (n = 1, 2, . . . , N). Usu-
ally an IFS is denoted by {X; wn, n = 1, 2, . . . , N} with contractivity
s = max{sn, n = 1, 2, . . . , N}.
Let metric space X denote a set of N  N gray level images. The
metric is defined as the usual Euclidean distance by regarding the
elements in X as vectors of dimension N  N. Let I be the original
image belonging to X. Our goal is to find a set of transformations
{w1, w2, . . . , wn}, each of which is a restricted function and satisfies
(1), such that the given image I is an approximate attractor. The set
{w1, w2, . . . , wn} is called a PIFS. The following theorem is an
important fact for PIFS.
Theorem 1. Let {w1, w2, . . . , wn} (wi: X ? X) be a PIFS with con-
tractivity s < 1. Then, the transformation W defined by
[
n
W¼ wi ;
i¼1
is a contractive mapping. There exists a unique fixed point such that
A ¼ limn!1 W n ðBÞ, A is a set called attractor of PIFS. Where B is any
set, Wn(B) is the nth iteration of mappings W, and A = W(A).
Theorem 2. Let (X, d) be a complete metric space and I 2 h(X), for a
given small positive real number e > 0, if there exists a PIFS:
{w1, w2, . . . , wn} with contractivity sð0 6 s < 1Þ, and satisfies the fol-
lowing condition:
! exponentially more frequently in the next generation. Schema with
[
N
h I; wi ðIÞ 6 e;
i¼1
we have hðI; AÞ 6 e=ð1  sÞ, where A is the attractor of the PIFS and
h(., .) is the Hausdorff metric, at the meantime, the following inequality
holds for any non-empty compact set B(B 2 X)
hðA; BÞ 6 ð1  sÞ1 hðB; WðBÞÞ:
Collage theorem indicates that for a given image I, if we can
construct a contractive IFS: {X; wn, n = 1, 2, . . . , N} which satisfies
[
N
I ¼ WðIÞ ¼ wi ðIÞ;
i¼1
then after a large number of iterations, an attractor A is generated
which is sufficiently close to the given image I. Generally speaking,
the data size required to store the parameters of W is far less than
that to store the image itself, so we can get higher compression ratio
accordingly. Based on Theorem 1 and Theorem 2, the original image
I is the attractor of contractive transformation W.
For the simplest situation, let I be a given N  N gray level im-
age. The range pool is defined as the set of all non-overlapping
blocks of size B  B, and each of them is denoted by Ri, i.e.
N[
r N r
I¼ Ri ; Ri \ Rj ¼ U; i–j;
i¼1
where Nr = N/B. The domain pool is defined as the set of all possible
blocks of size D  D (D > B), and each of them is denoted by Di. The
domain blocks can be overlapping or non-overlapping with double
size of the range blocks. For each range block, we need to find a
best-matched domain block Di and a contractive mapping wi. In this
way, every range block Ri is denoted by the affine transformation of
its matched domain block. The corresponding contractive mapping
set
N[
r N r
wi
i¼1
for all of the range blocks
N[
r N r
Ri
i¼1
constitute a PIFS and its parameters are the fractal codes for the gi-
ven image I .
2. SAGA
SAGA is a kind of optimizing algorithm combining the conven-
tional genetic algorithm and simulated annealing algorithm. The
related theories of schema theory and the evolutionary computa-
tion are given as follows.
2.1. Schema theorem
Schema theorem is one of the important theorems in GA. A sche-
ma is a string of characters consisting of 1, 0, and a ‘‘do not care”
character , which can both denote 1 and 0. For example, the sche-
ma 1100 means that the center two digits can be either 1 or 0. The
possible four chromosomes are 110000, 110100, 111000 and
111100. Schema is a fixed template describing a subset of chromo-
somes with similarities at certain defined positions. In the mean-
time, chromosomes having the same schema will have similar
information to a certain degree. The schema theorem is list below:
Theorem 3. Short schema with better than average costs occur
worse than average costs occur less frequently in the next generation.
Thus, if a schema is contained in a set of chromosomes which
have better fitness, it will survive in further generations during
evolution of GA. On the other hand, a schema will be eliminated
easily during the evolution of GA if it is contained in a set of chro-
mosomes which have worse fitness. Based on this idea, the genetic
operators in GA will be adaptively designed in order to find a suit-
able domain block and speed up the encoder.
2.2. Evolutionary computation of SAGA
The elementary operations of SAGA include selection, crossover,
mutation, and simulating annealing. The arithmetic flow is as
follows:
(1) Define chromosome formation and fitness function, initial-
ize the evolution generation counter.
(2) Create the initial population.
(3) Evaluate fitness values and test stopping criterion.
(4) Selection, crossover, mutation and simulated annealing
operation.
(5) Evaluate fitness values after simulated annealing algorithm.
(6) Test stopping criterion. If the fitness value satisfies the stop-
ping criterion, then add one to the evolution generation
counter and go to step (4); otherwise record the current
best-matched individual.
The above arithmetic flow shows that at the beginning of the ge-
netic process, the chromosome formation and fitness function are
defined and population is initialized randomly. For the subsequent
evolutionary generations, first evaluate the fitness values of all the
 W. Xing-yuan et al. / J. Vis. Commun. Image R. 20 (2009) 505–510
individuals in the current population and then select parent indi-
viduals into the mating pool from the first half of the chromosomes
with higher fitness values. Usually, two parents are selected from
the mating pool for crossover in order to generate new offspring
controlled by a probability Pc. The mutation operation with proba-
bility Pm is then applied to the offspring to maintain the diversity of
the population and to avoid premature convergence. In the process
of genetic operations, we introduced simulated annealing opera-
tion, which makes the high temperature GA in favor of global large
scale migration, while the low temperature GA in favor of local
small scale movement in optimizing process. With the execution
of evolution, the probability accepting inferior resolution decreases
along with the decreasing temperature, so the searching capability
and efficiency in resolution space of the algorithm are enhanced.
3. Proposed method
The proposed method is implemented in two stages. The first
stage makes full use of spatial correlations in images to exploit lo-
cal optima. It can reduce the searching space of the similar match-
ing domain pool, and shorten the optimal searching time. The
second stage is operated on the whole image to explore more ade-
quate similarities if the local optima are not satisfied. The genetic
parameters such as crossover probability pc and mutation proba-
bility pm are set according to experiments and adjust them on
the basis of fitness value.
Statistical results show that for a given range block
Ri(0 6 i < 1024), the potential quasi-affine matched domain blocks
centralized around its vicinity. Therefore, for a given range block Ri,
the proposed algorithm first makes use of the spatial correlation to
reduce the searching space. The first stage of proposed algorithm is
first exploited so as to reduce the computations needed to find the
satisfactory matched domain blocks. Let Ri be a range block to be
encoded and Fig. 1 depicted its nearby range blocks which are de-
noted as R1, R2, R3, R4. Assume D11 ; D12 ; D13 ; D14 are the corresponding
matched domain blocks matched in the previous time, respec-
tively. The best-matched blocks to the block Ri should be the neigh-
bors of block D11 ; D12 ; D13 ; D14 ; thus we expand the searching of the
best match of block Ri to the nearest k neighbors for Ri. For exam-
ple, D12 is the matched domain block of R2 which is in the horizontal
direction of Ri and we expands the searching space in the horizon-
tal direction to D02 ; D12 ; D22 and D32 as depicted in Fig. 1 and denoted it
by S2. Similarly, D11 ; D13 ; D14 are expanded to S1, S3, S4 according to
their directions. So the searching space of Ri is limited to
S ¼ fS1 ; S2 ; S3 ; S4 g
as depicted in Fig. 1. In this case, the expansion width k is set to be
4, which can be set to other values according to the trade off be-
tween the encoding speed and the bit rate.
Fig. 1. The searching space of the current range block in the first stage.
507
We should notice that some range blocks do not have the neigh-
bors and their extended domain blocks as shown in Fig. 1, such as
the edge blocks of the image. In order to avoid the large similarity
gaps between the local minimum and the global minimum, one
can set an appropriate threshold T according to actual demand.
The threshold T is used to determine whether the second stage will
be invoked, so its value affects both the encoding time and bit rate
(bit per pixel, bpp). When the value of T is larger, the probability of
finding the match domain block will be higher in the first stage. In
this case, the probability of invoking the second stage search is re-
duced. If the local optimum is bigger than T, the second stage of the
algorithm, i.e. global SAGA searching is exploited.
The detailed design of SAGA is summarized as follows:
(1) Chromosome formation: Since the fractal encoding scheme
utilize the PIFS to encode every range block, one takes the
absolute position (tx, ty) of a domain block and the dihedral
transformation d to constitute a chromosome. A chromo-
some is 19 bits in length as shown in Fig. 2, in which 3, 8
and 8 bits are allocated for d and (tx, ty), respectively.
(2) Fitness function: The distance of both range block and sub-
sampled domain block is measured by MSE. The fitness
value is defined as the reciprocal of MSE.
(3) Initial population: Chromosomes are initialized randomly.
(4) Selection: Classify the population as two categories according
to fitness values and select two individuals into the mating
pool to take part in the genetic operation in term of roulette
method.
(5) Crossover: Based on the basis that individuals with better fit-
ness have a rather large probability to find the optimal indi-
vidual between its neighbors, the mating pool constitutes
the first half members of population according to the rank-
ing by their fitness values. Perform uniform crossover on
the selected chromosomes in the mating pool with probabil-
ity pc, the temporary offspring will replace the worse half
chromosomes in the population.
(6) Mutation: In the process of genetic operator design, we use
dyadic mutation operator to take place of the traditional
mutation operator because of its deficiency. The improved
algorithm can effectively avoid premature convergence and
greatly save the time finding the best-matched domain
blocks. Potts et al. [16] hold that premature convergence is
caused by deletion of effective allele. However, crossover
operator does not generate new genes, the aim of selection
strategy is to speed up the convergence of genes, and thus
lead into the decrease of some genes at the special location.
Based on the above reasons, mutation operator must keep
the variety of alleles at the same gene location, which avoid
maximum of the premature convergence. The process of bin-
ary mutation operation can be presented as follows:
Knowing from the execution process of binary mutation operator
that the individuals are complementary in genes after mutation oper-
ating, i.e. if the gene in one individual is ‘‘0”, it must be ‘‘1” in the other
individual at the same gene location. Dyadic mutation operations
guarantee the variety of allele at the same gene location, which speed
up the encoding time and avoid premature convergence.
(7) Simulated annealing operation: Following the genetic muta-
tion operator, if the fitness values of temporary offspring
are bigger than their parent chromosomes, the offspring
508 W. Xing-yuan et al. / J. Vis. Commun. Image R. 20 (2009) 505–510

At the earlier running period of genetic algorithm, since the indi-

Fig. 2. Structure of a chromosome in the second stage; the length is l = ld + lx + ly.
are accepted and regarded as the new population, otherwise,
they are accepted according to Metrolpis acceptance criteria
 
f ðxnþ1 Þ  f ðxn Þ
exp > random½0; 1Þ:
T generation
where xn and xn+1 represent chromosome in the current pop-
ulation and its generated offspring, respectively, Tgeneration is
the annealing temperature corresponding to the generation,
whose value degrade gently along the evolution generation.
vidual difference is great, the generating offspring number is in direct
proportion to its parent’s fitness value when employ classic roulette
method for selection and thus easily lead to premature convergence.
At the later running period of genetic algorithm, the fitness of individ-
uals are almost the same, so the excellent individuals have little
advantage in generating offspring, which makes the population evo-
lution come to a standstill. Based on the following analysis, it is nec-
essary to stretch the fitness value appropriately. At the earlier period
of genetic algorithm, individuals with little interval have almost the
same probability to generate offspring. While at the later period of
genetic algorithm, the value of temperature control parameter de-
crease continuously, stretching effect intensives, therefore, the differ-
ence between individuals becomes greater, which makes the
advantages of excellent individuals much more obvious.
The detailed steps of the proposed improved algorithm are gi-
ven as follows:

Fig. 3. Comparison of reconstructed images between proposed method and some typical methods for fractal image compression. (a) Original image, Lena of size 8  8. (b) Full
search method, time used = 400.73 s, PSNR = 28.84, bit rate = 0.4844. (c) Truong method, time used = 125.32, PSNR = 28.51, bit rate = 0.4013. (d) SC-GA method, time
used = 16.51, PSNR = 27.15, bit rate = 0.3945. (e) Proposed method, time used = 9.15, PSNR = 27.19, bit rate = 0.3999.

Fig. 4. The comparison of generation-to-PSNR of proposed method and SC-GA Fig. 5. The comparison of generation-to-encoding time of proposed method and SC-
method for image Lena. GA method for image Lena.
 W. Xing-yuan et al. / J. Vis. Commun. Image R. 20 (2009) 505–510 509

the domain block instead of the 16-bit absolute position. This will
improve the compression ratio. Let NR and NH denote the number
of range blocks and hit blocks, respectively. For hit blocks, 2 + Bw
bits are required to record the relative positions, where Bw denotes
the number of bits to represent the expansions. Let Bk, Bp and Bq de-
note the number of bits required to represent the orientation, the
contrast and the brightness, respectively. Then the bit rate can be
computed directly in terms of the number of hit blocks as

NH ð1 þ ð2 þ Bw Þ þ Bk þ Bp þ Bq Þ þ ðN R  NH Þð1 þ Bk þ Bp þ Bq Þ
bpp ¼ ;
NTP

where NTP is the total number of pixels in the image. Note that one
bit is required to indicate if the block is a hit block.

4. Experimental results

Fig. 6. The comparison of bpp-to-PSNR of proposed method, SC-GA method and
Truong method for image Lena.
(1) Let j = 0.
(2) Define the searching space S as depicted in Fig. 1.
(3) Perform the first stage of the proposed algorithm on rj. Let
ðjÞ
ds be the best-matched block in this stage. If its fitness value
is bigger than the predefined value, record the fractal code
and go to step (5).
(4) Perform the second stage of the proposed algorithm on rj. Let
ðjÞ
df be the best-matched block in this stage. If its fitness value
is bigger than the predefined value, record the fractal code.
ðjÞ ðjÞ
Otherwise, compare the fitness value of ds and df , and take
the better chromosome as the fractal code.
(5) Let j = j + 1, If j is equal to 1024, then stop, otherwise go to
step (2).
In step (2), since the range blocks located at the first row, the
first column, the last row, and the last column do not have the
neighbors as shown in Fig. 1, the first stage of the proposed algo-
rithm is not performed on these blocks.
If the fractal codes come from the second stage, the absolute po-
sition is recoded, the structure of the chromosome as shown in
Fig. 2 which need 19 bits to store a chromosome. However, if the
fractal codes come from the first stage, the range block rj is called
‘‘hit” block, which indicates that the local optima can satisfy the de-
mand. For a hit block, fewer bits are required to record the offset of
The image Lena, Pepper, Baboon and Zelda are tested to demon-
strate the speed up rate, bit rate and reconstructed image quality of
proposed method. For a given image of size 256  256, the sizes of
range block are chosen to be 8  8 and 4  4. The population size in
SAGA of the second stage is 180. For both the first and second
stage, the crossover rate is 0.6 and the mutation rate can be ad-
justed between 0.01 and 0.07 according to the evolution genera-
tion counter. The software simulation is done using Visual C++
on a Celeron 2.66G Windows XP PC.
As an illustrative example, Fig. 3 shows the results of recon-
structed images by proposed method in compression to full search
method, Truong method [9] and SC-GA method [14]. Fig. 3(a) is the
original Lena image. Fig. 3(b)–(e) shows the difference between the
reconstructed image and the original Lena image using full search
method, Truong method, SC-GA method and the proposed method,
respectively. Some comparative results between the proposed
method and SC-GA method are shown in Figs. 4–6 for Lena image
and the range block size is 8  8. In this simulation, the size of pop-
ulation is 180 and the number of generation is 15 and the thresh-
old is 50. In the comparison, the proposed method is superior to
SC-GA method in the view of encoding time versus the number
of generations and the reconstructed image quality (PSNR) varied
in a relatively small scope.
Tables 1 and 2 show the results of the proposed method in com-
parison to some typical fractal image compression methods using
range block of 8  8 and 4  4. It is obviously that our proposed
algorithm is faster than the full search algorithm, Truong’s algo-
rithm and SC-GA algorithm. Take 8  8 range blocks for example,
in comparison to full search method, the retrieved image quality

Table 1
The comparison of some fractal image compression methods with range block size 8  8.

Testing images Method PSNR Time (s) Hit blocks bpp Speed-up rate
Lena Full search method 28.84 400.73 0 0.4844 1
Truong method 28.51 135.32 539 0.4013 2.96
SC-GA method 27.15 16.51 576 0.3945 24.27
Proposed method 27.19 9.15 596 0.3908 43.19
Pepper Full search method 28.92 396.21 0 0.4844 1
Truong method 28.01 186.09 554 0.3985 2.12
SC-GA method 27.83 17.33 599 0.3902 22.86
Proposed method 27.85 10.96 628 0.3850 36.15
Zelda Full search method 30.08 392.61 0 0.4844 1
Truong method 29.73 149.30 679 0.3756 2.62
SC-GA method 28.85 15.32 701 0.3716 25.62
Proposed method 29.01 9.13 717 0.3687 43.00
Baboon Full search method 20.53 383.27 0 0.4844 1
Truong method 20.51 298.97 101 0.4815 1.28
SC-GA method 20.01 19.43 197 0.4639 19.72
Proposed method 20.43 14.18 201 0.4631 27.02
510 W. Xing-yuan et al. / J. Vis. Commun. Image R. 20 (2009) 505–510

Table 2
The comparison of some fractal image compression methods with range block size 4  4.

Testing images Method PSNR Time (s) Hit blocks bpp Speed-up rate
Lena Full search method 34.13 499.36 0 1.9375 1
Truong method 33.37 107.79 3167 1.4201 4.63
SC-GA method 31.85 14.01 3295 1.3966 35.64
Proposed method 32.08 6.87 3337 1.3889 72.68
Pepper Full search method 34.07 586.43 0 1.9375 1
Truong method 32.13 131.84 3051 1.4413 4.44
SC-GA method 30.14 14.83 3172 1.4191 39.54
Proposed method 31.03 9.65 3269 1.4014 60.76
Zelda Full search method 36.43 583.79 0 1.9375 1
Truong method 33.14 96.03 3336 1.3891 6.07
SC-GA method 31.21 14.11 3573 1.3457 41.37
Proposed method 31.99 6.23 3711 1.3204 93.70
Baboon Full search method 22.82 581.23 0 1.9375 1
Truong method 21.79 401.28 892 1.8366 1.44
SC-GA method 20.08 21.52 913 1.8328 27.00
Proposed method 21.64 16.48 1083 1.8016 35.26

reduced 0.97 dB in average, while the encoding speed up 22.93
times in average and the bit rate is improved about 20% in average.
Compared to Truong algorithm, the encoding speed is nearly 18
times faster with only 0.57 dB degrade of image quality in average.
Compared to SC-GA algorithm, the encoding speed of the proposed
method is two times faster while the qualities of the reconstructed
image are also improved. The bit rate of proposed algorithm is al-
most the same as Truong algorithm and SC-GA algorithm.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, a fractal image compression method based on spa-
tial correlation and hybrid genetic algorithm is proposed. There are
two stages for the algorithm. The first stage exploits local optima
by making use of the spatial correlation between neighboring
blocks. If the local optima are not satisfied, the second stage of
the algorithm is carried out in order to explore further similarities
from the whole image. Since the searching space in the first stage is
much smaller, so the coding time is reduced. Moreover, the com-
pression ratio can also be improved since only relative positions
are recoded in the first stage of the algorithm. Compared to full
search method, although the quality of the retrieved image is much
degraded, but it spends about 2.28% of the encoding time and
achieves higher compression ratio. Compared to SC-GA method,
the proposed method spends about 50% of the encoding time,
while the quality of the retrieved image is almost the same. Be-
cause genetic algorithm is a parallel algorithm, the encoding speed
will greatly improve if parallel processors are adopted. The applica-
tion foreground of fractal image compression is very extensive.
Acknowledgments
tor subject special scientific research foundation of China (No.
20070141014) and the National Natural Science Foundation of Lia-
oning province (No. 20082165).
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This research is supported by the National Natural Science

Foundation of China (No. 60573172), the Superior University doc-