BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY

Introduction:

Electricity is a form of energy called electrical energy. It is sometimes called an

“unseen” force because the energy itself cannot be seen, heard, touched, or
smelled.

However the effects of electricity can be seen “a lamp that gives off light”; “a motor
turns”; “a cigarette lighter gets red hot”; “a buzzer makes noise”.

Because of the effects of electricity we can hear, feel, and smell electricity.

THE Electron Theory

Electron theory helps to explain electricity. The basic building block for matter,
anything that has mass and occupies space, is atom. All matter – solid, liquid, or
gas – is made up of molecules or atoms joined together. These atoms are the
smallest particles into which an element or substance can be divided without losing
its properties. There are only about 100 different atoms that make up everything in
our world. The features that make one atom different from another also determine
its electrical properties.
Atomic Structure

An atom is like a tiny solar system. The center is called the nucleus, made up of
tiny particles called protons and neutrons. The nucleus is summoned by clouds of
other tiny particles called electrons. The electrons rotate about the nucleus in fixed
paths called shells or rings.
 Hydrogen has the simplest atom with one proton in the nucleus and one electron
rotating around it. Copper is more complex with 29 electrons in four different rings
rotating around a nucleus that has 29 protons and 29 neutrons. Other elements
have different atomic structures.

Atoms and Electrical charges

Each atomic particle has an

electrical charge. Electrons have a
negative (-) charge. Protons have a
positive (+) charge. Neutrons have
no charge; they are neutral.

In a balanced atom, the number of

electrons equals the number of
protons.
 The balance of the opposing negative and positive charges holds the atom
together. Like charges repel, unlike charges attract. The positive protons hold
the electrons in orbit. Centrifugal force prevents the electrons from moving
inward. And, the neutrons cancel; the repelling force between protons to hold
the atom’s core together.

Positive and Negative Ions

If an atom gains electrons, it

becomes a negative ion. If an atom
loses electrons, it becomes a
positive ion. Positive ions attract
electrons from neighboring atoms to
become balanced. This causes
electron flow.

Electron Flow

The number of electrons in the outer

orbit (valence shell pr ring) determines
the atom’s ability to conduct electricity.
Electrons in the inner ring are closer to
the core, strongly attracted to the
protons, and are called bound
electrons.
Electrons in the outer ring are further
away from the core, less strongly
attracted to the protons, and are called
free electrons.

Electrons can be freed by forces such as friction, heat, light pressure, chemical
action, or magnetic action. These freed electrons move away from the
electromotive force, or EMF (electron moving force), from one atom to the next. A
stream of free electrons forms an electrical current.
Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors

Conductors

An electric current is produced when free electrons move from one atom to the next.
Materials that permit many electrons to move freely are called conductors.

Although some are better than others, most metals are good conductors of electricity.
Silver, Gold, and Platinum are very good conductors but are expensive, so they are not
often used. Copper and Aluminum are reasonably good conductors and are fairly
inexpensive. Thus the wiring in our houses is copper, and the high voltage electric lines
that we see crossing the country use aluminum cables.

Insulators

Materials that allow few free electrons are called insulators.

Glass is an extremely good insulator. Many plastics are good insulators too. Plastics are
cheap, flexible, and durable. That is why the wiring in our houses is covered with a layer
of plastic.

Conductivity Chart of Various Materials

 The electrical properties of various
materials are determined by the number of
electrons in the outer ring of their atoms.

 Conductors –Materials with 1 to 3

atoms in the outer ring make good conductors.
The electrons are held loosely, there’s room for
more, and a low EMF will cause a flow of
electrons. Examples are copper, silver and
gold.

 Insulators – Materials with 5 to 8 electrons

in the atom’s outer ring are insulators. The
electrons are held tightly, the ring’s fairly full,
and very high EMF is needed to cause any
electron flow at all. Such materials include
glass, rubber and certain plastics.

 Semiconductors – Materials with

exactly 4 electrons in the atom’s outer ring are
called semiconductors. They are neither good
conductors, nor good insulators. Such materials
include carbon, germanium, and silicon.

Current Flow Theories:

Two theories describe current flow. The

conventional theory, commonly used for
automotive systems, says current flows from
(+) to (-) … excess electrons flow from an area
of high potential to one of low potential (-). The
electron theory, commonly used for
electronics, says current flows from (-) to (+) …
excess electrons cause an area lacking
electrons, an area of positive potential (+), to
balance the charges.
While the direction of current flow makes a
difference in the operation of some devices,
such as diodes, the direction makes no
difference to the three measurable units of
electricity: voltage, current, and resistance.
Electrical Quantities:
Electricity cannot e weighed on a scale or measured into a container. But, certain
electrical “actions” can be measured.

These actions or “terms’ are used to describe electricity; voltage, current,

resistance, and power.

Voltage is - Pressure
Current is - Flow
Resistance - Opposes flow
Power - is the amount of work performed. It depends on the
amount of pressure and the volume of flow.

VOLTAGE

Voltage is electrical pressure, a potential force or difference in electrical charge

between two points. It can push electrical current through a wire, but not through
its insulation.

Voltage is measured in volts. One volt can push a certain amount of current, two
volts twice as much, and so on. A voltmeter measures the difference in electrical
pressure between two points in volts. A voltmeter is used in parallel.
CURRENT

Current is electrical flow moving through a wire. Current flows in a wire or a conductor
pushed by voltage which an electric pressure.

Current is measured in amperes, or amps, for short. An ammeter measures current

flow in amps. It is inserted into the path of current flow, or in series, in a circuit.

RESISTANCE

Resistance opposes current flow. It is like electrical “friction”. This resistance slows
the flow of current. Every electrical component or circuit has resistance. And, this
resistance changes electrical energy into another form of energy – heat, light, and
motion.

Resistance is measured in ohms. A special meter, called an ohmmeter, can measure

the resistance of a device in ohms when no current is flowing.
 Factors Affecting Resistance

Five factors determine the resistance of conductor. These factors are length of the
conductor, diameter, temperature, physical condition and conductor material. The
filament of a lamp, the windings of a motor or coil, and the bimetal elements in
sensors are conductors. So, these factors apply to circuit wirings as well as working
devices or loads.

Length

Electrons in motion are constantly colliding as voltage pushes them through a

conductor. If two wires are the same materials and diameter, the longer wire will have
more resistance than the shorter wire. Wire resistance is often listed in ohms per foot
(e.g., spark plug cables at 5 ohms per foot). Length must be considered when
replacing wires.

Diameter

Large conductors allow more current flow with less voltage. If two wires are the same
material and length, the thinner wire will have more resistance than thicker wire. Wire
resistance tables list ohms per foot for wires of various thicknesses (e.g., size or
gauge … 1,2,3 are thicker with less resistance and more current capacity; 18, 20, 22
are thinner with more resistance and less current capacity). Replacement wires and
splices must be proper size to the circuit current.

Temperature

In most conductors, resistance increases as wire temperature increases. Electrons

move faster, but not necessarily in the right direction. Most insulators have less
resistance at higher temperatures. Semiconductor devices called thermistors have
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) resistance decrease as a temperature sensor
has an (NTC) thermistor. Other devices use (PTC) thermistors.
 Physical Condition

Partially cut or nicked wire will act like smaller wire with high resistance in the
damaged area. A kink in the wire, poor splices, and loose or corroded connections
also increase resistance. Take care not to damage wires during testing or stripping
insulation.

Material

Materials with many free electrons are good conductors with low resistance to current
flow. Materials with many bound electrons are poor conductors (insulators) with high
resistance to current flow. Copper, aluminum, gold and silver have low resistance;
rubber, glass, paper, ceramics, plastics, and air have high resistance.

Voltage, Current, and Resistance In Circuits

A simple relationship exists between voltage, current, and resistance in electrical

circuits. Understanding this relationship is important for fast, accurate electrical
problem diagnosis and repair.

OHM’S Law

Ohm’s Law says: The current in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage
and inversely proportional to the amount of resistance.

This means that if the voltage goes up, the current flow will go up, and vice versa.
Also, as the resistance goes up, the current goes down, and vice versa.

Ohm’s Law can be put to good use in electrical troubleshooting. But, calculating
precise values for voltage, current, and resistance is not always practical … nor, really
needed. A more practical, less time-consuming use of Ohm’s Law would be to simply
apply the concepts involved:

Source Voltage is not affected by either current or resistance. It is either too low,
normal, or too high. If it is too low, current will be low. If it is normal, current will be
high if resistance is low or current will be low if resistance is high. If voltage is too
high, current will be high.

Current is affected by either voltage or resistance. If the voltage is high or the

resistance is low, current will be high. If the voltage is low or the resistance is high,
current will be low.

Resistance is not affected by either voltage or current. It is either too low , normal, or
too high. If resistance is too low, current will be high at any voltage. If resistance is too
high, current will be low if voltage is normal.

Sample Problems:

a. How many amperes will flow through the heating resistor, neglecting the
resistance of the line wires.

Solution

By use of Ohm’s Law

I = V/R

where V = voltage (volts)

I = Current (amperes)
R = resistance (ohms)

In this case V = 100 V and R = 20 Ω

I = 100 V/20 Ω
=5A

b. A meter placed in the heating resistor circuit shows that 5 A is flowing through
the resistor is 20 Ω, what is the voltage across it?

Solution

The voltage across a circuit, or any part of a circuit, can be found by Ohm’s Law

V=IxR

In this problem I = 5 A and R = 20 Ω

V = 5 A x 20 Ω
= 100 V
 The voltage across the resistor is 100V.

c. The voltage across a heating resistor is measured at 100 V at the same time that
5 A is flowing through the resistor. What is the resistance of the heating resistor?

Solution

By Ohm’s Law
R = V/I

In this problem V = 100 V and I = 5 A

R = 100 V/5 A
= 20 Ω

The resistance of the heating resistor is 20 Ω

Electric Power and Work

Voltage and current are not measurements of electric power and work. Power, in
watts, is a measure of electrical energy … power (P) equals current in amps (I) times
voltage in volts (E), P = I x E. Work, in wattseconds or watt-hours, is a measure of the
energy used in period of time … work equals power in watts (W)
Times time (t) in seconds (s) or hours (h), W = P X t. Electrical energy performs work
when it is changed into thermal (heat) energy , radiant (light) energy, audio (sound)
energy, mechanical (motive) energy, and chemical energy. It can be measured with a
watt-hour meter.

Formula Derivation:

Power
P=VxI

where P = power (W)

V = voltage (V)
I = Current (A)

If only the voltage and resistance of the circuits are known, power can be calculated
by squaring the voltage (that is, V x V) and dividing by resistance.

P=VxI

P = V x (V/R)

P = V2/R

where R equals resistance un ohms

If only the current and the resistance are known, power can be calculated by
multiplying the square of the current (that is, I x I) by the resistance.

P=VxR
 P = (I x R) X I

P = I2 x R

If voltage, current, and resistance are known, then any one of the formulas can be
used. The answers will be exactly the same.

If the amount of power used by a piece of equipment is multiplied by the time the
equipment is used, the amount of electric energy used can be found. Most utilities
base their rates on kilowatthour of electricity.

If power is given in watts, it can be converted to kilowatts merely by dividing watts by

1000.

Kilowatts = watts/1000
To find the cost of energy, multiply kilowatthours by the cost per kilowatthour.
Sample Problem:

What is the monthly cost of operating a 20 Ω heater, drawing 6 A from a 120 V line, if
the heater is used 8 hours (h) a day, 20 days a month, and utility charges 10 cents
per kilowatthour.

Solution

Any one of the power formulas can be used to find the power consumed by the
heater.
P = V x I = 120 x 6 = 720 W

P = V2/R = (120 x 120)/20 = 720 W

P = I2R = 6 x 6 x 20 = 720 W

To change to kilowatts

Kilowatts = watts/1000 = 720/1000 = .72 kW

The heater is used 8 h a day for 20 days or 8 x 20 = 160 h a month.

Kilowatthours = .72 kW x 160 h = 115.2 kWh

Since each kilowathour costs 10 cents, the total charge for 115.2 kWh is

Cost = kilowatthours x cost per kilowatthour = 115.2 x 0.10 = P 11.52

Thus it will cost P 11.52 a month to operate the heater in this problem.

Basic electric Circuits:

Series Circuit:

Characteristic of a series circuit:

1. There is only one current path in a series circuit.

2. The same current flows in all parts of a series circuit.

3. The sum of the voltage drops around a series circuit is equal to the supply
voltage.

4. The voltage drop in a part of a series circuit is in the same proportion to the
total applied voltage as the resistance of that part of the circuit is to the total
resistance of the circuit.

5. The total voltage power of power sources connected in series is the sum of the
voltages of the individual sources.
 6. The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of the resistance of the
various parts.

Circuit Diagram:

Circuit diagram of battery and series-connected resistors

I = E/R

R = R1 + R2 + R3

Equivalent circuit

Sample Problem

Calculate the current that flows through the three

resistors connected in series. The supply voltage
is E = 9V, and the resistors are R1 = 15Ω,
R2 = 25Ω, and R3 = 5Ω.

There is only one path for current flow in a series

circuit. Consequently, the current is the same in all
parts of a series circuit.

Solution

I = E/(R1 + R2 + R3)

= 9V/(15Ω + 25Ω + 5Ω) = 9V/45Ω

= 200mA

Voltage Drops of a Series Circuit:

E = V1 + V2 + V3

V1 = I(R1), V2 = I(R3), and V3 = I(R3)

Or

E = I(R1 + R2 + R3 + …… Rn)

The supply voltage equals the sum of the

resistor voltage drops.
 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law

The relationship between the applied voltage and the resistor voltage drops in a
series circuit is defined by Kirchoff’s voltage law.

In any Closed electric circuit, the algebraic sum of the voltage drops must equal the
algebraic sum of the applied voltage.

Sample Problem

Determine the Voltage drops across each

resistor in the circuit. I = 200mA

Solution

V1 = IR1 = 200mA x 15Ω

= 3V

V2 = IR2 = 200mA x 25Ω

=5V

V3 = IR3 = 200mA x 5Ω

= 1V

E = V1 + V2 + V3 = 9V

Measuring Current in Series Using an Ammeter

Measuring Voltage in Series Circuit Using Voltmeter

Parallel Circuit:

Characteristic of a parallel circuit:

1. A parallel circuit has two or more paths or branches across the line.

2. The voltage across each branch is equal.

3. The current in each branch is determined by the resistance of each individual

branch.

4. The total line current is the sum of currents in the individual parallel branches.

5. Total resistance of a parallel circuit is not the sum of the individual resistance or
loads of the circuit. The total resistance is always less than the lowest branch
resistance in the circuit

Circuit Diagram:

Circuit Diagram for parallel - connected resistors

V1 = V2 = E

I1 = E / R1, I2 = E / R2

Isupply = I1 + I2

The Supply Current I is:

I = I1 + I2

In the case where there are n resistors in parallel

I = I1 + I2 + I3 + …. + In
Kirchoff’s Current Law

The rule about currents entering and leaving a junction is defined in Kirchoff’s current
Law:

The algebraic sum of the currents entering a point is equal to the algebraic sum of the
currents leaving

Sample Problem

The parallel resistors have values of

R1 = 12Ω and R2 = 15Ω. The supply
voltage is E = 9V. Calculate the
current that flows through each
resistor and the total current drawn
from the battery.
 Solution

I1 = E/R1 = 9V/ 12Ω

= 0.75 A
I2 = E/R2 = 9V/15Ω
= 0.6 A
I = I1 + I2 = 0.75 A + 0.6 A
= 1.35 A

Resistance in a Parallel Circuit

The total resistance of a parallel circuit is not the sum of the individual resistances.
The more parallel paths there are, the lower the toal resistance of the circuit.

If all the parallel branches have the same value of resistance in ohms, the total
resistance can be found by dividing the resistance of one branch by the number of
branches.

Example:

R1 and R2 = 10 Ω

R(total) = 10 Ω/2 = 5 Ω
When the parallel resistances are not the same, two methods can be used for finding
the total resistance. One is the product-over-the-sum method. Only two resistances
can be combined at a time by this method. To find the total resistance of two
resistances in parallel, the product of the two resistances in ohms is divided by the
sum of two resistances.

Example:

What is the total resistance of 3 Ω and 6 Ω in parallel?

Solution

The formula can be written as:

RT = (R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2)

Substituting the values in the formula:

RT = 3 x 6 / 3 + 6 = 18 / 9

=2Ω

If it is desired to find the total resistance of more than two resistances by this method,
they can be combined only two at a time. Therefore two resistances can be combined,
and the total of this is combined with the value of the next resistance.

The other method of finding the total resistance of a parallel circuit uses reciprocals. A
reciprocal of number is written as 1 divided by that number. Thus the reciprocal of 7 is
1/7; the reciprocal of 3 is 1/3; the reciprocal of ½ is 2; the reciprocal of R is 1/R.

To find the total resistance of a parallel circuit, first convert all branch resistances to
their reciprocals. Then add all the reciprocals. Finally, find the reciprocal of the sum.
This is the total resistance.
Formula:

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + 1/R4 + . . . . . . . . . .

(the dots after the plus sign indicate that the formula applies to as many parallel
branches as are in the circuit.)

Example:

Using reciprocals, find the total resistance of a 3 Ω and a 6 Ω resistor in parallel.

Solution

1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2

Add the reciprocals:

1/RT = 1/3 + 1/6

= 2/6 + 1/6
= 3/6

The sum of the reciprocal:

1/RT = 3/6

Reciprocal of the sum

RT = 6/3 = 2 Ω

Measuring Voltage in Parallel Circuit

Measuring Current in Parallel Circuit
Series Parallel Circuit:

Series-parallel circuits are combination of a

series and parallel connected resistance or
load. To solve current and voltages on a
series-parallel circuit, the circuit must be
broken down to its basic series and parallel
parts, the parts are combined-that is, the
series resistance is added together and the
parallel resistances are combined according to
the rules previously discussed. This
combining process is continued until the
simplest circuit is found

Sample of a Series-Parallel Circuit:

Sample Problem:

Find the total resistance including the two loads:

Solution:

Get the total resistance of the two loads:

Since Load 1 and Load 2 has the same resistance

Rload = Load / 2

= 98 Ω / 2

Rload = 49 Ω

Simplify the circuit after getting the total resistance of the parallel load
 we have now three resistance in series

Get the total resistance:

Rtotal = R1 + Load + R2

= 20 + 49 + 10

Rtotal = 79 Ω