Shodh Chintan

Volume 7, 2015

Compiled and Edited by

R.C. Srivastava
Babita Singh
N.C. Gautam
D.P. Rai
H.P. Sumangala

MGCGV Lt. Amit Singh Memorial (ASM) Foundation

Chitrakoot, Satna, Madhya Pradesh Dwarka, New Delhi
Head Office: New Delhi
249, Kargil Apartments, Veer Awas, Sector 18A, Dwarka, New Delhi-110078
Mobile: 09971350110 Tel: 011-28085749
Regional Offices
Mahmada, Pusa, Samastipur, Bihar-848125, Tel: 06274-240007
Patna: H. No. 403- Aradhana Enclave, Bailey Road, Khajpura-800014
Dubai c/o-Aurohill Middle Easte FZE, Rak FTZ, Ras Al Khaimah, U.A.E., PO Box 172128, U.A.E
Tel: +971-4-2821066
Email: ltamitsinghfoundation@gmail.com or bimlasingh54@gmail.com
Website: www.ltamitsingh.com

Published by
Mrs. Bimala Singh
Managing Trustee
ASM Foundation, New Delhi
and Jain Irrigation Systems PVT. Ltd. Jalgaon

© ASM Foundation
All rights reserved, No part Shodh Chintan may be reproduce, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, by any
menas, electroni, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwisw, without written permission from the
ASM Foundation.

Disclaimer: The views expressed by the authors in the SHODH CHINTAN are their own. They do not necessarily
reflect the views of the Lt. Amit Singh Memorial Foundation, New Delhi. The organizers are in no way responsible
for any liability arising out the texts of the Shodh Chintan.

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Tel: 011- 25284742, 0-9868124228 Email: westville_2002@yahoo.co.in
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 Dr. H.P. SINGH, FNAAS
The Founder and Chairman
Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India (CHAI)
[Formerly, DDG (Hort.), ICAR; Vice-Chancellor, RAU, Pusa, Bihar
Horticulture Commissioner, MOA; Dean, Agriculture, GBPUA&T, Pantnagar
Chairman, Coconut Development Board, Kochi; Director, NRCB, Trichy]

MES SA
MESSA GE
SAGE

I am happy to know that ASM Foundation, New Delhi and MGCGV, Chitrakoot, Satna, Madhya Pradesh is jointly
organizing the 7th Swadesh Prem Jagriti Sangosthi (SPJS) and National Conference on Dynamics of Smart
Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development from 28-31, May, 2015.

Integrated efforts of science and technology, in consonance with socio-economics, an approach to address the
emerging issues related to food and nutrition, complimented with information technology, referred to as a
Smart Horticulture, is attracting attention word-wide, for producing more with less to feed growing population
with declining land and water in the scenario of climate change. Smart Horticulture, a technology driven activity,
is likely to provide an option for livelihood and rural development. This essentially needs understanding of the
current status of knowledge on smart horticulture and commensurating requirement in relation to livelihood
and rural development. Therefore, organizing of this National Conference is timely, to take a stock of situation
and plan strategies to address emerging challenges.

I am sure, this Conference would provide opportunities for dialogues and sharing of knowledge and help refining
reason specific technologies adoptable at farm level, for livelihood options.

I wish the National Conference and Sangosthi, a great success.

(Dr. H.P. Singh)

Dated: 7-5-2015
New Delhi

249, Sector 18A, Dwarka, New Delhi – 110075, India

Phone: 91 011 28085749; Mobile 91-9871450730 (off) 91-9582898983 (Res)
Email:hpsingh50@gmail.com/hpsingh2008@gmail.com/ confedhorti@gmail.com
 From the Chair man’s Desk….
Chairman’s
You will agree with me that, in the ancient and
modern vision of patriotism, individual responsibility
to fellow citizens is an inherent component of
patriotism. One of the philosophers has defined
patriotism as devotion to humanity and beneficence.
Therefore, in this endeavour, Lt. Amit Singh Memorial
Foundation (ASM Foundation) is charged with the
responsibility of spreading patriotism among the youth
through education, health care, economic development
and inculcation of ethics and values.
Accordingly, the focus of ASM Foundation has
been on developmental activities, which addresses
children education, self-reliance of youth, confidence
building, health care for people and technology led
agriculture/horticulture development for farmers. The
ASM Foundation is working for fulfilling the
objectives and mandate of Foundation, and is happy
that foundation is altogether implementing the
proposed programmes, and is bringing out overall
development of the marginalised people, in all aspects,
and taking them towards self- sufficiency. Inspired by
the past efforts, the ASM Foundation organized the
th
6 Swadesh Prem Jagriti Sangosthi2014 (SPJS- 2013)
at the NAU, Navsari, Gujarat 28-31st May, 2014. It
comprised of Global Conference on Technological
challenges and Human Resources for Climate Smart
Horticulture, Mango Diversity Show, farmers’ quiz,
essay competition, mango eating competition, award
function and visit to farmers field was also organised,
in furtherance of the goal of the Foundation. The
Sangosthi platform was shared by diverse group of
stakeholders, such as farmers, extensive workers,
scientists, entrepreneurs, industrialists, policy
planners, which facilitated an effective interaction and
development of strategic recommendations. The
participation of diverse group of people from India
and abroad was the uniqueness of the Sangosthi which
benefitted large number of people including youth and
farmers. The ASM Foundation is extremely grateful
to Dr. A.R. Pathak, Vice-Chancellor, Shri Mangal Bhai
Patel, Deputy Speaker State Legislative Assembly, and
to all the Vice-Chancellor and Directors,
Coordinators, scientists, representatives of Industries,
entrepreneurs, scientist, and farmers who graced the
occasion.
The activities during the year also included,
distribution of seeds, bags to school children,
demonstration of new technologies to farmers and
confidence building in youth. In the honour of Lt.
Amit Singh, “Shahid Diwas” with a theme – world
peace prayer (Vishwa Shanti Prarthna) was observed
on 3rd September 2014 under chairmanship of Dr R
K Mittal, Vice- Chancellor, Rajendra Agricultural
University, Pusa, Samastipur, a one day Kisan Gosthi
was arranged and seed of hybrid maize and mustard
and also vegetable seeds were distributed. Apart from
the above, the ASM Foundation office at Mahamada
also executed several activities for the benefit of
children by providing them education and vocational
support besides celebrating the Independence Day
and Republic day. This office is involved in several
activities to improve livelihood and socio-
economic conditions of the rural people. Notable
among them are: dissemination of improved
agricultural technologies and distribution of seeds
of stress tolerant varieties of paddy Swarna-sub-1.
The Foundation also organized Kisan Gosthi at many
locations which was attended by many farmers.
(vi) Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Managing trustee Mrs. Bimala Singh visited fields
of farmers along with Dr H P Singh to motivate them
for improved practice and diversification.
ASM foundation has also instituted many awards
for various categories viz., Amit Krishi Rishi Award,
Amit Padma Jagriti Award, Amit Prabudh Manishi
Award, Amit Swah Award, to recognize the people,
who have outstandingly contributed in Indian
Agriculture and have dedicated their service to Nation.
Udyan Ratan Award, Lt. Amit Singh Memorial Award
for best Coordinating Centre of AICRP Vegetables and
National Elocution/Essay Competition for school
students has now become a regular phenomenon.
I take this opportunity to express my sincere
gratitude to all the staff, volunteers and well-wishers
of the foundation, who are working hard incessantly
for achieving the objectives of the Foundation. I also
congratulate all farmers/ students/ delegates/ guests
who have contributed significantly during the last
SPJS- 2014, and owe the entire credit for our
successful journey in to 2014-2015 and helped in
preparation for the activities of especially, National
Conference on Dynamics of Smart Horticulture for
livelihood and rural development is being organised
at Chitrakoot. I have a great pleasure in presenting to
you this “Shodh Chintan-2015”especially published
to commemorate the occasion. The Sodh chintan has
articles under education, ethics and values and
technologies related to Smart Horticulture for
livelihood and rural development. I am sure you will
find “Shodh Chintan” highly useful document, which
can be referred to, again and again.

May God bless you all “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan, Jai Hindustan”
 A SM FFoundation
oundation
(ISO 9001-8002 certified organization)
Lt. Amit Singh Memorial (ASM) Foundation since
its inception, in 2001, has tremendously grown in its
outreach and the spectrum of activities carried out to
fulfill its commitments, within the ambit of its stated
aims and objectives to develop a patriotic society
through education, secured health, economic
development and inculcation of ethics and values
among the masses, in general and youth in particular.
To begin with, the foundation started its activities with
the distribution of books and school bags amongst the
poor and needy children to support their education;
organising health camps to improve the health status
of poor and needy; scientific exhibitions and workshop
to disseminate the knowledge of newly developed
technologies particularly in the field of agriculture
and horticulture to empower the farmers with up-to-
date knowledge, and inspirational discourse by
spiritual leaders to inculcate social ethics and values
especially among youth.
In its strive to achieve the aims and objectives,
the Foundation organised the first Swadesh Prem
Jagriti Sangosthi (SPJS-2009), a national level mega
event in 2009 to commemorate the birthday of the
Martyr Lt Amit Singh, at his birth place, Mahamada,
Pusa, Bihar. This Sangosthi which included the
activities like inauguration of Smriti Bhawan, essay/
elocution competition and talent search for students
of schools and higher secondary schools from
different states; health camps; national conference on
horticulture; national exhibition; farmers quiz;
distribution of quality seeds and planting materials of
the agricultural and horticultural crops; diversity
shows; litchi eating competition and spiritual
discourse to inculcate ethics and values. This
Sangosthi was a big success as it was a well attended
event. The overwhelming response and encouraging
feedback of participants of the first Sangosthi made
it an annual feature of the activities of the
foundation. Besides farmers, students and scientists,
some prominent political personalities also attended
the event. Since then, 2nd Swadesh Prem Jagriti
Sangosthi (SPJS) was organised at Bangalore in 2010
and 3rd SPJS in 2011 atDehradun. Both these events
were a great success. 4th Swadesh Prem Jagriti
Sangosthi was organised from 27-31 May,2012 at
th
QUAT, Bhubaneswar, and 5 SPJS was organised w.e.f
May 28-31, 2013, at JISL Jalgaon, Maharashtra. 6th
SPJS was organised at NAU, Navsari.Now, 7th SPJS is
being organised at Chitrakoot, Satna, Madhya Pradesh.
To inculcate the spirit of healthy and fair
competitiveness and catalysing the minds of the
people, to serve the society better, ASM Foundation
has instituted many rewards and awards. The rewards
include the cash prizes to the winners of national
debates/elocution. National Talent search in
Horticulture. Different awards instituted by the
Foundation to recognise the outstanding contributions
made by different peoples in their respective fields
for the welfare of the society, at large include, Amit
Krishi Rishi Award, Amit Padma Jagriti Award, Amit
Prabudh Manishi
Award, Amit Swah
Award, Udyan Ratna
Award, Amit Agrani
Award, National
Talent Award in
Horticulture, Best All
Rounder Awards (for
(viii) Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
school students), Lt. Amit Singh Memorial Best in them; economic empowerment of the poor farmers
Performing Centre of AICRP on Vegetables. The through innovative technologies and current
recipients of these awards are leading and knowledge disseminated through conferences and
distinguished educationists, corporate sectors, exhibitions on agriculture and horticulture.
scientists, entrepreneurs, farmers, students and leading
The Foundation has expanded its activities over
research institutes, which. act as a great driving and
these years with its major focus on improving the
inspirational force for the participants and
health of children and empowerment of women. The
stakeholders to work harder with full zeal in their
emphasis is also given on improving the income of
respective fields to be among the recipient of such
farmers through distribution of quality seeds and
awards. The activities of the Foundation carried so far
planting material, dissemination of modern
have been very successful, as is evident from the
technologies and techniques, knowledge and imparting
impact on impressionable tender minds of youth to
training and awareness.
instill patriotism and building nationalistic character

A SM FFoundation
oundation TTeam
eam

Dr. H. P. Singh Dr. G. Trivedi

Former DDG, Horti, ICAR Chairman
Principal Advisor Former VC, RAU, Pusa
(Honourary)

Tr ustees of FFoundation
oundation

Ms. Bimala Singh Ms. Neeta Singh Prof (Dr.) Babita Singh
Managing Trustee Trustee Trustee
 A bou
outt th e O r g ani ze
anize rs
zers
Mrs. Bimla Singh: Managing Trustee
ASM Foundation, an ISO 9001:2008 certified organisations is committed to economic
development and knowledge empowerment of people through various activities. It has
headquarter at New Delhi, India. The ASM Foundation has successfully organised Global
and National Conference in part and is known nationally and internationally. The Foundation,
besides organizing the conference, exhibitions, and farmer’s friendly activities is
committed to education health care and economic development. The Foundation also
conferrers awards in various categories to recognise the contribution of individuals/
organisation.

Mahatma Gandhi Chitrakoot Gramoday University (MGCGV)

Dr. N.C. Gautam: Vice Chancellor
Established by Rashtrarishi Nanaji Deshmukh in 1991. MGCGV, aims at providing higher
education mainly to people living in rural areas with emphasis on preparing man power
devoted to upliftment of poor and down-trodden. The university receives inspiration for
rural development in consonance with the vision of Mahatma Gandhi. Mandates are to evolve,
promote and impart higher education to take up emerging challenges for the transformation
of rural areas. It undertakes academic, research, extension and training programmes for the
empowerment of the people with a view to ensure free flow of knowledge, techniques and
technologies as a two–way process for improved quality of rural life. The university
undertakes, consultancy, monitoring and evaluation of national and also state-level
development programmes.

A bo ut tth
he C
Coo ll ab
aboorat ors
Dr. H.P. Singh: Chairman
Confederation of Horticulture Association of INDIA (CHAI) an ISO 9001:2008 certified,
non-profiting organization is a forum of stakeholders in horticulture/agriculture to work
together in mission mode with set goals and objectives having commitment for addressing
global concern and providing innovative solutions. The aims of CHAI is the furtherance of
horticulture/ agriculture research and development, through; Conduct and support in
organizing of National/International conference, workshops, Publication of journal-
International Journal of Innovative Horticulture, newsletter and books. To bring the
competitiveness the CHAI has instituted various awards to motivate the innovators for the
excellence in research, education, extension, teaching and farming.
Dr. B.H. Jain: Chairman
Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd. known as JISL, India, is an multinational organization with
global presence in 120 countries, provides solution for efficient management of water,
protection cultivation, quality planting material, farmers access to market and processing,
solar energy, waste utilization, and education. The company is one of the largest agro
based company in the world and have many innovations to its credit. The company in its
recognition has been conferred with highest national awards and many International
recognitions.
(x) Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Synergy PPar
ar tners
PHD Chamber of Commerce and Industry, established in 1905, is a proactive and dynamic
multi-State apex organisation working at the grass-root level, with strong national and
international linkages. The Chamber acts as a catalyst in the promotion of industry, trade and
entrepreneurship and contributes significantly to socio-economic development and capacity
building in several fields. through institutional linkages with over 60 important foreign
Chambers of Commerce. The chamber has now, focused attention on agriculture and agri-
business, under the Chairmanship of Shri N M Kejriwal, to generate awareness amongst the
members about the potential and need for value addition to enhance the income of the
farmers.
ASSOCHAM, established in 1920, has more than 300 Chambers and Trade Associations
and is serving more than 4 lakh direct and indirect members from all over India and has been
in the forefront to encourage knowledge sharing by way of facilitating interactions. operates
through 90 Expert Committees that provide interactive platform in formulating policy
recommendations to facilitate economic, industrial and social growth. Agriculture & Food
Security committee the priority sec chaired by Shri Anil Jain, Managing Director, Jain
Irrigation Systems Ltd, has been successful in sensitising the various stakeholders involved
for boosting the growth of agricultural sector in the country by organising training programs,
workshops and seminars.
 Contents

From the Chairman’s Desk ........................................................................................................................................... iv

About ASM Foundation ................................................................................................................................................ vi
Company profile-JISL ................................................................................................................................................ viii
1. Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development ............................................................................. 1
H.P. Singh
2. Bio-technological Approaches for Quick Deduction of Adaptation and Mitigation to Climate Change for
Improved Livelihood Option ............................................................................................................................ 22
N.K. Srinivasa Rao
3. Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development— A Case Study ................................................. 32
D. P. Ray
4. Hydroponic in Urban and Peri-Urban Horticulture for Nutritional and Livelihood Security ....................... 41
S.K. Malhotra
5. Vegetable Production for Livelihood and Rural Development ........................................................................ 49
B. Singh and Sudhakar Pandey
6. Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing Food Security Issues in India .................................................... 62
B.P. Singh and Rajesh K. Rana
7. Technological Challenges for Production Management of Litchi .................................................................... 78
Vishal Nath and R.K. Patel
8. Emerging Insect Pest Menace in Vegetable Crops in India and their Management: A Critical Appraisal ... 90
A.B. Rai and Jaydeep Halder
9. Socio-economic Upliftment and Livelihood Enhancement through Coconut Sector ..................................... 103
P. Chowdappa, P. Anithakumari and S. Jayasekhar
10. Strategeis for Increasing Oil Palm Production .............................................................................................. 113
S. Arulraj
11. Palm Production – A Best Option for Livelihood and Rural Development ................................................... 122
P. Rethinam
12. Dry Flower for Employment and Livelihood Option ..................................................................................... 132
Ritu Jain and T. Janakiram
13. Commercial Floriculture — An Option for Livelihood and Rural Development .......................................... 137
Sumangala H.P.
14. Post Harvest Management of Horticultural Crops for Sustainable Livelihood & Rural Development ....... 145
C. K. Narayana
15. Banana Pseudostem Waste for Generating Employment in Rural Areas of India ........................................ 150
Patil, R.G., Kolambe, B.N., Patel, J.M., Nachane, R.P. Pawar, S.L. and Desai, C.S.
16. Nanotechnology to Battle Crop Pests ............................................................................................................ 155
Deepa Bhagat, Parikshit Moitra, Suman K Samantha, Santanu Bhattacharya
17. Baby Corn Production and Option for Improved Livelihood ........................................................................ 157
S.K. Chauhan
18. Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective ................... 163
H.P. Singh
19. Development of Orchid Biodiversity-based Microenterprises for Conservation and Income Generation .. 183
D.R. Singh
20. Combating Challenge of Declining Land and Water Resources by Smart Horticulture .............................. 192
R.C. Srivastava
21. Tropical Tuber Crops: Option for Livelihood and Rural Development ....................................................... 197
S.K. Chakrabarti and V. Ravi
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 1-21, 2015

Smar
Smartt Hor ticulture for
Horticulture
Livelihood and Rural Development
H.P. SINGH
The Founder and Chairman
Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India(CHAI)
249, Sector 18A, Dwarka, New Delhi
Email hpsingh2008@gmail.com; confedhorti@gmail.com

Environmental variability and climate national governments, the local

change has become an enormous challenge
for livelihood in rural area. Policy
approaches to find sustainable strategies and
interventions have become more and more
important. It is difficult to predict the current
and future impacts of a phenomenon with
such diverse impact streams. Evidently, the
livelihood options of the poor and marginal
societies are more likely to experience a
significant shift. Environment and the
availability of the resources for their
sustenance are predicted to be dwindling.
Therefore, we seek to bring together diverse
approaches and experience to examine the
various policy options that could facilitate
the livelihood of the poor, enhance their
adaptation. Poverty alleviation through
better livelihood options is an imperative for
the millions of rural poor. The possibilities
for improving living conditions of the people
through innovative livelihood options are
high. Livelihoods continue to be based
primarily on subsistence agriculture and
animal husbandry. Employment growth in
rural areas other than traditional subsistence
agriculture and animal husbandry has yet to
be realized in most parts of the country. Out-
migration of young men from the villages is
occurring at unprecedented rates resulting
in population pressure in urban area, creating
complexity of urbanization. The respective
communities, and other development
partners have made efforts to improve
livelihoods and conserve the environment.
One priority that come up time and again in
the extensive country consultations are the
necessity to address women’s workload and
the implications of this for lost opportunities
for gainful income generating activities. This
important area requires innovative solutions
and new strategy to formulate the program
which is gender sensitive and enables greater
participation of women in development
without adding to their burden. While
making a program, strategies should be
considered to formulate innovative packages
of options based on past experiences to
promote improved and innovative
livelihoods. In this context, Horticulture has
emerged as one of the options, considering
that it is economically rewarding and
intellectually satisfying and has potential to
provide better employment and involves
more women in the diverse activities.
What is Hor ticulture?
Horticulture?
Horticulture, comes from the Latin word
hortus, meaning, “garden”and cultûra
meaning “cultivation”, and it refers to plants,
gardening, people working in the
horticultural industries, which has impact on

human activities. More precisely,
horticulture indicates importance of plants,
their cultivation and their uses for sustainable
human existence. The horticulture is thus,
the science and art of cultivation of gardens,
orchards, flowers, fruits, vegetables, or
ornamental plants resulting in the
development of minds and emotions of
individuals, the enrichment and health of
communities, and the integration of the
garden in the breadth of modern civilization.
Growing of perennial plants and trees for
commercial purposes is referred as orchard,
while trees or herbs grown for aesthetic
values or environmental services are referred
as the garden. When orchards or tree
plantation are continuously grown for
commerce is referred as plantation crops.
Success in horticulture in last decades has
proved it as an option for livelihood as it
provides better employment and profitability
per unit area, which holds keys for rural
development. Horticulture, primarily differs
from agriculture in two ways, firstly, it
generally encompasses a smaller scale of
cultivation, using small plots of mixed crops
rather than large fields of single crops.
Secondly, horticultural cultivations,
generally, include a wide variety of crops,
even including fruit trees with ground crops
grown in diverse ago-ecological situations.
Appropriately, horticulture is the science,
technology, and business involved in
intensive plant cultivation for human use. It
is practiced from the individual level in a
garden up to the activities of a multinational
corporation. Horticulture is very diverse in
its activities, incorporating plants for food
(fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, culinary
herbs) and non-food crops (flowers, trees and
shrubs, turf-grass, and medicinal herbs). It
also includes related services in plant
conservation, landscape restoration,
landscape and garden design / construction
/ maintenance, arboriculture, horticultural
therapy, and much more. This range of food,
medicinal, environmental, and social
2
products and services are all fundamental to
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
developing and maintaining human health
and well-being. Saying is true that the life
starts with horticulture and ends with
horticulture. Earlier the horticulture was
largely confined to rural area and was hobby,
but faster urbanization, coupled with health
consciousness has brought the horticulture
on forefront, with advanced technologies,
and now horticulture is a science and
technology owing towards smart
management of Industrial horticulture.
Hor ticulture RResearch
Horticulture esearch and Development
Research is creation of knowledge and
its utilization for the benefits of mankind is
the development. Research brings the
knowledge which is converted in to a
technology and becomes a driver of growth
with appropriate policy environment and
needed investment. The research in
horticulture started with the turn of
civilization, largely to select useful plants
and domesticate it for uses of mankind. As
per the needs, new technologies for growing
plant were developed, which became a
family tradition to bring new knowledge, as
at that time horticulture was a hobby. Many
of cultivars, which are popular now were also
selected, domesticated and were used for
cultivation. Greenhouse technology was
developed to grow vegetable and flowers out
of season, which now provides option in
producing more with less land. Similarly,
propagation technique was developed to get
true to type plants especially in perennials.
However, organized research was done
under various schemes in mid of twentieth
century which was strengthened in eighties
and subsequently. However, systematic
development of horticulture started in 8th
plan with focus on investment and policy
which have impacted the production,
profitability, availability and above all
environmental services. Details of research
infrastructure and development are presented
in subsequent chapters. Although,
horticulture is fastest growing sector in India,
with growth rate of above 6 per cent,
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development
challenges are much greater, to produce more
for growing population from declining land
and water in the changing climate scenario.
Therefore, to address the future challenges
of, complimenting food, meeting nutritional
needs, healthcare and providing
environmental services, research and
development strategies have to be for climate
smart horticulture. Smart horticulture is an
integrated effort of science and technology
in consonance with socio economics to
address the issues related to food and
nutrition, complimented with information
technology. Thus, it is a challenge of
technology coupled with human resource,
necessitating strategic research, education
and development.
Hor ticulture Education and Skill
Development
Growing population, rapid urbanization,
coupled with concern for human and
environmental health are demanding rapid
development of horticultural produces,
engaging more work force and farmers to
shift to horticultural crops, and adopt new
tools /techniques, to produce more from less
land and water with new opportunities. In
this context, not only the production, but
efficient value chain management,
addressing all the links in the chain of
production to consumption is inevitable,
which will need highly skilled and trained
human resources, who can take forward the
development. Since there is a shift to
horticulture, as it has proved to be
intellectually satisfying and economically
rewarding, consequently trend in youth is to
adopt horticulture as their career. At the same
time, new tools and technologies have been
adopted in horticulture for enhanced
efficiency. Traditional horticulture is no more
relevant, necessitating science driven and
technology-led development. Therefore, to
keep pace with development of horticulture,
required human resources have to be made
available. Consequently, it is imperative to
understand the status, the drivers
(developmental needs) and orient and
reorient horticulture education to meet ever
increasing demand of well trained and
skilled human resources. These
developments necessitate for the enhanced
availability of skilled, efficient and
knowledge empowered human resources
through education and training. Accordingly,
an attempt is made to analyze the status,
needs, gaps and provide strategic direction
to horticulture education a way forward
considering its relevance in changing
dynamics and emerging challenges, as it
need much more attention than before.
Historical PPerspective
erspective of Indian Hor ticulture
Horticulture
In India too, horticulture profession is as
old as civilization but its development in the
country has different phases of growth. The
practicing horticulturists of the communities,
in the past, were also differentiated with their
trade, which they adopted, like gardening
and vegetable cultivation, as they had
specialization. Kings and Jamindar
promoted horticulture in the form of gardens
and orchards for their pleasantry as hobby,
which helped in conservation of plants and
practices. While describing the current
horticulture in India, we have to track it as
pre-independence and post independence.
Pre- independence horticulture is referred to
as first phase development, characterized by
home gardens as hobby for aesthetic and
social values. In the second phase of growth
of horticulture (1948-1980), commercial
production system started for few
commodities and institutional support
system was initiated to support the
development, yet most emphasis was on crop
production. In third phase of growth (1980-
1992) institutional support system was
consolidated and focus on horticulture
gained momentum considering its role in
nutritional security. The fourth phase of
development (1993-2000) is characterized
by movement of horticulture from rural
confine to commercial production, with 3
enhancement in plan allocation and strong

institutional support for research and
development. The fifth phase of growth
(2001-2011) is characterized by innovations,
large scale adoption of technology like micro
irrigation, protected cultivation, precision
farming –a way forward, for strategic
planned smart horticulture, which is an
integration of skills and knowledge for
achieving higher output on time scale by
reducing the vulnerability of horticulture to
biotic and abiotic stress. Resultantly,
production has reached to the level of 268
million tonnes, but challenges to produce
more from limited land and water in the
scenario of climate change has become a task
demanding more innovations.
Indian Hor ticulture - PPast,
Horticulture ast, Present and FFuture
uture
The agriculture development in the past
has been means of food and raw material,
which has to be seen now as means of
employment- led economic goals, alleviation
of poverty and self–reliance through its
linkages and a multiplier effect.
Globalization of agriculture has opened new
opportunities and also the challenge of stiffer
competition. The challenge thus, demands
for adjustment of the structure of the
economy to resonate with internal
stipulation. To address the challenges in
agriculture, diversification has emerged as
the best option, to address nutritional
adequacy, employment opportunities, farm
income enhancement and use of natural
resources. Among various options for
diversification, horticulture has proved,
beyond doubt, its potentiality for gainful
diversification. The emerging trend
worldwide and also in the country is
indicative of a paradigm shift in dietary
needs of the people, with rise in the income,
which demand more horticultural produce.
In the scenario, where more than 300 million
people are malnourished, while millions of
people are below poverty line, there is need
for improving quality of life through food
4 and nutritional security. The trend of
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
development in the past especially during the
last decade has been satisfying that adoption
of horticultural crops in systematic manner
has improved quality of life of people in the
many of the regions of the country.
Indian horticulture is the core sector of
agriculture, representing a broad spectrum
of crops and production of a wide range of
horticultural commodities. The horticulture
includes fruits, vegetables, nuts, ornamental,
plantation, tuber, spices, medicinal and
aromatic crops and mushrooms.
Collectively, these horticultural crops make
a significant contribution to the Indian
economy, in terms of rural employment
generation and farmers income. Increase in
demand for horticultural produce due to
greater health awareness, rising income,
export demands and increasing population
poses the challenge for further increasing the
production and productivity of horticultural
crops. Production trend and likely demand
of horticultural produce is presented in Table
1, which is self explanatory.
The issue of climate change and climate
variability has thrown up greater
uncertainties and risks, further imposing
constraints on production systems. The
challenges ahead are to have sustainability
and competitiveness, to achieve the targeted
production to meet the growing demands in
the environment of declining land, water and
threat of climate change, which needs
innovations and its adoption for improving
production in challenged environment.
Hor ticulture Development in Historical
Perspective
The analysis for Horticulture
development in India can be divided into five
phases. The first phase involved the period
prior to the independence of the country,
second phase the period between 1948-1980,
third phase between 1980-1991 and fourth
phase between 1991-2000 and fifth phase
between 2000-2010.
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development

Table 1: Trend of production and estimated demand of horticultural produce

Commodity Production (million tonnes)

1991-92 2007-08 2010-11 2016-2017 2020 2050
(Extrapolated) (Estimated)

Fruits 28.63 63.50 74.87 98.00 105.50 198.60

Vegetables 58.53 125.89 146.55 220.20 230.60 430.80
Spices 1.90 4. 10 5.35 5.50 6.30 13.70
Flowers - 0.87 1.08 1.50 2.05 3.80
PlantationCrops 7.49 11.30 12.38 15.60 16.00 41.80
Others 9.00
Total 96.95 207.01 244.50 333.80 358.40 696.80

[Source: Singh, HP, 2007, Indian Horticulture, 52(4); NHB, 2013] (This does not include need of potted plants, medicinal,
aromatic plants and other new crops). Data 2020 is extrapolated and data of 2050 is based on population, urbanization
and dietary change.

The pre-independence horticulture was growing of flowers or fruits around house,

characterized by selection of plants based on performance and conservation of few cultivars
by vegetative methods of propagation. No science was involved in horticulture, but it was a
profession of specific community. Growing of many horticulture crops was a household
activity and crops were grown as pleasantry. Thus, during the period Kings, Jamindars and
Jagridars adopted the enterprises as status symbol. Some of the horticultural crops especially
yams & tubers continued to provide food for the poor. The second phase of the development
of horticulture, covered the years which were influenced by indigenous thinking of sectoral
growth of commodity, in the regions of importance, which included coconut, areca-nut and
spices development through institutional support systems in coastal southern states. This
phase also saw the emphasis on the development of fruits in tropical and subtropical regions,
through the establishment of centres. This phase also witnessed the establishment of research
institutions devoted to the horticulture. During the period only few crops were favoured and
growth was limited to the expansion of area. Use of fertilizer and chemicals were not known.
The farmers were constrained for technology and resource availability. In this phase, with
planned development of agriculture, few selected crops of horticulture got fillip, through
the creation of infrastructure especially irrigation. During the period there were limited
research supports but development process of horticulture started. Major emphasis continued
on development of propagation techniques, identification of suitable crops, and rejuvenation
of orchards. Since, achieving the self-sufficiency was focus of agriculture, thus limited efforts
were made for the horticulture. These smaller efforts and few success stories in horticulture
during this period paved the way for planned development in horticulture both at central
and state levels.
Third phase is considered as a period of consolidation both for research and development.
At central level, highest level positions in development (Horticulture Commissioner) and
research (Deputy Director General) were created and efforts for development were triggered.
Many states, provided attention to horticulture, recognizing its role in nutritional security,
employment generation and enhancing the farm income. Central institute and directorates
were established, which benefited farmers in adoption of improved technology. Seed policy
introduced during the period triggered the use of improved varieties and technology. Efforts 5

during the period which improved the
income of farmers paved the way for
strategically planned development of
horticulture. Marked technological changes
in fourth phase of growth recorded quantum
jump in plan allocation, formation of
association by farmers, unprecedented
increase in production and enhanced
availability of produce. During this period
there has been a quantum jump in production
and export of flower and introduction of new
crops. This phase of development witnessed
enhanced support for research and
development, initiation of mission mode
approach and adoption of newer technologies
like micro-irrigation, fertigation, in-vitro
propagated plants and growing of high value
crop under greenhouse condition. The period
served as transition from traditional
horticulture to hi-tech horticulture and
precision farming approach. Organic
horticulture, quality management and safety
also got the focus during the period.
The fifth phase of horticulture research
and development is characterized by large
scale adoption of innovations like micro-
propagation, protected cultivation, use of in
vitro propagated plants and diagnostics. The
enhanced investment in mission mode
through launching of various mission mode
programme for development in research and
development is also witnessed in this period.
Research output supported by investment has
made quantum jump in production (Fig. 1),
productivity, availability and export, and
6 Fig. 1: Trend in area and production of horticultural produce in two decades
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
many newer crops were introduced, which
were not known before. This trend of
development has been marked as “Golden
Revolution”. This phase achieved the growth
rate of 6.5% and contribution of horticulture
to GDP of agriculture increased to 30.4%.
There is growing interest in horticulture, since
it is considered intellectually satisfying and
economically rewarding. Many new
enterprises are noticeable in horticulture
across the country including the sales of fruits
and vegetables in super market.
Histor
Historyy of RResearch
esearch and Development in
Hor ticultural Commodities
Horticultural
Horticultural crops or commodities are
known to be cultivated from time
immemorial, as its mention is seen in ancient
literatures. Many of these horticultural crops
have their regular uses as nutritional food
forming a part of the daily diet, besides,
aesthetic and medicinal values.
Fruits: Growing and utilization of fruits
has been inherent in the Indian culture, as a
way of life, from ancient times. Charak
Samnita andSushrut Samhita have long list
of fruits which have medicinal values. In
Kautilyaal Artha Shashtra, Written in 4th
century BC, has a mention of mango, banana,
bael, aonla and coconut associated with
cultural rituals. Fruit research in India was
first started in six agricultural colleges
established in 1905 at Pune, Coimbatore,
Lyallpur (now in Paksitan), Nagpur, Sabour,
and Kanpur. At that time responsibility of
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development
fruit research was with State Government.
Most of the work in fifties emanated from
Bihar, Bombay (Mumbai), Madras (Tamil
Nadu), Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. In 1933
four Regional Research Stations were
established by Imperial Council of
Agriculture Research at Sabour(Bihar),
Kodur(AP), Krishnanagar(Bengal) and
Chaubatia(then UP, now Uttarakhand).
During 1956-61 eight research stations
coordinated by ICAR were established at
Mashobra (HP) Abohar (Punjab), Kahikuchi
(Assam), Pune (Maharastra), Kodur (AP),
Chethalli (Mysore), Saharanpur (UP) and
Sabour (Bihar). ICAR continued to support
fruit research in states and a significant step
in research was through establishment of
central institutes. In seventies and eighties
many central institutes, National Research
Centres and All India.
Coordinated Research Projects were
established. These institutional support
system have given a technological backup
for the development of fruit industries
benefiting large number of farmers.
Vegetable and tuber crops: Although
many of vegetables have been grown
traditionally, vegetable research and
development finds its mention in second
phase of development, i.e. after 1947 except
potato. Research in vegetable started in
1947-48 with introduction of cultivars. In
1949 a vegetable breeding station was
established in Katrain (Kullu valley).
Subsequently in 1956-57 a separate Division
of Horticulture was created at IARI, New
Delhi and Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research (IIHR), Bangalore, established in
1968 took intensive research in vegetables.
Creation of vegetable division in IARI and
other SAUs gave a boost to vegetable
research, which was further strengthened by
the establishment of Indian Institute of
Vegetables Research at Varanasi and Nation
Research Centre on Onion and Garlic in
eighties and nineties. Among the vegetables,
potato is the most important crop, which
supplements the food needs. Potato is
believed to have been introduced in early
seventeenth century. Commercial crop of
potato was grown in hills of North and South
India. First evidence of potato research in
India is from Pune, in 1824. In 1930, potato
farms were established. In 1912 system of
growing two successive crops was
developed in south India. To establish the
potato work was done in Bengal, Punjab,
Madras and Celong. In 1948, Himachal
Pradesh took up potato seed production.
Thus pre-independence work on potato gave
a confidence for growing potato. Potato
Research got fillip with the establishment
of Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI),
with headquarter at Patna (Bihar), which was
subsequently shifted to Shimla. In 1971
coordinated research on potato was stated.
The efforts have resulted in significant
improvement in cultivar and technology
resulting in production and productivity
enhancement. Tuber crops (cassava, sweet
potato, yam aroids) have history in India.
Although research of cassava was started in
1942 in erstwhile Trawancore-Cochine
State, systematic research through Ad-hoc
project started in 1951, which got fillip with
the establishment of Central Tuber Crops
Research Institute in 1964. All India
Coordinated Project on tuber crops was
started in 1969. These research supports have
helped in the development of cultivars and
technology, which have enhanced the
productivity of crops resulting in improved
farm income.
Medicinal and aromatic plants:
Medicinal and aromatic plants have long
history in India, as herbs have been used for
curing many diseases from time
immemorial. India is also a centre of origin
of many medicinal and aromatic plants and
has a treasure of bio-diversity. The drugs,
pharmaceuticals, perfumery, cosmetics and
flavour industries use a large number of
medicinal and aromatic plants and new items
are continuously added to the list. ICAR, 7

DST, CSIR, ICFRE, FRI and Medicinal
Plant Board are engaged on research in these
plants. Research efforts have helped in
identification and domestication of many
medicinal and aromatic plants and
dissemination of knowledge. Many farmers
in different parts of the country have been
benefited by growing medicinal and
aromatic plants.
Plantation crops: Major plantation
crops grown in India are coconut, areca-nut,
oil palm, cocoa and cashew. Cocoa and oil
palm are of recent origin, which were
introduced in India during sixties and
eighties, respectively. Coconut research and
development work was initiated in India
during 1916 with the establishment of
Coconut Research Station at Kasaragod by
then Government of Madras of erstwhile
Madras Presidency. In 1943, the Government
of India constituted the Indian Central
Coconut Committee, which took over the
Kasaragod station and formed the Central
Coconut Research Station. Coconut
Development Board was established in 1981
to oversee the development of coconut
industry. In 1957 Central Areca-nut Research
Station was established at Vital. History of
cashew is only 5 century old, which came to
India in 1498. From Goa it spread to Konkan
and then to Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh and Orrissa. In 1800, Kerala
raw nuts were roosted in pots. In 1941, India
achieved a monopoly over global cashew
market. However, systematic development
took place only in 1969, with the
establishment of Cashew Development
Corporation. Research supports provided
through All India coordinated Project on
Cashew nuts and National Research centres
on cashew nut have made a significant
change in cultivars and production
technology resulting in improved
productivity and profitability.
Spices: Major spices grown in India are
black pepper, small cardamom, large
8 cardamom, cinnamon, clove, coriander,
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
cumin, fennel and fenugreek. Although
spices have historical importance in India its
systematic development is of late origin.
Spices research till fifties was limited to
standardization of inputs requirement.
Establishments of Indian Institute of Spices
Research (IISR) Kozikod and National
Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer have
given a boost to spices research. Besides,
Spices Board is also engaged in cardamom
research and development of spices.
Ornemental horticulture: Floriculture
in India comprises of florist trade, nursery
plants and plotted plants seeds and bulb
production, micro-propagation and
extraction of essential oil from flowers. Art
and Science of growing ornamental plants
is not new to India, and, dates back to 3000
BC. The art and science of arboriculture and
silviculture was highly developed in ancient
vedic times (3000-2000 BC). Garden and
flowers have been adored by kings and
garden lovers. Planting of avenue trees was
taken up by Ashoka the Great. The concept
of developing garden in enclosed space was
introduced by Moughals in India during 16th
and 17th centuries. However, growing of cut
flowers for trade is the development during
the nineties.
Floriculture trade has grown at the rate
of 20 per cent during the nineties which has
been because of technological changes in
growing of flowers and its trade. Regular
research was started at IARI, New Delhi and
IIHR, Bangalore and subsequently through
AICRP floriculture. Now a Directorate of
floriculture research has been established for
intensive research in ornamental
horticulture.
Hor ticultural Scenario in India
Horticultural
The role of horticulture in enhancing
productivity of land, generating
employment, value addition, improving
economic conditions of the farmers and
entrepreneurs, increasing exports and above
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development
all providing nutritional balance to the
people has been well acknowledged. The
sector includes a wide variety of crops under
different groups such as fruits, vegetables,
root and tuber crops, mushroom, floriculture,
medicinal and aromatic plants, nuts,
plantation crops including coconut and oil
palm. The horticulture sector has emerged
as a promising area for diversification in
agriculture on account of high-income
generation per unit of area, water and other
farm inputs and environmental friendly
production systems. Government of India
accorded high priority for the development
of this sector, particularly since the VIII Plan
and beyond. The impact has been visible in
terms of increase in production and
productivity of horticultural crops.
India has emerged as world leader in the
production of a variety of fruits like mango
and banana and is the second largest
producer of fruits and vegetables. Besides,
India has maintained its dominance in the
production of coconut, cashew-nut and a
number of spices. Development trend of
horticulture during the decade has proved,
beyond doubt, that, horticulture is the best
option for diversification of agriculture to
address the issues of employment
profitability and environmental concerns.
Considering the need for 660 MT produce,
there is much scope for agribusiness.
Agribusiness opportunity could be for input
like seeds, poultry material, equipment,
green house designs and construction,
irrigation, equipment and above all
marketing information and marketing for
produce and high value addition. This
changed scenario is expected to improve the
economy and profitability to become
competitive. The economic importance of
horticultural produce has been increasing
over the years due to increasing domestic and
international demand. Area, production,
productivity, availability and export have
increased manifolds. This has provided
ample opportunities for utilisation of waste
lands, employment generation and effective
land use planning. Diversification,
recognised as one of the options for
improving land use planning has dramatic
impact. If data from the production of
various crops are compared with the base
period of 1990-91 horticultural crops have
grown much faster (Table 2).
Contribution of horticulture to GDP of
Agriculture, which was only 0.58 per cent
during 1952-53, with total production of 25
million tonnes increased to 18 per cent from
6% area in 1991-92 and subsequently to
34.45 per cent of agricultural GDP from 11.5
per cent area in 2012-13 with production of
268.9 million tons from 23.69 million
hectare area. Estimated production for 2013-
14 is 280.25 million tonnes from 24.56 mha.
Crop diversification to horticulture has also
improved the employment opportunity,
which increased sharply between 2000 and
2010. Among the horticulture crops, fruit
crops recorded a two fold increase in area
and three fold increase in production (Table
2). India emerged as second largest producer
of fruits (84.87 million ton) obtained from
7.18 million ha area; contributing 14.6 per
cent share in global fruit production. India
occupies first place in the production of
mango, banana, papaya, pomegranate,
sapota and aonla. The productivity of grape
is the highest in the world. Production and
productivity of banana and sapota is also
highest in world. However productivity in
citrus, mango, apple, guava and pineapple
continue to be lower than the world averages.
Production of vegetables has increased
manifold to the tune of 162.18 million tonnes
from 9.21m ha area (Table 2), contributing
11.50 per cent to global vegetable
production. Commercial floriculture have
recorded faster pace of growth during the last
decade. Medicinal and aromatic plants,
which have immense potential got due
recognition in the decade. India continues
to be the largest producer, consumer and
exporter of spices and spice products in the 9
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 2: Production of horticulture produce, fruits, vegetable, spices, plantation crops, nuts in time scale

Commodity Production (million tonnes)

Area Production Productivity
1991-92 2002-03 2012-13 1991-92 2002-03 2012-13 1991-92 2002-03 2012-13
Fruits 2.87 3.79 6.897.18* 28.63 45.20 81.28 9.97 11.93 11.79
(86.87*)
Vegetables 5.59 6.09 9.219.56* 58.53 84.81 162.18 10.47 13.92 17.60
(168.14*)
Flowers NA 0.07 0.23 NA 0.74 1.77 NA 10.57 7.69
Loose
76.73
Cut
Nuts NA 0.12 NA 0.12 - NA 1.00 -
Aroma. & NA NA 0.56 NA NA 0.92 NA NA 1.64
Medi. Crop
Plantation 2.30 2.98 3.643.67* 7.50 9.70 16.98 3.26 3.25 4.66
(16.59*)
Spices 2.01 3.22 3.073.23* 1.90 3.77 5.74 0.94 1.17 1.86
(5.93*)
Mushroom NA NA NA 0.04 - NA NA NA
Honey NA NA NA 0.01 - NA NA NA
Grand Total 12.77 16.27 23.6924.56* 96.60 144.38 268.84 7.56 8.87 11.34
(280.25*)
A=AREA(in million ha), P=PRODUCTION(in million metric tons), Source NHB, 2012-13, *13-14: Indian Horticulture database.
(Data in parenthèses is final estimate of 2013-14 )

world, producing more than 50 spices. India
is also a leading producer of plantation crops
in the world and with contribution of 22.34%
in coconut, 25% in cashewnut and 55% in
arecanut. The diversification through
horticulture has proved best option for the
farmers to meet the need for food, nutrition,
health care besides providing better returns
on farm land and employment. The
contribution of horticultural produce towards
the value expressed in terms of per cent have
increased from 18% in 1991-92 to 34.45 in
2012-13 , while this contribution decreased
for cereals and pulses. This sector has
contributed significantly in generating
employment opportunities, which has
increased 7 fold from 100 man days in the
year 1990-91 to more than 700 man days in
the year 2007-08. Resultantly, horticulture
has been identified for inclusive growth of
10
agriculture sector in the country. Past trends
in research and development have been
satisfying in terms of technological
generation, adoptions, production,
availability and export of horticultural
produce, and this trend has been marked as
“Golden Revolution”.
The period between 1991-2003, has been
a period of development for horticulture,
leading to sustainable development, planned
investment in horticulture became highly
productive and the sector emerged as
economically rewarding and intellectually
satisfying. The period witnessed the
movement of horticulture from a rural
confine to commercial production resulting
in adoption of improved seeds, and
technologies like micro-irrigation, protected
cultivation, precision farming, integrated
management of the insect pest and diseases.
The success of development in 8th and 9th
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development

plan enthused for mission approach of
development; addressing all the links in the
chain of production and consumption. The
farmers who adopted horticulture benefited
immensely but fluctuating prices in few
commodities alarmed to create infrastructure
for storage and transport. Economic
condition of many farmers improved and
horticulture became a means for improving
livelihood for many unprivileged classes.
But regional disparity continued to be wide.
Notably, the period succeeded in creating
awareness to capitalize on the strength and
convert weaknesses into opportunity. This
is the time when Golden Revolution took
place across the country through
technological changes. The emphasis of
technology has been for obtaining higher
output of horticultural produce. The package
included use of quality seeds and plants,
efficient management of nutrients and water,
and management of pest and diseases with
focus on integrated management.
Horticulture with a focus on farmers and
landless labour became focus of
development (Table 3). The policy
interventions supported all the activities of
development and pressured farmers for
active participants. Amazingly decadal
growth in horticulture became impressive
both for production and improving
conditions of the farmers. The technologies
which have been the driver of growth are
given in Table.
Policy Changes for the Development of
Hor ticulture
Horticulture
National Agriculture Policy 2000 has
categorically emphasised on integrated
development of horticulture, which should
be knowledge based, technology driven and
farmers’ on integrated development
emphasised on rural institutions, reforms and
development of infrastructure. There is no
policy document for horticulture, but focus
has been given on post harvest management
in the policy paper of food processing
industries. Most notably policy change is
related to storage, processing and marketing
of horticultural produce. Backward and
forward linked marketing with reform in
agriculture produce marketing act,
encouragement for contract farming are
some of important policy changes which are
likely to impart production, quality and
competitiveness of horticultural produce.
Emerging Challenges to Hor ticultural
Research and Development in India
In the present global scenario, world is
concerned to meet food needs of growing
population. The FAO predicts that the
agricultural productivity in the world will
sustain the growing population in 2030, but
millions of people in developing countries
will starve out of food and remain hungry
due to food shortage. By 2025, 83% of the
expected global population of 8.5 billion

Table 3: List of technologies that transformed horticultureTechnologies

• Utilization of genetic resources and development of cultivars for high yield, quality and resistance / tolerance
to biotic and abiotic stresses.
• Macro & Micro propagation techniques for mass multiplication of vegetatively propagated plants

• Use of root stock to mitigate problems related with soil- biotic & abiotic stresses
• Plant architecture engineering and its management
• Reduction of production losses through efficient management of pests and diseases.
• Post harvest management to reduce post harvest losses.
• On farm processing, value addition and waste utilization 11

people will be in the developing world. The
question before us is - can we meet food
needs and provide nutrition, health care, fuel
and fibers to growing population? The
answer is - it is difficult, but not impossible.
Past experiences build the confidence that
country has achieved. It was difficult to feed
320 million populations and now we are able
to feed 1180 million people and have surplus
too. Crops which were not grown at
particular location are made to grow. Indian
Agriculture, even with high pressure on land
(17% population from 2.3% land and 4.5%
water) has fed the Indian population. In the
post-independence period, India made a
steady progress in agriculture.
Agriculture was simple, extra land and
water was available, few genes did wonder
that ushered in eGreen Revolution’reen
Revolution simple, extra land and water was
available, few genes did wonder that ushered
in es build the confidence that country has
achieved. It was difficult to feed 320 million
populations and now we are able to feed
1180 million people and have su, challenges
ahead could be converted into opportunities
for sustainable production. Horticulture has
proved to provide the best mean of
diversification and high land productivity
has been achieved with context to gross
return per hectare. But there is need to make
the sustainable development in production
of fruits, vegetables, tubers, plantations and
tuber crops for meeting the growing demand
of rising population for nutritionally rich
horticulture produce.
Table 4: Plan allocations and expenditure in horticulture research and development in India
Plan ICAR Budget for horticulture
Research (Rs. In crore)
VII 3.5
VIII 31.9
IX 208.0
X 321.7
XI 629.8
12 XII 1050.0
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Achieving the high production levels
keeping in view the present and future needs
are some of the issues, which needs to be
addressed in a systematic manner. The issues
are dynamic but they move around the
sustainability of production and
competitiveness. Challenges to feed growing
population suiting to their dietary behaviour
and nutritional requirements has to be
addressed though the drive of science and
technology, backed by enabling
environments, resource utilisation strategies
and reducing the losses. A large number of
varieties developed have been adopted by
the farmers and there is phenomenal
development in horticulture with respect to
production and growth, which has provided
the benefits to small and marginal farmers
and also consumers. But, gap between the
demand and availability continue to widen.
How to harness the potentiality and face the
challenges are the issues, which need to be
addressed. In this context, it is pertinent to
analyze the critical gaps which can be
addressed in systematic manner. Critical gap
needing attention are low productivity and
poor quality of the product, inadequacy of
infra-structural facilities for post-harvest
management and marketing, inadequate
efforts for product diversification and
consumption, inadequacy of quality seed and
planting material, inadequacy of human
resource in horticulture, lack of appropriate
database for effective planning, inadequacy
of trained manpower and infrastructure in the
states, poor delivery system, credit support/
and price support and slow pace in adoption
DAC Budget of horticulture
(Rs. In crore )
25
789
1453
4040
8086
15946
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development
of improved technology. Horticultural
development has to be seen as integrated
approach, addressing important gaps, in
harnessing the potential for horticultural
development to meet the demand as stipulated
(Fig. 2).
Diagnostic of study into the aspect of
projected growth rate in XII Plan, by the
working group in horticulture for XII plan
brought out the fact that opportunities in
horticulture has not been harnessed to its
potential, and has suggested approaches to
address the gaps with emphasis on value
chain management and addressing the
problem of urban area through urban and
peri- Urban Horticulture. Fact of under
exploitation of horticulture potential was
also highlighted in the studies of World Bank
2007. A case study of Indian Horticulture
highlighting that with the production of 11
per cent vegetables and 15 per cent fruits of
the world, its penetration is global market is
only 17 per cent and 0.5 per cent, respectively.
Although we may have satisfaction of
achieving above 6 per cent growth rate and
reaching to production level of 269 million
tones, but to harness the potential and achieve
leadership, we may have to travel a long
distance, which cannot be achieved without
knowledge empowered human recourses.
R esearch and Development Initiatives
needed to address the Challenges of
Hor ticulture
Horticulture
Most significant change in the last two
decades has been in the use of technologies
Fig. 2. Trend of horticulture production and future
projections (Million tonnes)
and private sector investment for production
system management. Investment made in
horticulture during plans have been highly
productive in transforming an agrarian
economy in many states, which has provided
insight for reversing the trend of ever
declining farmers’income and, above all
addressing the nutritional security and
environmental concerns. Impact of change
in technologies like new cultivars and
production system management is visible in
terms of increased production and
productivity, which has recorded ten-fold
increase (268 million tonnes during 2012-
13) from the level of 25 million tonnes in
1950-51. Undoubtedly, horticulture sector
has moved dynamically despite numerous
challenges and shortcomings, and is in
crucial phase of development needing
initiatives for sustainable development. To
achieve the targeted production, stipulated
in previous paragraphs, vertical growth,
through the use of new cultivars, efficient
water and nutrient management, effective
plant health management coupled with
strategies for reduced post-harvest losses
with empowered human resources could be
the approach, which would need appropriate
innovations and investment. Protected
cultivation has shown yield enhancement up
to 4 times, but would need investment. Plant
architectural engineering and management
can mitigate the problem associated with
seasonality in many crops and the enhanced
efficiency in water management, utilising
modern techniques, shall reduce water stress.
Since, horticulture provides variability and
has potential to adjust in different agro-
climatic situation, technology-led
development is inevitable, where in
horticulture education to empower the youth
with new knowledge become essential.
Research infrastructure: The Indian
Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
as an apex organization in National Research
System, has built research infrastructure for
horticultural research and education. 13

Currently, the country has 10 Central
Institutes, 27 Regional Centres, 6
Directorates of Research and National
Research Centres, 9 Multidisciplinary
Institutes and 14 All India Coordinated
Research Projects with 251 centres. There
are 4 full fledged State Horticultural
University. Besides these, work on
horticultural crops, as per the project needs,
is also done in CSIR laboratories, centres
aided by Department of Biotechnology
(DBT), Bhaba Atomic Research Centre
(BARC) and Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO).
Development infrastructure: Undoubtedly,
development of nation or sector is guided
by technology, enabling policy environment
and investment. In the country ICAR, is apex
organisation for research purpose and
education in horticulture, while Department
of Agriculture and Cooperation (DAC) is
changed with the responsibilities of
development through dissemination of
technology, investment and enabling policy
environment. Besides, the Ministry of
Agriculture, Ministry of Commerce with its
Board, Agricultural Processed Food
Products Export Development Authority
(APEDA), New Delhi and Spices Board
Kochi. Ministry of Food Processing and
Industries are also supporting the
development of Horticulture. DAC is apex
for implementation of programmes in
horticulture through, Horticulture Dependent
in the states, National Horticulture Board
(NHB), National Committee on Plasticulture
Application in Horticulture. Coconut
Development Board and Directories on
horticultural commodities, with changed
focus on horticulture, these have been an
enhanced allocation for the development, which
have attracted private investment with change
in policy of storage, processing, marketing.
Considering the needs for value chain
management, mission programmes in
horticulture have been implemented which aims
14 to:
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
• Enhance horticulture production by
providing holistic growth of the
horticulture sector through an area
based regionally differentiated strategies.
• Establish convergence and synergy
among multiple on –going and planned
programmes for horticulture development.
• Promote, develop and disseminate
technologies through a seamless blend
of traditional wisdom and modern
scientific knowledge opportunities for
employment generation for skilled and
unskilled persons, especially
unemployment youth.
After, implementation of mission
programme for horticulture development,
plan investment have increased many fold,
which have impacted the Indian horticulture,
as explained earlier, that, production has
increase from 25 million tonnes in 1959-
1951 to 268 million tones, in 2012-13. The
trend of plan allocations in horticulture
(Table 4), both for research and development
clearly indicates that for plan expenditure has
been rewarding. However, it pertinent to note
that, changes in farmers occur through
changes in technology, institution, trade and
market, and policy environment. Expectedly
next phase has to be predominated by skills
of trade and value-addition and therefore all
the efforts would be needed to have the
development strategies which are
knowledge-based, technology-driven and
farmer-centric.
In past decade development of
horticulture had enhanced planned
investment (Table 2), which witnessed the
movement of horticulture from a rural
confine to commercial production, resulting
in adoption of improved seeds, and
technologies like micro-irrigation, protected
cultivation, precision farming, integrated
management of the insect pest and diseases.
Productivity of horticultural crops increased
manifold and the sector sustained the growth
rate of 6.5 per cent. Technological support
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development
has played a key role in transforming Indian
horticulture. However, many issues have
emerged in the process of development and
are being addressed.
Dynamics of RResearch,
esearch, Education and
Development in New PParadigm
aradigm
Production of fruits, vegetables, flowers,
spices and plantation crops has been success
stories of the last decades, and to continue
to build on success, sector has to face
challenges. Therefore, there is a need to
priorities the action outlining the research,
education, development and extension, to
make this sector a key driver in rural and
regional economic development. Demand
for high value produce is growing both in
domestic and overseas market, at the same
time, competition is also increasing. New
changes in retailing participation of
corporate sector means that retailing will
depend upon strategic alliance and supply
chain management. Strengthened research
on impact assessment to climate change on
horticultural crops using controlled
environmental facilities and simulation
models, analysis of past weather data and
integration with productivity changes
(including extreme events) will be a guiding
principle of new paradigm for orientation of
education too. Production, demand and
supply of commodities, economics and trade,
sensitive stages and process during crop
development, diversity and dynamics of
major insects, microbes and pathogens,
intensification of studies on pest, disease and
weather relationships would be essentiality.
Sustainability will depend upon improving
competitiveness, reducing impact on
environment, quality assurance and food
safety and capability of communities
engaged in this sector to manage changes.
The new initiatives to strengthen the research
activities includes, are the development of
varieties with durable resistance to multiple
diseases and pests; heat, drought and salt
tolerant varieties, and varieties with efficient
nutrient and water use efficiency.
Biotechnological tools in conjunction with
conventional breeding to tag genes of interest
and in marker assisted selection is needed.
Generation of eco-region specific
technologies based on maximum
productivity of available natural resources
like climatic condition, soil fertility and
water. Developing system for productive use
of water to get enhanced water productivity
by increasing the water and nutrient use
efficiency, Technology packages for various
fruit crops as an integral component of
multifunctional agriculture of specific zone,
IT based enabling mechanism for technology
transfer, such as decision support system
needed, Holistic approach for water, nutrient,
pest and disease management with adoption
of recent ago-techniques, use of locally
available inputs and promotion of organic
farming, Identification of new and effective
bio-molecules for management of biotic
stresses for eco friendly and sustainable
management of diseases and pests, new
innovative diagnostic techniques for rapid,
accurate and cost effective detection of high
impact pests and diseases. Integrated
management system for emerging diseases
and pests would minimize the health risks.
Post-harvest technologies to improve
product quality and minimize environmental
impacts, increasing the value of production
by reducing variability in yield, quality,
reducing crop losses and increasing
marketability would be crucial to minimize
the losses. Production systems that
minimizes wastes and maximizes recycling
will enhance resource efficiency. Plenty of
wind and solar energy is available in the
various ago-climatic zones, which can be
utilized in mechanization, such as running
of small equipments and dehydration of fruit
and fruit based products. There is
tremendous potential of processing of
horticultural produce. Therefore,
establishment of processing units,
standardization of recipes for various 15

products, certification and marketing
network etc. should be given priority.
Adoption of sustainable path for
development to meet challenges in fruit
production through proper technological
innovations and interventions, specifically
in areas like value chain management, is
needed to improve global competitiveness.
Inter institutional mechanisms to network
and review the ongoing program of
biotechnology, cost effective production
technologies, post harvest technology, farm
mechanization, transfer of technology and
organic farming is essential to provide
strategic direction. Improving the
understanding of interactions between native
ecosystems and production systems and
developing best practices to conserve
biodiversity is essential.Understanding of
social needs of communities and to build the
capabilities for practice change, and for
effective utilization of resources and
adoption of technology would facilitate
accelerated adoption of improved
technologies and best practices and, respond
to needs including bio-security threats.
Influence of Climate Change on Hor ticulture
Horticulture
crops
The earth has to maintain the balance
between the energy that reaches it from the
sun and the energy that goes from earth back
to space. This means that, even a small rise
in temperature could mean accompanying
changes in cloud cover and wind patterns.
Some of these changes may enhance the
warming, while others may counteract.
Cooling effect may result from an increase
in the levels of aerosols (small particles of
matter or liquid that can be produced by
natural or man-made activities). Positive
feedback may result from an increase in
water vapour due to high evaporation with
rise in temperature and can further add to
the warming effect. The significant change
may impact /horticulture/ and consequently
16 food supply. Climate change per se is not
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
necessarily harmful, but the problems arise
from extreme events that are difficult to
predict, like more erratic rainfall pattern and
unpredicted warm spells shall affect
productivity. At the same time, more
availability of CO2 would help in improved
yield of root crops and increased temperature
may shorten the period.
The vulnerability of horticultural crops
to climate change depends on both the
expected regional climate change and the
sector ’s ability to adapt. The projected
increases in temperature, variability in
precipitation patterns, increase in frequency
of extreme weather events such as heat, cold
waves, frost days, droughts, floods would
severely affect the production of horticultural
commodities. These stresses at different crop
developmental phases in varying intensities
would ultimately determine productivity and
quality. The emission of carbon dioxide due
to anthropogenic activities has enriched the
atmosphere. The carbon dioxide enrichment
influences the carbon fixation and
productivity of crops. The studies suggest a
positive effect of increase in atmospheric
carbon dioxide in C3 photosynthetic pathway
crops, promoting their growth and
productivity. The studies also indicate the
increase in water use efficiency (WUE) of
crops due to reduction in transpiration rates.
However, the adverse effects of associated
excessive heat and drought stress might
offset the positive effects of elevated CO2.
The interplay of all these factors associated
with climate change would subsequently
determine the extent of impact on different
crops in different agro-ecological regions. It
could bring about both adverse and
beneficial impacts on crop production
depending on the prevailing climatic
conditions of the agro-ecological regions,
crop species and season. It could affect the
growth, development and quality of
horticultural crops and alter the zones of crop
adaptation.
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development
We need quick and clear understanding
of impact of climate change on horticultural
crops for making sound action plan because
horticulture based farming systems have
high potential for sequestering carbon for
mitigation of climate change. The perennial
trees act as carbon sinks by sequestering the
atmospheric carbon. The carbon credits
could be earned under the clean development
mechanism (CDM). The horticultural waste
could be composted locally instead of
dumping in the landfills, which can reduce
the release of global warming methane that
is involved in global warming. The organic
waste could also be used for generating
biogas as an alternate energy source. There
are considerable uncertainties about
agronomic implications of horticultural
crops. Predicting impact of climate change
on horticultural crops accurately on regional
scale is a big problem. It can be
accomplished only by a modeling approach
through well-validated robust crop
Managing Climate Change by Climate Smar
Smartt
Hor ticulture
Horticulture
The issues of climate change and
solution to the problems arising out of it
requires local analysis, planning and
management which could be managed
through innovation, technology evaluation
and refinement to provide effective solutions
to the problems. Potential impacts of climate
change depend not only on climate per se,
but also on the system management and
solution to the problems arising out of it
requires local analysis, planning and
management which could be managed
through innovation, technology evaluation
and ability of individual crop in an agro-
ecological region and the growing season.
The crop based adaptation strategies need
to be developed, integrating all available
options to sustain the productivity. The
scientists have already developed several
technologies to cope with extreme events
like high temperature, frost and limited and
excess moisture stress conditions. These
available technologies could be integrated
and made use to reduce the adverse impacts
of climate change and climate variability.
Further emphasis need to be put on
developing the crop, agro-ecological region
and season-based technologies to reduce the
impacts and increase the resilience of
horticultural production systems to climate
change. To address the adverse impacts of
climate change on productivity and quality
of horticultural crops, we need to develop
sound adaptation strategies.
Climate Smart Horticulture is a
production system for improved water-use
efficiency and to adapt to the hot and dry
conditions. Strategies like changing sowing
or planting dates in order to combat the likely
increase in temperature and water stress
periods during the crop-growing season.
Modifying fertilizer application to enhance
nutrient availability and use of soil
amendments to improve soil fertility and
enhance nutrient uptake. Providing irrigation
during critical stages of the crop growth and
conservation of soil moisture reserves are the
most important interventions. The crop
management practices like mulching with
crop residues and plastic mulches help in
conserving soil moisture. In some instances
excessive soil moisture due to heavy rain
becomes major problem and it could be
overcome by growing crops on raised beds.
Production of vegetables could be taken up
using clear plastic rain shelters, which can
reduce the direct impact on developing fruits
and also reduce the field water logging
during rainy season. Planting of vegetables
on raised beds during rainy season will
increase the yield due to improved drainage
and reduced anoxic stress to the root system.
Use of rootstock tolerant would provide the
scion cultivars with tolerance to soil related
environmental stresses such as drought,
salinity, low soil temperature and flooding.
Hor ticulture as Protective food for Health
Horticulture 17

Care
Household food insecurity is one of the
three underlying causes of malnutrition, as
physical, social and economic access to food
by all people at all times to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food which meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life is food security. Thus, food
insecurity exists when people lack access to
sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food
and is therefore not consuming the food
required for normal growth and
development, and for an active and healthy
life. This may be due to the unavailability of
food, insufficient purchasing power,
inappropriate distribution, or inadequate
utilization at household level. Food
insecurity, poor conditions of health and
sanitation, and inappropriate social and care
environment are the major causes of poor
nutritional status. Given below are name of
the various vitamins and minerals that are
required by the human body. Amount of
these vitamins and mineral that is needed by
the human body can be provided with diet
having combination of fruits, vegetables,
mushroom, spices, coconut and other. Even
non- edible horticulture like plant and
flowers have proved to be essential for good
health. Aromas from flowers are used for
therapy. Thus, horticulture is being now
practiced as protective food and therapy.
Urban and PPeri-Urban
eri-Urban Hor ticulture/
Environmental Hor ticulture
Horticulture
Trees, potted plants and flowers are not
only valued for its aesthetically appealing
entities of nature, but the research data have
evidently proven that many kind of diseases
including depression could be prevented if
we are surrounded with plants and flowers.
This is also proven that work efficiency is
enhanced by 25-30 per cent if workers have
exposure to flowers. In the current context
of climate change, landscape gardening, both
interior and exterior, has become inevitable
18 to service the environment. Recognising the
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
importance of plants and flowers to the
mankind, ancient culture has advocated the
use of flowers, and the living styles have
been interwoven with garden, plant and
flower. Evidently, Love or sorrow is
expressed with the colour of flowers.
However, the quest for food during the
development deviated us from the need of
flowers for health. With the realisation, that
plants and flowers are important, there is
now a growing interest in urban and per-
urban horticulture, since, and plants offer
environmental and ecological services along
with aesthetic values.
Trees and other ornamental plants are
crucial to the sequestration of carbon form
atmosphere and play an important role in
reducing carbon foot print. Flowering /
foliage plants in the garden not only add
beauty but also help to improve the
ecosystem. In the cities, environmental
benefits and synergies can be achieved when
horticulture is planned as a part of the urban
landscape including safe recycling of solid
waste and wastewater. The country has
responded to the needs for effective urban
and peri-urban horticulture with emphasis
on green space, green building, development
of parks and gardens, and promotion of peri-
urban vegetables production, but there
continue to be a gap in integration.
Therefore, design of UPH must include an
element of urban and peri-urban horticulture
aimed at improving access to food and
advancing the livelihoods of people living
in and around cities besides servicing the
environment.
Urban and peri-urban horticulture is a
necessity rather than a demand. This has
become a key component of the survival
strategies. UPH could be a source of
employment and has the potential to improve
the nutritional security of urban residents.
Horticultural products @400g/ person/day
can prevent non-communicable diseases and
improve the health. In urban and peri-urban
area horticulture becomes vital to address the
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development
challenges emerging owing to rapid
urbanization of cities and small towns.
Initiatives of peri-urban vegetables
production alone cannot be enough for the
dimension of challenges, which is complex
and high in proportion. This necessitates
holistic approaches having vertical and
horizontal integration of the efforts of all the
stakeholders, which should address all the
links in chain of UPH development
concurrently.
New paradigm production system-
Hydroponics and Aeroponics
With pest problems reduced, and
nutrients constantly fed to the roots,
productivity in hydroponics is high, although
plant growth can be limited by the low levels
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, or
limited light exposure. To increase yield
further, CO2 enrichment is done in green
house. Due to disease-free environment that
is unique to aeroponics, many plants can
grow at higher density (plants per square
meter) when compared to more traditional
forms of cultivation (hydroponics, soil and
Nutrient Film Technique [NFT]).
Commercial aeroponic systems incorporate
hardware features that accommodate the
crop’s expanding root systems. Aeroponic
equipment involves the use of sprayers,
misters, foggers, or other devices to create a
fine mist of solution to deliver nutrients to
plant roots. Aeroponic systems are normally
closed-looped systems providing macro and
micro-environments suitable to sustain a
reliable, constant air culture. Commercial
aeroponic systems comprise high-pressure
device hardware and biological systems. The
biological systems matrix includes
enhancements for extended plant life and
crop maturation. Biological subsystems and
hardware components include effluent
controls systems, disease prevention,
pathogen resistance features, precision
timing and nutrient solution pressurization,
heating and cooling sensors, thermal control
of solutions, efficient photon-flux light
arrays, spectrum filtration spanning, fail-safe
sensors and protection, reduced maintenance
& labor saving features, and ergonomics and
long-term reliability features. Commercial
aeroponic systems, like the high-pressure
devices, are used for the cultivation of high
value crops where multiple crop rotations are
achieved on an ongoing commercial basis.
Since, aeroponics allowed the whole process
to be carried out in a single, automated unit,
any plant activities could be taken up.
Aeroponics eventually has left the
laboratories and entered into the commercial
cultivation arena.
Aeroponics allows more control of the
environment around the root zone, as, unlike
other plant growth systems, the plant roots
are not constantly surrounded by some
medium (as, for example, with hydroponics,
where the roots are constantly immersed in
water). A variety of different nutrient
solutions can be administered to the root
zone using aeroponics without needing to
flush out any solution or matrix in which the
roots had previously been immersed. This
elevated level of control would be useful, a
varied regimen of nutrient application to the
roots of a plant species of interest. In a
similar manner, aeroponics allows a greater
range of growth conditions than other
nutrient delivery systems. The interval and
duration of the nutrient spray, for example,
can be very finely attuned to the needs of a
specific plant species. The aerial tissue can
be subjected to a completely different
environment from that of the roots.
Aeroponic systems are more cost effective
than other systems. Because of the reduced
volume of solution throughput, less water
and less nutrients are needed in the system
at any given time compared to other nutrient
delivery systems. The need for substrates is
also eliminated. Evidently hydroponics or
aeroponics is emerging as an option for
commercial exploitation especially in urban
and peri-urban area for growing fruits,
vegetables and flowers. 19

Education and Skill Development
In India, an emerging economy, a key
challenge is to harness and sustain the
strength and achievements in technologies
developed in horticulture. While packing the
way through capacity building and new
modalities of training for traditional farmers
as well as IT –Savy younger generation, it is
essential that knowledge significant for the
economy is imparted. Since, the path, ahead
of Indian horticulture, is driving to Hi-tech
horticulture, institutions and learning centres
would be essentially required to serve as
knowledge bank and evolve as an interactive
learning centre backed by comprehensive
research and hands on training. Such
learning centre should provide superior
learning opportunity along with perfect blend
of practical training. Manpower and
technology development through education
and research has to be in accordance with
the present day need; both qualitatively and
quantitatively. Present day demand is
influenced by the development in the recent
past, such as nutritional security, food safety,
environment safety, commercialization and
globalization of horticulture and avoiding
huge post-harvest losses have to be met
through manpower and technological
development. Accordingly, the course
curriculums for graduate and post-graduate
Table 5: Trend (Decadal) of production, achieved, to be achieved and estimated
Year Production (million tones)
1950-51 25.00
1990-91 98.60
2000-01 143.80
2010-11 244.50
2012-13 268.90
2013-14 280.20
2020-21 358.40
2050-51 (Estimated) 696.80
20 (Estimates are based on trend of growth in population, urbanization, income and dietary change)
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
courses have to be redesigned. The course,
programmes and the course contents have
to be reformulated compatible to the
changing scenario, for achieving science and
technology led horticulture development.
Outlook of hor ticulture for livelihood and
horticulture
r ural development
When we look back and think, many
questions arise in our mind- what have we
achieved? Where have we faultered? Can the
current business will address the challenges?
What type of innovations in terms of
technology, management and policy are
required? Many answers comes from a report
of Global Harvest initiative on Agriculture
– 2014. Agricultural output has to be more
than double to meet the needs of food,
nutrition feed, fibre and food by 2050. It is
predicted that current population of 7.18
billion will be 9.6 billion. Urbanization will
accelerate (54% to 66%). Middle class will
grow from 50 per cent to 70 per cent. Dietary
change will need more fruits, vegetables,
livestock and poultry. There will be higher
demand for water and land. Agriculture will
need to adapt to climate change. Therefore,
use of science-based and information
technologies, improved practices and
forward looking policies would be needed
to address the challenges. In this context,
Annual Production Difference Year
- - -
1.84 73.40 40
4.72 47.2 10
10.07 100.7 10
12.40 24.4 2
11.40 11.4 1
11.17 78.2 7
11.28 338.4 30
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development
innovations to produce more with less have
to be achieved. Total factor productivity
(TFT) has to grow and policies have to be
which promote sustainability.
Visualizing the changes, which will take
place by mid of the century utilizing pioneer
of science, bring in innovations in
technology, having focus on value chain
management starting from choice of cultivar
till it reaches to consumer would be
essentially needed. This will provide a much
needed option for livelihood leading to rural
development. Therefore, Smart Horticulture
is needed to be persuaded. Many case studies
suggest that there has been a phenomenal
changes in the villages, where horticulture
has been adopted. Growth in horticulture has
not only provided increased returns to
farmers but it provided many non-agriculture
livelihood options.
Conclusion and a Way FFor
Way or ward
orward
The decade has witnessed the emergence
of horticulture as commercial enterprise
moving from rural confine, owning to
technological advancement, policy
environment and investment in research,
education and development. The production,
productivity and export of horticultural
produce have increased many fold. Despite
achievements in horticulture sector, the
challenges confronting are still many. With
increase in per capita income and accelerated
growth of health conscious population,
coupled with rapid urbanization, demand for
horticultural produce is on increase, which
is expected to further accelerate. However,
the increased production has to be achieved
with declining land and water in changing
climate. At the same time, growing
competition in open economy demands
competitive price of standard quality
produce. This opens up opportunity and
challenges. Hence, the potentialities of
horticulture has to be harnessed utilizing
power of knowledge and sustain the gains.
Development of improved cultivars with
high quality characteristics, productivity,
resistance to pest and disease and tolerant to
abiotic stresses and technologies for
improving the efficiency of water and
nutrients by reducing variability in yield,
quality and reducing pre and post harvest
crop losses are the priory to address the
challenges. The crop monitoring mechanism,
ensuring timely availability of inputs,
efficient delivery system and technical
backstopping would be needed as integrated
approach. Emerging challenges, thus, require
sustained research and human capital to
improve competitiveness, enhance
efficiency of production system, assuring
quality and safety and improved capability
of community to manage the change.
Consequently, technology driven
horticulture will contribute significantly for
economic development. In the context of
threat of climate change, climate smart
horticulture (CHS) has provided options for
sustainability, but it has many technological
challenges and issues of human resource
development. In order to achieve vibrant,
responsive and climate smart horticulture,
which is eco-friendly, equitable, sustainable
and economically productive, new frontiers
of science and knowledge and human
resource would have to be explored.
Essentiality, the technologies must have
potential to increase the value of production
by reducing variability and increasing the
marketability. This paradigm necessitates for
knowledge empowered human resource who
can provide leadership in technology
development and policy formulation to
attract investment, and keep the pace of
development. Scientifically practiced
horticulture would provide multiple options
for livelihood resulting in rural
Development.
21
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 22-31, 2015

Bio -technological Approaches for Quick

Bio-technological
Deduction of Adaptation and Mitigation to
Climate Change for Improved Livelihood Option
N.K. SRINIVASA RAO
Principal Scientist (Retd) and Ex-Emeritus Scientist
IIHR, Bangalore 560089 Karnataka

Introduction in India is rainfed and agricultural production

India has a wide range of region specific
climatic conditions. The Northern region of
the country experiences extreme winters
whereas tropical conditions prevail in the
Southern peninsular region. The North-
eastern regions are characterized by hot and
humid climate whereas the North-western
regions are characterized by dry and arid
conditions. Rainfall during the monsoon
season (June-September) is the key element
of the Indian climate and continues to be the
primary source of water for the large rainfed
agricultural regions in the country. Variability
in monsoon related weather and climatic
conditions is, therefore, regarded as the
primary cause of spatial and temporal
fluctuations in agricultural yields. The
departure in minimum and maximum
temperatures above or below the optimum
value influences plant physiological
conditions viz., respiration, water
requirement and growth, thereby affecting
yields. Extreme weather conditions such as
floods, droughts, heat and cold waves, flash
floods, cyclones, hail storms, etc. are
constant hazards for agricultural production.
Even subtle fluctuations in weather
conditions during critical phases of crop
development have substantial impact on
yields. Since majority of the cultivated land
is heavily dependent on the monsoons,
agriculture productivity and the well being
of the Indian farmer is sensitive to climatic
variability. However, while on the one hand,
agriculture sector is likely to get affected due
to climate change, on the other hand, the
sector can also join hands with other sectors
in controlling emission of Green House
Gases (GHG). Risks to the agricultural
system from changing climatic conditions
can be identified at three levels: the crop (or
livestock) level, the farm (or cropping
system) level and at the food system level
(IPCC, 2007).
Climatic variability directly impacts
yields at crop level and also affects soil
quality; water resources; brings in pests,
diseases and weeds etc. further aggravating
the impact on the cropping system, thereby
reducing the yield per hectare of land or per
unit of livestock at the farm level. At the crop
level, in the short term, increase in carbon
dioxide (CO2) concentration is likely to
compensate the negative effect on yields due
to increase in temperature, but as
temperature increases further, it would result
in yield losses. Most crop simulation studies
have predicted a decrease in the yield of
crops with an increase in temperature.
Further, adverse temperature and moisture
Bio-technological Approaches for Quick Deduction of Adaptation & Mitigation to Climate Change for
Improved Livelihood Option
conditions affect the quality of food grains.
Climate change is also likely to have
significant effect on the quality of plantation
and cash crops such as cotton, fruits,
vegetables, tea, coffee, aromatic & medicinal
plants, etc. The damage to crops caused by
pests, pathogens and weeds increases due to
higher ambient temperature. Change in
climate is likely to bring about a change in
the population dynamics, growth and
distribution of insects and pests thereby,
upsetting crop-pest balance. Drought
conditions would increase pathogen and
insect survival rate due to change in plant
nutrient level and decrease in plant defence
system . These changes could lead to
enormous crop losses in altered environment.
The impact of climate change resulting
in warming, changes in precipitation
patterns, increased frequency of extreme
events, rise in sea level etc. would affect the
water balance and water quality in different
parts of the country. Changes in rainfall
patterns can cause water shortages in some
regions which, combined with thermal stress
due to higher mean temperature, can
adversely affect crops. Moreover, change in
precipitation patterns and amounts, and
variation in temperature may degrade soil
quality, reduce soil moisture content and
affect microbial diversity, which in turn
affect crop growth. An increase in
temperature also leads to increased
evapotranspiration (ET), thereby lowering
groundwater table and adversely affecting
irrigation potential. At some places,
increased surface temperature coupled with
reduced rainfall may lead to accumulation
of salts in upper soil layers. Similarly, a rise
in sea level associated with increased
temperature may lead to sea water ingress
in the coastal lands, making them unsuitable
for conventional agriculture.
Need for a d a p t a t i o n a n d m i t i g a t i o n
s t r a t e g i es
Adaptation and mitigation measures
needed for transforming Indian agriculture
into a climate risk-resilient mode would have
to focus on key dimensions in order to
synergize strategies for programmatic
interventions. These key dimensions are the
areas that need to be addressed due to the
risks emanating from climate change.
Mitigation of climate change involves
actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and sequestering or storing carbon in the
short-term and making development choices
that will lead to low emissions in the long-
term. Adaptation to climate change involves
adjustments in natural or human systems and
behaviours that reduce the risks posed by
climate change to people’s lives and
livelihoods.
(i) Best practices for mitigating climate
change in the food and agriculture sector
include:
(a) Reducing emissions of carbon dioxide
and other greenhouse gases, e.g.,
through reduction in the rate of land
conversion, better control of wildfires,
finding alternatives to the practice of
burning crop residues after harvest,
reduction of emissions from
commercial fishing operations, and
more efficient energy use by
commercial agriculture and agro-
industries.
(b) Reducing emissions of methane and
nitrous oxide, e.g., through improving
nutrition for ruminant livestock, more
efficient management of livestock
waste, more efficient management of
irrigation water in rice, more efficient
management of applications of
nitrogen fertilizer on cultivated fields
and reclamation of treated municipal
wastewater for aquifer recharge and
irrigation.
(c) Sequestering carbon, e.g., through
improving soil organic matter
management with techniques such as
conservation agriculture, involving 23

permanent organic soil cover,
minimum mechanical soil disturbance
and crop rotation (also saves on fossil
fuel usage); improved management of
pastures and grazing practices on
natural grasslands, including by
optimizing stock numbers, rotational
grazing; introduction of integrated
agro-forestry systems that combine
crops, grazing lands and trees in
ecologically sustainable ways; use of
degraded, marginal lands for
productive planted forests or other
cellulose biomass for alternative fuels;
and carbon sink tree plantings.
(d) Water use Efficiency: Raising
productivity from improved agricultural
water management will be key to
ensure global food supply and global
food security. 55% of the cultivated
land in India is rainfed and suffers from
water scarcity. Effective management
of available water, increasing water use
efficiency and establishment of
additional sustainable sources of water
emerge as the primary issues that need
to be addressed. Strategies under this
dimension would focus on the
application of a range of technologies
coupled with demand and supply side
management solutions to enhance
water use efficiency for irrigation.
While some technologies are available
for direct application and can be
implemented in the short term, there
are other emerging areas like
recharging of aquifers, conjunctive use
of surface and ground water, controlled
extractions, etc. that would require
collaboration and capacity building for
technology absorption before being put
into sustainable use. The role of local
institutions in managing water
allocation and utilization will also be
crucial for promoting efficiency.
(e) Pest Management: Pesticide
24
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
consumption in India has increased
over time and its injudicious use has
created problems like development of
resistant strains in insects and plant
pathogens, resurgence of pest species,
direct exposure to the applicator,
destruction of parasites, predators, and
other beneficial organisms,
accumulation of pesticide residues in
agricultural commodities, water, air
and soil etc. Pesticide residues in feed
and water affect livestock health due
to direct and indirect exposure in the
course of pest control measures.
Strategies suggested under this
intervention have to primarily focus on
establishment of decision and
information support systems for pest
and disease surveillance,
demonstration of best practices and
quick response mechanism that are at
par with the norms to deal with other
disasters or natural calamities.
(f) Nutrient Management: Plant nutrient
management to increase soil nutrients
use efficiency and thus enhance crop
productivity is a major technological
challenge for ensuring food security
and sustaining rural development.
Plant nutrition management is essential
to sustain and enhance crop
productivity to meet the demand for
food and raw materials, and to
maintain the quality of land and water
resources. To ensure soil health,
accurate inventorization of soil
resources is a prerequisite. Soil health
can be improved through several site
and soil-specific management options.
Application of integrated nutrient
management techniques has been
found to increase nutrient use
efficiency by integrating and balancing
the nutrient dose in relation to nutrient
status and crop requirements.
(ii) Best practices for adapting to climate
Bio-technological Approaches for Quick Deduction of Adaptation & Mitigation to Climate Change for
Improved Livelihood Option
change in the food and agriculture
sector include:
(a) Protecting local food supplies, assets
and livelihoods against the effects of
increasing weather variability and
increased frequency and intensity of
extreme events through risk
management in general and for risks
specific to different ecosystems
(marine, coastal, inland flood plains,
forest, dryland, island, mountain,
polar), through research and
dissemination of crop varieties and
breeds adapted to changing climatic
conditions and through introduction of
tree crops to provide food, fodder and
energy and enhance cash income.
(b) Avoiding disruptions or declines in
global and local food supplies due to
changes in temperature and
precipitation regimes through more
efficient agricultural water
management in general, more efficient
management of irrigation water on rice
paddies, improved management of
cultivated land, improved livestock
management and use of new, more
energy-efficient technologies by agro-
industries.
(c) Protecting ecosystems through
provision of environmental services,
e.g., use of degraded or marginal lands
for productive planted forests or other
cellulose biomass for alternative fuels,
CDM carbon sink tree plantings,
watershed protection, prevention of
land degradation, protection of coastal
areas from cyclones and other coastal
hazards, preservation of mangroves
and their contribution to coastal
fisheries, and biodiversity
conservation. Practices that constitute
adaptive responses to climate change
have been advocated as good practices
for sustainable management of forests,
grasslands, fisheries, livestock and
arable croplands. However, incentives
to make their adoption attractive are
often lacking. These can take several
forms, including information,
technology transfer and regulations as
well as both positive and negative
monetary incentives. One relatively
new incentive mechanisms is
payments for environmental services
where farmers and communities are
compensated for the climate change
mitigation benefits they generate
through changes in upper watershed
management, management of
protected areas, rehabilitation and
sustainable management of grasslands,
and reforestation and afforestation.
These payments could potentially also
increase adaptation capacity, since
many locations where better ecosystem
management and use of more
sustainable food production practices
are most needed are often those where
current livelihood systems are most
vulnerable to increasing climate
variability as a consequence of climate
change. If well designed, such
payments could increase the capacity
of food producers to insure against risk
by diversifying income sources, and
also potentially increase employment
opportunities for women and youth. As
their income source would be more
secure, they could be more inclined to
invest in inputs, such as tools needed
for adapted land management
practices. This increased demand
would in turn inspire the private-sector
input-supply chain to make the
required equipments and inputs
available in the local markets at
competitive prices.
Biotechnology and Climate Change
Biotechnology is an important tool for
the development of genetic resources with
greater adaptive capacity to cope with 25

changing environments. It has huge potential
for combating vulnerabilities in crops,
livestock and fisheries. Region specific
vulnerability and impact assessment studies
using crop growth simulation models are
necessary to identify and formulate suitable
interventions. Research and promotion of
higher carbon (C4) pathways in low carbon
(C3) plants (NAPCC, 2008) and genetic
manipulation of enzymes such as RuBisco
would help in increasing effectiveness of use
of CO2 and thus helping reduction in GHG
emissions. The rich indigenous genetic
resources in the crops, livestock and fisheries
sectors should be conserved, catalogued and
advantageously used while also conserving
the agricultural heritage of the country.
Relevant technologies should be used for
rapid bulking of improved varieties of crops,
livestock and fishes. Public private
partnerships should be promoted in
development, management and dissemination
of the improved varieties.
Promoting agro -biodiversity is cr
agro-biodiversity ucial for
crucial
local adaptation and resilience
Biodiversity in all its manifestations,
e.g., genes, species, ecosystems, increases
resilience to changing environmental
conditions and stresses. Genetically diverse
populations and species rich ecosystems
have greater potential to adapt to climate
change. FAO promotes the use of indigenous
and locally adapted diversity of plants and
animals as well as the selection and
multiplication of crop varieties and
autochthonous races adapted or resistant to
adverse conditions. Effective use of genetic
resources can reduce negative effects of
climate change on agricultural production
and farmer livelihoods. Moreover, as it is
women who are traditionally the carriers of
local knowledge about the properties and
uses of wild plants and the keepers of seeds
for cultivated varieties, they have an
important role to play in protecting
26 biodiversity. Providing appropriate
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
compensation for this service could
guarantee a sustainable livelihood to these
women, many of whom belong to vulnerable
and food insecure groups. Breeding plants
and animals for tolerance to drought, heat
stress, salinity and flooding will also become
increasingly important. FAO is actively
promoting rebuilding of national capacities
in developing countries to breed such crops,
especially those that are not being attended
to by the private sector. The Global
Partnership Initiative for Plant Breeding
Capacity Building (GIPB), facilitated by
FAO, was launched on the margins of the
first Governing Body Meeting of the
International Treaty on Plant Genetic
Resources and intends to contribute to
Article 6 of the Treaty with respect to
sustainable use of plant genetic resources.
Application of Biotechnology to Climate
Change
The application of modern biotechnology
can play an important role in climate change
adaptation and mitigation (James, 2013).
These are opportunities unique to agriculture.
For example, the application of modern
biotechnology such as bioinformatics and
genomic could produce a greater array of
nitrogen-fixing crops (Bull et al., 2000),
thereby reducing the need for chemical
fertilizers. The development of new biotech
crops of different varieties that can withstand
biotic and abiotic stress due to climate
change also has an important role in
combating poverty and support food security
in developing countries. This has often led
to debates about the use of modern
biotechnology, particularly GMOs, to create
crops with the ability to adapt to possible
changes such as insect pests, pathogens,
weeds, water quantity and soil erosion.
Conventional biotechnology such as tissue
culture has been useful in creating drought
tolerant crops such as millet, sunflower and
sorghum (Apse and Blumwald, 2002) and
has been successful in solving some pest
Bio-technological Approaches for Quick Deduction of Adaptation & Mitigation to Climate Change for
Improved Livelihood Option
problems in many developing countries
(Gressel et al., 2004). However, this
approach seems ineffective due to a number
of reasons. Conventional breeding; 1) can
take many years of preparation to create pure
lines of hybrid; 2) hybridization of the two
pure lines is sometimes done manually; 3)
inferior yields and vigor represent a
significant constraint among the hybrids.
Unlike conventional breeding, advanced
biotechnology, namely genetic modification
(GM) technology provides opportunity to
transfer gene from organism to another or
between species that cannot cross naturally.
This innovation broadens the potential
sources of characteristics for improved
varieties of crops that can withstand pests,
diseases and environmental stresses. In
particular, GM technology offers a directed
approach to target specific traits for
adaptation and mitigation to climate change.
Crops have been genetically modified to
enhance their NUE by effectively limiting
the input of N fertilizers in crop production
(McAllister et al., 2012; Strange et al.,
2008). For example, analysis of life-cycle
assessment of GM canola targeted for
nitrogen use efficiency showed reduced
impact of freshwater ecotoxicity,
eutrophication and acidification (Strange et
al., 2008). There is some evidence that GM
technology has made a significant impact in
contributing to the reduction of GHG
emissions both in developed and developing
countries. For example, the adoption of GM
crops have reduced GHG emissions by
lowering the amount of fertilizer and
pesticide applications and simultaneously
increasing the yields mostly in developing
countries in the past 17 years (Brookes and
Barfoot, 2010; Brookes and Barfoot, 2012;
James, 2012). In fact, James (2013) claims
that resource-poor farmers from developing
countries benefit most in terms of GM
adoption. He argues that adoption of GM
crops is five times larger in developing
countries (8.7 million hectares) than
industrialized ones (1.6 million hectares),
and that GM crops deliver substantial and
sustainable socio-economic and environmental
benefits. Brookes and Barfoot (2012) point
that CO2 emission was reduced by 19 billion
kg in 2010 -the equivalent of removing about
9 million cars off the road and conserving
biodiversity, thereby saving 91 million
hectares of land in the world. Moreover, a
recent analysis of environmental benefits of
Bt cotton production from 1990 to 2010 in
six provinces in China shows decreased
abundance of aphid pests associated with
widespread adoption of Bt cotton and
reduced levels of chemical spray (e.g.,
insecticide) (Lui et al., 2012). This advantage
can be understood as an energy efficient
technology, saving natural gas and reducing
fuel consumption through agricultural
science.
For the development of traits and
varieties that help to mitigate and adapt to
climate change, agricultural biotechnology
stands out as an especially promising set of
tools. While it remains controversial in some
policy arenas and public flora, agricultural
biotechnology has produced dramatic
improvements in yield and reductions in
production costs and input use intensity.
Many of the promising traits and varieties
discussed above owe their existence to
biotechnology, including genetically
modified crops with pest resistance (Bt) and
herbicide tolerance (Roundup Ready) and
conventionally bred varieties that benefit
from breeding tools such as marker selection
and tissue culture.
The drought and salt tolerant traits that
are beginning to emerge are largely the
product of biotechnology. Genetically
modified crops have benefited agriculture in
many ways and in many locales – and they
have simultaneously reduced GHG emissions
by reducing demand for cultivated land and
fossil fuel-based inputs. These reductions are
most direct in the case of Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt) crops, which require fewer
pesticide sprays. Although less direct, 27

herbicide tolerance can also reduce
emissions by enabling farmers to more
readily adopt reduced- or no-till systems.
These ‘conservation agriculture’ techniques
(discussed in greater detail below) save fuel
by reducing the need to plow and add carbon
to the soil and thereby sequester carbon. In
2007 alone, a year when GM crops were
grown on only 7% of arable land in the
world, the total reduction due to both the
direct and indirect emission effects of GM
crops amounted to over 14,200 million kg
of CO2 – the equivalent of removing over 6
million cars from circulation (Brookes and
Barfoot, 2009).
Agricultural biotechnology has
revolutionized plant breeding in ways that
relax some of these agronomic constraints.
For example, breeders can now transfer and
insert new crop traits with near surgical
precision. These techniques can streamline
the process of adapting varieties for local
conditions, but they can also raise a new set
of potential impediments in the form of
biotechnology regulations and IP constraints.
A lack of bio safety regulations in developing
countries, in addition to restrictions on GM
crops emanating from developed countries,
have made it difficult for developing
countries to take advantage of new
downstream technologies.
There is a strong rationale for an
increasing focus on adaptation of agriculture
to climate change. This need arises from
several considerations: 1. Past emissions of
greenhouse gases have already committed
the globe to further warming of 0.1 °C per
decade for several decades , making some
level of impact, and necessary adaptation
responses, already unavoidable. 2. The
emissions of the major greenhouse gases are
continuing to increase , with the resultant
changes in atmospheric CO2 concentration,
global temperature, and sea level observed
today already at the high end of those implied
by the scenarios considered by the
28 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
(IPCC, 2007). Furthermore, some climate
change impacts are happening faster than
previously expected. If these trends continue,
then more proactive and rapid adaptation
will be needed. 3. There is currently a lack
of progress in developing global emission-
reduction agreements beyond the Kyoto
Protocol, leading to concerns about the level
of future emissions and hence climate
changes and associated impacts. 4. The high
end of the scenario range for climate change
has increased over time and these potentially
higher global temperatures may have
nonlinear and increasingly negative impacts
on existing agricultural activities. 5. Climate
changes may also provide opportunities for
agricultural investment, rewarding early
action taken to capitalize on these options.
Biotech Crops Contribution to FFood ood
Security
Security,, Sustainability and Climate Chan ge
Change
From 1996 to 2011, biotech crops
contributed to Food Security, Sustainability
and Climate Change by: increasing crop
production valued at US$98.2 billion;
providing a better environment, by saving
473 million kg a.i. of pesticides; reducing
CO2 emissions by 23.1 billion kg in 2011
alone equivalent to taking 10.2 million cars
off the road; conserving biodiversity by
saving 108.7 million hectares of land; and
alleviating poverty by helping >15 million
small farm families totalling >50 million
people, who are some of the poorest people
in the world. Biotech crops are essential but
are not a panacea and adherence to good
farming practices such as rotations and
resistance management, are a must for
biotech crops as for conventional crops.
Contribution of biotech crops to
sustainability
Biotech crops are contributing to
sustainability in the following five ways:
• Contributing to food, feed and fiber
security, and self sufficiency,
including more affordable food, by
Bio-technological Approaches for Quick Deduction of Adaptation & Mitigation to Climate Change for
Improved Livelihood Option
increasing productivity and
economic benefits sustainably at the
farmer level
Economic gains at the farm level of
~US$98.2 billion were generated globally by
biotech crops during the sixteen year period
1996 to 2011, of which 51% were due to
reduced production costs (less ploughing,
fewer pesticide sprays and less labor) and
49% due to substantial yield gains of 328
million tons. The corresponding figures for
2011 alone was 78% of the total gain due to
increased yield (equivalent to 50.2 million
tons), and 22% due to lower cost of
production (Brookes and Barfoot, 2013).
• Conserving biodiversity, biotech
crops are a land saving technology
Biotech crops are a land-saving
technology, capable of higher productivity
on the current 1.5 billion hectares of arable
land, and thereby can help preclude
deforestation and protect biodiversity in
forests and in other in-situ biodiversity
sanctuaries. Approximately 13 million
hectares of biodiversity – rich tropical
forests, are lost in developing countries
annually. If the 328 million tons of additional
food, feed and fiber produced by biotech
crops during the period 1996 to 2011 had
not been produced by biotech crops, an
additional 108.7 million hectares (Brookes
and Barfoot, 2013) of conventional crops
would have been required to produce the
same tonnage. Some of the additional 108.7
million hectares would probably have
required fragile marginal lands, not suitable
for crop developing countries, thereby
destroying biodiversity.
• Contributing to the alleviation of
poverty and hunger
To-date, biotech cotton in developing
countries such as China, India, Pakistan,
Myanmar, Bolivia, Burkina Faso and South
Africa have already made a significant
contribution to the income of >15 million
small resource-poor farmers in 2012. This
can be enhanced significantly in the
remaining 3 years of the second decade of
commercialization, 2013 to 2015 principally
with biotech cotton and maize.
• Reducing agriculture’s environmental
footprint
Conventional agriculture has impacted
significantly on the environment, and
biotechnology can be used to reduce the
environmental footprint of agriculture.
Progress to-date includes: a significant
reduction in pesticides; saving on fossil
fuels; decreasing CO2 emissions through no/
less ploughing; and conserving soil and
moisture by optimizing the practice of no
till through application of herbicide
tolerance. The accumulative reduction in
pesticides for the period 1996 to 2011 was
estimated at 473 million kilograms (kgs) of
active ingredient (a.i.), a saving of 8.9% in
pesticides, which is equivalent to an 18.3%
reduction in the associated environmental
impact of pesticide use on these crops, as
measured by the Environmental Impact
Quotient (EIQ) – a composite measure based
on the various factors contributing to the net
environmental impact of an individual active
ingredient. The corresponding data for 2011
alone was a reduction of 37 million kgs a.i.
(equivalent to a saving of 8.5% in pesticides)
and a reduction of 22.8% in EIQ (Brookes
and Barfoot, 2013).
Increasing efficiency of water usage
will have a major impact on conservation
and availability of water globally. Seventy
percent of fresh water is currently used by
agriculture globally, and this is obviously not
sustainable in the future as the population
increases by almost 30% to over 9 billion
by 2050. The first biotech maize hybrids with
a degree of drought tolerance are expected
to be commercialized by 2013 in the USA,
and the first tropical drought tolerant biotech
maize is expected by ~2017 for sub-Saharan
Africa. Drought tolerance is expected to have 29

a major impact on more sustainable cropping
systems worldwide, particularly in developing
countries, where drought is more prevalent
and severe than industrial countries.
• Helping mitigate climate change and
reducing greenhouse gases
The important and urgent concerns about
the environment have implications for
biotech crops, which contribute to a
reduction of greenhouse gases and help
mitigate climate change in two principal
ways. First, permanent savings in carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions through reduced
use of fossil-based fuels, associated with
fewer insecticide and herbicide sprays; in
2011, this was an estimated saving of 1.9
billion kg of CO2, equivalent to reducing the
number of cars on the roads by 0.8 million.
Secondly, additional savings from conservation
tillage (need for less or no ploughing
facilitated by herbicide tolerant biotech
crops) for biotech food, feed and fiber crops,
led to an additional soil carbon sequestration
equivalent in 2011 to 21.1 billion kg of CO2,
or removing 9.4 million cars off the road.
Thus in 2011, the combined permanent and
additional savings through sequestration was
equivalent to a saving of 23 billion kg of
CO2 or removing 10.2 million cars from the
road (Brookes and Barfoot, 2013).
Droughts, floods, and temperature
changes are predicted to become more
prevalent and more severe as we face the new
challenges associated with climate change,
and hence, there will be a need for faster crop
improvement programs to develop varieties
and hybrids that are well adapted to more
rapid changes in climatic conditions. Several
biotech crop tools, including tissue culture,
diagnostics, genomics, molecular marker-
assisted selection (MAS) and biotech crops
can be used collectively for ‘speeding the
breeding’ and help mitigate the effects of
climate change. Biotech crops are already
contributing to reducing CO2 emissions by
precluding the need for ploughing a significant
30
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
portion of cropped land, conserving soil, and
particularly moisture, and reducing pesticide
spraying as well as sequestering CO2.
In summary, collectively the above five
thrusts have already demonstrated the
capacity of biotech crops to contribute to
sustainability in a significant manner and for
mitigating the formidable challenges
associated with climate change and global
warming; and the potential for the future is
enormous. Biotech crops can increase
productivity and income significantly, and
hence, can serve as an engine of rural
economic growth that can contribute to the
alleviation of poverty for the world’s small
and resource-poor farmers.
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Bio-technological Approaches for Quick Deduction of Adaptation & Mitigation to Climate Change for
Improved Livelihood Option
James, C., 2013. Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/
GM Crops: 2012 (ISAAA Brief No. 44) International
Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech
Applications, Ithaca, NY.
Lui, Y., Wu, K., Jiang, Y., Guo, Y., Desneux, N., 2012.
Widespread adoption of Bt Cotton and insecticide
decrease promotes biocontrol services. Nature,
doi:1038/nature11153.
Lybbert, T.G., Sumner, D.A. 2012. Agricultural technologies
for climate change in developing countries: Policy
options for innovation and technology diffusion.
Food Policy 37, 114–123.
McAllister, C.H., Beatty, P.H., Good, A.G., 2012.
Engineering nitrogen use efficient crop plants: the
current status. Plant Biotechnology Journal (2012),
pp. 1-15.
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minister’s coucil on climate change GOVERNMENT
OF INDIA, pp.1-49.
Stern, N.,2006.What is the Economics of Climate
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World Bank, Washington D.C.
31
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 32-40, 2015

Smar
Smartt Hor ticulture for Livelihood and Rural
Horticulture
Development — A Case Study
D. P. RAY
Former Vice Chancellor, OUAT, Bhubaneswar
Principal Adviser to President
SIKSHA ‘O’ ANUSANDHAN UNIVERSITY
Bhubaneswar-30

Introduction Rural population facing series of

India supports about 17% of world’s human
and 11% of the livestock population on only
4.2% of the world’s water resource and 2.4%
of the global land. Today India is the second
most populous country in the world, which
would exceed 1.4 and 1.7 billion by 2025
and 2050 needing annually about 380 and
480 million tonnes (mt) food grains,
respectively. It indicates an increase of about
58 and 98%, respectively. But the growth rate
of food grain production was lower than the
population growth rate. Indian economy is
agrarian. India’s food, nutritional, livelihood,
and economic security continue to be
predicted by the performance of agricultural
sector and the situation is not likely to change
in the near future as nearly 70% of our people
live in rural areas and about 58% are still
dependant on agriculture for livelihood.
Majority of farmers are marginal and small
(84%). The average land holding is 1.41 ha.
per caput availability of resources is much less
(16 to 25%) as compared to the world average,
which is likely to decline further due to
demographic pressure and diversion of land
for non-agricultural use imposing a crisis like
food insecurity. The ratio of agricultural land
to agricultural population has shrunk to 0.13
ha as compared to over 11.0 ha in developed
countries.
problems which affect their progress and
quality of life in India. Most significant
among these problems are lack of gainful
employment leading to food insecurity,
illiteracy and poor health. Although
agriculture contributes only 14% of the
Gross National Product (GNP) of the
country, the rural economy is heavily
dependent on agro-based activities. This is
primarily due to lack of industrial
infrastructure and limited opportunities for
providing jobs in the service sector. It has
been observed that over 85% of the rural
people are dependent on agriculture and
most of them are engaged in the struggle for
food security. Therefore, it is necessary to
promote suitable rural technologies which
can enable the local communities to enhance
their efficiency and earnings. With the
improvement in agricultural production,
various opportunities can emerge in the agri-
business and non-farm sectors in the future.
There are many government and non-
government agencies en
Hor ticulture produce from India
Horticulture
During 2010-11, India exported 2.77
Million tones (M t) of horticultural product
including fruits & vegetables, fresh onions,
floriculture etc with a amount of Rs.71.57
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development — A Case Study
billion. Subsequently, it enhanced to 3.2 M t
during 2011-12, 3.7 M t during 2012-13 and
3.6 M t in 2013-14. India is the second largest
producer of fruits and vegetables in the
world. Among the horticultural crops, the
maximum export from India is Fresh Onions
(14.2 M t) during 2013-14. Other fresh
vegetables and other fresh fruits secured 2nd
and 3rd position towards export from India.
The minimum export observed among
horticultural crop were fruits and vegetable
seeds. The actual and projected production
of horticultural crops for 12th plan period was
345.2 million tonnes. The compound annual
growth rate of fruits and nuts, vegetables,
spices, coconut, plantation crops, tuber
crops, flower, medicinal & aromatic crops
are 6.5, 8.7, 6.0, 6.0, 3.0, 15.0, 10.0 percent
respectively (Table 1).
Production of Hor ticultural Crops
Horticultural
The production of horticultural crops
during 2013-14 were 88977, 162897, 16301,
5908 thousand million tons in fruits,
vegetables, plantation and spices
respectively. The maximum production was
of vegetables as compare with other crops.
The production share of major fruit crops in
India during 2012-13 were banana (32.6%),
Mango (22.1%), Citrus (12.4%), Papaya
Table 1: Horticulture produce from India
(6.6%), Guava (3.9%), apple (2.4%),
pineapple (1.9%), sapota (1.8%), grapes
(3.1%), pomegranate (0.9%), litchi (0.7%)
and other (11.5%). The leading fruit
producing state in term of production during
2012-13 were Andhra Pradesh (17.1%),
Maharastra (12.0%), Gujarat (10.4%) and
Tamil Nadu (8.2%). The leading fruit
producing states in terms of area during
2012-13 were Maharashtra (22.2%), Andhra
Pradesh (13.5%) and Karnataka (5.6%).
Potato has highest share among vegetable
production. The leading vegetable producing
states in terms of production and area were
West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The
area and production of horticulture crops in
India for the year 2013-14 is placed at Table
2. The production of plantation crops in India
was 16301 thousand million tons during
2013-14.
Problems Associated in Indian Hor ticulture
Horticulture
The major problems of Indian
horticulture are declining per capita land
availability, increasing food and nutritional
insecurity, decrease in productivity due to
lack of recycling of waste and nutrients,
increasing risk in dealing with individual
components and established cropping
systems making production system
33
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 2: Area and production of Horticulture Crops in India (2013-14)

Crops 2013-14 Crops 2013-14

Area in Production Area in Production
‘000 Ha in ‘000 MT ‘000 Ha in ‘000 MT
A. Fruits B. Vegetables
Almond 21 13 Beans 138 1370
Aonla/Gooseberry 104 1225 Bitter gourd 79 807
Apple 313 2498 Brinjal 711 13558
Banana 803 29725 Cabbage 400 9039
Ber 48 663 Capsicum 30 167
Citrus 1078 11,147 Carrot 62 1074
Custardapple 22 165 Cauliflower 434 8573
Grapes 119 2585 Cucumber 43 678
Jackfruit 158 1573 Chillies (Green) 140 1687
Kiwi 05 08 Elephant Foot Yam 5 222
Litchi 84 585 Muskmelon 37 761
Mango 2516 18431 Mushroom - 17
Papaya 133 5639 Okra/Ladyfinger 533 6346
Passion Fruit 19 124 Onion 1204 19402
Peach 18 94 Pointed gourd 13 169
pear 42 317 Peas 434 3869
picanut 01 0 Potato 1973 41555
pineapple 110 1737 Radish 173 2485
plum 23 76 Pumpkin/Staphal/Kaddu 20 416
pomegranate 131 1346 Sweet Potato 106 1088
sapota 177 1744 Tapioca 228 8139
Strawberry 0 2 Tomato 882 18736
walnut 122 241 Watermelon 75 1810
Others 901 5372 Others 1574 19108
Total Fruits 7216 88977 Total Vegetables 9396 162897
Aromatic 493 895 Plantation Crops
Cut Flower - 543 Arecanut 452 622
Loose Flower 255 1754 Cashewnut 1011 753
Cocoa 71 15
Coconut 2140 14911
Spices Total plantation crops 3675 16301
Ajwan 27 19
Cardamom 93 21
Chillies (Dried) 775 1492
Cinnamon/Tejpata 3 5
Celery, Dill & Poppy 33 33
Clove 2 1
Coriander 447 314

34 (Contd.)
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development — A Case Study

Cumin 859 514

Fenugreek 66 90
Fennel 54 70
Garlic 231 1252
Ginger 133 655
Nutmeg 19 13
Pepper 124 51
Vanilla 7 1
Tamarind 59 188
Turmeric 233 1190
Total Spices 3163 5908

unsustainable. The main indicators of cotton is a household name today in India.

unsustainability are yield stagnation,
increasing environmental pollution,
degradation of natural resources, depletion
of non-renewable energy, increase in cost of
cultivation and unorganized and inadequate
market. Proper management of farm
resources is necessary to enhance income,
productivity, reduce degradation of the
environment and to meet the needs of the
farmers to improve the quality of life through
sustainable production.
Hor ticulture Vis a Vis livelihood Security
Horticulture
Horticultural crops provide a viable
option for ensuring livelihood security of
rural population. The economic returns per
unit area are higher in horticultural crops
when compared to field crops. Similarly
horticultural crops being labour intensive
ensure year round employment to the entire
family. Horticulture has become a major
source of livelihood in coastal, dry land, arid
and cold dessert ecosystems in recent years.
A number of new vocations like mushroom
production, dry flower production besides
production of herbs and medicinal plants are
being exploited to maximize farm income
and have potential for further expansion.
Crop Improvement: To address the
above challenges there is need to harness
new technologies like marker assisted
selection, genetic engineering, molecular
breeding, bioinformatics, genomics. GM
The role of GM crops still controversial, but
can not be ignored in horticultural crops in
view of the tremendous success in cotton in
India and papaya, soyabean, tomato in other
parts of the world. It may not be out of
context to quote the TOI report on 02.11.14
by a famous environmentalist suggesting that
Indian population is already exposed to the
genetically modified crops through imported
vegetable oils.
Production Technologies: India is
known for its low yields in several
horticultural crops compared to global
standards. However, there is paradigm shift
in achieving higher production and
productivity through technological
interventions by implementation of a number
of central sector schemes like Mission on
Integrated Development of Horticulture
(Earlier NHM), Micro Irrigation, Use of
Plastics in horticulture, bamboo Mission and
National Bee Board. However, several recent
technologies are yet to be exploited to their
fullest potential. For instance protected
cultivation has made significant inroads into
many rural clusters and technologies need
to be addressed to reduce the cost of
production.
Fertigation technology has also given a
new dimension to save the fertilizers and
labour expenses by delivering precise
amount of macro and micro-nutrients at the
35
root zone mechanically. This technology is

yet to be fully exploited in terms of
developing indigenous liquid formulations
and fertigation schedules in a number of
important crops. Micronutrient deficiency is
very common in horticultural crops
especially in perennial crops. The maladies
associated with the micronutrient deficiency
escape the attention of the farmers and
researchers very often which need to be
addressed. A number of cost effective
formulations have been developed and
marketed by Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research (IIHR), Bangalore to correct the
deficiencies in a number of horticultural
crops. However, the efforts need to be
intensified by the active participation of the
private sector to develop and promote more
such formulations. Leaf nutrient standards
are routed to be most economical way of
managing the nutrient requirement of
different crops. However, nutrient
management through leaf nutrient standards
is hardly being followed in India.
Introduction of soil health card is a positive
in this direction. However, the potential of
this innovation needs to be fully exploited
in perennial crops.
Rootstocks play a very prominent role
in the overall development of a scion variety
and expression of its fullest potential.
Research on rootstock has not received the
required attention in subtropical and tropical
fruit crops. Therefore, the high density
planting with dwarf rootstocks have
contributed significantly in improving the
productivity of some selected fruit crops. The
technology adoption needs to be broadened
by bringing more number of crops under high
density planting. There is also need to
standardize planting densities for different
commercial crops and varieties, besides
tailor-made tools and equipment to meet the
management practices. Number of methods
is adopted to improve the orchard
management practices. These methods are
high density orchard, canopy management,
36 INM, use of micro-irrigation system and
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
management of physiological problems.
Number of improved flowers, vegetables
varieties and hybrids has been developed by
the National Institutes/universities.
There are number of methods of high
density planting in fruit crops, which have
been adopted. These are tree size control (use
of genetically dwarf scion varieties, use of
dwarf rootstock, pruning & training, use of
growth retardants, use of incomplete
rootstock, root pruning, root restriction),
planting system and canopy management.
Canopy management in fruit has high impact
on production. The basic principle of canopy
management are maximum utilization of
light for enhancing yield, productivity and
quality, avoidance of the buildup of micro-
climate congenial for pests and disease, and
convenience in carrying out cultural
operations. Number of tools (use of
rootstocks, use of genetically dwarf scion
cultivars, growth retardants, moisture stress
and nutrients) have been used for canopy
management in fruit crops. Rejuvenation
technology has also been adopted in fruit
crops .The losses accrued from insect pest
and diseases are too well known. The extent
of damage sometimes is alarming with
complete disintegration of the crop. Farmers
are divided between organic farming and
need based integrated pest management.
They are attracted toward the premium price
the organic food commands but have to
compromise with lower productivity.
Post Har vest Management
Harvest
Post harvest management even through
one of the most emphasized areas has not
received due attention it deserves. The
National Agricultural Research System is
reasonably well sensitized about its
importance. Virtually all the research
institutes, state Agricultural universities have
created the required infrastructure for post
harvest management. The Ministry of
Agriculture and the Ministry of Commerce
have also given the required impetus to
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development — A Case Study
develop the post harvest infrastructure in the
private sector. Post harvest handling and
management has many approaches includes
integrated approach of pre – and post harvest
management, maturity standards, storage
studies and monitoring the residues.
Post harvest management in mango
through Vapoyr Heat Treatment has made the
Mango exports to US, EU and a Japan a
reality. Tremendous improvement in packing
and packaging technology is evident from
the product range available in the retail
chains, super markets and hyper markets.
The storage capacity of horticultural produce
in country has increased over the years with
the establishment of a large number of
produce specific cold storage units, Ca
storage, bulk storage facilities. State of the
art irradiation facilities for potato and onion
for long duration storage has become a
reality. Pigment extraction from flowers
especially marigold, calendula etc. has
assumed commercial proportions leading to
exports of netraceuticals. A large number of
florist shops have mushroomed both in
metropolitan cities and small towns.
However, much needs to be the done in view
of the increase in production and increasing
demand for high quality produce. Work on
improving the post harvest quality by
following appropriate maturity standards,
using safe ripening technologies, improving
shelf life, study of optimum temperatures,
quality enhancement through use of
chemicals, has already resulted in many
transferable technologies. A number of
processed fruit and vegetable products have
become popular within the country. Frozen
peas, mixed vegetables, easy to use
condiments, ready to cook items, baby corn,
and sweet corn have invaded the Indian
kitchens. Farmers as well as the consumers
have started realizing the importance of
primary processing, grading and quality both
for enhanced returns and consumer
satisfaction. The production of horticultural
crops surpassed the production of
agricultural crops for the first time during
2013-14. This is possible due to concerted
efforts by all the stakeholders.
Horticulture sector has the distinction of
contributing more to the national GDP than
the field crops. However, to sustain the
growth of the horticultural sector due
emphasis need to be given to policy changes
to promote domestic, export and import
markets. The recent trends indicate that India
has stood the ground in export market in
many horticultural crops due to the concerted
efforts made by APEDA, NHB, the farmers
and the financial institutions. India has
earned a respectable place as it could create
a niche for itself in global markets for grape,
pomegranate, onion, okra, cashew and tea
etc., Phytosanitary aspects in mango have
received the required attention resulting in
smooth sailing of mangoes to Japan, USA
and Europe.
Organic Hor ticulture
Horticulture
Organic horticulture is the science and
art of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, or
ornamental plants by following the essential
principles of organic agriculture in soil
building and conservation, pest
management, and heirloom variety
preservation. Organic farming provides a
real opportunity for horticultural crop
production, expend the food market
worldwide (organically produced food has
great demand in foreign countries; there is
major deficiency of home produced organic
fruit and vegetable in certain countries like
Island), has lower cost of production and
provide good price premium which may
cover reductions in yield during early phase
of organic farming system. It increases the
opportunity of direct sale of produce e.g.
Farmers Markets, Farm Shops etc. The main
objectives are:
• To produce healthy, nutritious and
quality food.
• To maintain and enhance long-term 37

fertility of soils.
• To encourage and enhance biological
cycles involving microorganisms, soil
flora and fauna, plants and animals.
• To help in soil and water conservation.
• To minimize all forms of pollution that
may result from agricultural practices.
• To use on farm resources as far as
possible.
• To maintain genetic diversity.
• To preserve and enhance traditional
and indigenous knowledge in farming,
varieties.
The present status of organic farming in
India is rank 33rd in the world in terms of
area under organic cultivation. Ranks 88 th
in the world in terms of ratio of agriculture
land under organic crops to total farming
area. Cultivated area under certification is
3,39,113 hactare (all crops), main vegetables
grown are Okra, Brinjal, Tomato,Potato,
Onion, Garlic. The total area cultivated 2.8
million hectare. Seventy districts in the
country consuming less than 25kg/ha of
NPK are identified as potential areas e.g.
Assam, Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Madhya Pradesh,
Chattisgarh, Rajasthan and North Eastern
Region.
Hor ticulture – as a Component of Integrated
Horticulture
Far ming System
arming
Integrated farming system (IFS) is a
complex inter-related matrix of soil, plants,
animals, implements, power, labour, capital
and other inputs controlled in part by farm
families and influenced to varying degrees
by political, economic, institutional and
social forces that operate at many levels.
Integration of different agricultural allied
enterprises with crop activity as base would
provide ways to reuse and recycle produce/
waste material of one component as input in
38 the other linked component and to reduce
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
the cost of production of the economic
produce of the component two and finally
to enhance the net income of the farm as a
whole. The opportunities are:
Productivity: Increase economic yield
per unit area per unit time by virtue of
intensification of crops canopy, agricultural
crop rotation and allied enterprise.
Profitability: The system, as a whole
provides opportunity to make use of produce/
waste material of one component as input
on the other component at the least cost.
Potentiality/Sustainability: In Integrated
Farming System, organic supplementation
through effective utilization of by products
of linked components as a measure is
possible and this will certainly provide
opportunity to promote soil health and to
sustain the potentiality of the soil which is
the production base.
Balanced food: In Integrated Farming
System, we link components of different
nature enabling to produce different sources
of nutrition, namely, protein, carbohydrates,
fats, minerals, vitamins, etc from the same
unit area. It will provide opportunity to
mitigate malnutrition problem of the farmers.
Pollution: In crop based activity, some
of the organics are left as waste materials
which in turn pollute the environment on
decomposition. Application of huge quantity
of fertilizers, pesticides, weedicides,
insecticides, etc pollutes soil, water and air.
Much of the wastes could be converted /
recycled to some other forms of economic/
ecological/social value, under the Integrated
Farming System. Integrated Farming System
provide opportunities as crop insurance
cover as money round the year are obtained
from different farm produces Technology
Infusion (R&D) integrated with indigenous/
Traditional knowledge, Mitigating energy
crisis, Climate change Programme from the
perspective of adaptive & mitigation,
Mitigating the wood, fodder crisis, etc.,
Smart Horticulture for Livelihood and Rural Development — A Case Study

Avoid degradation of land resources. Provide Silviculture, 6. Horticulture, 7. Mushroom

opportunities for Agri oriented industries,
tourism and related tourism based activities
etc. The main component of Integrated
Farming System are 1. Agriculture, 2.
Livestock, 3. Fishery, 4. Sericulture, 5.
culture, 8. Bio Gas, 9. Apiculture, 10.
Tourism, 11. Fish/Bird/Wildlife Sanctuary
Development, etc. Some of the Integrated
Farming System Model is given below:

Upland and Bunds Tier I & II Fruit crops (15%)

Tuber crops (11%)
Vegetables (13%)
Main Field Tier III & IV Rice (18%)
Horticulture crops (43%)
Animal Components Fish (1 t)
Meat (0.5 t)

39
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Conclusions food first, rather than quality to satisfy

hunger, whereas producers feel safer when
Despite the fact that household sizes of
they provide quality food to their households.
India are generally marginal, the food
The producers and sellers of horticultural
situation is not encouraging as deficiencies
foods affect each others livelihoods and the
in quality and quantity were generally cited.
success of one leads to another. It is possible
Sellers (most of whom were women) were
to nurture a contextually interactive
found to have better food security status than
livelihood groups to affect their household
producers because they are able to practice
food security positively and help them to
continuity of livelihoods as well as
attain the human right to food. There is need
diversification despite the constraints faced
for increased farming in the rural areas to
in their triple day (reproductive, productive
cater for the food needs and employment of
and household roles). They were also willing
the rural population, especially the marginal
and cultured into practicing coping and
or poor population. Therefore more efficient
motivational strategies to buffer the food
and enabling structures are necessary to
situation during hard times. Sellers in low
make rural India a successful venture and
income households would rather fend for
improve livelihood support.
their families by considering the quantity of

40
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 41-48, 2015

Hydroponic in Urban and PPeri-Urban

eri-Urban
Hor ticulture for Nutritional and
Horticulture
Livelihood Security
S.K. MALHOTRA
Horticulture Commissioner
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India
New Delhi-110 012
E-mail: hc-dac@nic.in

Horticulture has made rapid stride in the
last one decade and has emerged as an
important sector for nutritional and
livelihood security. An unrivalled growth in
production of horticultural crops has been
received and now has surpassed total cereal
production in the country. Initiatives taken
by Government of India and other
stakeholders have impacted the development
in terms of increased production and
availability of fruits and vegetables. The
level of total horticulture production has
increased three fold from 96 million tons
(1991-92) to 280 million tons (2014-15, 1st
estimates) and the projected demand by
2020-21 is 350.00 million tons (Fig. 1). This
sector is now recognized as best means for
food, nutrition and healthcare, and the
country has recorded exciting growth and
there is an enhanced income as well as better
employment. This has been possible due to
adoption of technology and mission
approach for the development of
horticulture. We are hoping for a second
Green revolution, but in horticulture rising
price of fruits and vegetables are cause of
concern. It has been observed that any
decrease in the availability of fruits and

Fig. 1: Trend of horticulture production and future projections (million tones)


vegetable due to weather vagaries drastically
trigger the inflation. However, incomes to
the farm are volatile because of number of
unforeseen factors, like weather, pest and
disease outbreak and post harvest losses
which necessitate the effective management.
There is growing urbanization coupled with
dietary change, which demands more fresh
fruits, vegetables and other products. How
to meet the requirement of urban population,
which is growing at accelerated rate, for fresh
products and also create a balance for the
water needs, management of city waste and
taking care of environment are the questions
before all of us. Therefore, it necessitates
utilizing the space in urban and peri-urban
area efficiently to ensure availability of fresh
produce and also better environment. In
order to supplement round the year supply
of fruits, vegetables and flowers, vertical
farming using hydroponics and soil less
farming technology seems to be the answer
to produce more from less space and water.
Hydroponics and Urban PPeri-urban
eri-urban
Ecosystem
Soil-less culture mainly refers to the
techniques of hydroponics and aeroponics.
The term hydroponics was derived from the
Greek words hydro means water and ponos
means work, is a method of growing plants
using mineral nutrients solutions, without
soil. Soil is usually the most available
growing medium for plants. It provides
support, nutrients, air, water etc. for
successful plant growth. However, soils do
pose serious limitations for plant growth too,
at time, viz., presence of disease causing
organisms and nematodes, unsuitable soil
reaction, unfavourable soil composition,
poor drainage and degradation due to erosion
etc. Moreover, some places like metropolitan
areas, soil is not available for crop growing
at all, or in some areas, we find scarcity of
fertile cultivable arable lands due to their
unfavorable geographical or topographical
42 conditions. By 2050, when the world
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
population reaches 9.2 billion, the available
per capita land will reduce further to 0.16
hectares and other natural resources will also
be under great stress. With conventional
agriculture, it is will be difficult to feed the
entire population. Under such circumstances,
soil-less culture Hydroponics is also
considered as one of the alternatives to
achieve food and nutritional security for all.
Improved space and water conserving
methods of hydroponic production of fruits
(strawberry), many vegetables and flower
crops have shown promising results.
Opportunities are emerging in urban area
for horticulture as demand for fresh fruits,
vegetables are increasing resulting in various
activities. Roof and terrace gardening is
finding now place to get fresh fruits,
vegetables and flowers, and also for
environmental services. Vegetable production
has expanded in and around cities in many
developing countries as an informal activity
practiced by poor and landless city dwellers.
The broad diversity of horticultural crop
species allows year-round production,
employment and income. Growers have
realized that intensive horticulture can be
practiced on small plots, making efficient use
of limited water and land resources.
Horticultural crops, as opposed to other food
crops, have a considerable yield potential and
can provide up to 50 kg of fresh produce per
m² per year depending upon the technology
applied where hydroponics also fit into it.
In addition, due to their short cycle they
provide a quick to emergency needs for food.
Leafy vegetables provide a quick return to
meet a family’s daily cash requirements for
purchasing food through plastic waste
utilized soilless farming in a vertical fashion.
Leafy vegetables are particularly perishable
and post-harvest losses can be reduced
significantly when production is located
close to consumers. There is new practice to
grow cucurbits on the arches created on the
pathways.
Hydroponic in Urban and Peri-Urban Horticulture for Nutritional and Livelihood Security
Why Hydroponics?
Space constraint is a reality in many of
the urban clusters in the country. Further
nutritional security in terms of availability
of fresh vegetables and greens to the resource
constrained section of the urban population
is a priority area. Hydroponic gardens
produce the healthiest crops with high yield
and are consistently reliable. In this system
the gardening is clean and extremely easy.
Due to nutrients fed directly to the roots,
plants grow faster and with small roots plants
may be grown closer. Since the amount of
nutrient solution is fed directly to the plant
roots, there is no wastage of water due to
run off or evaporation. In general
hydroponically grown garden needs 1/5 of
the overall space when compared with soil
gardens. Besides, hydroponically plants do
not come in contact with soil borne pests and
diseases thus saves costs of soil preparation,
insecticides and fungicides. Through
hydroponic gardening; plants can be grown
anywhere as long as their growth
requirements are met. It uses only 1/20th of
water compared to traditional (soil based)
gardening. It provides a sterile environment
for plant production. This technique does not
require pesticides, fertilizers and other
chemicals, as there’s no chance of damage
due to soil-borne diseases or pests. Crops
grow two times faster in hydroponic
gardening. It provides controlled
environment, and yield is doubled leading
to more production from same amount of
space. It needs 20% of less space in
comparison to soil based gardens, as plants
with small roots can be grown closer to each
other. Run-off in traditional gardening can
lead to environment degradation due to high
proportion of calcium, phosphorous and
potassium content dissolved in it. But in
hydroponic systems; water can be reused
multiple times leading to water conservation
with less expense incurred on it. There’s no-
doubt in the fact that hydroponics involves
less labor. Upkeep is also minimal. It’s
simple to get complete control over nutrient
balance by using tailor made solutions. There
are no soil setup and testing hassles. Plants
grown through this technique are healthy and
have better nutritional value. It has been
proved that vitamin content is 50% more in
hydroponically grown plants as compared to
conventional ones. It is easy to harvest in
this type of gardening. There are no worries
about the changing seasons, as crops can be
grown all year round. Hydroponic gardening
is amazingly stress-relieving and a relaxing
hobby. Moreover it is a great way to spend
quality family time.
Overall, the main advantages of
hydroponics over soil culture are - more
efficient nutrition regulation, availability in
regions of the non-arable land, efficient use
of water and fertilizers, ease and low cost of
sterilization of the medium, and higher
density planting, leading to increased yield
per acre. It is also understood that typically,
aeroponic and hydroponic systems have high
energy costs because they incorporate
lighting, pumping, and air moderation
systems. Primary costs aside from energy
costs, include the purchase and purification
of fertilizers and water. However, energy
efficient low cost systems for growing
vegetable crops are required.
Hydroponic Systems and Biz Rating
Supply of nutrients
Broadly 6 types of hydroponic systems
such as Wick system, Water Culture, Ebb and
Flow method based on Flood & Drain
mechanism, Drip with or without facility of
recovery or non-recovery, Nutrient Film
Technique and Aeroponic. All variations
available in hydroponics have been evolved
on these 6 basic types of systems. Because
of limited nutrient-buffering capacity of the
hydroponic system and with the scope to
make rapid changes, continuous monitoring
of the system is important. There are two
aspects of nutrition which need to be 43

considered, first is the supply of nutrients
from the nutrient delivery system and the
second is plant nutrient response. The
frequency and volume of the nutrient
solution applied depends on the type of
substrate used, the crop (species and stage
of development), the size of container, the
crop irrigation system used and prevailing
climatic conditions (Fig. 2). In hydroponic
system, pH constantly changes as the plant
grows, which necessitates for keeping
control over pH level in hydroponic
solutions. The pH range of 5.5 to 6.5 is
optimal for the availability of nutrients from
most of nutrient solutions and for most of
plant species. However, basic studies on such
aspects of plant nutrient response under
hydroponic systems are required to be
conducted and standardized for different
crops and systems.
Fig. 2: High tech and low cost system of hydroponics
44 Fig. 3: Aeroponics for nucleous and breeder seed producttion
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Aeroponics: Aeroponics is the process
of growing plants in an air or mist
environment without the use of soil or an
aggregate medium. The word “aeroponic”
is derived from the Greek word aero meaning
air and ponos meaning labour. Aeroponic
culture differs from both conventional
hydroponics and in-vitro culture. Since water
is used in aeroponics to transmit nutrients
to the plants, it is sometimes considered to
be a type of hydroponics. In aeroponics,
plants growth is facilitated by suspending
them in air, in an enclosed environment, and
providing them with necessary nutrients by
spraying their roots with nutrient-rich water
solution. The nutrient solution is
continuously re-circulated through the
system and monitored and amended
whenever necessary. The solution is sprayed
in such a way that it creates a mist in the
Hydroponic in Urban and Peri-Urban Horticulture for Nutritional and Livelihood Security
environment, and being an enclosed
environment there is no wind flow to move
the mist away, and hence the plants grow
quickly. Among the horticultural crops,
technology for potato minitubers and ginger
minirhizome production has been
standardized for healthy planting material
production.
Aeroponic system has been experimented
with different plants, out of which, promising
results have been observed for minituber
production in potato by CPRI Shimla.
Availability of disease free planting material
is a critical input in augmenting potato
production. The seed production system in
India is based on tuber indexing for detection
and elimination of all the prevalent potato
viruses followed by clonal multiplication in
four successive generations. Although this
system is quite effective but it has low
multiplication rate and higher field exposure
increase the risk of viral infection. Keeping
this in view tissue culture based system of
quality seed production was integrated with
breeder seed production programme. The
conventional way of producing potato
minitubers through micro propagation is to
multiply in vitro material in insect proof net
houses. The conventional method uses
substrate made of soil and mixture of various
components. This method usually produces
10-12 minitubers per plant depending on
cultivar. The aeroponic offers the potential
to increase production in terms of number
of minitubers per plant from three to four
times and thus reduce cost as compared to
conventional method of producing
minitubers through micropropagation.
Similarly, this technique can be utilized in
rhizomatous/corm/tuber crops such as
ginger, turmeric, orchids, tulips, gladiolus,
dahalia for disease free healthy planting
material production.
Crops that can be grown using hydroponics
Theoretically any fruit, vegetable and
flower crops can be grown using hydroponics.
But most successes in hydroponics have
been with lettuce and strawberries. It is
completely wrong notion that only exotic
vegetables can be grown in hydroponics.
Farmers can grow any crop from tomatoes,
broccoli, lettuce, cucumbers, egg plants, bell
peppers, okra, flowers like tulips, orchids,
gerbera, lilium, and anthurirum to herbs.
Nearly any vegetable can be grown using
hydroponics, if we choose the right
technique of hydroponics. Tomatoes come
really well in hydroponic farming, whether
you grow them in trough/grow bag
cultivation or NFT. In hydroponic
cultivation, farmers are getting higher yield
of tomatoes. In the controlled environment,
the plants’ exact requirements can be met
with temperature and humidity control,
supplemental nutrition and safeguarding it
from weather fluctuations and pest attack.
This enables the farmer to harvest yield all
year long without sacrificing taste and
goodness. In soil, most of the fertilizers leach
deep into the soil and therefore, plants are
unable to absorb them, thereby, unable to
grow up to their full genetic potential.
Hydroponic plants get direct and complete
nutrition delivered to their roots at the right
phase. Hydroponic tomatoes are not only
very good in quality, but also comparatively
bigger, tastier and more nutritious as
compared to their soil-grown counterparts.
The most important factor to consider here
is the market for selling the produce.
Marketing of the produce is something that
farmers need to think before venturing into
hydroponic farming. If they find a potential
market nearby, well and good; if it is far, then
supply chain has to be taken care of. It is
always advisable to do a good research on
the cost economics, feasibility of the
hydroponic project for the given area before
entering this field.
Hydroponics in India
Kitchen gardening, balcony gardening as
well as rooftop gardening are being explored 45

to maximize the use of space for the growing
of vegetables and greens. There are
technologies available which enables the use
of limited space for growing high density
horticulture crops/greens. Soilless
cultivation technique using hydroponics
seems to be a viable application which can
be further developed for adoption by the
resource constrained weaker section of the
urban social landscape. Hydroponics and
soilless cultivation techniques also utilizes
the vertical gardening concept in which
several layers of cropping is taken up
vertically on rooftops and other small areas
available to the urban population.
Hydroponics is not entirely new to India.
Way back in the 1970s Bharatiya Agro
Industries Foundation in Urlikanchan near
Pune, Maharashtra had established a
hydroponic NFT system for growing Napier
Grass. NOCIL was involved in the project.
However hydroponics system being highly
technical in nature has not found much
favour with Indian Agricultural Researchers
and scientists. There is very limited R&D
work undertaken in the country is available
for reference. Similarly very limited numbers
of commercial hydroponic/soilless
cultivation units are operating to cater to
captive demand and niche markets. In
Mumbai and Bangalore there are some
hobby farmers who are growing vegetables
and fruits using soilless cultivation. There
are also few fodder growing units using
sophisticated hydroponics technology
imported from overseas. There are few
agents who are representing overseas
hydroponics technology firms and are still
to do any business worth the discussion.
Hydroponic based strategy for nutritional
and livelihood security
The hydroponics in India is in infancy
stage and many questions are required to be
answered before this hi-tech system is
adopted at large scale. (i) Based on physical
46 location of the installation, what should be
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
the best design for hydroponics considering
heat, sunlight, moisture etc. in the macro and
micro climate ? (ii) In order to get high water
and nutrient use efficiency, what quantities
of water and nutrients are optimal for
growing a particular crops or set of crops of
vegetable and flowers as compared to the
conventional system? (iii) In true sense of
economics what are the costs of hydroponics
production based on the model of on-site
production/ consumption and compare this
price to the price of fresh produce purchased
on-site for the local consumer? This question
dealt also with whether the true costs of
production is contained in the wholesale
price of produce and whether a premium
should be placed on on-site grown produce
due to its superior taste due to freshness as
measured by the amount of time from
picking to consumption. (iv) How much
carbon reduction can occur by growing crops
and micro greens on building roofs in the
urban? And, how much roof space would be
needed.
Yes, it is true that hydroponics is at its
infancy in India. There is a need to create
extensive awareness amongst farmers.
Although progressive farming communities
of India are gradually gathering information
about this technique and coming forward to
adopt this method, our traditional farmers
are still unaware about this revolutionary
farming technique. Land is the major
resource in India, which provides livelihood
to the rural population. However, about
11.25% of rural families are landless with
over 69.35% landholders owing less than 1
ha (marginal farmers) and 21.25% owing
between 1 and 2 ha (small farmers). Such
small holders are unable to generate
remunerative employment throughout the
year. Water is another critical resource
required to enhance the agricultural
production. Thus the large rural populations,
who do not have adequate land holding, have
to look for other means of livelihood for their
survival. In this process, they neglect their
Hydroponic in Urban and Peri-Urban Horticulture for Nutritional and Livelihood Security
agriculture and often migrate to search for
seasonal employment. In such situation
hydroponic system for growing vegetables
or other plants is one of the options which
requires less land holding or may be grown
vertically also and can provide work
throughout the year. For adoption of
hydroponic system for vegetable crops,
grower may be divided into three categories:
• Marginal farmers or landless: The
farmers or labour under this category
do not have access for fruits and
vegetables and get low nutritive diet.
The people of this type may be
encouraged to grow vegetable
hydroponically which need very little
space. This will be helpful for them to
get vegetables throughout the year and
may increase their income also.
• Small farmers or middle income
group: The farmers or population
under this category are of middle
income group who have limited
resources but need to increase the
income by adoption such agriculture
system. They can grow more crops on
small land holdings or roof tops of their
houses.
• Big farmer or growers for commercial
cultivation: Farmers having large
holding may adopt this system because
they do not have resource limitations
and interested in commercial
hydroponic cultivation.
Thr uway for hydroponics
Thruway
There is a need for exploring soilless
cultivation in India to keep abreast of the
technology and develop indigenous
economic units which could be suitably
adopted in the diverse agro climatic and
geographical systems existing in the country
as well as to be future ready on this emerging
technology area. Hydroponics could
contribute to development of disease free
planting material and can have implications
in India’s growing interest in space missions
as well as in very adverse climatic and
geographic locations which are of strategic
nature. The areas in hydroponics where we
need attention for future research are listed
here.
• Soilless cultivation may be developed
as a growing system with indigenous
hardware and manpower support.
• Initiate research and development
measures for cost reduction,
indigenization and simplification of
hydroponics, aquaponics and
aeroponics technology in the country.
Broad range of research and
development needed on (i) substrate
development and testing ; (ii)
chemicals standardization/cost
reduction/for range of potential crops;
(iii) organic nutrient solutions as well
as chemical solutions which can be
used for different crop systems in the
country; (iv) disease control and
sterilization methods and processes;
(v) suitable measuring equipments for
quick estimation of pH, EC etc.
suitable for soilless cultivation; (vi)
testing of nutrition content of fruits,
vegetables and greens grown under
hydroponics system compared to
conventionally grown crops; (vii)
technology package and kits for
hydroponics system for hobby
gardening and poor section of society;
(viii) vertical gardening techniques
using hydroponics and otherwise; (ix)
cost effective substrates using
indigenous materials, use of household
waste materials for hydroponics
production such as used bottles, bags,
containers, pipes, films, thermocol
sheets etc; (x) electro-mecahanical and
sensor based systems in hydroponics
and aeroponics technology; (xi)
identification of crop varieties which
can be grown economically in the
country; (xii) large scale hydroponics 47

cultivation system with necessary
climate control mechanism for
adoption by commercial organizations.
• Demonstrate available range of
hydroponics cultivation systems. It has
been decided to demonstrate this
technology at various PFDCs at SAU
and ICAR institutions. The hydroponics
research and development programme
will be coordinated by PFDC centers
at IARI New Delhi, IIT Kharagpur,
TNAU, Coimbatore, CCS HAU Hisar
and UAS Bangalore.
• Provide assistance to farmers and
urban hobby growers to adopt
available soilless cultivation for
creating trial and demonstration on a
large scale all over the country. This
activity can be supported under the
urban agriculture programme which
has many benefits.
• To adopt hydroponic farming, farmers
need to undergo basic training about
hydroponic farming like irrigation and
fertigation, keeping a check on
greenhouse environment and growing
conditions, and maintaining pH & EC
besides other factors.
Conclusion
Intensive urban and peri-urban
horticulture had advocated for zero land
utilization, interior and exterior landscaping,
48
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
vertical garden using hydroponics, terrace
cultivation of fruits and vegetables. The
changes foreseen in Indian horticulture in
next five years may be focus with
hydroponics. Hydroponics is fairly a novel
farming technology for urban and peri-urban
horticulture. It is a flexible technology, apt
for both developing countries, like India, and
high-tech space stations. Hydroponic
technology can efficiently generate crops in
desert, infertile lands, in mountainous
regions, on city rooftops and concrete
schoolyards. In highly populated areas,
where skyrocketing land prices have evicted
traditional agriculture, hydroponics can
provide locally grown high-value crops such
as fresh salad greens (microgreens), herbs
and cut flowers. This technique is also ideal
for growing wide range of plants especially
cut flowers, tomatoes, cucumbers, and
peppers and leafy vegetables. The use of
hydroponics in the future will have social
and economical advantages. A major
advantage to using hydroponics is the ability
to bring employment possibilities, expand
the economic base of the city through
production, processing, packaging,
and marketing of consumable products,
which results in an increase in
entrepreneurial activities and the creation of
job opportunities, as well as in food cost
reduction and products of better quality and
provide opportunity for women to be part of
the informal economy of a city.
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 49-61, 2015

Vegetable Production for Livelihood and Rural

Development
B. SINGH1 AND SUDHAKAR PANDEY2
1
Director, 2Sr. Scientist
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research
Post Box No. 01, P.O. Jakhani (Shahanshahpur), Varanasi, 221 305
Email: bsinghiivr@gamil.com

Abstract
Agriculture plays a vital role in the Indian economy. About 65-70 per cent of the rural
households depend on agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. In spite of fast
growth in various sectors, agriculture remains the backbone of Indian economy. Large
proportion of farmers in India lives in less favoured, marginal or more complex environment.
In these areas, vegetable cultivation provides economic and nutritional security, especially
to the resource-poor farmers. More than 60 cultivated and about 30 less known vegetable
crops are being grown in different part of country due to diverse climate. Many technologies
has been developed and demonstrated, which has enabled India to double the vegetable
production in last 15 years. However, these promising technologies and research findings
have not reached to farmers, due to deficiencies of delivery systems or lack of economic
incentives. The main problem faced by vegetable growers is variation in price due in sudden
increase and decrease in demand and supply. There are different techniques like protected
cultivation, off season production and cool chain facility, which may provide the better
opportunity to get better price through vegetable cultivation. Under climate change regime,
cultivation of vegetables can enhance the livelihood of resource poor farmers.
Key words: Livelihood, Vegetables, Varieties, Income

Introduction landless farmers to enhance rural

livelihoods. India has a large population and
Vegetables are not only an integral part
diverse agro–climatic conditions that favour
of food and nutritional security but also an
the growth of various vegetables in the
essential ingredient of economic security of
country. Vegetable revolution, in the last
Indian rural community. The ever increasing
decades, has been a ray of hope for the
demand of vegetables has to be
landless, small and marginal farmers. This
systematically met and would be achieved
has become a new dimension of
only by promoting better cultivation
development in favour of the poor rural
mechanisms within the rural areas. It has
masses. Our country is blessed with diverse
been seen that vegetable cultivation is one
agro-climates and distinct season, making it
of the best options for providing additional
possible to grow a wide range of vegetable
incomes to small and marginal landholders/

crops. The growth in vegetable sector is
driven by consumer demand, and the need
for farmers to enhance incomes through high
value crops.
In India between 1999 and 2012 per
capita consumption of vegetables has
doubled (120 g to 230g/day), while cereal
consumption has declined by 10 %. But
based on projections to 2030, further
increases in vegetable production will be
needed to meet the demand for fresh, export
and processing under changing food
scenario. Most of the supply increase could
be achieved through higher per-unit
productivity and reduction in postharvest
losses, but production also needs to be
boosted in non-traditional areas, and in home
and village gardens, where consumption
levels are particularly low. By adoption of
modern production technologies such as
improved varieties/hybrids, IPM, INM,
proper training of farmers, better marketing
opportunities and developmental policies of
Government culminated in significant
increase in vegetable production and
productivity in the country. Further, attempts
have been made to critically analyze an
overview of research developments in the
field of genetic improvement, production
and protection technology and its utilization
by the farmers to enhance their livelihood.
Present scenario of the vegetable
production in countr
countryy
Globally, India ranks second in vegetable
production and contributed 15.8 and 14 %
Table 1: Productivity of important vegetables in India and world
Vegetable Highest productivity(world t/ha)
Brinjal Egypt (49.2)
Cabbage Japan (66.0)
Cauliflower Pakistan (24.8)
Okra Saudi Arabia (13.3)
Tomato Spain (74.0)
50 Source: *NHB 2012-13, ** NHB 2011-12
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
to global vegetable area and production,
respectively. In India, vegetable alone
contributes 60.32% of total horticultural
production. During 2012-13, India produced
162.18 million tonnes of vegetable from an
areas of 9.20 million hectare area with an
average productivity of 17.63 t/ha (NHB, 1).
Productivity of vegetables in India is seen
to be lower than Spain (37.2 t/ha), and world
average (18.8t/ha). Tomato (11.2 %), onion
(10.4), and brinjal (8.3 %) are the major four
vegetable contributing 29.9 % of total
production of vegetable in the country (NHB,
1) excluding potato. India ranked first in
production of okra in the world (73 % of
world production) and second in brinjal
(27.55 %), cabbage (13 %) and tomato (11
%). Productivity of vegetables in India and
its global ranking during 2012-13 are given
in Table 1 and 2. The major vegetable
growing states in India are West Bengal (1.35
million ha), Uttar Pradesh (0.82 million ha),
Bihar (0.83 million ha), Andhra Pradesh
(0.65 million ha) and Gujrat (0.52 million
ha) with production of 26.73, 17.70, 14.63,
11.85 and 9.38 million tons, respectively.
Enhancing livelihood of resource poor
vegetable growers
The cultivation of vegetables is getting
more attention due to maximum net returns
as compare to cereals in India. Many advance
production and protection technologies
including varieties/hybrids have been
developed and demonstrated, which has
enabled India to double the vegetable
Productivity in India(t/ha)* Average world productivity (t/ha)
18.6 25.0
22.9 27.7
19.6 16.9
12.1** 6.9
20.7 32.8
Vegetable Production for Livelihood and Rural Development

Table 2: India’s global ranking for area, production and productivity of vegetables

Vegetable Area Production Productivity

Brinjal 2 2 8
Cabbage 2 2 8
Cauliflower & Broccoli 2 2 5
Okra 1 1 4
Tomato 2 2 11
All vegetable 2 2 10

production in last 15 years. There techniques
are describes very briefly in the following
section of manuscript.
Promotion and adoption of improved
varieties and hybrids of different vegetable
Vegetable breeding strategy and targets
are dependent on market trends. Successful
breeders anticipate changes in the market by
developing new cultivars that are ready to
be released to the growers when their
demand increases. Therefore, breeding
targets and priorities should change as per
consumer and vegetable market demand and
growing systems. After the initiation of
systematic, broad based and comprehensive
breeding programmes at various ICAR based
institutes and State Agriculture Universities,
a numbers of high yielding promising
materials were developed. With quick
multilocation testing facility available after
the establishment of All India Coordinated
Vegetable Improvement Project in 1970-71
and as a result of evaluating the promising
breeding material developed at various
research centres under multilocation testing
programme of this project, a fast progress
was witnessed in vegetable varietal
improvement. As a result the AICRP (VC)
has made strides in development and
production of vegetables in a very short span
of time. In four decades, 465 varieties in 23
major vegetables crops have been identified
for cultivation in different climatic zones.
Among these, 276 are high yielding open
pollinated, 142 are hybrids and 47 are
resistant to diseases. The few most important
varieties are mentioned below.
Most important objectives of vegetable
breeding are disease and pest resistances.
Since the early days of the 20th century,
traditional breeding for disease resistance in
vegetables has been a major component for
controlling the devastating diseases i.e.;
YVMV and ELCV of Okra, ToLCV &
bacterial wilt of tomato, chilli leaf curl virus
and anthracnose of chilli, Phytoplasma like
organisms (PLO) and bacterial wilt of
brinjal, downey mildew and viruses of
cucurbits etc. Cultivars that are resistant or
tolerant to one or a few specific pathogens
are already available for many vegetable
crops (Table 3).
Nurser y raising of vegetables: good
business model
The supply of nursery on demand to the
farmer’s door is one of the latest business
model adopted by the farmers of the Punjab.
This practice may generate the employment
and reduce the cost of production by
minimizing the seed cost and time. Modern
nursery raising under foolproof protected
conditions gives disease free plants
particularly viruses.
Most of the vegetables are cultivated by
transplanting. Nursery raising of direct
sowing vegetable i.e.; cucurbits are also
increasing. Direct sowing of cucurbit seeds
in the field increases the cost of cultivation 51
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Salient features of varieties/hybrids developed by Indian Institute of Vegetable Research

Crop and Variety/hybrid Salient features

Tomato
Kashi Vishesh Determinate, fruit red, spherical shape, size medium to large, resistant to tomato leaf curl
virus resistant yield 400-450 q/ha.
Kashi Amrit Determinate, round shape, colour attractive red, suitable for cultivation under tomato leaf
curl virus, yield 620q/ha
Kashi Anupam Determinate, fruits large, flatish round (slightly indented at blossom end of fruit, 6 locules,
medium maturity yield 500-600 q/ha.
Kashi Hemant Determinate, concentrated fruit with attractive red colour and round shaped, yield 400-420 q/
ha.
Kashi Sharad Indeterminate, slightly oval shape and firm, thick pericarp suitable for longer shelf life, yield
400-500 q/ha.
Kashi Abhimaan* Determinate, moderate resistance to tomato leaf curl virus, fruits colour deep red, firm, yield
8000-900 q/ha
Brinjal
Kashi Sandesh* Fruits shape round, medium size, light purple, yield 750-800 q/ha.
Kashi Prakash Fruit shape oblong, light green spotted colour, yield 650-700 q/ha.
Kashi Taru Fruits long, glossy dark purple colour, suitable for summer and autumn seasons cultivation,
yield 700-750 q/ha.
Chilli
Kashi Anmol Determinate, fruit pendant, colour attractive green, suitable for green fruit production under
chilli-wheat/chilli-potato cropping system, yield 200 q/ha.
Kashi Surkh* Fruits colour light green, suitable for green as well as red fruit production, green fruit yield
240 q/ha, red fruit yield 140 q/ha.
Kashi Gaurav Bushy plant, 50% flowering in 35-40 days after transplanting, tolerant to thrips and mites
dark green and dark red colour, suitable for autumn-winter season cultivation, red ripe fruit
yield 100 q/ha.
Kashi Sinduri Plants determinate, moderately resistant to anthracnose, 50% flowering in 30-35 days after
(paprika type) transplanting, fruits green at immature and dark red at ripe stage non-pungent and high
oleoresin content (15 per cent), red ripe fruits yield 140 q/ha and green fruit yield 200-225 q/
ha
French Bean
Kashi Param Determinate, fleshy Pod, round, colour dark green, green pod yield 120-140 q/ha.
Cow Pea
Kashi Gauri Bushy plant, photo- insensitive, early maturing, suitable for sowing in both spring summer
and rainy season, flowers in 35-38 days and pods get ready for harvest in 45-48 days, pods
25-30 cm long, light green, resistant to golden mosaic virus and Psedocercospora cruenta,
green pods yield 100-120 q/ha.
Kashi Unnati Bushy plant type, photo, insensitive, early variety suitable for sowing in both spring summer
and rainy season, individual plant bears 40-45 pods, resistant to golden mosaic virus and
Psedocercospora cruenta, green pods yield 100-150 q/ha.
Kashi Kanchan Bushy plant, photo, insensitive, early maturing suitable for sowing in both spring summer
and rainy season, produces 40-45 pods per plant, average pod length of 30-35 cm. pods
dark green, tender, pulpy and less fibrous, resistant to golden mosaic virus and
Psedocercospora cruenta, green pod yield 150-200 q/ha
Kashi Nidhi Plant dwarf, medium maturing, sowing in both spring summer and rainy season, 25-30 pods
per plant, average pod length 25-30cm, pod colour green, moderate resistant to golden
52 mosaic virus, green pods yield 35-140 q/ha.
Vegetable Production for Livelihood and Rural Development

Pea
Kashi Nandini Early (50% plants bears flowers at 34 days after sowing), 7-8 pods per plant, pods length 8-
9cm, pod filled with 8-9 seeds, shelling percentage 47-48, yield of 110-120 q/ha.
Kashi Udai Early (50% plants bear flowers at 35-37 days after sowing), 8-10 pods per plant. Pods length
9-10 cm, pod filled with 8-9 bold seed, selling percentage 48, yield 100-110 q/ha.
Kashi Shakti Medium maturing (50% plants bear flowers at 54-56 days after sowing), 11-12 pods per
plant, Pods length 10-11 cm, pod filled with 7.5-8.5 bold seed, selling percentage 48-49,
yield 140-160 q/ha.
Kashi Mukti Early maturing powdery mildew resistant variety. Plant height is 50-53 cm and 50% plants
bear flowers at 35-36 days after sowing. Foliage light green, pods are 8.5-9 cm long, attractive
filled with 8-9 bold, soft textured seeds, selling percentage 48-49 and yield 11-12 t/ha.
Kashi Samridhi Late maturing (60-63 days for 50 % flowering), powdery mildew resistant, Pod green in
colour, 13-14 pods per plant, shelling percentage 46-48, yield 120-140 q/ha.
Dolichos Bean
Kashi Haritima Pole type, 250-300 pods per plant, average pod length of 14-15cm, pods colour green, soft
in texture, free from parchment layer, yield 350-375 q/ha.
Okra
Shitla Jyoti* Flowering starts 30-40 days after sowing, resistant to YVMV and OLCV, fruit colour green,
length 12-14 cm at marketable stage and yield 20-22 t/ha.
Kashi Vibhuti Flowering starts on 4th to 5th nodes after 38-40 days after sowing, resistant to YVMV and
OLCV, individual plant bears 18-22 fruits with 8-10 length cm at marketable stage and yield
170-180 q/ha.
Kashi Pragati First flower appears after 36-38 days after sowing, resistant to YVMV and OLCV, single
plant bears 23-25 fruits of 8-10 cm length at marketable stage, yield 180-190 q/ha in rainy
and 130-140 q/ha in summer season.
Kashi Satdhari Seven ridges variety resistant against YVMV under field condition, flowering starts 42 days
after sowing, individual plant bears 18-25 fruits of 13-15 cm length at marketable stage, yield
110-140 q/ha.
Kashi Lila Flowering starts 30-34 days after sowing resistant to YVMV, suitable for rainy and summer
season cultivation as early crop due to low temperature tolerance, fruits green 13-15 cm
long. yield 150-170 q/ha.
Kashi Bhairav* Fruit colour dark green, resistant to YVMV and OLCV under field condition, length 10-12 cm
at marketable stage, yield 160-180 q/ha.
Kashi Kranti First harvest starts 45-46 days after seed sowing, resistant to YVMV and OLCV, fruits
dark green,. Individual plants bears about 17-18 fruits of 8-10 cm length, suitable for
cultivation in summer and rainy season, yield 125-145 q/ha.
Radish
Kashi Sweta Early harvesting (30-35 days after sowing), Roots 25-30 cm long, 3.3-4.0 cm in diameter,
straight, tapering with pointed tip, yield 450-470 q/ha.
Kashi Hans Suitable for September to February planting, ready for harvest after 40-45 days of sowing,
10-15 days can tolerate the pithiness, leaves are soft and smooth like spinach, roots straight
and tapering type, 30-35 cm long and 3.5-4.2 cm in diameter, yield 430-450 q/ha.
Cauliflower
Kashi Kunwari Early maturing group variety, suitable time of sowing-end of June to July, curds semi-dome
type, white compact; fine texture, average weight 300-450 g, yield 300-350 q/ha.
Muskmelon
Kashi Madhu Fruits round, with open prominent green sutures, weight 650-725 g, half-slip in nature, flesh
salomon orange, thick, with 13-14 % T.S.S., medium maturity, long Post harvest life, tolerant
to powdery and downy mildew, yield 200-270 q/ha.
Ash Gourd
53
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Kashi Dhawal Fruits oblong, average weight 11-12 kg, fruit flesh white with 8.5-8.7 cm thickness, seed
arrangements linear, crop duration 120 days, yield 550-600 q/ha, suitable for preparation of
Petha sweets due to high flesh recovery.
Kasi Ujwal Less seeded fruits with average weight of 10-12 kg with globular in shape, yield 400-500 q/
ha, suitable for preparation of Petha sweets due to high flesh recovery.
Kashi Surbhi Oblong shape fruit, medium in size (9.5-10 kg), flesh white with 8.5-8.7 cm thickness, 2.5-3.0
fruit per plant, high flesh recovery, suitable for preparation of Petha sweets, yield 700-750 q/
ha.
Pumpkin
Kashi Harit Vine short, early maturing, fruits colour green, spherical shape, weight 2.5-3.0 kg at green
stage, best for green fruit production, yield 300-350 q/ha.
Bottle Gourd
Kashi Bahar* Long fruit, single plant bears 12 light green straight fruits of 30-32 cm length and 780-850g
weight, suitable for both season cultivation (rainy and summer), yield 500-550 q/ha.
Kashi Ganga Fruit light green, 30 cm length, 7cm diameter, fruit weight 800-900g, yield 480-550 q/ha,
suitable for Kharif and summer season cultivation.
Sponge Gourd
Kashi Divya Fruiting starts 48-50 days after sowing, single plant bears 10-12 light green fruits of 15-16
cm length, each of 80-85g, suitable for rainy and summer season cultivation, yield 250-300
q/ha.
Pointed Gourd
Kashi Alankar Fruits colour green, spindle in shape and striped at distal end of the fruit, single plant bears
120-130 fruits of 6.7 cm length and each weighing 25-27g, yield 180-200 q/ha.
*, hybrid

Table 3: Resistant varieties developed

Crops Resistant Variety

Brinjal BB-44, BB-64, BB-7, SM-6-7, BWR-12, CHES-309, SM-6-6, VNR-218 (Bacterial wilt
resistance)
Okra HRB-107-4, HRB-55, HRB-9-2, IIVR-11, JNDOL-03-1, JOL-2K-19, NDO-10, P-7, PB-57,
Sel-10 ( A. Anamika), Sel-4 (A. Abhay), VRO-22, VRO-3, VRO-4, VRO-5, VRO-6 (YVMV
resistance)
Pea DPP-68, DPP-9411, FC-1 (Ajeet), JP- 83, JP-4, KS-245, PRS-4, KTP-8, NDVP-250, NDVP-
4, VP-233, VRPMR-11, VP-434 (Powdery mildew resistance)
Tomato BRH-2, BWR-5 (Arka Alok), BT-10, LE-415, LE-79-5 (Bacterial Wilt), H-24, H-86 (ToLCV
resistance)

due to more seed rate, uneven germination
and delays in fruiting. Nursery raising is
generally practiced on nursery bed or in
portray. The nursery raising in portray is
economical, easy to handling and better in
plant protection management. Nursery can
be grown in 1-2 inch diameter pro-trays
using sterile cocopit growing medium. These
54 plug trays should be kept under poly or net
house. Before sowing the seeds, the growing
media should be watered and allowed to dry
for 24 hrs. Solution of urea (4g/liter) is
applied 2 times in a week to the growing
seedlings. Usually seedlings will be ready
for transplanting in 20-25 days after sowing.
Hardening of seedlings under open sunlight
should be done for 2-3 days before
transplanting.
Vegetable Production for Livelihood and Rural Development
Use of mulch and fer tigation to maximize
fertigation
the profitability
Healthy vegetable crops are grown by
using polythene mulch and drip irrigation.
Fertilizers are given with help of drip
irrigation. This insures uniform application
of fertilizer and water near root biosphere.
Critical stages when moisture stress is more
critical are (a) transplanting, b) early
flowering stage and c) fruit development
stage. Moisture stress at flowering stage
results poor fruit set and bitterness of fruits
in ridge gourd. Moisture stress during fruit
development greatly reduces fruit size. Black
polythene mulch should be used during
winter season (low temperature) whereas
reflective mulch is used during summer
(high temperature). Reflective mulch also
repels aphids and jassids. The use of mulch
reduces the weed infestation, increase water
and nutrient use efficiency and reduce fruit
rotting. About 40-80% higher marketable
yield has been reported in mulch and
fertigation culture as compared to without
mulch and drip irrigation makes vegetables
more profitable. In rain fed areas, where
water is limiting factor, gravity operated drip
irrigation system may be helpful to get
optimum yield in vegetable crops.
Bower system for growing cucurbits and
high density planting
Generally farmers grow cucurbits on
ground in open field, leading to poor quality
produce. Training of cucurbits on bower
facilitates easy pest management, uniform
fruit shape, colour, increase harvesting
efficiency and yield. Since cucurbit crops are
vine in nature, they bear more number of
fruits for longer period on supporting
structures. It has been observed that if vines
are allowed on the ground, yield is reduced
by nearly 25-30% in addition to 8-10% fruits
becoming unmarketable due to misshaping
and discoloration. The planting distance of
cucurbits can be reduced and plant
population per unit area increased by training
of plants on bower system. Pruning of trained
plants is essential to achieve a balance
between vine growth and fruit set. In
cucumber, single stem is allowed to grow
with 2-3 fruiting branches, which increases
the number of marketable fruits. Good
quality fruits fetch 10-15% better price in
nearby urban market.
Safe production of vegetable through
organic far ming and use of IPNM module
farming
Due to increasing health awareness, the
demand of safe and healthy vegetable has
increased rapidly and that is why organic
cultivation has been emerged. Demand of
vegetables in the domestic and global market
is very high because of rich nutrition value
(high amount of minerals, fiber, vitamins,
carbohydrate and calcium). Market of
organic food has been growing by 10%
annually with estimated the global market
of nearly 2.7 billion euro which was 1.7%
(in value) of the entire food market in 2008.
Different organic foods product have share
like Fruits and vegetables 17%, dairy
products 16%, bread and flour 13% and
processed food products 3% among all
organic food products. In 2009, the organic
agriculture had shown a sharp rise by
converting 36000 new producers which were
23% more in the comparison of 2008
(Anonymous, 2013).
A significant increase in yield and quality
could be achieved with the use of integrated
plant nutrient management (IPNM) modules,
which combines inorganic fertilizer, organic
inputs, biofertilizers, micronutrients and
advanced agro-techniques starting from the
high-tech seedling raising to post-harvest
management. One such IPNM module in
tomato has been developed, which uses
nitrogen @ 120 kg/ha and 60 kg/ha each of
phosphorus and potash along with pressmud
5 t/ha and root dipping treatment with
Azotobacter before transplanting as well as
foliar spray of Sulphur (Ferrous ammonium
sulphate) @ 20 ppm at 30, 45 and 75 days 55

after transplanting. In the case of tomato
hybrid Avinash-2, yield of 1645 q/ha
compared to 600 q/ha in control has been
obtained using this module. Similarly, in
brinjal hybrid Kashi Sandesh, application of
nitrogen @120 kg/ha, phosphorus and
potash each@60 kg/ha along with pressmud
5 t/ha and soil application of Azospirillum
and phosphate solubilizing microorganism
(PSM) @10 kg/ha each, foliar spray of zinc
50 ppm and boron 50 ppm at 30, 45 and 75
days after transplanting gave an yield of 976
q/ha (De and Rai, 4). The rates of nutrient
removal by vegetable crops are extremely
important, specially for designing the nutrient
supplementation strategy for sustainable
productivity. A general recommendation of
120-150:60-80:60-80 kg ha-1 of N: P2O5:K2O
still holds good for many vegetable crops.
Considering the growing concerns and
potential markets worldwide, there is a need
to standardize and develop protocols for
organic farming for different agro-ecological
zones of India. The quality of fruits in terms of
acidity and vitamin C significantly improved
in tomato cv. H-86, DVRT-1, DVRT-2 and Sel-
7 under organic farming. However, a decrease
of 10-27% in yield was recorded as compared
to control (recommended NPK). In the case of
broccoli, the application of FYM + digested
sludge (each @ 10 t/ha) and seedling
inoculation with VAM significantly improved
the fresh and dry weight of head and yield in
broccoli over the recommended dose of NPK.
Significant increase in carotenoid content in
broccoli was recorded with sole application
of digested sludge (20 t/ha) or combined
application of FYM + digested sludge
coupled with seedling inoculation in either
PSM or VAM. Vitamin-C content
significantly improved in broccoli by
application of organic manures (either FYM
or Digested sludge @ 20 t/ha each). The
combined application of organic manure and
Rhizobium, significantly improved the
nodulation in garden pea cv. Azad Pea-3.
However, the plant weight and pod yield
56
were recorded at par to control
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
(recommended NPK). Organic manures and
biofertilizers, independently or in
combination improved the total carbohydrate
(5.6%), vitamin-C (22.5%) and total
carotenoids (11.8%) in pea. However, it did
not affect the moisture, crude protein and
insoluble dietary fiber content (De and Rai,
5).
The use of biofertilizers improved the
availability of nutrients and shelf-life of the
fruits during storage. The soil application of
Azotobacter @ 15 kg/ha coupled with NPK
@ 150:60:80 kg/ha influenced the pericarp
thickness, shelf-life and yield in tomato
hybrids. The shelf-life of tomato was
enhanced by 3-5 days at ambient
temperature. The combined application of
phosphate solubilizing bacteria and
Azotobacter was not as effective in
enhancing the shelf-life of tomato fruits. A
number of biofertilizers particularly
Azotobacter, Azospirillum, Acetobacter and
phosphate solubilizing microorganism,
besides Rhizobium have been found to
increase the quality yield of different
vegetable crops. These biofertilizers are
applied as inoculants through seed or soil
treatments.
Use of integrated pest management
Insect pests are the major biotic
constraints in vegetables production in India.
Apart from causing direct damage they also
act as vectors for several viral diseases.
Average yield loss due to major insect pests
in different parts of the country is reported
to vary from 33 to 40 per cent. Among these
tomato fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera),
brinjal shoot and fruit borer (Leucinodes
orbonalis), chilli thrips (Scirtothrips
dorsalis) and mite (Polyphagotarsonemus
latus), fruit and shoot borer (Earis spp.) on
okra, diamondback moth (Plutella
xylostella) on cole crops, fruit fly
(Bactrocera cucurbitae) on cucurbits are
important ones. In recent context of changing
agro-ecosystems and climate, several other
Vegetable Production for Livelihood and Rural Development
insect pests such has serpentine tomato leaf
miner, brinjal gall midge, okra stem fly, white
fly, Maruca, fruit fly, giant African snail and
bitter gourd leafhopper gradually attaining
the major pest status in different regions of
the country and adding to heavy loss of
crops. Earlier gall midge known to be a
minor pest is gradually becoming a regular
problem in chilli, capsicum and brinjal in
the states of A.P., Karnataka and in brinjal
in Chattisgarh, whereas Hellula undalis on
cabbage and red spider mite on okra, brinjal,
cowpea, Indian bean, etc., have intensified
the severity of occurrence. Few new pests
have emerged and are of great concern to
vegetable growers.
Among farmers, chemical method of
control still enjoys first choice because of
its easy availability and quick action. In
India, only 25-30 per cent of the total
cultivated area is under pesticide cover. Per
hectare consumption of pesticide in India is
around 381 g a.i./ha which is lower than the
world average of 500 g a.i/ha. It is estimated
that around 13-14 % of total pesticides used
in the country are applied on vegetables, of
which insecticides account for two-thirds of
total pesticides used in vegetables
(Kodandaram et al., 2013). However, some
of the tolerant varieties/lines have been
identified against major insect pests and
being used as one of the major components
of Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
Research conducted under All India
Coordinated Research Programme (AICRP)
on Vegetable Crops (AICRP-VC), Indian
Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR),
Varanasi and Indian Institute of Horticultural
Research (IIHR), Bangalore have developed
several regional/location specific IPM
technologies for many important pests of
vegetables. Through AICRP (VC) alone a
total eighty six technologies have been
developed in 11 important vegetable crops
(Fig. 2).
Integrated disease management
Vegetables are short duration crops and
amenable to attack by various kind of
diseases during their production. Occurrence
of the disease is based on interaction of crop,
environment and pathogen types. A huge
crop loss is expected when all the three
factors are favourable. In general, 30-80%
crop losses have been recorded in different
vegetables due to diseases. Among the
diseases, wilt and leaf spot are considered
to be the major threat to vegetable
cultivation. Phytopthora, Fusarium,
Verticillium and Ralstonia are predominant
genus causing wilt diseases while Alternaria,
Cercospora, Colletotrichum,
Pseudosperanospora, Erysiphe, Phomopsis
and Xanthomonas are causal agents of leaf
spot diseases. Apart from this, major menace
to vegetable production is due to viral
diseases especially caused by leaf curl and
spotted wilt viruses.
Disease due Phytoplasma like organisms
(PLO) is yet another problem in vegetables
especially in brinjal which produces little
leaf symptoms where the entire reproductive
part is converted into a leafy structures
thereby the yield of the crop is severely
affected. Management of the diseases with
chemicals leads to many ill effects on
environment and human and animal health.
Alternatively, uses of bio-control agents for
the management of diseases have been
documented (Mastouri et al., 2010).
However field delivery system and efficacy
of biocontrol agents are still question of
success. In many instances the aforesaid
methods fails to combat the diseases due to
evolution of new biotype/stain/pathotype/
race in the pathogen system. Hence
management practices by including all
possible methods such as use of resistance
cultivar/hybrid, cultural practices, specific
chemical and biological with appropriate
application technologies have been
57

developed for important vegetables (Rai et
al 26). Apart from that, under AICRP VC
programme, several crop specific disease
management technologies have been
recommended suitable for different agro-
ecological zones of India for an instance, the
notable ones are IDM for downy mildew
management in cucurbits, YVMV in okra,
Ralstonia wilt in brinjal, early and late blight
in tomato, anthracnose in chilli, leaf spot
diseases in legumes, black rot bacterial
disease in cruciferous crops, tospo in tomato
etc. Overall about 125 technologies have
been evolved for disease management in
vegetable crops (Fig. 3).
Utilization of under utilized vegetables crops
underutilized
for better price
There are many underutilized vegetable
crops, having good potential to contribute
to the income of farmers. However it is
essential to validate their adaptability,
demand for the produce and profitability in
comparison to the alternative crops grown
in the region. It was observed that the success
in promotion of underutilized crops was
dependent on the crop yields, price for the
produce and marketability either in fresh or
processed form. There are many crops which
are grown in the country, but no systematic
research has been executed on such crops.
These crops are Faba bean, lima bean,
winged bean, clove bean, jack bean, sword
bean, velvet been, tree bean, chive, leek,
welsh onion, broccoli, Brussels sprouts,
Chinese cabbage, celery, lettuce, globe
artichoke, sweet corn, baby corn, asparagus,
Indian spinach, Chenopodium, water leaf,
drumstick, curry leaf, ash gourd, snake
gourd, Momordica dioica,. M.
cochinchinenesis, Coccinia indica, C.
cordifolia, Melorthia hetrophylla
(dioceous) and pointed gourd etc. Sweet
gourd is one of the most important
underutilized crops having good price in the
market and consumer acceptability is also
58 very high.
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Availability of good quality planting materials
and seeds
Seeds of most of the vegetables are high
value-low volume types cost more as
compare to other crops. Scientists, breeders,
support people, and facilities, budgets, and
good management are requirements, to
assure success in the vegetable seed
production. In India, public government
undertaking i.e.; NSC, ICAR research
institutes & SAUs, international seed
companies, and local private seed companies
are involved in vegetable seed production.
Private seed companies have been expanding
rapidly in recent years and there are now
thousands of small firms. Private seed
companies are placing more and more
emphasis on the hybrids seed production of
high commercial value crops. Worldwide the
share of hybrid seed is increasing at a fast
pace of 8-10% annually in most of the
vegetables. Therefore public sector should
be strengthened their capacity to supply
adequate quantities of good quality vegetable
seed to poor farmers. Farmers are also
producing seeds of locally preferred or
traditional landraces and public sectors of
India have attention in producing open
pollinated cultivars. Without proper seed
production, processing technology, quality
assurance, and management supervision,
locally produced seeds are often
contaminated by seed transmitted viruses
and other disease organisms, and are
genetically impure. Lack of proper storage
facilities and an effective monitoring
mechanism often leads to low or uncertain
seed viability and vigour. Seed quality and
treatment are keys to product quality, and
there is a need for upgrading quality control
laboratories to meet international standards.
The genetically pure seed with high
germination and vigour is a critical input for
vegetable growers since the dividend of all
other inputs in vegetable production are
dependent on its quality.
Vegetable Production for Livelihood and Rural Development
To boost the vegetable seed production
and availability of quality seed, a separate
National Seed Project on Vegetables (NSP-
Veg.) is in operation, a total of 14 centres
are working under this project in different
parts of the country. The breeder seed
produced under NSP is further converted into
foundation and certified seeds. The vegetable
breeder seeds produced against the indents
in this system during the last 5 years have
been given in Table 4.
Post-har vest technology and supply chain
ost-harvest
assured better price
Since vegetables are highly perishable,
efficient Post Harvest Management has
become an absolute necessity. It is also
important for effective exploitation of the
export potential of fruits and vegetables.
Vegetables losses are estimated at 25-30%
due to improper Post Harvest. It amounts to
a loss is many crores per year. This loss is
not only in form of produce in money but
also wastage of labour, energy and inputs
involved in production of vegetable crops.
If farmers can be trained for pre and post-
harvest management and value addition, can
increased the incremental advantaged over
actual income.
In India, consumption of fresh vegetable
is more preferred as compared to frozen or
refrigerated. This is due un-affordability of
refrigerator by households living in the rural
areas. Even in urban areas, modern
consumers do not want store vegetable
products for longer periods within the
Table 4: Vegetable breeder seed production in India during the last decade
Year
Indent (kg) Production (kg)
2009-10 7822.8 13384.5
2010-11 36786.6 37886.6
2011-12 2302.1 3022.07
2012-13 13580.0 13805.0
2013-14 5932.8 23033.5
household due to concern of taste, flavour,
and texture and health consciousness.
Therefore, challenges are to refine methods
for short term storage, so that premium
quality is retained rather than to focus on
longer term storage for prolonged marketing.
Harvesting at right maturity is the most
important determinant of storage life and
finally its quality. Many vegetables, for
example, leafy vegetables and fruit
vegetables which is harvested for
consumption at immature stage (such as
cucumbers, bottle gourd, okra, brinjal,
pumpkin, beans, peas, and green chilli),
attain optimum eating quality prior to
reaching full maturity. Delay harvesting of
these vegetables leads to low quality
produce.
Most of the fresh vegetables are
harvested by hands. Better management
during harvesting operations, have a major
impact on the quality of harvested
vegetables. Proper management practices
include selection of optimum time to harvest
in relation to crop maturity and time of
harvesting. Immediate cooling after harvest,
maintenance of optimum temperatures
during transportation and storage are
important factors in the successful post-
harvest handling of vegetables. It should be
noted that any practice that reduces the
number of produce handling steps will help
minimize losses. Field packing (selection,
sorting, trimming, and packaging) of
produce at the time of harvest can greatly
reduce the number of handling steps in
Breeder seed
Surplus (kg) against indent Surplus against indent (%)
5561.7 71.1
1100.0 2.9
720.0 31.3
225.1 1.7
17100.7 288 59

preparation vegetables for marketing. The
use of mobile field packing stations with
adequate shading should be encouraged for
broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, cowpea and
beans because these vegetables, do not
require washing before transporting to
market. Low cost safe storage structures for
small and intermediate scale farmers need
to be promoted. Over the last few years, there
has been a positive growth in ready to serve
beverages, juices, dehydrated and frozen
vegetable products, pickles, convenience
veg-spice pastes, processed mushrooms, and
curried vegetables. Besides processing of
major vegetable for various value added
products, Indian processing industries are
also looking for value added products from
minor or underutilized crops also.
Year-round supply of vegetables to get
continuous income through off season
production
Many vegetables have now a gross over-
supply during a very concentrated production
season, while during off season, supply is
very less. Vegetables are highly perishable
products, restricting the ability of producers
to store them in order to cope with price
fluctuations. The year-round provision of
safe, nutritious vegetable crops to consumers
can be assured through better transport
facility of locally-produced vegetable,
extending the production season and good
storage condition. Development and
expansion of supermarket chain can also play
an important role to increase the availability
of vegetables. Popularization of indigenous
vegetable and production under greenhouses
should be also considered.
Protected cultivation is providing
opportunities for improving productivity by
reducing climatic extremes (temperature,
rainfall, pest incursion) in hot and cool areas.
The National Horticulture Board provides
financial support for developing protected
cultivation infrastructure. Although systems
60 are expensive but yield increases of up to
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
300 % for high value and high quality
produce compensate costs. Walk-in tunnels
(including low-cost structures) have been
evaluated for off-season vegetable
particularity and seedling production. Insect-
proof houses are also being used to reduce
pest levels, pesticide use and virus
incursions. Parthenocarpic cucumber,
capsicum and indeterminate tomato
production under controlled condition gives
very high yield with quality fruit.
Future priority for improving livelihood of
vegetable growers in rrural
ural areas
The farmers of rural areas have shifted
towards vegetable farming due to more profit
as compared to rice and wheat cultivation.
The farmers will continue, if they get more
net profit. Being high perishable nature of
vegetables, government should insured the
minimum support price, it will help to reduce
the holding of stocks by middleman and
farmers will also get better price in open
market and may be escape from price
volatility. Vegetables are more vulnerable to
adverse weather, leading to higher risk of
crop failure. Therefore, crop insurance
scheme to the farmers may be friendly. India
has about 6000 cold storage units and they
are not very well suited for the fresh
vegetables except potatoes. Just after
harvesting, farmer’s has to sell their produce
in current market price, unlike grains that
can be hold for a longer time. The cool chain
facility should be increased, so produce can
be marketed in other part of country where
demand is more.
References
Anonymous 2013. Organic Agriculture: the return to
nature. Access date: 01 Oct, 2013 http://
www.rungismarket.com/en/bleu/
enquetesrungisactu/Agriculturebiologique654.asp.
Anonymous. 2013. National Horticulture Database. NHB,
New Delhi.
Kodandaram, M.H., Saha, S., Rai, A.B. and Naik, P.S.
2013. Compendium on pesticide use in vegetables.
IIVR Extension Bulletin No. 50, IIVR, Varanasi, pp.
133.
Vegetable Production for Livelihood and Rural Development

Mastouri, F., Björkman, T., and Harman, G.E. 2010. Seed
treatment with Trichoderma harzianum alleviates
biotic, abiotic, and physiological stresses in
germinating seeds and seedlings. Phytopathol.
100:1213-1221.
Singh, B. and Pandey, S. 2014. Vegetable research in
India: status and future strategies, In: Horticulture
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publishing House, New Dlhi, pp. 201-228.

61
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 62-77, 2015
Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing FFood
ood
Security Issues in India
B.P. SINGH1 AND RAJESH K. RANA2
1
Director and 2Principal Scientist,
ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute,
Shimla 171 001 HP
Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI)
was established in 1949 at Patna on the
recommendation of a working group headed
by Sir Herbert Steward, the then Agricultural
Advisor to the Government of India. Earlier
potato R&D agenda in India was just
confined to the seed potato multiplication
programme. Later the institute was shifted
to Shimla in 1956 and became part of ICAR
in April 1966. The institute is now
responsible for the entire research
programmes on potato in the country.
Indigenous potato research and development
efforts in India under the leadership of CPRI
have been responsible for potato revolution
in India. The country used to produce just
1.54 million t of potatoes from 0.23 million
ha of area at an average productivity of 6.6
t/ha during 1949 (Singh et al., 2011).
Statistics provided by the FAOSTAT reveals
that India produced 45 million t of potato
from 1.9 million ha of area at an average
productivity of 23.68 t/ ha during 2012
(FAOSTAT, 2014) which speaks volumes
about the potato development in the country.
Potato As A FFood
ood Security Crop
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome, in one of its
prominent publication during 2008 has
emphatically considered and recommended
potato as a potential crop to ensure global
food, nutritional and income security in
future, to the poorest of the poor (New Light
on a Hidden Treasure-An End-of-Year
Review’ to commemorate International Year
of the Potato-2008).
Potato growth in India: Comparison of
triennium ending years 2008 and 2012 shows
that potato compared to major cereals
(maize, paddy and wheat) exhibited highest
growth in terms of production and
productivity (Table 1). It happened despite
of the fact that cereal crops got massive
enhancement in support price during this
period. Moreover there was robust export
demand for maize in the international market
during the said period. In order to be more
precise the annual compound growth rates
(ACGRs) of potato area, production and
productivity in India during 2008 and 2012
were also computed (Table 2). Potato has
shown much stronger ACGRs than maize,
paddy and wheat in terms of potato area,
production and productivity.
Potential of potato as food: The
stagnating crop yields, exhausting soils and
ever increasing population in the country
pose a serious food security problem in
coming years. Government had to induce
enhancement in food grains production in
India through support price mechanism.
However, potato provides a ray of hope in
terms of highest per ha per day production
of edible dry matter and nutrition. Evidences
Table 1: Rate of change of area, productivity and production of selected crops in India (triennium ending average 2008
to 2012)

Crop(s) Area (Ha) Productivity t/ha Production (Million t)

TE 2008 TE 2012 % TE 2008 TE 2012 % TE 2008 TE 2012 %
average average Change average average Change average average Change
Maize 8.06 8.55 6.11 2.22 2.52 13.27 17.93 21.52 20.01
Potatoes 1.70 1.87 9.60 18.10 22.11 22.17 30.81 41.31 34.06
Paddy 44.42 43.11 -2.95 3.24 3.51 8.45 143.91 151.49 5.26
Wheat 27.51 29.14 5.95 2.71 3.00 10.73 74.58 87.52 17.35
Data source: FAOSTAT TE: triennium ending (year)

Table 2: Five year ACGRs of selected crops in India (2008 to 2012)

Crop(s) Area Productivity Production

Maize 1.08 2.90 4.01
Potatoes 1.32 6.17 7.58
Paddy -0.90 3.07 2.15
Wheat 1.76 2.80 4.62

Data source: FAOSTAT

are not required to substantiate that
overproduction has been a much common
problem associated with the potato crop than
its low production. One can easily count the
years of so called gluts (1975, 79, 82, 85,
87, 88, 97, 2000, 03, 08, 10) in potato. Policy
makers have been very busy in exploring
options for dealing with potato oversupply
and alternative uses of potato. However, we
have not realized true potential of potato as
we are still using it as vegetable while in
major part of the world potatoes are used as
staple food substituting cereals.
Potato a wholesome food: More than
90% of potato dry matter is composed on
carbohydrates. Besides, about 1 per cent of
the weight of potato tubers consists of
minerals. Potatoes contain a number of
minerals, though many in relatively small
amounts. Calcium, iron, magnesium,
phosphorus, and potassium are nutritionally
important minerals, which occur, in
significant quantities in potatoes. It is rich
in potassium and a good source of
phosphorus, as about 80 per cent of
phosphorus is in the absorbable form. Potato
tubers contain vitamin C and number of B-
group vitamins. Potatoes also contain some
Beta-carotene (pro vitamin A). Yellow
fleshed potato varieties contain up to 100 mg
of beta carotene per 100 gm fresh weight.
History is replete of examples where people
could survive for very long time exclusively
on potato diet. Hence, potato can be a perfect
substitute for other cereals where fast
increase in production is not that easy.
Low calorie food: Potatoes contain a
very small quantity of fat (in traces) and
major proportion of it consists of unsaturated
fatty acids, which are nutritionally superior.
Potato produces about 97 kcal per 100 g
weight, which is much less than cereals and
pulses (about 350 kcal per 100 g). An adult
male’s total daily requirement (2550
calories) could be met by consuming about
3kg boiled potato without causing obesity.
However excessive consumption of
processed products such as chips and French
fries that contain up to 40% oil or fat is not
free from this risk.

Higher biological value of proteins:
Potatoes have about 2 percent protein. The
net protein utilizations or biological values
of potato protein (about 71 per cent that of
whole egg), is better than that of wheat (53
per cent), peas (48 per cent), beans (46 per
cent), and is comparable to cow’s milk (75
per cent).
Higher production per unit area and
time: Potato is high yielding short duration
crop. Due to high protein-calories ratio (17g
protein: 1000 Kcal) and short vegetative
cycle, potatoes yield substantially more
edible energy, protein & dry matter per unit
area and time than many crops. Potato allows
farmer to harvest up to 80% of biomass as
edible, nutritious food. Only 50 percent of a
cereal crop can be harvested as grain. This
difference accounts for the high potential
yield of potato. Crop physiologist estimate
the potential yield of potato at about 120
tonnes per hectare or 30 tonnes per hectare
grain equivalent, nearly twice that of cereals.
The importance of potato in agriculture
economy can be judged from the fact that,
in 1970-71, potato was cultivated in 0.3%
of total cropped area in the country that
contributed 1.4 per cent of total value of
agriculture output. In contrasts, paddy and
wheat widely known to be responsible for
green revolution occupied 22.7 and 11.0 per
cent of total crop area and contributed only
26.2 and 10.4 per cent of total value of
agriculture output, respectively. The picture
has not changed over the time and potato
has continued to contribute significantly to
the national economy. It was cultivated on
0.6 per cent of the total cropped area in 1995-
96 and contributed 1.8 per cent of the total
value of the agriculture output. In the same
year contribution to value output by wheat
and paddy was 12.2 per cent from 30.5 per
cent area and 21.4 per cent from 23.1 per
cent area, respectively. The average ratio of
per cent value output to the per cent cropped
area for potato, wheat and paddy during three
64 decades were 3.3:1, 0.92:1, and 0.96:1,
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
respectively. This indicates that potato
contributes about 3.5 times more than both
wheat and paddy from unit area to the
national economy in agricultural sub-sector.
Energy and protein from one ha land in
a period of just 90 days is 170 × 105 kcal
and 280 kg, respectively. These values for
wheat, rice and maize are 89 × 105 kcal, 303
kg; 64 × 105 kcal, 126 kg ; and 55 × 105 kcal,
180 kg, respectively. Thus, potato has higher
potential and nutritional superiority for
fighting hunger and malnutrition in
developing world.
Flexible planting and harvesting: High
yield of potato per unit land area and time is
an especially valuable trait in developing
areas where the climate permit more than
one crop to be grown in the same field each
year. In Indian tropics and sub-tropics, it is a
short duration crop that can be grown in wide
range of climatic conditions and soil types
with wide flexibility in planting and
harvesting time. It can be harvested while
tubers are still immature and also if the tubers
are left un-harvested for some time, they
continue to increase in size and thereby,
improve yields. This wide flexibility in its
planting and harvesting dates makes the crop
most suitable for inclusion in intensive
cropping system including inter-cropping
prevalent is different regions of the country.
There is thus, a great opportunity to increase
the area and production of potato along with
the other crops.
Wider adaptability: In India, potato can
be grown thorough out the year in one part
or the other. Its adaptability is so wide that
traditional agricultural seasons don’t restrict
its cultivation; for example in Punjab, early
crop of potato can be taken during
September-November, main crop during
October-January and spring crop during
January-April/May. A similar trend is now
emerging in some part of Haryana and West
Uttar Pradesh. In North Eastern hills and
Southern tropical hills potato is grown
Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing Food Security Issues in India
throughout the year. In fact, it can grow and
give economic returns under any climate,
provided the night temperatures during
tuberization remain around 20 C or below:
High response to inputs: Potato
responds well to inputs and give high returns.
The residual potash and phosphorus of the
crop is generally adequate to the subsequent
crop, and the nitrogen requirement is reduced
by half, for good growth of succeeding cereal
crop. The possibility of higher yield with
higher inputs is an important potential that
can be realised in crisis situation.
Superior dietary fibre: Most of the
potato fibre is accounted for by the potato
peel and the intracellular cementing material.
It has been demonstrated that potato peeling,
as a source of dietary fibre are superior to
wheat-bran and can be incorporated in bread
and other processed products with
advantage.
Food Security Issue in India
Global Hunger Index and India: The
World Food Summit of 1996 defined food
security as existing “when all people at all
times have access to sufficient, safe,
nutritious food to maintain a healthy and
active life” (World Health Organization;
http://www.who.int/trade/glossary/story028/
Table 3: Global Hunger Index Scores by rank (only the countries with GHI score >5)
2012 Rank Country
1990
1 Azerbaijan N/A
2 China 11.8
37 Sri Lanka 20.8
57 Pakistan 25.5
60 Nepal 26.9
65 India 30.3
68 Bangladesh 37.9
Source: 2012 Global Hunger Index report
Note: Other two BRIC countries i.e. Russian Federation and Brazil are among unranked countries (<5% hunger score).
en/). Availability, affordability and proper
utilization of food are the important pillars
of food security. Hence, surplus food grains
in India don’t ensure food security to its all
people. ‘Global Hunger Index 2012’ report
of the International Food Policy Research
Institute depicts serious concerns about food
security in India. Indian Hunger Index is
worse than neighboring countries like Nepal
and Pakistan (Table 3). The only consolation
that we are better than Bangladesh also has
a disappointing side that we are improving
slower than even the Bangladesh. Most
commonly set benchmark country for India
comparison, China, is about to achieve the
target of less than 5% hunger index (Global
Hunger Index report mentions the countries
with >5 score).
Even the other indicators of food and
nutritional security i.e. proportion of
undernourished population, <5 years old
underweight children and mortality of <5
years old children suggest similar situation
(Table 4). Earlier in 2010 a UNDP survey
had pointed out that in eight Indian states,
more poor people live than in 26 African
countries. Experts opine that the so called
food self sufficiency in India was due to lack
of food purchasing power of the poor for a
long time.
Hunger score (% of population)
1996 2001 2012
14.6 7.8 5.0
8.9 6.7 5.1
18.4 15.2 14.4
21.8 21.7 19.7
24.4 23.0 20.3
22.6 24.2 22.9
36.1 27.8 24.0
65
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 4: Indicators linked to food and nutritional security

Country Undernourished population (%) <5 years old underweight (%) <5 years old mortality (%)
90-92 95-97 00-02 06-08 88-92 94-98 99-03 05-10 1990 1996 2001 2010

Azerbaijan n/a 27 11 2* 11.8* 8.8 5.9 8.4 9.3 7.9 6.5 4.6
China 18 12 10 10 12.6 10.7 7.1 3.4 4.8 4.1 3.1 1.8
Sri Lanka 28 25 20 20 31.3* 27.5 23.3 21.6 3.2 2.6 2.2 1.7
Pakistan 25 20 24 25 39.0 34.2 31.3 25.4 12.4 11.1 9.9 8.7
Nepal 21 20 18 17 45.5* 42.9 43.0 38.8 14.1 10.4 8.0 5.0
India 20 17 20 19 59.5 41.1 44.4 43.5 11.5 9.7 8.3 6.3
Bangladesh 38 41 30 26 61.5 56.7 45.4 41.3 14.3 10.7 8.1 4.8

Source: 2012 Global Hunger Index report Note: *=IFPRI estimates

Falling per capita food grain Global and Indian potato growth trends
production: India is primarily an agrarian
Potato is the third most important food
nation where three fourth of its population
crop meant for human consumption in the
(800 million people) is directly or indirectly
world after rice and wheat. India is the
dependent on agriculture. However, now it
second largest producer of potato after
is the time when we need to consider
China, leaving the Russian Federation far
agriculture beyond an employment
behind. Developed countries were the major
generating sector, as the impending food
potato producers as well as consumers till
insecurity issues are slowly cropping up in
the last millennium. A comparison of potato
India. Per capita production of food grains
production growth during triennium average
increased from 183 kg during 1970s to 207
2001 and triennium average 2011 showed
kg by mid 1990s, when country’s population
that Africa experienced the highest
grew by more than 50% over the same
proportionate growth followed by Asia (Fig.
period. After mid 1990s, foodgrain
1). Leaving aside the African continent
production has failed to keep pace with the
which grew on smaller base, India showed
population growth in India. Per capita
the highest potato production growth in
production of cereals fell by 17 kg and pulses
major producing countries as well as
production by 3 kg in next one decade. The
continents. India and China were not only
demand of food grains in India is expected
the major contributors to the Asian growth
to grow from 235 million t at the end of 11th
of potato production but being producer of
five year plan to 281 million tonne by the
one third global potato, contributed
year 2020-21. On the other hand per capita
significantly to world potato production.
potato availability as food have steadily
Potato consumption in India and China is
increased from 15.2 kg in 2003 to 21.5 in
accelerating due to increasing industrialization
2008 (FAOSTAT). Although the latest
and participation of women in the job market
information on this aspect is lagging, yet it
that created demand for processed, ready-
is estimated that per capita potato availability
to-eat convenience food, particularly in
in the country during 2012 (total provisional
urban areas (Singh et al., 2014).
Indian potato production equal to 45 million
tonne; FAOSTAT) might be more than 24 In order to study growth trends of potato
kg. The per capita net potato availability in area, production and productivity in India,
India has increased at an annual compound decadal annual compound growth rates
66 growth rate of 2.5 during 1991 to 2012. (ACGRs) were calculated beginning from
Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing Food Security Issues in India

the decade of 1981-1990 to 1995-2004 to 45 million t (2012) while the productivity

(Table 5). The growth in Indian potato
production, area and productivity during
2004-2012 was also estimated in terms of
ACGRs. The data showed that the period
under consideration i.e. 2004 to 2012 was
the best time out of the 16 decadal periods
for which the ACGRs were calculated for
the growth of potato production and
productivity. Since area led growth is not
desirable in a country like India due to
limitations on area under cultivation, hence,
ACGRs of potato area are not emphasized.
Potato production increased from 28 (2004)
increased from 18.8 to 23.7 t/ha during this
period (Fig. 2).
Available R&D PPotato
otato Infrastr ucture in India
Infrastructure
Research and development is not
possible in any area if we lack in required
infrastructure for the same. CPRI is equipped
with all modern facilities to carry out basic
and strategic research on all aspects of
potato. The state-of-the-art biotechnology
laboratory of the institute has all the facilities
for transgenic research, DNA fingerprinting,
molecular breeding, micro-propagation and

Fig. 1: Potato production growth (%) over major potato producing nations and continents during
triennium average 2001 and triennium average 2011 (Data source: FAOSTAT).

Fig. 2: Potato production, productivity and area trends during 2004 to 2012. 67
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 5: Average annual compound growth rates (ACGRs) for potato in India, 1981-1990 to 1994-2004 and 2004-2012

Production Area Yield

Years ACGR (%) ACGR (%) ACGR (%)
1981-90 5.0 2.9 2.2
1982-91 4.9 2.7 2.2
1983-92 5.4 3.6 1.8
1984-93 5.3 4.2 1.1
1985-94 5.4 3.8 1.6
1986-95 5.3 3.7 1.7
1987-96 4.0 3.3 0.7
1988-97 4.7 3.3 1.5
1989-98 3.6 2.9 0.6
1990-99 3.8 2.9 1.0
1991-00 4.1 2.7 1.4
1992-01 3.3 1.6 1.7
1993-02 3.8 1.6 2.2
1994-03 3.7 2.5 1.3
1995-04 4.0 2.6 1.3
2004-12* 6.4 3.3 3.0

Note: ACGR=Annual compound growth rate; *=data for 2013 was not available
Source: Scott and Suarez, 2011; and author’s calculations
Data source: FAOSTAT, 2014

in vitro conservation. A new laboratory has
recently been created for conducting basic
research on cell biology and somatic cell
genetics. To facilitate high throughput
genome sequencing and functional
genomics, a Genome Laboratory with
modern facilities has also been created. The
virus diagnosis laboratory of the CPRI is
equipped with automated ELISA system,
PCR and NASH facilities. Because of its
unique record in the field of virus diagnosis,
this laboratory has been notified by the
Government of India as ‘Accredited Test
Laboratory’ for testing and certification of
tissue culture raised potato microplants and
minitubers. The institute also has indigenous
aeroponics facility for rapid multiplication
of quality planting material. Almost all latest
equipments, under intensive use in the
institute, were procured during the period
under consideration i.e. 2004-2013. In
68
addition all existing facilities needed for the
world class potato research were upgraded
to the state of the art level during this period.
In the sustained process of up-gradation,
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
was the latest addition at CPRI for detection
and diagnosis of major potato viruses. CPRI
possesses a world class potato library at its
headquarters having 35164 documents
including 13545 books and 14368 back
volumes of research journals serial
publications 2446 and 213 current journals
(60 foreign; 152 Indian). Various CD ROM
database e.g. CABI further enrich its
knowledge base. The library has been
automated through local area network for
providing ‘at-the-desk’ library services, in
order to save the time of researchers. All
regional centres of the institute also have
small libraries. Availability of sufficient land
is one of the important pre-requisites for
agricultural R&D. CPRI possesses 521 ha of
Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing Food Security Issues in India

farm land which is used for the production of
potato breeder seed and also for experimental
purposes. The institute has been regularly
maintaining and creating required supporting
infrastructure like buildings, roads/paths,
structures (glass/poly houses) and guest
houses/ hostels etc. It would not have been
possible for the institute to create world class
research and development infrastructure with
the support and blessings of our mentors and
guides at the helm of the affairs.
Salient recent achievements in potato R&D
During last decade, the institute
developed several farmer friendly
technologies that triggered a revolution in
potato production in terms of rapid growth
in potato production and productivity in the
country. A few breakthrough technologies
and major achievements of CPRI, during
2004-2013, that helped in achieving rapid
growth of the potato crop in India in the past
and set momentum for future sustainable
growth are listed below.
Potato genome sequencing: The
complex genome of potato was deciphered
by a consortium of 26 international institutes
belonging to 14 countries. CPRI from India
was the proud partner of this consortium. The
complete potato genome has since been
published in the high impact journal
“Nature” (Fig. 3).
Varietal development: Seventeen
potato varieties and a TPS (true potato seed)
population have been developed and
released by the CPRI during 2004-2013
(Table 6). The emphasis on developing more
processing potato varieties during this period
was an important factor for current rapid
growth rate of potato processing in India
(Singh, 2010).
Germplasm development and
conservation: Germplasm conservation and
development at CPRI is the backbone of
potato breeding programme in India. About
550 potato accessions were added during this
period to the National Potato Germplasm

Table 6: Details of recent potato varieties released by the CPRI

Sl. No. Variety Year of release Maturity Purpose

1. Kufri Shailja 2005 Medium Table purpose
2. Kufri Arun 2005 Medium Table purpose, red coloured
3. Kufri Pushkar 2005 Medium Table purpose
4. Kufri Surya 2006 Early Processing, table, and heat tolerant
5. Kufri Chipsona-3 2006 Medium Processing, late blight resistant
6. Kufri Himalini 2006 Medium Hills, late blight resistant
7. Kufri Sadabahar 2007 Medium Table purpose
8. Kufri Himsona 2007 Late Processing, hills
9. Kufri Khyati 2008 Early Table purpose
10. Kufri Girdhari 2008 Late Table purpose
11. Kufri Frysona 2009 Late Processing (French fries)
12. Kufri Neelima 2009 Medium Table purpose
13. Kufri Chipsona-4 2009 Medium Processing, late blight resistant
15. Kufri Gaurav 2011 Early Nutrient efficient, table purpose
16. Kufri Garima 2011 Medium Table purpose for central plains
17. Kufri Lalit 2013 Medium Red coloured for eastern plains
18. TPS Population 92-PT-27 2007 Medium Table purpose
69

Fig. 3: A concise diagram of potato genome and cover page of Nature issue
Repository from 15 different countries.
Institute developed and registered 18
improved breeding lines having earliness,
resistance to pest & disease and frost
tolerance, as elite genetic stocks with
NBPGR, Delhi. Developed a parental line
having extreme resistance gene to PVY
(Ryadg) in triplex state (INGR 10143) and two
advanced hybrids (LBY-15 & LBY-17)
having combined resistance to late blight and
Potato Virus Y through marker assisted
breeding.
Gene cloning: During the period of 2004
and 2013, fourteen genes/promoters
possessing important traits were cloned for
use in genetic transformation studies without
any IPR obligation (Table 7).
Developed core collection: Developed
and characterized andigena core collection
of 78 accessions out of 740 accessions using
phenotypic and molecular markers (CPRI,
2012).
Gene prospecting through somatic
hybridization: Developed two interspecific
somatic hybrids of potato
Solanumtuberosum dihaploid C-13 (+) S.
etuberosum,andC-13 (+) S. pinnatisectum
70 resistant toPotato Virus Y and late blight
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
through protoplast fusion to overcome the
sexual barriers imposed by difference in
ploidy and endosperm balance number
(EBN).
Meiotic tetraploid for late blight
resistance: Developed 92 meiotic tetraploids
using unilateral sexual polyploidization
(USP) method involving three wild species
(S. chacoense,S. microdontum and S.
verrucosum). One of these meiotic
tetraploids is in AICRP (P) multi-location
trials besides using them as parental material
in late blight breeding programme.
Gene stacking for multiple disease
resistance: Identified seven potato
genotypes having multiple resistance genes
for Late Blight (R1&R3), Potato Virus Y
(Ryadg) & Cyst Nematodes (HC, H1&Gro1)
using molecular markers.
Development of heat tolerant
genotypes: Four heat tolerant clones with
good agronomic traits were identified and
introduced into AICRP(P) for multi-location
testing.
Development of nutrient efficient
variety: Kufri Gaurav, a nutrient efficient
early maturing table purpose potato variety
was released in 2011 especially for the poor
Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing Food Security Issues in India

Table 7: Genes and genetic elements cloned at CPRI for using in genetic transformation.

Sl. No. Gene/Promoter Source organism/Variety Trait

1. cry1Ab/GBSS Bacillus thuringiensis (Synthetic) Tolerance to potato tuber moth
2. cry9Aa2/CaMV35S Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. galleriae Tolerance to potato tuber moth
3. osmotin/CaMV35S Solanum chacoense Tolerance to late blight and
salinity
4. CP/CaMV35S Potato leaf roll virus Resistance to potato leaf roll
virus
5. PTGS construct of Potato stem necrosis virus Resistance to potato stem
MP/CaMV35S necrosis virus
6. glgCm/CaMV35S E. coli Increase in starch quantity
7. AmA1/CaMV35S Amaranthus hypochondriacus Improvement of protein quality
&AmA1/GBSS and quantity
8. inhh/CaMV35S & Tobacco Reduction of cold-induced
inhh/GBSS sweetening
9. RNAi construct of Potato Reduction of cold-induced
vacuolar invertase/ sweetening
CaMV35S
10. RNAi construct of Potato Improvement of starch quality
GBSS/CaMV35S
11. RNAi construct of Potato Dwarf potato
GA20oxi/CaMV35S
12. RNAi construct of Potato apical leaf curl virus Resistance to potato apical
rep gene leaf curl virus
13. Plastid transformation Tobacco/ Bacillus thuringiensis Resistance to tuber moth
vector (pSKC21) subsp. galleriae
14. Gene cassettes with fused Bacillus thuringiensis Resistance to tuber moth
cry1Ab+cry1B genes

farmers. The variety got tremendous
response from the small and marginal
resource deprived farmers from various parts
of the country. The nutrient efficient qualities
of the variety have been well documented
(Trehan and Singh, 2013).
Decision support systems: Developed
nine Decision Support Systems/tools (DSS)
for recommending location specific Best
Management Practices (BMPs) for diverse
agro ecological conditions under which
potato is grown in India as well as extend
support to improve efficiency of crop
improvement programmes.
• A potato crop growth model
“INFOCROP-POTATO” was devel-
oped. This has enabled estimation of
yield gaps and develop Best Manage-
ment Practices (BMPs).
• Plausible Potato Growing Seasons Es-
timator (PPGSE) developed for spa-
tial and temporal diversification of
potato cultivation.
• Computer Aided Advisory System for
Potato Crop Scheduling (CAASPS)
enables farmers to use information on
climate and physiology to choose best
date of planting, variety and fix har-
vesting date.
• Potato Pest Manager brings expert
knowledge on plant protection within
the reach of farmers.
• Decision Support System for man-
71
agement of late blight.

• Potato Temperature Stress Degree
Hours Estimation tool - a tool to help
breeders to characterize environments
for effective targeting of genotypes.
• Potato Potential Yield Estimation
tool – A tool to estimate the yield gap.
• Potato E-book brings potato informa-
tion to a wide range of clientele inter-
ested in potato.
• VarTRAC: A computer software for
identifying potato varieties through
morphological and molecular markers.
Acreage and production forecast of po-
tato: Methodology developed for regional
level pre-harvest potato acreage and produc-
tion forecast using remote sensing data, GIS
and crop modeling for effective policy in-
terventions. A methodology for potato acre-
age estimation through remote sensing and
GIS using Advanced Wide Field Sensor
(AWiFS) data from Indian Remote Sensing
Satellite IRS P6 was standardized in collabo-
ration with Space Applications Centre
(ISRO), Ahmedabad, which is now included
in the FASAL (Forecasting Agricultural out-
put using Space, Agro-meterology and Land-
based observations) programme of Govt. of
India. For production estimates, outputs from
INFOCROP-POTATO model are used.
Thematic maps: Thematic maps on
potato statistics and characteristics of potato
growing environments make data
meaningful for use in decision making.
Impact assessment of climate change
on potato: The impact of climate change on
potato in different regions was assessed
using INFOCROP-Potato model. The yield
is estimated to be severely reduced in
southern and peninsular India (9-47%),
moderately reduced in Indo Gangetic plains
(3-13%) and slightly increased (3-7%) in the
north western Indo Gangetic plains due to
milder winters. The potato production in
India may decline by 2.61 and 15.32 % in
72 the year 2020 and 2050, respectively. The
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
least vulnerable region will be North-western
plains (Punjab, Haryana and areas of western
UP and northern Rajasthan) with possible
increase of 3.46 to 7.11% and the most
vulnerable region will be West Bengal,
plateau regions and other areas in south India
with a possible decrease of 9 to 55% in
productivity.
Micro-irrigation and fertigation in
potato: Micro-irrigation and fertigation
technology standardized to make potato
production feasible in the future era of water
shortage. In order to economise on water and
fertilizers, micro irrigation and fertigation
techniques have been developed and
standardized for potato, which economize on
water by 40-50% and fertilizer NPK by 25-
30% with 25-30% higher yields, over furrow
irrigation method
Farm mechanization: To make potato
production less labour intensive, increase
economic viability and ensure timely
operations various farm machinery/
implements were developed. These include
seed treatment system, French fry cutter,
potato grader and inter culturing machines.
Molecular diagnostics of potato
pathogens: Innovative diagnostic tools/
techniques, based on molecular, techniques
were developed in order to further improve
the quality of service to the Indian potato
farmers.
PCR based protocols were developed
for detection of potato viruses, bacterial wilt
and late blight pathogens, in seed stocks.
Portable dipstick kits for detection of five
major potato viruses at field level using gold
nanoparticles were developed for the
convenience and benefit of potato farmers.
Late blight forecasting system: Late
blight forecasting system was refined and
improved for higher precision and better
potato yields in hills as well as plains.
PGPR formulation Bio-B5: A
biofertilizer-cum-bio-pesticide formulation
Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing Food Security Issues in India
(Bio-B5) for eco-friendly management of
soil- and tuber-borne diseases as well as for
yield enhancement was identified and
patented.
Molecular profiling of potato
pathogens: A major shift in the distribution
pattern of Phytophthora infestans and
Ralstonia solanacearum was detected
through molecular characterization of
samples collected from different agro-
climatic zones of India.
On farm storage: Improved heap
storage technology using CIPC was
developed to mitígate the effect of market
gluts by small and marginal potato growers.
Elevated temperature storage:
Elevated temperature storage technology for
enabling round the year availability of
processing grade potatoes to the potato
processing industry was developed and
popularized in India.
Management of seed dormancy: A
schedule was developed for management of
potato tuber moth under non-refrigerated
storage condition for small and marginal
potato farmers.
Profiling varieties for phytochemicals,
acrylamide and glycoalkaloids: All Indian
potato varieties were profiled for
phytochemicals, acrylamide contents and
glycoalkaloids.
Hi-tech seed production: Quality seed
is very important determinant of crop yield
and application of hi-tech techniques for its
production and multiplication has been aptly
described (Sharma and Pandey, 2013). The
high-tech seed production system through
tissue culture was standardized and put to
use for production of breeder seed, which
accounts for 40% of the total breeder seed
production by CPRI. In addition, variety
specific tissue culture protocols were also
developed.
Indigenous aeroponic system for seed
potato production: The aeroponic system
for potato seed production was developed
and upscaled for commercial production of
potato seed. This will avoid seed
contamination and at the same time has
increased the rate of seed multiplication four
times to that of tissue culturally produced
mini tubers.
Demand estimation of processed
potato products: In order to have right input
for policy and designing future R&D agenda
for varietal development demand of
processed potato products was estimated.
Processing quality potato demand increased
from 0.97 to 2.68 million t during 2005-06
to 2010-11.
Returns to research cost in varietal
development programme: Estimation of
returns to research cost is very important for
assessing the judiciousness of scarce national
resources. Economic Surplus Method was
used to assess returns to research cost for
developing processing quality potato
varieties viz. Kufri Chipsona-1 and Kufri
Chipsona-1.
Extension activities: A large number of
extension activities were carried out during
2004-2013 for the benefit of potato farmers
in India (Table 8).
Technologies Developed and
Commercialized
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
put higher emphasis on commercialization
of suitable technologies in the recent past
and in this line a large number of potato
technologies were developed and
commercialized during 2004-2013 (Table 9).
Impact of PPotato
otato R&D Achievements
Impact on potato production scenario:
Technologies developed by CPRI and their
large scale adoption by all the stakeholders
viz. farmers, cold storage owners, processing
industry, seed industry, farm machinery
sector, etc. has resulted in the highest annual
compound growth rates of potato production 73
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 8: Extension activities carried out during 2004 to 2013

Sl. No. Activity Number

1. On farm trials 334
2. Kisan melas 19
3. Farmers’ trainings 198
4. Radio talks/ live phone in programmes 115
5. Doordarshan talks / live phone in programmes 68
6. Exhibitions 47
7. Potato school on AIR (All India Radio) 2

Table 9: Details of technologies commercialized during 2004-2013

Sl.No. Title of product/process developed Technology brief

1. Biofertilizer-cum-biofungicide/ A bioformulation that controls soil and seed borne
biobactericide composition B5 diseases and ensure early and uniform germination
leading to yield improvement.
2. Potato custard powder Potato custard powder is a combination of potato starch
and potato flour
3. Genetically modified potato with reduced Transgenic potatoes resistant to cold –induced
level of reducing sugars and improved cold sweetening due to low level of reducing sugars
chipping attributes accumulation upon cold storage resulting improvement
in colour of processed product.
4. Hi–Tech seed production through It is a technology for diseases free seed production
micropropagation combining in vitro and field multiplication.
5. Aeroponics for potato-seed production Process of growing plants in an air-mist environment
without soil or an aggregate medium
6. Computer aided advisory system for potato A decision support system to choose variety and also
crop scheduling decide the planting and harvest time according to their
specific needs and locations.
7. Potato pest manager Decision support system for identification of diseases/
pest problem and give situation specific recommendation
8. Regional level potato acreage and Technology for pre-harvest potato average estimation
production estimation using remote sensing and GIS
9. Storage of processing potatoes at10-12 °C Storage of potatoes at 10-12 °C with the use of CIPC for
sprout suppression and minimum sugar accumulation
10. Dipstick Kits for detection of potato viruses The kits can be used for quick detection of major potato
viruses at field level
11. 11 potato varieties released Potato varieties with resistance to diseases & pests and
adapted to varying agro-climatic conditions
12. TPS Population 92-PT- 27 It is a true potato seed segregating population for
heterogeneous crop production with acceptable uniformity
for tuber characters.
13. 15 Germplasm lines developed + registered Genetic stock with unique features of biotic and abiotic
stress resistance

74
Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing Food Security Issues in India
(6.4%) and productivity (3%) during 2004-
2012 as compared to the 16 decadal periods
(Table 5). During this period India became
the second largest producer of potato leaving
behind the Russian Federation by a huge
margin. During 2012 India produced 45
million t of potato while the Russian
Federation produced 29.5 million t potatoes
during this year. Interestingly, India produced
28.6 million t potatoes during 2007 against
the 36.8 million t by the Russian Federation.
While Russian Federation showed declining
trend in potato production during 2004-2012,
India showed rapid growth during this period
where potato production rose from 27.9
million t during 2004 to 45 million t during
2012 and the productivity increased from
18.8 t/ha in 2004 to 23.7 t/ha in 2014 (Fig. 1
and 2).
Economic impact of potato varieties:
Institute released 17 potato varieties; 12 table
purpose, 4 processing purpose and 1 heat
tolerant during 2004 to 2014. Among table
purpose varieties Kufri Himalini is estimated
to generate an economic impact of 22.59
crore during its first three years followed by
Kufri Sadabahar ( 12.78 crore in 3 years),
Kufri Khyati ( 10.88 crore in 2 years) and
Kufri Girdhari ( 6.26 crore in 2 years).
Among processing varieties, Kufri
Chipsona-3 generated 157 crore economic
impact in its first 3 years followed by Kufri
Himsona ( 96.68 crore in 2 years) and Kufri
Frysona ( 12.33 lakh in 1 years). The only
heat tolerant potato variety Kufri Surya
generated 27.90 crore economic impact in
its first 5 years.
Potato area under CPRI varieties:
Adoption of crop varieties is an important
indicator of their qualitative attributes. In
India about 99% of the area under potato is
covered by the indigenous varieties
developed by CPRI over the years. Although
most of the exotic processing varieties of
potatoes like Atlantic, Lady Rosetta and FL-
1533 were strongly pushed by the foreign
multinationals in very big way, yet such
varieties could occupy only few thousand
hectares out of 1.8 million hectare under
potato in the country.
Economic impact of processing
varieties: Internal Rate of Return of this
research project for developing Kufri
Chipsona-1 and Kufri Chipsona-2 potato
varieties for processing was estimated as
high as 55% while Net Present Worth (NPW)
was 46.11 crore at 10% rate of returns to the
capital used at the national level. Other
potato varieties such as Kufri Chipsona-3
and Kufri Frysona are also expected to
generate similar or even better economic
returns to the research cost. However, for
farmers Kufri Chipsona-1 generated 30%
higher net income to the potato farmers
(Rana et al., 2009).
Impact of Kufri Surya:So far 300 tonne
of breeders seed of Kufri Surya variety has
been provided for production of certified
seed (64735 tonne). The estimated coverage
of potato area under healthy seed of this
variety is 32368 ha. The average yield and
yield advantage of this variety (Minhas et
al., 2006) is estimated to generate 39627
tonne additional potato production in the
country and 27.9 crore net addition to the
national GDP. The rising average
temperature in most of the potato growing
areas in India will further increase
importance of this variety and its economic
impact in the coming years.
Impact on potato processing industry:
Large scale adoption of processing varieties
and storage technologies throughout the
country led to increase of consumption of
processing quality potatoes from 0.97
million tonne during 2005-06 to 2.68 million
tonne during 2010-11 at an ACGR of
22.54%; benefitting potato farmers by 342
crores (Rana and Pandey, 2007; Rana, 2011).
This also led to emergence of new areas such
as Gujarat, Karnataka, MP and Maharashtra
as the hub for supplying processing quality
potatoes. 75

Impact of potato breeder seed: During
the period of 2004-2013 CPRI produced
264521 quintals of breeders seed of popular
potato varieties for three clonal
multiplications in order to produce 5.7
million t certified seed and bringing
additional 2.84 million ha area under potato
during this period. The supply of this healthy
material was estimated to produce additional
26.74 million t of potato tubers equivalent
to ` 24.7 crore to the national GDP and `
6.82 crore additional net income to the potato
farmers. In the absence of CPRI’s production
of the breeders seed and the consequent
estimated deficit in the supply of potato
tubers in the country during the period under
consideration might have put further upward
pressure on food inflation.
Impact of late blight management
technology: The integrated late blight
management technology developed by CPRI
saved 16.98 million tonne of potato in
physical terms which comes out to 14436
crore in financial terms.
Impact of elevated temperature stor-
age technology: Adoption of elevated tem-
perature storage technology has led to an
additional annual income of 60 crores to
potato farmers and 11.75 crores to cold
store owners. The technology was assessed
to contribute 100 crores net addition to the
76 Fig. 4: Current and future estimates of potato area, production and productivity in India
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
national GDP and 23.50 million kilo watt
electricity saving at the country level in one
year.
Projected potato scenario in India
Potato crop in India is silently assuming
an important and serious food security role
(Singh and Rana, 2013a). Exploitation of
production potential of cereal crops, to a
large extent, during the green revolution era
and tremendous potential of increasing
nutritional availability through potato, assure
much higher levels for this crop in near and
distant future. Potato production in India is
expected to increase from its 2010 level of
37 million t to 47, 69 and 125 million t during
2017 (end of 12th plan), 2030 and 2050,
respectively. The steep enhancement in
estimated future potato production will be
achieved by the incremental area and
productivity augmentation in the future (Fig.
4). Stagnating area under overall cultivation
appears to be a strong impediment in the way
of expanding area under agricultural crops.
However, breeding shorter duration potato
varieties for providing an opportunity of a
sandwich crop and area adjustment among
various crops under the influence of relative
profitability influenced by demand and
supply dynamics will help potato crop
receive the required area under it (Singh and
Rana, 2013b).
Potato R & D Preparedness for Addressing Food Security Issues in India
References
CPRI (2012). Annual Report 2011-12. Central Potato
Research Institute, Shimla: 222p.
FAOSTAT (2014). http://faostat.fao.org, 10 April 2014.
Minhas, J.S., Kumar, D., Joseph, T.A., Raj, B.T., Khurana,
S.M.P. and Pandey, S.K. (2006). Kufri Surya: a
new heat tolerant potato variety suitable for early
planting in north-western plains, peninsular India
and processing into French fries and chips. Potato
Journal 33(1-2): 35-43.
Rana Rajesh, K. and Pandey, S.K. (2007). Processing
quality potatoes in India: an analysis of industry’s
demand. Processed Food Industry 10(8): 26-35.
Rana Rajesh, K., Pandey, N.K., Pandit, Arun and Pandey,
S.K. (2009). Profitability analysis of Kufri
Chipsona-1 cultivation in Uttar Pradesh of India.
Potato Journal 36(3-4): 166-172.
Rana Rajesh, K. (2011). The Indian potato processing
industry-global comparison and business
prospects. Outlook on Agriculture. 40(3): 237-243.
Sharma, A.K. and Pandey, K.K. (2013). Potato mini-tuber
production through direct transplanting of in vitro
plantlets in green or screen houses-a review.
Potato Journal 40(2): 95-103.
Scott, G. and Suarez, V. (2011). Growth rates for potato
in India 1961-2009 and their implications for
industry. Potato Journal 38(2): 100-12.
Singh, B.P. (2011). Potato processing industry in India
growing rapidly. Foodprocessing 360 (an online
magazine). 22 December 2010.
Singh, B.P., Chakrabarti, S.K. and Rana, R.K. (2011).
Vision 2030. Central Potato Reserach Institute,
Shimla 171 001 HP: 40p.
Singh, B.P. and Rana, R.K. (2013a). Potato for food and
nutritional security in India. Indian Farming 63:37-
43.
Singh, B.P. and Rana, R.K. (2013b). Status of potato
production and utilization in India. In, Souvenir,
National Symposium on Abiotic and Biotic Stress
Management in Vegetable Crops, Indian Society
of Vegetable Science, Baranasi, 12-14 April 2013:
74-81.
Singh, B.P., Rana, R.K. and Govindakrishnan, P.M.
(2014). Vision 2050. Central Potato Reserach
Institute, Shimla 171 001 HP: x+26p.
Trehan, S.P. and Singh, B.P. (2013). Nutrient efficiency
of different crop species and potato varieties-in
retrospect and prospect. Potato Journal 40(1): 1-
21.
77
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 78-89, 2015
Technological Challenges for Production
Management of Litchi
VISHAL NATH AND R.K. PATEL
National Research Centre on Litchi
Muzaffarpur, Bihar-842002
Introduction
Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn) an
important subtropical evergreen fruit crop
belongs to family Sapindaceae. Attractive
deep pink/red colours and flavoured juicy
aril made this fruit asaqueen of the fruit. It
has high nutritive value and refreshing taste.
Litchi is consumed as fresh fruit, pulp and
various processed products like squash, RTS,
wine etc. Litchi appears to be native of the
areas near to Southern province of China and
Northern Vietnam from there it was
introduced into India during the 18th century
in the North Eastern region (Tripura). Over
the period of time it spread to eastern states
and further percolated in the northern states
(Rai et al., 2000). The major litchi growing
countries are China, India, Brazil, Malaysia,
Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Mauritius,
South Africa, Australia, New Zealand,
Madagascar and Taiwan. It is now an
important commercial fruit crop in India due
to its export potentiality. Cultivation of litchi
is widely spread in eastern India which
provides livelihood opportunities to millions
of people in the region. It is commercially
grown in Bihar, Uttarakhand, West Bengal
and Jharkhand. Due to its high economic
returns and ever increasing demand in the
domestic markets, the crop is also gaining
momentum in Punjab, Himachal Pradesh,
Assam, Tripura and Odisha. It has been
observed that litchi plants showed the poor
as well as erratic bearing pattern in many
important litchi-growing areas. Shoot
growth, panicle emergence pattern,
flowering behavior and flowering phase have
been found to be influenced by the impact
of changing environment. Yield and fruit
quality has also been found to be awfully
affected by environmental parameters i.e.
temperature, photoperiod/light intensity,
humidity and soil moisture content (Kumar
and Nath, 2012). Considering the importance
of litchi in the region under changing
climatic condition, efforts are being made
to develop the technologies for sustainable
production management.
Production scenario
India and China together account for 91
per cent of the world’s litchi production but
it is mainly marketed locally. In India, litchi
ranks 12th in area and production among fruit
crops contributing meager share (0.71%) in
total fruit production during 2012-13. Litchi
is considered to be the most important fruit
in Bihar as it contributes significantly to its
total fruit production. In India, 580080 metric
tonnes of litchi has been produced from
82740 hectares during 2012-2013, with an
average productivity of 7.0 t/ha. (Indian
Horticulture Database- 2013). Increase in
area between 1991-92 and 2012-13 (21
years) has been 67.82 per cent, while
production increase during the same period
Technological Challenges for Production Management of Litchi

is to the tune of 137.93 per cent. Productivity productivity of the litchi orchard is almost
also recorded an increase of 43.06 per cent constant with 7-8 t/ha which can be further
during the same period (Table 1). enhanced up to 14-15 t/ha with the adoption
of good orchard management practices under
Litchi has limited distribution due to its
changing environmental situation. The
exacting in climatic and soil requirements.
highest litchi productivity is recorded in
Among the litchi growing states, the highest
Punjab (15.15 t/ha) followed by Jharkhand
contribution in terms of total area (37.81%)
(11.05 t/ha) while Bihar productivity is 8.2
and production (44.21%) is by Bihar. The
t/ha during 2012-13 (Fig. 1). Reduction in
second largest litchi area is in Uttarakhand
post harvest losses of litchi which are to the
followed by West Bengal, Assam and
tune of about 20-25 per cent will further
Jharkhand. However production wise, the
improve the outcome of litchi fruits from the
second largest litchi producing state is West
same production acreage.
Bengal, Jharkhand and Assam (Table 2). The

Table 1: Area, production and productivity of litchi in India

Year Area (000, ha) Production (000, MT) Productivity (t/ha)

1991-92 49.3 243.8 4.9
2001-02 58.1 355.9 6.1
2002-03 54.1 476.4 8.8
2003-04 53.7 478.5 8.9
2004-05 60.0 368.6 6.1
2005-06 63.2 392.1 6.2
2006-07 65.0 403.0 6.2
2007-08 69.0 418.0 6.1
2008-09 72.0 423.0 5.9
2009-10 74.4 483.3 6.5
2010-11 78.0 497.0 6.4
2011-12 80.3 538.2 6.7
2012-13 82.7 580.1 7.0

Fig. 1: Productivity of litchi in different states (2012-13) 79

 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Litchi Growing PPock

ockets in India
ockets traditional belts of litchi production.
Recently, possibilities has emerged for off
The concentrated pockets of litchi
season litchi production during December-
production in different states have been listed
January in Southern states particularly the
in Table 3. However, there are certain
places located as higher altitude (>900 m
upcoming areas in the traditional and non-

Table 2: Area and production of litchi in different states of India

State Area (000, ha) Production (000, MT)

2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Assam 5.2 5.3 5.63 40.5 41.5 49.64
Bihar 31.1 31.1 31.28 227 236.4 256.43
Chandigarh * * * 0.1 27.1 *
Chhattisgarh 3.9 4.5 4.99 21.4 0.6 30.89
Haryana 0.2 0.2 0.2 1.1 3 1.64
Himachal Pradesh 4.4 4.6 4.74 3 3.5 3.06
Jammu & Kashmir 0.6 1.3 0.96 1.7 * 0.97
Jharkhand 4.3 4.8 5.27 35.9 57.5 58.24
Mizoram 0.4 0.4 0.4 1.6 1.7 1.70
Nagaland 0.2 * 0.3 0.2 * 2.00
Odisha 4.4 4.5 4.46 19.2 20.1 20.26
Punjab 1.6 1.7 1.75 23.9 24.5 26.52
Sikkim * * 0.31 * * 0.03
Tamil Nadu * * * 0.2 * *
Tripura 2.9 3.2 3.46 16.6 16.6 17.97
Uttar Pradesh 0.3 0.3 0.32 1.1 1.4 1.59
Uttarakhand 9.3 9.5 9.49 18.7 19.0 19.16
West Bengal 8.6 8.9 9.19 85.1 85.3 90.0
Total 78.0 80.3 82.74 497.0 538.2 580.08

*Authentic data is not available

Table 3: Major litchi growing areas in India

State Districts

Tripura West Tripura, North Tripura, South Tripura, Dhalai

Assam Bongoigaon, Kamrup, Goalpara, Nalbari, Barpeta, Sonitpur, Naogaon, Lakhimpur, Golaghat,
Jorhat,Cachar
West Bengal Murshidabad, 24- Parganas, Nadia, South 24-Parganas, Malda, UttarDinajpur, DakshinDinajpur,
Hubli
Bihar Muzaffarpur, Vaishali, Samastipur, Sitamarhi, East Champaran, West Champaran, Gopalganj,
Sheohar, Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnia, Katihar, Begusarai, Saharsa, Bhagalpur, Araria,
Kishanganj, Khagaria, Madhepura, Munger etc.
Odisha Sundergarh, Sambalpur, Angul, Deogarh
Uttarakhand Udham Singh Nagar, Champawat, Nainital, Dehradun, TehriGarhwal, PauriGarhwal, Haridwaretc
Punjab Gurdaspur, Hoshiarpur
80
Technological Challenges for Production Management of Litchi
amsl) like Medkari (Karnataka), Wynad,
Iduki (Kerala), Araku (Andhra Pradesh)
which can further increase the production
base in the country.
Fr uit availability period
India has unique advantage as litchi start
ripening from 15 th April in Tripura and
harvest season lasts in other western states
up to end of June, thus giving enough time
to exploit litchi market of importing
countries. Further some produce is also
available during off season which can create
competition with produce of Southern
Hemisphere country.
The latest global review of area and
production shows that India is the second
largest producer of litchi next only to China
with the highest productivity in the world,
contributing about 25% of total world
production. It occupies 1% area with 1.5%
production of total fruits grown in India.
There has been slow increase in the area and
production of litchi in the country because
of its specificity to the climatic requirements.
It is restricted to northern parts of the country
particularly in the foot hills of Himalayas
from Tripura to Jammu and Gangetic plains.
Frost free, cool, dry winters and humid
summer, free from hot and dry winds, hails
and storms are characterized as favourable
growing zone for litchi.
Challenges in litchi production
Litchi productivity continues to be low
and a significant gap of about 7-8 t/ha exists
Harvesting season of litchi crop in India
between current national productivity and
potential level of productivity. The ratio in
yield between the best managed orchards and
national productivity ranges between 2 to 4
times at different locations. Litchi is very
exacting in its climatic requirements. Its
cultivation and commercialization globally
has therefore been at slow pace due to its
austere requirement. Litchi is also facing the
lot of problems due to change in
environmental condition. The major
challenges to enhance the litchi yield are the
narrow genetic base of the crop leading to
only few commercially acceptable suitable
superior cultivars, traditional production
systems and poor technological adoption and
incidence of insect pests, coupled with poor
pre and post-harvest management resulting
to high losses. The shortage of genuine
planting material coupled with the long
juvenile period of litchi is also a challenge.
The low female/male flower ratio, premature
fruit drop and fruit cracking due to non-
scientific water and nutrient management
also add to low productivity and production
of poor quality fruits. The litchi tree has huge
tree canopy which creates problem in
cultural operation and fruit harvesting. Thus,
canopy management to achieve the required
plant architecture is essential. Lack of
scientific information on critical age and
stages of shoots for flower bud
differentiation and imbalance source to sink
relation also significantly reduces the yield
and fruit quality. The litchi fruit has a short
shelf-life and hence need to adopt the
81

practices that can enhance post-harvest life
of fruits. Usually litchi farmers do not pay
attention to standard plant material and
improved cultural management practices like
irrigation, fertilization, canopy management,
micro-nutrients, hormones application and
post-harvest handling protocols. Growers
seldom apply the farmyard manure and
provide irrigation unscientifically and
insufficiently. Due to inadequate care and
management, litchi plants do not perform to
their maximum. Extension workers also do
not have adequate technical knowledge and
skill to motivate and help the farmers.
The major production and post-harvest
challenges in litchi production in India have
been identified and discussed below.
Slow rate of adoption of improved
techniques: A number of technologies on
different production and plant health
management aspects of litchi have been
developed by National Agricultural Research
System (NARS) out of which, only 20-30%
technologies are being adopted by the
farmers due to obvious reasons. However,
there is urgent need to strengthen the
scientist- farmer linkage. Standard extension
activities to inject our technologies up to end
users through imparting training to farmers,
NGOs, extension workers, school dropouts
etc. on litchi cultivation, good agricultural
practices in litchi, rejuvenation of orchards
and post-harvest management is need of the
hour.
Poor orchard management practices:
General neglect and non-adoption of
scientific cultivation practices are the major
constraints for poor return from most of the
litchi orchards in the country. It includes sub
optimal use of soil and water conservation
measures, hormone application, nutrient
application, micro climate management and
plant protection measures.
Tendency of imbalance bearing in few
leading cultivars: In India, Shahi and China
82 are the two leading cultivars popular among
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
litchi growers. Shahi cultivars bear fruit
every year but cultivar China has the
tendency of irregular bearing due to
exhaustion of plants after producing heavy
crop during one year and almost no or few
fruits in next year.
Incidence of pests and post-harvest
diseases: A number of insect-pest has been
observed on litchi tree and fruit as well.
Litchi fruit borer is one of the major concern
which causes yield loss upto 20-25% due to
attacks during later period of fruit maturity.
Some new pests like red weevil, semi looper,
bag worm and green looper have been
recorded in litchi which could become the
major pest of litchi if not taken timely due
care.
Losses due to physiological disorder:
Litchi is physiologically very sensitive crop
which is affected by number of disorders.
Initial fruit drop and fruit cracking during
fruit growth and maturity is still a major
concern for litchi growers. This disorder is
more prevalent in those orchards which are
not being cared properly specially for
irrigation and moisture conservation
techniques and micro-nutrient management
during fruit growth and development.
Hurdles in harvesting of fruits and
poor status of mechanization: Canopy of
most of the litchi orchards at farmers’ field
are not being managed properly leading to
huge canopy size and greater height, which
creates the problem in harvesting of litchi
fruits. There is urgent need of capacity
building of the farmers on training and
pruning to develop ideal canopy which could
facilitate the intercultural operation through
mechanization and faster harvesting of the
produce.
Low yield potential and decline in
quality production: In most of the existing
litchi orchards particularly those which are
>70 years and unmanaged, the decline in
yield and fruit quality is very common.
Reason of general orchard neglect and non-
Technological Challenges for Production Management of Litchi
adoption of scientific cultivation practices
have been identified major reasons for poor
return from most of the litchi belt in the
country.
Higher post-harvest losses due to poor
infrastructure and market support
system: A considerable quantity of litchi
fruit produced in the country is consumed
locally as fresh fruit. Heavy post-harvest
losses at various stages of fruit handling have
been observed due to poor infrastructure
facilities like lack of cold storage, cool chain
management and refer van facilities.
Unorganised marketing of fruits also lead to
poor price realization. Growers rent their
orchards to contractors, who in turn harvest
and sell the produce as per their links and
means in the markets. In chains of marketing,
increased numbers of middlemen reduces the
share of growers in the price of produce paid
by consumers. The strong cooperative
marketing and infrastructure facilities need
to be created to promote marketing of litchi.
Controlled atmosphere storage of litchi fruits
is considered better for maintenance of the
freshness of the fruits. Therefore, to have
better post-harvest life of litchi, careful
harvesting at appropriate stage of maturity,
proper sorting and grading, sulphitation
(where needed), pre- cooling, transportation
in cool van, storing at 4-7 °C as per need
and proper retailing of fruits is essential to
realize maximum benefits.
Production management of litchi through
improved technologies
The National Research Centre on Litchi,
Muzaffarpur, Bihar is trying hard to comfort
with cost effective and improved
technologies in various fields to enhance
quality and quantity of productions and
reduce post-harvest losses vis-à-vis
improved value addition for making the
litchi profitable for different stake holders
in view of changing global environment.
The centre has developed and refined some
of the varieties and technologies for
improved litchi production and produce
management.
• Adoption of suitable cultivars
Despite the long history of litchi in India,
there is paucity of information concerning
the yield of the major cultivars in different
environments. Litchi varieties grown in India
are highly variable under different climate
and soil conditions. The performance of
some cultivars is disappointing and
production is unprofitable at one place but
the scene is different at other place. Many
industries are therefore, based on only one
or two cultivars of litchi. Lack of suitable
cultivars limits production in many areas of
the country because the existing cultivars are
low yielding or are not well regarded in the
global market. India has limited number of
commercial varieties of litchi namely, Shahi,
China, Early Bedana, Late Bedana, Bombay
and Rose Scented. Due to the production of
litchi in varying agro-climatic conditions and
maturity time, the fruit colour, shape and size
of same cultivar are reported to be varying
at different places. Varieties which are found
widely most adoptable and suitable for
growing in India have been mentioned in
Table 4 and detailed characteristics have
been enumerated subsequently.
Shahi: This is the most popular cultivar
grown in North Bihar, Jharkhand,
Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh. Besides
having high quality fruit, it has a distinct rose
aroma and hence called as ‘Rose Scented’.
It is known as Shahi in Bihar, Rose Scented
in Uttarakhand and Muzaffarnagar in
Western Uttar Pradesh. The vegetative flush
of this cultivar is light green and fruit weight
ranges from 20-25 g. This cultivar is earliest
in maturity and ripens during the second
week of May to the first week of June at
various locations. Trees are very vigorous
and produce fruits ranging from 90-100 kg/
plant. Mature fruits are prone to cracking in
areas with low atmospheric humidity and
poor moisture content in the soil. Fruits are 83
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 4:Varietal distributions of litchi in different states in India

States Cultivars/varieties
Bihar Shahi, China, Deshi, Purbi, Early Bedana, Late Bedana, Mandraji
Uttar Pradesh/ Uttrakhand Rose Scented, Calcuttia, Dehradun, Dehra Rose, Late Bedana, Early Large Red
Himachal Pradesh Rose Scented, Late Large Red, Muzaffarpur, Early Large Red, Early Bedana, Late
Bedana
West Bengal Bombai, Bedana, Ellaichi, Purbi, Muzaffarpur, Nafarpal, Early Large Red
Punjab and J&K Early Seedless, Late Seedless, China, Khatti, Gulabi
Chhattishgarh Surguja-1, Surguja-2

medium to large in size (3.2 cm length and
3.1 cm diameter), medium in weight
(20.49g), globular-heart or obtuse in shape
having rose madder and fuchsia purple
background with red tubercles at ripening.
Pulp is greyish-white, soft, moderately juicy
(54.8%) and sweet with 20 0 brix TSS,
12.79% total sugar and 0.33% total acidity.
Seeds are small (1.89 cm length, 1.32 cm
diameter and 2.07 g weight), smooth,
shining, round-ovate in shape and blackish-
chocolate in colour. Rind: pulp: seed ratio
by weight is 12.22: 75.93: 11.85. The fruits
are known for excellent aroma and quality.
This cultivar occupies a major area under
litchi in India.
China: This is one of the high yielding
cultivar of litchi for North India. It is tolerant
to hot waves and fluctuations in soil
moisture, which escape to fruit cracking. It
is also known by the names of Calcuttia in
West Bengal and Purbi in Bhagalpur area of
Bihar. This is a medium-late season cultivar
in which fruits ripen during the end of May
in West Bengal, first week of June in
Jharkhand and North Bihar and third week
of June in Uttar Pradesh. Trees are
comparatively dwarf and high yielders (80-
100 kg/tree) but prone to alternate bearing.
It bears fruits in cluster of 12-18 which are
mainly concentrated in east and north
directions. Fruits are large in size (3.86 cm
length and 3.26 cm diameter), medium in
weight (22.0 g), heart shaped and tyrant rose
84 in colour with dark tubercles at maturity. The
aril is creamy-white, soft, juicy, sweet having
17 to 18°brix TSS, 11% total sugar and
0.43% acidity. Seeds are glaucous, dark
chocolate in colour, oblong to concave or
plano convex in shape, medium in size (2.9
cm length and 1.5 cm diameter), and average
in weight (3.49 g/seed). The ratio of rind:
pulp: seed by weight is 16.42: 69.22: 14.36.
The flavour of the pulp is not pleasant like
Shahi, but owing to its high yield and no
cracking, this cultivar is quite popular among
the litchi growers.
Early Bedana: This cultivar is also
known as Early Seedless because of its early
ripening and small seeds. This cultivar has
distinguishing compact leaves and short
compact panicles. The cultivar is very much
popular in Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and
Punjab. Trees are medium, attaining an
average height of 5.0 m and spread of 6.2
m. It is a medium yielding cultivar (50-60
kg/tree) but bears fruits regularly. Fruits are
medium in size (3.2 cm length and 3.0 cm
diameter) and weight (16.33 g) having round
shape, rough surface with uranium green
skin covered with carmine red tubercles at
maturity. Aril is creamy white, soft, juicy
(60.0%) and sweet containing 19.8 0 brix
TSS, 13.6% total sugar and 0.54% acidity.
Seed is very small, shrunken (termed as
chicken tongue), glamorous, dirty chocolate
in colour with an average weight of 0.82 g.
The ratio of rind: pulp: seed by weight is
13.06: 83.19:3.75. The overall fruit quality
of the cultivar is good.
Technological Challenges for Production Management of Litchi
Late Bedana: This cultivar is also
known as Late Seedless. This is a late
maturing cultivar, which usually ripens, in
the third week of June in Uttarakhand and
Punjab and in the end of May in Jharkhand.
The trees are vigorous having an average
height of 5.5 m and spread of 7.0 m, with
yield ranging from 80-100 kg/tree. Fruit
medium in size (3.2 cm length and 2.9 cm
diameter) and average weight is 25.0 g. The
fruits are conical in shape and vermilion to
carmine in colour having dark blackish
brown tubercles at maturity. The pulp is
creamy white, soft, juicy (65.4%), sweet
having 18 to 20°brix TSS, 13.8% total sugar
and 0.44% acidity. Seeds are very small (1.8
× 0.9 cm in size and 0.85 g in weight),
shrunken, glamorous, and chocolate in
colour with fusiform shape similar to canine
of dog. The rind: pulp: seed ratio by weight
is 14.76: 81.89: 3.35. The new flush is dark
pink in colour and its leaf can be
distinguished from other cultivars.
NRCL Selection-1:As result of rigorous
germplasm screening from Bihar, Jharkhand,
West Bengal, Uttarakhand and Assam, NRC
on Litchi has been able to identified elite
clone of litchi. The promising line
(VNSDASU-1) has more than 83 per cent
pulp with approximately 30g fruit weight.
The yield potential of the identified clone
(about 60 years old tree) is 2.0-2.5q/plant
per year. This genotype is regular in bearing
and develops crimson red colour in fruits.
The important characteristic of clone
includes fruit weight (29.65 g), fruit length
(4.01 cm), fruit width (3.79 cm), fruit cordate
in shape with 83.17% pulp and 18.530 Brix
TSS. The seed weight of this clone is only
1.39 g producing a ratio of 11.9:83.34.7 for
peel: pulp: seed.
• Technological interventions
Rejuvenation of unproductive orchards
Rejuvenation of old, senile and
unproductive litchi trees for better
productivity and quality without disturbing
the original plantation has been standardized
through heavy reiterative pruning followed
by proper nutrition and plant protection
measures. Heading back of unproductive
litchi tree at 2-2.5 m height during the month
of August-September followed by judicious
thinning and pruning of newly emerged
shoots after six months resulted in enhanced
production of quality fruits after 3 years
(Singh et al., 2011 a ). Space available
between the two rows of litchi orchards can
be successfully utilized through growing of
intercrops like mustard, pea, faba bean etc.
during the initial period of canopy
development in rejuvenated orchard.
Sequential steps of pr uning for rejuvenation
pruning
of litchi tree
Selection of unproductive tree
Reiterative pruning at about 2-2.5m height
above the ground during August-
September
Retaining 3-4 outward growing limbs
Cut end pasted with Bordeaux paste/
Copper fungicide
85

Profuse emergence of new shoots on
pruned branches after 2 months
Regular thinning of emerging shoots,
retaining well spaced 8-10 healthy shoots/
branch
Fruiting starts 3rd year onwards
Shoot management to build open umbrella
shaped canopy
Multiplication of quality planting material
Litchi plants are successfully multiplied
through air layering performed during rainy
season. Off season plant propagation through
air layering has also been standardized to
reduce the post nursery maintenance cost.
The off season air layering approach during
spring (Feb.-March) on selected shoots (1.0-
1.5 cm diameter and 45-50 cm length) with
proper root hormone (5000 ppm IBA) and
rooting medium (enriched soil and moss
grass) was found successful to ensure the
availability of planting material round the
year. The maintenance of high relative
humidity (90%) and medium temperature
(17-20 oC) through covering the entire
mother plant with polythene sheet and
periodic watering of the trees.
Survival of litchi air layers initially in
nursery and later in field condition use to be
a problem due to development of brittle
primary and less secondary roots. Dipping
the root ball of air layers in dip solution
formulation containing Rhizobacteria@ 10
ml/litre water for 3-5 minutes help
improving the root mass and root
characteristics and thereby enhances the
nursery survival up to 90%. Drenching of
plant pot/poly bag with 1% Rhizobacterium
solution after 30 days of planting gave good
86
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
result. Suitable potting media for production
of quality planting material of litchi has also
been standardized for the benefit of nursery
men. Survival of air layers in the field is not
up to desirable level due to poor growth of
secondary roots and vigour of the planting
materials. Well rooted air-layers after
detaching from the mother plants require
proper care for their survival in the nursery
as well as in the field. The use of right and
proper potting mixtures containing various
materials like [River bed soil (RBS): Vermi-
compost (1: 2)] + vermiculite (50 g/kg) and
cocopith (50 g/kg) + 5 g DAP has been found
highly effective in production of vigorous
planting materials (Purbey and Nath, 2013)
up to 82% nursery survival and vigorous
plant growth (secondary, tertiary root with
plant height and number of leaflets). The
nursery men are advised to detach the rooted
air layers in 1st week of October, defoliate
80-85% leaves, remove the polyethylene
cover from the detached air-layers and safely
dip in 0.3% Carbendazim solution to check
fungal infection and better establishment.
Utilization of inter-spaces in young litchi
orchards
Litchi based cropping system technology
provide an opportunity for better utilization
of vacant area in between the new litchi trees
through production of suitable vegetable/
fruit/flowering crops. Inter space utilization
protocol for young non-bearing litchi
orchards in form of different models
including litchi+banana, litchi+okra and
lotchi+gladiolus have been developed for the
benefit of rural mass and litchi farmers.
Depending upon the vicinity of the city one
of the model may be adopted. Litchi with
banana model has been most remunerative
and suitable for consecutive three years with
total fresh yield of 36, 28, and 18.2 t/ha of
banana as main crop, 1st and 2nd ratoon crop,
respectively (Singh et al., 2012). Similarly,
litchi + okra + gladiolus crop rotation has
been found best in terms of net return and
Technological Challenges for Production Management of Litchi
plant growth followed by cowpea-potato-
onion and cowpea-French bean-okra with a
net profit of ` 1,42,694/-, ` 93,180/- and `
43,668/- /ha, respectively up to 3rd year.
These models can be adopted at different
locations as per their suitability to land and
market and need of the farmers.
Canopy Management
Technique for tree architect/canopy
management by pruning of non-selective
twigs every year after harvest and opening
central portion to maximize solar energy
utilization has been found beneficial for
improving fruit yield and quality. Angling
of branches at I and II order and provision
of tertiary and forth order coupled with
vigorous fruiting terminals have been
standardized for quality litchi production.
Use of hor mones and micronutrients to
hormones
improve fr uit yield and quality
fruit
Application of GA3 (50 ppm) and MH
(25 ppm) during October showed early
initiation of flowering panicle and
conversion of some vegetative flushes into
mixed flowering panicle in litchi which
ultimately improves the yield of plant.
Package of practices for higher production
of quality litchi fruits by foliar application
of planofix @ 2.5 ml/10 litre of water or
NAA 20 mg/litre of water, one week after
fruit set significantly checked the fruit drop.
Three sprays of Borax @ 4.0 g/litre of water
during fruit development stage at 15 day
interval and maintaining moisture level in
the soil has been standardized for checking
the fruit cracking and quality improvement.
Application of KNO3 (2.0 and 4.0%) and
CaNO3 (1.0 %) has been found effective to
delay the colour break by 4 days in Shahi
and increased the fruit retention by 18.0 and
26.0%, respectively. Covering the canopy
with 30% green or 50% white shade net
extends the harvesting period by almost 16
days. Girdling of primary branches (4 mm
size) during October was found suitable to
induce the flowering every year in young
litchi plant. Application of ethephon on new
flush during February delays the flowering
in Shahi, which leads to formation of more
female flowers.
Scientific pre har vesting and post har
harvesting vest
harvest
management
Generally the litchi fruit harvesting starts
with 160 Brix TSS in the 2nd week of May
but the fruit attains optimum stage of
maturity only during last week of May with
fruit TSS ranging from 19-200 Brix and pulp
ratio of 70-75%. Hence, harvesting at proper
stage of maturity should be practiced. Fruit
bearing in litchi coincides with highest
temperature and least humidity period of the
year during April to June (1st week) in Bihar
and adjoining areas which leads to the fruit
cracking, sun burning and finally reduces the
overall fruit quality. Substantial quantum of
produce goes waste due to cracking of fruits
and sun burning of fruit surface. Therefore,
the technique of bagging litchi bunches with
perforated butter paper or brown paper bag
during fruit development stage has been
found best for appearance of fruits and
quality. Bagging of litchi fruit bunches with
about 20% perforated butter paper bags or
brown paper bags keeping distal end of the
bag opened at 40-45 days after fruit set,
produced about 34% less cracked and
spotted fruits and 30% higher Class I fruits
(Singh et al., 2011b, Purbey and Nath, 2013).
The process of wine making from litchi fruits
yielding 11.5% alcohol can be utilized for
converting the undersize fruits into value
added products.
Technologies for Plant Health Management
A large number of pests attack on litchi
plants and fruits. Major pests of litchi
prevalent in the area are fruit borer, shoot
borer, leaf minor, leaf roller, mite, bark eating
caterpillar, leaf eating weevil, bug and mealy
bug. Some new pests such as red weevil
(Apoderusblandus), semi looper (Anisode- 87

sillepidania), bag worm (Eumatacrameri)
and green looper (Thalassodespilaria)have
also been identified out of which red weevil
and semi looper are the major emerging
foliar pest of litchi. Eco-friendly
management schedule for some of the
important pests have been developed which
are very effective to keep the problem under
manageable limit. Trichogrammachilonis @
50,000 eggs/ha and application of
Nimbicidine @0.5% and Cypermethrin @
0.005% have been found effective in
minimizing the damage of fruit borer.
Alternatively use of pheromone trap +
Trichogramma Card @50000 eggs/ha and
Kamdhenu Keet Niyantrak(5%) as sprays
twice before panicle immergence and
flowering has been found effective to harvest
more pest free fruits. Integrated management
of litchi mite by adoption of mechanical
(removal of affected shoots) and chemical
measures coupled with field sanitation has
been found effective. General cleaning and
pruning of infested twigs/leaves in the month
of June, September and January followed by
spraying of dicofol or proparzite (3 ml/lit.)
or dimethoate (0.05%) or profenofos
(0.05%) twice at weekly interval has
successfully controlled the mite infestation.
Strategies to improve litchi production
• Litchi has a very narrow genetic base,
which needs to be widened through
raising larger population of potential
progenies and open pollinated seeds
for harnessing precocious genes and
selection of specific genotypes from
the existing population through gene
pyramiding and allele mining.
• Fine tuning and adopting grafting
technique for the production of quality
planting material.
• The development and adoption of
nutrient and water management
schedule to maintain tree health and
88 encourage successful flowering,
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
fruiting and quality in sustainable
manner.
• Standardization of organic production
modules of litchi through effective
management of natural resources.
• Integrated and effective management
of insect pests and diseases to improve
productivity and reduce the cost of
production.
• Establishment of forward and
backward linkages for marketing of
produce strengthen infrastructure for
post-harvest management, product
diversification and creating consumer
demand for litchi products for effective
utilization.
• Cooperation and suitable MOU among
litchi growing countries for the
exchange of information and cultivars.
Litchi has high production potential in
the country but the present, productivity is
only 7.02 tonnes/ha which can be enhanced
up to 14-15 tonnes/ha with improved
package of cultivation practices. In this
endeavour, concerted research efforts with
respect to cultivars development and crop
husbandry along with effective linkages for
exchange of knowledge have been
considered essential to enhance the litchi
yield and its further flow. Breaking the
technology barriers by adopting litchi
production technologies like rejuvenation of
senile orchards, intercropping of orchards at
various stages with suitable crops, mulching,
girdling green manuring and micro irrigation
for efficient water and nutrient management,
production of quality planting material at
faster rate, adoption of integrated pest
management module, reduction of post-
harvest losses etc. are essential to bridge the
gap between existing and potential yield
under the changing environment but the
challenge do come on the way. The
technologies available with NRC on Litchi
has capability to plug the gap with infusion
Technological Challenges for Production Management of Litchi
of technology led extension education and
human resource development. The paper
deals with available technological options
and the challenges in their adoption by litchi
growers.
References
Kumar, R. and Nath, V. (2013). Climate resilient adaptation
strategies for litchi production. In Climate-Resilient
Horticulture: Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies,
Springer India. PP 81-86.
Indian Horticulture Database(2013). NHB, Gurgaon, India.
Purbey, S.K. and Nath, Vishal (2013). NRCL-technologies.
NRCL-EB-11. pp 1-24.
Rai, M., Nath, Vishal and Dey, P. (2000). Litchi. HARP,
Ranchi. pp 1-100.
Singh Gorakh, Kumar Rajesh and Nath Vishal. (2011a).
Rejuvenation in Litchi. Published by Director, NRC
on Litchi, Muzaffarpur, Bihar, India pp 1-14.
Singh Gorakh, Nath Vishal, Purbey, S.K. and Singh
Sanjay. (2011b). Post harvest management and
Valorization of litchi. Published by Director, NRC
on Litchi, Muzaffarpur, Bihar, India pp 1-27.
Singh, H.S.;Nath, Vishal; Singh, A. and Pandey, S.D.
(2012). Litchi: Preventive practices and curative
measures. Satish Serial Publishing House, Delhi.
pp 1-479.
89
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 90-102, 2015

Emerging Insect PPest

est Menace in V egetable
Vegetable
Crops in India and their Management:
A Critical Appraisal
A.B. RAI AND JAYDEEP HALDER
Indian Institute of Vegetable Research
Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh- 221305, India
Email: abraiiivr@gmail.com

Abstract
In recent past, with changes in the cropping pattern, ecosystems and habitat, climate,
and introduction of input intensive high yielding varieties/hybrids, a shift in pest status has
been realized in time and space. Many pests have expanded their host horizon, developed
resistance to pesticides and often there are secondary out breaks. Incidence of chilli gall
midge (Asphondylia capparis) in parts of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, solenopsis mealy
bug (Phenacoccus solenopsis) in brinjal, tomato, okra and cucurbits; Hadda beetle
(Henosepilachna vigitioctopunctata and Epilachna dodecastigma) on cowpea and bitter
gourd; plume moth (Sphenaeches caffer) in bottle gourd are some of the examples. This
paper envisages these emerging insect pests in vegetable ecosystem, their suitable control
measures and some issues/challenges in their management.

Introduction far indicated the calendar based application

Insect pests are the major biotic
constraints to vegetables production in India.
Apart from causing direct damage, many of
them also act as vectors for several viral
diseases. The crop losses to the tune of 30-
40 per cent have been reported in vegetable
crops. Insect pests of much significance to
vegetable crops and yield loss are given
(Table 1). In recent years, with changes in
the cropping systems and climate, and
introduction of highly input intensive high
yielding varieties/hybrids, a shift in pest
status has been observed. Most of the plant
protection recommendations in vegetables so
of insecticides. This has become a common
practice over the years by most of the
farmers, growing vegetables in the country.
Many pests have adapted new hosts,
developed resistance to pesticide and often
there are secondary out breaks.
Cur rent shif
Current shiftt in the pest scenario
Some of the insect pests of vegetable
crops become major and are gradually
attaining the major pest status in different
regions of the country due to changes in the
ecosystem and habitats. Helicoverpa
armigera in tomato, whitefly Bemisia tabaci,
Emerging Insect Pest Menace in Vegetable Crops in India and their Management: A Critical Appraisal
serpentine leaf miner Liriomyza trifolii on
tomato and cucurbitaceous crops, fruit fly
on fruits and vegetables, mealy bugs on
several horticultural crops, gall midge on
brinjal, okra stem fly and bitter gourd
leafhopper, red spider mite on okra, brinjal,
cowpea, Indian bean and nematodes on
several vegetable crops are some of the
examples. In recent times, there were
outbreak of gall midge (Asphondylia
capparis), which known to be a minor pest
and gradually becoming a regular problem
in chilli and capsicum and brinjal in the states
of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka and in
brinjal in Chattisgarh. Various species of
mealy bugs in cotton, vegetables and papaya
have intensified their severity of occurrence
in different parts of the country and have
become indicator insects for the current
ecosystems due to slow changes in climate
in the last one decade. Several national and
international polyphagus pests like termite,
white grub, hairy caterpillar, gram pod borer
and Spodoptera litura are also becoming
severe and expanding their host-horizon.
This envisages that there is a need to
relook into the cropping systems for
Table 1: Yield losses due to major insect pests in vegetables in India
Crop/Pest Yield loss (%)
Tomato
Fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera) 24-73
Brinjal
Fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) 11-93
Chillies
Thrips (Scirtothrips dorsalis) 12-90
Mites (Polyphagotarsonemus latus) 34
Okra
Fruit borer (H. armigera) 22
Leafhopper (Amrasca biguttula biguttula) 54-66
Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) 54
Shoot and fruit borer (Earias vittella) 23-54
Source: Shivalingaswamy et al., 2002; Dhillon et al., 2005; Satpathy et al., 2005; Raju et al., 2007; Singh et al., 2007;
Ghosal et al., 2012.
reorientation and vegetables should be given
importance with adequate insect pest
management measures. In this context,
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) system
was developed out of the need for sustainable
crop protection strategy against the backdrop
of increasing pesticide use and deleterious
effect of residues in the environment.
Chilli Gall Midge
Gall midge, Asphondylia capparis
Rubsaaman. (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera) is an
emerging pest of chilli in parts of Tamil Nadu
and Warangal district of Andhra Pradesh.
The A. capparis is considered as major pest
that causes paprika floral galls (Nagaraju,
2000) as the maggots feed on the ovary of
the flower bud, flower and tender fruits.
Infestation by the gall midge can easily be
identified as the affected bud remains
unopened, while the affected flower dries
and drops, severe flower and fruit drops,
reduction in yield, fruit size, seed number,
production of malformed. The damage is
more severe in areas where chilli is grown
mostly under irrigated conditions. Maryana
et al. (2006) observed flower buds or very
Crop/Pest Yield loss (%)
Cabbage
Diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) 17-99
Cabbage caterpillar (Pieris brassicae) 69
Cabbage leaf webber (Crocidolomia binotalis) 28-51
Cabbage borer (Hellula undalis) 30-58
Cucurbits
Fruit fly (Bactrocera cucurbitae)
Bitter gourd 60-80
Cucumber 20-39
Ivy gourd 63
Musk melon 76-100
Snake gourd 63
Sponge gourd 50
91
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

young pods of chilli transformed into galls
and opined that when young pods were
attacked, they do not grow normally and
remain smaller than normal pods. Sertkaya
et al. (2006) noticed damaged fruits by A.
capsici in the last week of July in both 2004
and 2005 and of the damaged fruits ranged
from 1.41 to 69.71% in Antakya province
of Turkey.
Management
Two hymenopteran parasitoids were
recorded during the survey period on chilli
gall midge viz., Eurytoma sp. (Eurytomidae),
a larval-pupal parasitoid and Bracon sp.
(Braconidae) a larval parasitoid. Highest
parasitisation of 31.15% by Eurytoma sp.
was observed in the month of November and
the combined effect of Eurytoma sp. and
Bracon sp. parasitoids ranged from 6.67-
24.58 with an average of 15.27 ± 6.69% in
Karnataka (Basavraj et al., 2010). Tomar et
al., 1996 from Madhya Pradesh reported that
Dinarmus sp. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)
a new larval parasitoid of chilli gall midge,
Asphondylia capsici Barnes.
Spotted PPod
od Borer
Spotted pod borer or Maruca vitrata
Geyer (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera) previously
considered as a minor pest of red gram and
now become a serious problem in many
vegetables like cow pea, field bean, cluster
bean and pea. The damage due to this pest
up to 42% in cow pea during rabi season in
Andhra Pradesh (Halder and Srinivasan,

Table 2: Changing pest scenario in vegetable crops in India

Insect pest Major pest Presently infested Reference

Serpentine leaf miner, Tomato Brinjal, Cow pea, French bean, Durairaj et al.,
Liriomyza trifolii (Burgress) Squash, Leafy vegetables, Cucurbits 2007
Spiraling whitefly, Guava, Citrus, Tapioca Bhendi, Capsicum, Brinjal, Tomato Puri et al., 2001;
Aleurodicus dispersus Mani, 2010
Russell
Mealy bug, Phenacoccus Cotton Brinjal, Tomato, Chilli, Okra, Chaudhary, 2006;
solenopsis Tinsley Cucumber, Pumpkin Halder et al., 2013
Hadda beetle, Brinjal Bitter gourd, Cow pea Rajapaske et al.,
Henosepilachna 2005
vigintioctopunctata Fab.
Fruit borer, Helicoverpa Gram, Cotton, Tomato, Cabbage Peas, Chilli, Brinjal, Okra Puri et al., 2001
armigera (Hubner)
Gall midge, Asphondylia Brinjal Chilli, Capsicum David, 2006;
capparis Rubsaman Nagaraju, 2000
Cabbage butterfly, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Mustard Knol Khol, Radish Puri et al., 2001
Pieris brassicae Linn.
Stem fly, Ophiomyia Beans Okra Patil & Jamadgni,
phaseoli (Tryon) 2008
Red spider mite, Okra, Brinjal Cucumber, Cowpea, Indian Mahto & Yadav.,
Tetranychus urticae Koch. bean 2009
Leafhopper, Empoasca Singh-Pruthi Bitter gourd Puri et al., 2001
motti
Plume moth, Field bean Bottle gourd Anonymous, 2013
Sphenarches
caffer Zeller
92
Emerging Insect Pest Menace in Vegetable Crops in India and their Management: A Critical Appraisal
2011). This pest not only damage the pods
of the plant but also feeds flower, buds and
some time stem of the plants are infested
(Halder et al., 2006; Halder and Srinivasan,
2007). The activity of M. vitrata observed
almost all the states mainly southern,
northern and central part of the country
during rabi and pre kharif season. Over
lapping generations, short life cycle, wide
host range and protective web forming nature
of this pest are main reasons for its
cosmopolitan distribution.
Management
Clean cultivation and removal of the web
reduce the pest load from the field.
Conservation of bioagents like Apanteles sp
is effective. Need based spraying of
azadirachtin @ 0.005 % or NSKE 4% or
Bacillus thuringiensis var Kurstaki @ 1 kg/
ha is recommended (Rai et al., 2014).
Application of DDVP @ 2 ml/lit of water at
flowering and early pod formation stages
gives good control. Recently, Mittal and
Ujagir, 2005 reported that Spinosad 90 g ai/
ha was found to be effective against pod
borer complex of pigeon pea including M.
vitrata.
Hadda Beetle
Hadda beetle or Henosepilachna
vigitioctopunctata Fab. and Epilachna
dodecastigma (Wied.) (Curculionidae:
Coleoptera) is a well-known pest of eggplant
and potato. But recently, its serious incidence
was reported in cowpea as foliage feeder in
many parts of the country particularly eastern
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. More than 80%
leaves were infested by the grubs and adults
of this beetle on cowpea during summer
season (Halder et al., 2011). Similarly, its
serious incidence was also observed from
bitter gourd, Momordica charantia in
Jammu (Jamwal et al., 2013), Allahabad in
Uttar Pradesh (Maurice and Ramteke, 2012)
wild bitter gourd, Momordica dioica in
Maharastra (Deshmukh et al., 2012) and Ivy
gourd, Coccinia grandis (Maurice and
Ramteke, 2012) in Allahabad.
Management
Conservation of larval-pupal
endoparasitoid, Pediobius foveolatus
(Eulophidae: Hymenoptera) causes up to
36.6% reduction in beetle population in and
around Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh (Halder et
al., 2011). Islam et al., 2011 observed that
crude aqueous extracts of leaves Ricinus
communis had highest larvicidal toxicity
(LC50=18.40%) besides significant reduction
in both oviposition and egg-hatch, prolonged
larval duration (P<0.001), and inhibited
pupae formation and adult emergence.
Amongst the entomopathogenic fungi, under
laboratory conditions black muscardine
fungi Metarhizium anisopliae @ 5 g/l gave
good control (Annonymous, 2014). In
another study, Vishwakarma et al., 2011
documented that significantly maximum
reduction in the population of Epilachna
beetle (74.91%) was achieved in treatment
of Beauveria bassiana, when used @ 3.0 g/
l of water. Need based application of
Malathion or Carbaryl @ 1 kg a.i. /ha or
Cypermethrin @ 0.4 ml/l is able to control
this polyphagous pest (Rai et al., 2014).
Solenopsis Mealy Bug
Polyphagous, soft bodied this Solenopsis
Mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley
(Pseudococcidae: Homoptera) previously
known as a pest of cotton but now possess a
new threat to most of the cultivated crop
plants. Out of a total record of 84 host plants
across 28 families recorded in cotton
growing zone of Central India up to 2009,
60 plant species from 22 families belonged
to weeds (Vennila et al., 2010). Presently,
they feed the host plants covering cereals,
pulses, oil seeds, fruits, vegetables,
ornamental crops as well as many weeds
including Parthenium. Halder et al., 2013
has reported that amongst vegetable crops,
they found to attack on variety of plants 93

belonging to malvaceae (ladies finger),
solanaceae (tomato, brinjal, potato, chilly),
leguminoceae (field bean), cucurbitaceae
(pointed gourd, cucumber, melons and
gourds). Besides sucking the sap, they also
secrete the copious amounts of honey dew
which deposited on the plants and create
black sooty mould and thereby reducing the
photosynthetic activity of the plants.
Management
Since it is a polyphagous pest so proper
management practices should be taken.
Removal of alternate hosts and weeds like
Parthenium, Vernonia from the field will
help to reduce the pest incidence. Ants also
help in transmitting the mealy bug beside
give protection to mealy bugs against its
natural enemies. So, destruction of the ants’
colonies during land preparation is
advisable. Uprooting and burning the
affected plants reduce the pests load from
the field. Spraying of fish oil resin soap
(FORS) @ 20 g/lit of water (Kumar et al.,
2011) or entomopathogenic fungi
Verticillium lecanii (2 × 108 cfu/ml) @ 5 g/
lit of water give better control (Halder et al.,
2013). In case of severe infestation spraying
of Buprofezin 25% SC @ 1 ml/l or Acephate
75 SP @ 1gm/l or Malathion 50 EC @ 2ml/
l of water is recommended (Rai et al., 2014).
In another study, Arif et al., 2008
documented that profenofos is the best
insecticides against mealy bug causing
maximum mortality after 24 hours. Recently,
Patel et al., 2010 also reported that
Buprofezin @ 625 g ai/ha is effective in
controlling this pest.
Serpentine Leaf Miner
The American serpentine leaf miner,
Liriomyza trifolii Burgess (Agromyzidae :
Hemiptera) which is a native of Southern
United States of America and Central
America has spread to other countries in
seventies along with Chrysanthemum
94 flowers (Puri and Mote, 2003). It is
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
suspected that this species has entered in
Karnataka along with plant materials during
1990-91 (Viraktamath et al., 1993) and then
spread in many other parts of the country
like Andhra Pradesh, Maharastra, Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal,
Delhi, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.
Srinivasan et al., (1995) reported 78 host
plants covering pulses, fibre, vegetables,
ornamental and flowers, green manuring,
fodder crops, narcotics and weeds belonging
to 16 families. In vegetables, three species
of this pest have been reported infesting
tomato, French bean, cow pea, cluster bean,
summer squash, cucumber, melons etc. The
losses to the extent of 15-70 % in French
bean, 41% in cucumber and 35% in tomato
have been reported by Krishna Kumar (1998)
from Karnataka.
Management
It has been observed that higher dose of
nitrogen favours the population buildup of
this pest. There by judicious application of
nitrogenous fertilizer reduces pest build up
in endemic areas. Infested leaves should be
removed and destroyed periodically. The pest
can also be managed by using yellow sticky
traps in the field for monitoring the presence
(Lopez, 2010) and mass trapping of adults
and exploiting the natural enemies. Recently,
a new parasitoid Neochrysocharis farmosa
(Eulophidae: Hymenoptera) has been
reported from this leaf miner. During
February-March, the per cent parasitization
was 37.5 at Varanasi region, Uttar Pradesh,
India (Anonymous, 2007). In Hawai, Gyaana
and Senegal this pest was controlled by
inundative release of parasitoids viz.,
Hemiptarsenus, Chrysocaris and
Chrysonomyia sp. (Puri and Mote, 2004). In
another study, it was also revealed that
marigold (Tagetes erecta) plant serve as an
attractant for this leaf miner besides it also
attract large number of parasitoid N. farmosa
(Anonymous, 2007). Application of NSKE
4% with a sticker found to be effective to
Emerging Insect Pest Menace in Vegetable Crops in India and their Management: A Critical Appraisal
deter the leaf miner. In case of severe
infestation, spraying of Imidacloprid 17.8SL
@ 0.3 ml/l of water during early stages of
crop growth before flowering is effective
(Nadagouda et al., 2010). Kumar et al., 2010
reported that soil application of Phorate 10G
@1 kg a.i./ha or seed treatment with
Imidacloprid 70WS @ 3g/kg seeds or foliar
applications of neem seed extract (NSKE)
5% on 10 days after germination gives better
result in controlling the serpentine leaf miner.
Rai et al., 2014 reported that spraying of
Imidacloprid 17.8 SL @ 0.35 ml/l of water
during the early stage of the crops before
flowering and application of Dichlorovos
76EC @ 0.5 ml/l of water in severe
infestation during reproductive phase crop
is beneficial.
Phytophagous Mites
The predominant phytophagous mite
species associated with vegetables are
Tetranychus neocaledonicus Andre, T.
urticae Koch., T. cinnabarinus (Boisduval)
(Tetranychidae: Acarina) and Polyphago-
tarsonemus latus (Banks) (Tarsonemidae:
Acarina). T. urticae Koch also called as two
spotted mite or red spider mite is one of the
most common and destructive species of
mite which is cosmopolitan in distribution
and is highly polyphagous in nature. It is
commonly associated with plants like ladies
finger, brinjal, beans, cow pea and cucurbits
(Singh, 2004). T. cinnabarinus though
mainly feeds on cucurbits like pointed gourd,
cucumber, melons, gourds but is also found
on a number of other crops including brinjal,
beans, onion, peas, cole crops, tomato, sweet
potato and various ornamental crops (Butani,
1984). The activity of these tetranychid mites
has been observed during the post-monsoon
period and dry period. The activity declines
with the drop of temperature (Puri and Mote,
2004). Polyphagotarsonemus latus or yellow
mite has also been identified as serious pest
on chilli and beans. Due to infestation of this
mite in chilli, the underside of the leaves
turns reddish and plants become rossetted.
The ‘Murda’ disease of chilli is due to
infestation of this mite. During recent years
major bottle neck of chilli growers in
Varanasi region, Uttar Pradesh is heavy
infestation of this mite which needs
immediate attention (Singh, 2004). Nicotina
and Cioffi (2000) referred to the dangerous
diffusion of this broad mite on vegetables
and floral crops especially in green houses.
At cellular level, the typical symptoms of
mite can be recognized by thickening the
lower epidermal cells, elongation of the
palisade cell layer, shrinkage and
deformation of parenchymatous tissues (Rai
et al., 2007).
Management
Since red spider mite infestation is more
severe in drought prone areas, so frequent
irrigation reduces its population build up.
Spraying of chemical acaricides like Dicofol
18.5% EC@ 2-2.5 ml/l or Fenazaquin 10%
EC @ 2.5 ml/l is able to control the pest.
During initial stage of broad mite infestation,
destruction of severely attacked plant part
mechanically reduces mite population.
Conservation and release of native predatory
mites if available also can minimize the mite
populations from the field. Amblyseius sp.
is an efficient predatory mite, which
regulates the pest under field conditions.
Using botanicals like Kochea and Calotropis
leaf extract showed strong acaricidal action
under field conditions (Rai et al., 2014). In
case of severe infestation, spraying of
Dicofol @ 2.5 ml/lit or Propargite @ 3 ml/
lit (Singh and Singh, 2004) or Fenazaquin
@ 1.5 ml or Spiromesifen @ 0.75 ml/l or
Chlorfenapyr @ 1.25 ml/l of water should
be done at 10 days interval at the initiation
of symptoms (Anonymous, 2011). Recently,
Rai et al., 2014 described that integrated
module comprising seedling dip with
Imidacloprid @1 ml/ lit, spray of Buprofezin
1 ml/lit at 25 days after transplanting (DAT),
Fipronil @ 0.2 g/lit at 35 DAT, Verticillium 95

lecanii @ 5 g/lit at 45 DAT, Chlorfenapyr @
1 ml/lit at 55 DAT, Neem oil @ 1% at 65
DAT gave yellow mite reduction over control
in chilli was highest in both Kashi Anmol
(75.48%) and Kashi Gaurav (72.90%).
Plume Moth
White plume moth, Sphenarches
caffer (Zeller) (Pterophoridae: Lepidoptera),
is a well-known pest lablab, beans etc. (Nair,
1995, Sujithra et al., 2010). Recently, it
attains its pest status as a foliage feeder in
bottle gourd as they damaged the leaves and
buds of bottle gourd by scrapping the
chlorophyllous portion thereby reducing the
photosynthetic activity of the plants in and
around Varanasi region. However, damage
is more severe when they feed on the
emerging buds resulting in restricted growth
of the buds with characteristic black excreta
inside it. During the peak summer months
of May – June when atmospheric
temperature was around 45°C in Varanasi its
incidence was also observed and from mid-
October onwards when rabi season bottle
gourd was in its vegetative stage there was
no incidence of this plume moth. Sujithra et
al., 2010 from Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh
reported S. caffer as a major pod borer of
field bean. However, in Varanasi region
incidence of this plume moth is restricted to
bottle gourd.
Management
Conservation of solitary, larval,
endoparasitoid Apanteles paludicole
Cameron, 1909 (Braconidae: Hymenoptera)
(maximum parasitization 40.91 per cent)
(Anonymous, 2013) and chalcid pupal
parasitoid, Tropimeris monodon are
beneficial. Need based application of
Bacillus thuringiensis @ 1 kg/ha or
malathion @ 2 ml/lit is able to control this
pest.
Fr uit Flies
96 It has been estimated that in India, fruit
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
flies alone cause losses up to Rs. 26,902
million when control measures were not
provided (Stonehouse, 2001) and in addition
35 to 40% losses in gourds. Kapoor and
Agarwal, 1980 and Kapoor, 1993 reported
159 host plants of various species of fruit
flies from India. Among these, Bactrocera
dorsalis (Hendel), B. cucurbitae (Coquillett,
1849), B. zonata (Saunders) (Tephritidae:
Diptera) were recorded on different
vegetable crops. If uncontrolled, these pests
pose a serious limiting factor in the
production of gourds, cucumber, melon and
other cucurbits to the extent that it’s growing
may become highly unprofitable (Waseem
et al., 2009. Beside these, this pest is very
important from export point of view.
Therefore, successive cultivation and export
are highly relying on sound pest management
system.
Management
Infected and damage fruits often serve
as source of infestation. So periodically all
the infested fruits should be collected and
destroyed. Earthing up of the soil around the
vine helps in exposing the pupae for
desiccation and predation by predatory birds.
Ploughing the infested field after the crop is
harvested, can help in killing the pupae.
Apply the bait spray containing 20 ml
Malathion 50 EC + 10 g protein hydrolysate
+ 500 g of molasses/jaggery in 20 litres of
water per acre. When the attack is serious, it
should be repeated at weekly intervals. Bait
annihilation techniques with spray fluid with
protein hydrolysate (0.3%) and malathion
(0.015%) followed by male annihilation
technique (MAT) by adult flies through
plastic bottle trap with ethanol, any
insecticide (Carbaryl / Malathion), Cuelure
(6:1:2) coated in wooden block. Installation
of such traps @ 25-30 traps / ha is
recommended (Rai et al., 2014).
Whiteflies
Amongst 1200 species of whiteflies,
Emerging Insect Pest Menace in Vegetable Crops in India and their Management: A Critical Appraisal
Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Aleyrodidae:
Hemiptera) is considered as the most
important one. It is a cosmopolitan, highly
polyphagous with remarkable ability to adapt
to new hosts (Gerling and Kravchenko,
1995). It has been reported to attack more
than 600 host plant species (Secker et al.,
1998) belonging to 77 families (Basu, 1995).
The economic damage may result from direct
feeding leading to de-vitalization of the
plants, yellowing and finally death of the
plant. Beside these they also secrete honey
dew which creates sooty mould and there
by restricting the photosynthetic activity of
the plant. They also serve as vector for many
dreaded viral diseases. Earlier this pest was
considered as a minor pest and they were
found to attack ladies finger, brinjal, chillies,
cow pea, field bean, tomato, cucumber etc.
and cause havoc both in field and green
house conditions. In recent years, severe
incidence of leaf curl virus and yellow vein
mosaic disease transmitted and spread by
whitefly, has evoked wide spread concern
in northern India. Similarly, the detection of
Biotype-B of this pest in Karnataka on
tomato causing severe incidence of leaf curl
has sent a scare among the tomato growers
in the country. Efforts are, however, on to
evolve suitable management strategy for B-
Biotype of whitefly as a pest and vector is
the need of the hour (Puri and Mote, 2004).
Management
Yellow sticky trap to monitor this pest
at early stage is recommended. As many
weed plants harbor whiteflies, removal of
weed hosts has been found to reduce both
the incidence of whiteflies and associated
viral diseases. Conservation of natural
enemies like Encarsia brevivena, Eretmocerus
corni, Eretmocerus mundus parasitoids,
Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi, Mallada
boninensis, Coccinella septempunctata the
predators and Beauveria bassiana and
Paecilomyces farinosus the entomopathogens
recorded from B. tabaci were found promising
for the management of this pest.
Seed treatment with Imidacloprid 70WS
@ 2.5 g per kg of seed provides protection
for 25-30 days. Protection of seedlings in
nursery by nylon net (200 mesh) covering
for 25-30 days (Shivalingaswamy et al.,
2006) followed by need based application
of systemic insecticides after transplanting
is able to reduce the whitefly incidence.
Spraying of systemic insecticides like
Imidacloprid @ 1 ml/3 lit of water or
Thiomethoxam @ 1 g/3 lit of water or
Dimethoate @ 2 ml/lit of water is
recommended. Ameta and Kumar, 2005
reported that Spiromesifen 240 SC @ 500
ml/ha showed promising result in controlling
white fly in cotton.
Giant African Snail
Giant African snail, Achatina
(Lissachatina) fulica (Bowdich)
(Stylommatophora: Achatinidae) is a
polyphagous and one of the world’s most
damaging land snails. It originated in east
Africa and now spread all over the world
(Raut and Barker, 2002) mainly the countries
having tropical climates with warm, mild
year-round temperatures and high humidity.
In India, the occurrence of this snail has been
reported in different states in 1914. It was
first reported in Aurangabad district during
1973 and in Konkan region during 1989.
Being polyphagy, it is reported to feed on at
least 500 different types of plant species
(Capinera, 2011) and it voraciously feed on
many vegetables like colocasia, elephant foot
yam, cucumber, cow pea, field bean, pea,
ladies finger, tomato etc. Its sporadic
outbreak noticed in about 300 ha in Sapur
during 1998 and in 150 ha area of Nashik of
Maharastra and causing havoc damage to the
crops like bitter gourd, beans, bottle gourd,
chilli, tomato and cauliflower (Puri and
Mote, 2004).
Management
Adult snails are large enough and can
be seen easily. They can be handpicked form 97

their resting sites in the evening and early
morning and can easily be destroyed. Clean
cultivation and establishment of physical
barriers like wrapping of tree trunks with
copper foils around the trees etc. that restrict
the movement of snails has long been
practiced. Ravikumara et al., (2007)
recorded highest number of snails attracted
to papaya stem waste, followed by vegetable
waste, fishmeal waste, areca leaf waste,
banana sheath waste, sugarcane bagasse, leaf
litter and farmyard manure. Sajeev (2011)
adopted a control method of initially baiting
the snail using cabbage leaves followed by
spray with Tobacco decoction, made with
Copper sulphate mixture (TDCS mixture).
Beside these, Metaldehide bait (2.5%) is
long being practiced to control this
malacofaunal pest (Jayashankar et al., 2013).
According to Javaregowda (2006),
metaldehyde (2.5%) was most effective and
registered highest mortality after one day of
application, followed by Monocrotophos
bait. Basavaraju et al., (2001) observed
100% mortality under laboratory conditions
using Carbofuran (600 g Carbofuran 3G +
60 kg rice bran + 6 kg jaggery/ha) bait against
the snail.
Salient PPoints
oints Needed to Be Addressed
Chilli gall midge
• Can be recognized only after
symptoms were visualized
• Attack only the reproductive parts
(flower bud, fruits) of the plants
• Damage is more severe under well
irrigated conditions
Spotted pod borer
• Due to protective web, difficult to
control this pest with conventional
insecticides
• Conceal in the web and there by also
safe from its natural enemies
98
• Over lapping generations and short life
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
cycle
• Need biointensive pest management
(BIPM) strategy
Hadda beetle
• Polyphagy in nature and have diverse
host range
• Efforts are to be directed for mass
rearing and artificial release of P.
foveolatus
• Egg stage is more vulnerable and hunts
for suitable ovicide(s).
Solenopsis mealy bug
• Protective waxy coating over the body
• Insecticides are not much effective and
they also cause residue problem
• Honey dew attracts the ants which give
them protection against natural
enemies
• Ants also held responsible for physical
movement of this pest
• Biological control with Australian lady
bird beetle, Cryptolaemus
montrouzeiri and biopesticides like
whit halo fungus, Verticillium lecanii
may be encouraged
Serpentine leaf miner
• Wide host range makes them difficult
to control; it can survive even in weeds
also.
• Being an internal feeder it is difficult
to control with insecticides
• Periodical monitoring using yellow
sticky traps should be ensured.
• More emphasis should be given on
Mary gold as trap crop.
Phytophagous mites
• Tiny and microscopic creature,
difficult to observe
Emerging Insect Pest Menace in Vegetable Crops in India and their Management: A Critical Appraisal
• Their symptoms often resemble with
physiological disorders
• Cultivation of vegetables throughout
the years
• Excessive use of insecticides with
higher doses
• Red spider mite can spread from one
place to another by means of air current
i.e., ballooning
Plume moth
• The pest is present during extreme
summer in the month of May-June
when the atmospheric temperature is
around 45 oC.
• Very few effective natural enemies are
available in the nature
• They feed on apical buds and there by
retarding the plant growth
Fr uit flies
1. Pupation takes place in soil, so difficult
to control until soil treatment is done
2. Hence internal feeder difficult to
identify at early stage of infestation
3. More emphasis should be given on
behavioral management.
4. Lack of promising natural enemies
Whitefly
• Wide host range and polyphagous
nature made it difficult to control
• Indiscriminate use of insecticides lead
them resurgence
• Yellow sticky trap to monitor the early
population
• Need conservation of natural
parasitoids Eretmocerus spp and
Tetrastichus spp.
Giant African snail
• It thrives in high humid areas
• It spread through egg or juvenile stages
• Management required community
based approach
• Very less number of known natural
enemies
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Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 103-112, 2015
Socio -economic Uplif
Socio-economic tment and Livelihood
Upliftment
Enhancement through Coconut Sector
P. CHOWDAPPA, P. ANITHAKUMARI AND S. JAYASEKHAR
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute
Kasaragod-671124, Kerala
Coconut assumes considerable
significance in the national economy of India
in view of rural employment and income
generation. The traditional coconut farming
in our country is an integral part of our life,
culture and identity. The coconut palm exerts
a profound influence on the rural economy
of the many states where it is grown
extensively and provides sustenance to more
than 10 million people in the country. The
processing and related activities centred on
the crop generate employment opportunities
for over three million people in India.
Production and marketing of diversified
high-value coconut products from all parts
of coconut-the kernel, husk, shell, wood,
water and leaves are a potential source of
income and employment for the rural people.
In addition, the crop contributes ` 92 billion
annually to the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) of the country. The coconut sector
contributes to foreign exchange earnings to
the tune of ` 2.4 billion. Over 90 per cent of
coconut farmers in India are small holders
and are considered resource-poor.
In India, coconut is predominantly
cultivated in small and marginal holdings.
Most of these holdings neither provide
gainful employment opportunities for the
family labour throughout the year nor
generate sufficient income to meet the family
requirement. Presently coconut growers are
more exposed to economic risks and
uncertainties owing to the high degree of
price fluctuations. In this context it is
needless to emphasize the importance of
crop diversification in coconut gardens.
Collective actions, synergy and convergence
of stakeholders, technologies and
experiences and wisdom of the farming
community can certainly sustain growth and
livelihood of coconut communities.
Global Scenario vis a vis National Scenario
Globally, coconut is grown in 12.47
million hectares with an annual production
of 72.6 billion nuts spread in 93 countries.
India stands first in productivity among the
coconut producing countries. In India,
coconut is cultivated in 18 states and 3 Union
Territories in an area of 2.03 million hectares
(16.6% of global area) with annual
production of 23.35 billion nuts (32.1 per
cent) and productivity of 11,277 nuts per
hectare (Table 1). About 90 per cent of area
and production are concentrated in the four
southern states, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The interstate
variations in coconut productivity are very
high, and effective utilization of existing
technologies could essentially enhance the
productivity. Technological interventions
from research institutions and financial
support from government coupled with the
efforts of farming community led to the
increase in productivity and production.
Although coconut is widely grown in the
world, the export market of coconut and

Table 1: Coconut: National scenario 2012-13
State Area (‘000 ha) Production (million nuts)
Andhra Pradesh 142
Karnataka 511
Kerala 766
Tamil Nadu 431
India 2070
Source: CDB, 2013
coconut products is highly concentrated with
less than half a dozen countries accounting
for over 80 per cent of the total quantity
traded. In the case of export of fresh nuts,
five countries viz., Sri Lanka, Dominican
Republic, Malaysia, Thailand and Mexico
account for 70 per cent of the traded quantity.
As regards coconut oil, Philippines and
Indonesia together account for 74 per cent
market share in total trade. Similar is the case
of Copra meal exports, where Philippines
and Indonesia accounts for 93 per cent of
market share. In the case of India, the
prospects of a higher export of coconut
products have never materialized because of
the huge price wedge between domestic
coconut and the international prices. Further,
more than 98 per cent of coconuts produced
in our country have been used for domestic
consumption, while Indonesia and
Philippines set apart 50 per cent of the
domestic production for export. In turn, the
latter countries control the international price
of coconut oil and India never developed an
export orientation for coconut and coconut
products. India needs concerted efforts in this
direction for enhancing role of coconut in
livelihood and the need for improving the
quality of nuts, product diversification and
increasing investment for national and
international markets.
Shif
Shiftt towards Value Added Products
Value
The utilization pattern of coconut
indicated that of the total production of
104 coconuts, about 42 per cent are used as
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Productivity (nuts/ha)
1985 13979
5915 11576
6211 8109
7057 16387
23351 11277
mature nuts, 35 per cent for milling copra, 8
per cent for ball copra and 15 per cent is
consumed in the tender form for drinking
purposes. As per Coconut Development
Board (CDB), coconut oil production in the
country was 4.9 lakh tonnes in 2011-12. Of
this, 40 per cent was consumed for edible
purposes, 46 per cent for toiletry uses and
14 per cent for industrial uses. It is an
indubitably proven fact that coconut has
multiple usages as food, beverage,
environmental products of daily usage, and
industrial raw material provider. The tender
coconut water serves as a mineral drink with
therapeutic properties that help in regaining
the vitality of the human body and has
become popular as an emerging, natural
health product. The tender nut water
products are rapidly gaining popularity in
both traditional and non-traditional areas,
thus opening new vistas for coconut
entrepreneurs to capture the widening tender
nut market. In realising the importance of
tender nut in providing livelihood, ICAR-
CPCRI released dwarf varieties namely
Kalpa Jyothi and Kalpa Surya for tender nut
purpose and Chandra Sankara, Chandra
Laksha, Kalpa Samrudhi and Kalpa Sankara
for dual purpose (tender nut and copra). The
nutritious, unfermented non alcoholic drink,
neera and its value added products like syrup,
jaggery, sugar and honey have high domestic
and export market potential. A single coconut
tree can generate an income of Rs.15,000/
year through neera tapping besides its
income from nut production. This
Socio-economic Upliftment and Livelihood Enhancement through Coconut Sector
technology has opened up additional
employment opportunities for rural and
urban youth.
The various coconut products exported
from India also improved currently.
Improvement in export of coconut based
products could be noticed in the case of dried
coconuts and copra both in terms of quantity
and value (Table 2). The data depicted
provide insights into the areas to be
concentrated by the Indian coconut industries
in taking up social responsibilities for
making coconut products competetive
through collective efforts of stakeholders.
New coconut products are being exported
and entrepreneurs should be facilitated and
supported with udated information, policy
perspectives and market intelligence to
enable to derive the competitive edge.
India and Sri Lanka are the major
producers of coir, account for around 90 per
cent of the world production. The coir
products and bi-products include coir fibre,
yarn, floor mats, coir ropes, anti weed
blankets, curled coir, erosion control
blankets, fishing nets, coir pith etc. Indian
coir industry approximately provides
employment to more than 1.5 lakh weavers
and 4 lakh spinners and it is the source of
employment to 3.83 lakh persons of whom
3.25 lakh are women. The gender aspect of
coconut in terms of employment and food
security needs special attention while
discussing rural development. This sector
needs modernisation, skill enhancement and
market promotion in terms of bio degradable
and ecological importance as potential future
markets. The modernisation and awareness
programmes may be extended to
stakeholders including coconut producer’s
organisations.
The export figures with reference to coir
and coir based products (Table 3) indicated
positive growth in terms of both quantity and
value unlike the other coconut products. The
need for realising and utilising this potential
for improving the income and quality of life
of millions of coconut farmers and lakhs of
women labourers who are dependent on this
sector provides future vision for convergence
and collaboration of various institutions in
integrating technologies and areas of value
addition of coconut palm as a whole.
The export and import figures indicated
the versatility of this crop in terms of an array
of by products as raw material for industrial
products and the complex and widely spread
value chain which needs up gradation. The
potential of the coconut crop in terms of
income, food security and vulnerability
reduction through coconut based cropping
and farming systems, livelihood support to
millions of coconut farmers and family
members, direct and indirect employment
opportunities, by product based coir
industries, other industrial uses are evident
in the data furnished.
Coconut cultivation and technology based
potential
Coconut research in the country is
mainly carried out by ICAR-CPCRI, and
State Agricultural Universities under All
India Coordinated Research Project on
Palms (AICRPP). Crop improvement
research in coconut resulted in development
of 20 selections, 15 hybrids and three
varieties for the root (wilt) disease affected
areas. ICAR–CPCRI developed
technologies and mechanisms for upgrading
coconut production and products,
mechanization, value addition and social
process/approaches. With the use of
technologies developed, the yield of coconut
has improved in farmers’ field conditions.
Even in root (wilt) disease affected areas,
by adopting the integrated management
package of practices, the average yield of
coconut can be improved by 80-92 per cent.
The technology packages for mitigation of
drought, severe pests and diseases incidences
were demonstrated in farmer’s fields in multi
locations. Thus the role of coconut as a 105
106
Table 2: Export of coconut products from India. Quantity (tonnes), Value (Rs lakhs)

Sl.No. Item 2013-14 (up to July 2014) Corresponding period (Previous year) Per centage variations over
previous period
Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
1. Coconut (Fresh) 8046.27 1604.39 8561.69 1526.14 -6.02% 5.13%
2. Coconut (dried) 7194.49 3711.91 4783.86 2238.25 50.39% 65.84%
3. Other coconuts excluding fresh/dried 3357.08 943.90 4348.15 1459.90 -22.79% -35.34%
4. Desiccated coconut 755.41 451.93 1302.80 553.54 -42.02% -18.36%
5. a)Coconut oil (crude) 24.33 52.96 54.43 85.00 -55.30% -37.69%
6. b)Coconut oil (refined) 1802.09 2231.80 2389.57 3310.63 -24.59% -32.59%
7. Other residues of coconut or copra 5.41 4.05 - - - -
8. Oilcake (defatted/expeller) 1.34 8.99 1.00 0.95 - -
9. Coconut shell (raw) 432.46 67.69 531.08 127.80 -18.57% -47.03%
10. Shell charcoal 10895.00 2502.75 12397.00 2860.78 -12.12% -12.52%
11. Copra 7469.57 4157.58 5582.35 2917.96 33.81% 42.48%
12. Activated Carbon 22720.87 19071.41 20661.19 19538.03 9.97% -2.39%
13. Fresh Endocarp 129.17 34.73 - - - -
14. Dried endocarp 34.65 7.72 - - - -
15. Other Endocarp 226.09 59.65 - - - -
Total 34911.46 34618.98 0.84%

Source: Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics, Kolkota

Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Socio-economic Upliftment and Livelihood Enhancement through Coconut Sector

livelihood crop catering to multiple needs competitiveness in coconut cultivation

of rural population could be improved
through the utilization of improved
technologies in the fields.
The performance and potential of
technologies developed by ICAR-CPCRI in
upgrading production and process was
documented (Table 4). The research
accomplishments have enabled reduction in
cost of production and improving
through technology options. Different facets
of the research orientation include extension
approaches for overcoming social
constraints, research on value added
products and business incubation
(supporting entrepreneurship), production of
quality planting materials, women in
coconut-social transformation, employment
opportunities and income generation.

Table 3: Export of coir products from India for the period (2013 – 2014 )

Item April 13- March 14 April 12- March 13 % Growth Cumulative

Quantity Value Quantity Value Quantity Value
(MT) (` lakhs) (MT) (` lakhs) (MT) (` lakhs)

Coir Fibre 173902 32878.11 140693 20707.66 23.60 58.77

Coir Yarn 4247 2848.26 4202 2387.22 1.07 19.31
Handloom Mat 22609 23623.82 24151 22810.10 -6.38 3.57
Power loom mat 234 278.36 2 3.15 - -
Tufted Mat 43752 41776.39 37289 33572.91 17.33 24.43
Hanloom Matting 3425 3353.91 1418 1702.77 141.54 96.97
Geo textiles 4468 3503.78 3597 2628.74 24.21 33.29
Coir rugs and carpet 93 105.99 95 133.38 -2.11 -20.54
Coir rope 498 390.17 420 282.41 18.57 38.16
Curled coir 11263 2947.93 8883 2112.46 26.79 39.55
Source: Coir Board website

Table 4: Role of research in improving livelihood

Technologies/practices recommended by ICAR-CPCRI Upgrading potential in adopting the technologies

High yielding varieties of coconut cultivars
Coconut Hybrids
Planting system and care of young plants
Integrated nutrient management
Irrigation methods for coconut
Inter cultivation in coconut gardens
Green manuring in coconut basins
Increasing net returns by 45%. Average yield of 100 nuts/
palm/year
Yield of 100-150 nuts/palm/year under irrigated conditions.
Additional net returns of ` 40000/ha/year over traditional
varieties.
Improving net returns by 3-5 times compared to monocrop.
Benefit cost ratio of 2.01. Improvement in coconut yield by
45% in farmers field
Adoption of micro irrigation systems leads to 34 % saving of
irrigation water. Cost of cultivation could be reduced by `
2500/ha
In farmers field conditions productivity of 60 nuts/palm/year
(Organic+inorganic+intercultivation) compared to 20nuts/
palm/year (No inter cultivation+no manuring)
Income from green manuring estimated as ` 28/palm basin
and ` 6550/ha
107
(Contd.)

Technologies/practices recommended by ICAR-CPCRI
Vermicomposting of coconut palm wastes
Mushroom cultivation for recycling coconut wastes
Coconut based cropping systems
Drought management practices
IPM of Rhinoceros beetle
IPM of Red palm weevil
IPM of leaf eating caterpillar
Integrated management of coconut root (wilt) disease
Leaf rot disease management
Bud rot disease management
Stem bleeding disease management
Snow Ball tender nut production
Coconut chips
Small holders copra dryer
Source: ICAR- CPCRI
The information clearly states the
relative advantage of ICAR - CPCRI
technologies in bridging the yield gap and
improving the income. The technologies are
mostly environment friendly, effective and
assures the return for the investment proved
both in research station and farmers field
conditions. Thereby we could infer that,
upgrading with technologies will have
positive impact on the livelihood of coconut
farmers.
ICAR-CPCRI evolved models for
increasing the adoption of recommended
technologies like Participatory Technology
Transfer Approach (PTTA) involving
relevant stakeholders especially for the root
(wilt) disease affected areas, Area wide
community adoption approach (AWCA) for
bio management of rhinoceros beetle
(technologies adopted in more than 6000 ha
108
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Upgrading potential in adopting the technologies
Returns per rupee spent value of 3.71.low cost high value
technology
Value of ` 1.90 as return per rupee spent in addition nutrition
supply
` 88,000/ha/year net return compared to ` 32,000/ha/year
in monocrop of coconut. (HDMCS model, ICAR-CPCRI,
Kasaragod)
Net profit from adoption ranged from ` 15,000 to ` 28000 /
ha besides life saving of the standing crop
Benefit cost ratio 1.92. Gain due to adoption ` 322/ha and
reduction of pest incidence by 70%
Gain due to adoption ` 1620/ha
Gain due to adoption ` 6530/ha
Benefit cost ratio 1.55. Gain due to adoption ` 3280/ha. Yield
improvement 25 -92%.
60 per cent reduction in disease incidence
Gain due to adoption ` 3590/ha
Benefit cost ratio 1.73. Gain due to adoption ` 728/ha
Returns on investment- 40%. Suited for individual or group
enterprise
Returns on investment- 50%. Suited for individual or group
enterprise
Returns per rupee spent is 1.15
within 2 years), Clustering coconut farmers
for overcoming vulnerability factors such as
fragmented holdings, scale of economy of
technology adoption, improving access to
information and utilizing group dynamics,
Community based organizations (CBOs) for
community actions, Farmer field schools
(FFS) for capacity building in Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) techniques and
participatory approaches of research. These
approaches and strategies would be able to
reduce time of technology dissemination by
3-5 years, improvement in technology
utilization by 20-40 per cent, reducing cost
of adoption by 50% and improving
knowledge by 70-80%. The models and
technologies were up scaled with proper
adaptations by several agencies and
departments proving the feasibility and
relative advantages over existing extension
methodologies.
Socio-economic Upliftment and Livelihood Enhancement through Coconut Sector

Coconut as livelihood crop- potentials and
challenges
Coconut, the most versatile crop has the
potential to provide livelihood to small and
marginal farmers in terms of raw products,
food, beverage, medicine, raw material for
industrial products based on the multi source
from nut, leaves, woods, shell, coir and coir
based products, coconut water, inflorescence
sap- neera etc. A close look at coconut and
vast potential for product diversification and
value addition justifies the livelihood crop
status. But high production cost of coconut,
fluctuating prices and low price levels, non
parity of price of coconut products at
international level, negative propaganda on
coconut oil at national and international
level, low income, and low level of access
to assets (land, credit, employment, social
networks), increased the livelihood
vulnerability of the crop. However,
improving competitiveness of coconut value
chain will be a viable option in reducing the
livelihood vulnerability of coconut.
The value chain of coconut consists of
activities to bring a product or service from
conception, through the different phases of
production, transformation and delivery to
final consumers and the final disposal after
use. The actors participating in the coconut
chain in general are agricultural institutions,
farmers, local and regional intermediaries,
small, medium and large scale processors,
fresh coconut retailers, coconut oil traders,
producers’ organizations, transporters and
consumers.
The data showed the increasing trend in
fragmentation of farm holdings & marginal
holdings and decreasing trend in semi
medium, medium and large holdings (Table
5). These figures are true in case of coconut
holdings and ICAR-CPCRI developed
technologies and social approaches to
improve the income and output from unit
land and resources, irrespective of
landholding size through appropriate
adaptations and technology integration.
Improving livelihood through technology
utilization
Diversification is a proven choice among
marginal and small farmers in improving
productivity and income from the holdings.
The most agreed upon choices for integration
are backyard poultry, intercrops,
vermicomposting, coconut product
diversification and value addition, and
dairying. The participatory programme was

Table 5: Distribution of operational holdings (all India-Agril & allied sectors)

Category of holdings Number of operational holdings (‘000 Number)

1970-71 1976-77 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01

Marginal 36200 44523 50122 56147 63389 71179 75390

(Less than 1 hectare) (51.0) (54.6) (56.4) (57.8) (59.4) (61.6) (62.9)
Small 13432 14728 16072 17922 20092 21643 22687
(1.0 to 2.0 hectares) (18.9) (18.1) (18.1) (18.4) (18.8) (18.7) (18.9)
Semi-Medium 10681 11666 12455 13252 13923 14261 14014
(2.0 to 4.0 hectares) (15.0) (14.3) (14.0) (13.6) (13.1) (12.3) (11.7)
Medium 7932 8212 8068 7916 7580 7092 6573
(4.0 to 10.0 hectares) (11.2) (10.1) (09.1) (08.1) (07.1) (06.1) (05.5)
Large 2766 2440 2166 1918 1654 1404 1230
(10.0 hectares and above) (03.9) (03.0) (02.4) (02.0) (01.6) (01.2) (01.0)
All Holdings 71011 81569 88883 97155 106638 115579 119894
(100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0)

Source: Agricultural Census Division, Ministry of Agriculture 109


implemented in Kollam district involving
102 farmers; clustering them as pilot social
approach of community extension to
overcome vulnerability in up scaling of
technologies and investment in marginal
coconut holdings. The vulnerability of small-
scale farmers or producers mainly results
from structural factors- isolation, propensity
to natural disasters, intrinsic income
volatility, low diversification in production
and trade, and export dependence.
The data proved that combination of
diversification and intensification could be
achieved by coconut farmers with 0.4 ha or
above, and holdings less area could earn
additional income and meet family
consumption/nutritional needs. The yield of
coconuts could be improved by 60 per cent.
The value addition of coconut through
minimal processing, diversifying harvested
produces to mature and tender nuts, coconut
shell/coir based products suits well for
individual level, groups, entrepreneurs,
women self help groups etc. A study
conducted by ICAR-CPCRI, comparing
yield gap of west coast tall (WCT) palms
and hybrid coconut palms in farmers gardens
over three years of technology adoption
recorded increase of 2700 nuts/ha (49% yield
gap reduction) and 5580 nuts/ha (86%
reduction in yield gap) respectively. The
income improvement of WCT gardens were
` 12150/ ha/ year (B: C ratio 1.7) and ` 25110
/ha/year (B: C ratio 2.5). The yield gap of
west coast tall coconut variety in research
station and farmers fields was 142 per cent
revealing the potential of improving yield
and income by the farmers.
Diversification potential of coconut
based cropping system was well established
by ICAR-CPCRI which is being scaled up
by not only in farmers’ fields of our country
but also several other coconut growing
countries of the world. The role of coconut
in terms of nutritional security is very
important in the present era to ensure food
110 security and to avoid “hidden hunger” among
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
the masses. It was established that under high
density multi species cropping system in
coconut, overall system productivity could
be improved by 176%. The environmental
benefit in terms of water holding capacity in
coconut based farming system was 37.4% -
38.5% compared to monocrop plot i.e. 35.3
- 35.8%, besides the carbon sequestration
potential. This is possible maintaining and
nurturing the natural resource base of the
coconut gardens. High density multi species
cropping system which is an excellent agro
forestry model could include multiple crops
(annuals and perennials) to cater needs of
farm family and market/consumers needs,
livestock, fisheries, poultry, farm level
processing, additional farm enterprises like
beekeeping, mushroom cultivation,
vermicompost production etc. utilising
coconut by products.
Coconut based agri-business for livelihood
enhancement
Agro-processing is now regarded as the
sunrise sector of the Indian economy in view
of its large potential for growth and likely
socio-economic impact specifically on
employment and income generation. Some
estimates suggest that in developed
countries, up to 14% of the total work force
is engaged in agro-processing sector directly
or indirectly. However, in India, only about
3% of the work force finds employment in
this sector, underscoring its underdeveloped
status and vast untapped potential for
employment. If properly developed, agro-
processing sector can make India a major
player at the global level for marketing and
supply of processed food, feed and a wide
range of other plant and animal products.
There exists a huge scope for coconut based
agri-business in India with reference to
processing and value added products.
Technologies are available for individual
processing for the production of snowball
tender nut, coconut chips, copra, vinegar,
desiccated coconut (DC), coconut shell
Socio-economic Upliftment and Livelihood Enhancement through Coconut Sector
charcoal, packed tender nut water, coconut
cream and milk powder. The economics of
production of coconut based value added
products indicates fairly high level of capital
requirement towards establishment and
operation of these enterprises. Nevertheless,
the attractive returns from the business will
act as the motivating factor and moreover,
coconut farmers are expected to realize better
price stability in long run.
Neera and neera based products, the new
addition to coconut value added products
proved to have national and international
demand among consumers. A healthy
coconut tree could produce 1-5 litres of
coconut sap or ‘KALPARASA’ named by
ICAR-CPCRI based on the management
practices adopted. Even at a cost of ` 100
per litre from 10 % of overall coconut trees
are tapped, it was estimated to provide `
54000 crores to the Gross State Domestic
Product (GSDP) of Kerala state alone. It is
expected that from a single neera tapping
coconut palm farmer could realise ` 1000-
1500, thus reducing the vulnerability of
smallholding cultivation. At present
Indonesia leads coconut producing countries
in terms of neera and products, India is yet
to tap the potential markets. ICAR-CPCRI
will shortly bring out management practices
and technologies for neera and neera based
products, thereby opening livelihood
opportunities for coconut farmers of the
country. At present ICAR CPCRI developed
the best technology based neera collection
unit already adopted by many coconut
producers companies.
Summing up
It is worthwhile to note that low
investment both in farming and development
projects is a major constraint for the future
of the crop. Sustainable impact in coconut
research and development takes longer
duration due to the nature of the crop itself.
High intensity activities and strategies are
needed for improving opportunities,
reducing price fluctuations, and capacitating
coconut farmer organisation for acquiring
global competitiveness.
The role of coconuts and coconut based
homesteads/farming systems offers
tremendous opportunities in ‘Farm Tourism’
which is an emerging sector of employment
and ecological vocation. The Goa state
piloted several farm tourism models based
on the coconut based farming system themes.
This concept can attract youths and
enterprising farmers to improve livelihood
support as well as enable rural development
by providing employment and income. In
coconut based farm tourism, integration of
technology based production, product
diversification, skill enhancement
programmes for visitors, exhibitions to
showcase the cultural, environmental and
natural uniqueness of this palm etc. should
be emphasized.
There is a need to reorient the extension
approaches to meet the challenges and
demands of the coconut farmers. Right from
technology/advisory support for production
and processing to soft skill up gradation in
areas like entrepreneurship, information
technology, marketing and management
skills, networking, linkage build up and
motivation/ leadership extension approaches
should play the facilitating and monitoring
functions.
Efficient utilisation of natural resources,
capacity building and motivation in terms
of participation, empowerment, human and
social and physical assets and financial assets
and their access of coconut farmers decides
the livelihood security. The access and
utilisation depends upon the price stability,
policy and investment support, employment
potential, productivity in competitive
manner. However, to enhance the livelihood
security and to reduce the vulnerability
farmers should diversify and intensify their
farming systems. Coconut gardens are well
suited for diversification in terms of 111

availability of interspaces, natural resources,
nature of the base crop. Moreover, scientific
recommendations are available for different
crop/farm combinations to facilitate
recycling of residues, optimisation of
resources and to meet the market demands.
The role of coconut as a livelihood security
112
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
crop with remarkable contribution to rural
development brightens the prospects of
millions of farmers and their families in the
coconut growing tracts and indirectly to
other areas, in terms of industries, export and
import and rural enterprises.
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 113-121, 2015
Strategeis for Increasing Oil PPalm
alm Production
S. ARULRAJ
Former Director
Indian Institute of Oil Palm Research
Pedavegi-534 450
Oil palm, Elaeisguineensis produces 4.0
to 6.0 tonnes of crude palm oil/ha/annum and
0.4 to 0.6 tonnes of palm kernel oil from 4th
to 30th year of its productive life span. The
palm oil is derived from fleshy mesocarp of
the fruit, which contains about 45-55% of
oil. The palm kernel oil, obtained from the
kernel of stony seed, is a potential source of
lauric oils. Oil palm is the crop of present
and future vegetable oil economy of world
as well as India. Palm oil has good
acceptance as a cooking medium because of
its price advantage. It is a good raw material
for manufacturing oleochemicals used in
making soaps, plasticizers etc. It is the crop
that has a greater advantage in productivity
per hectare that is much higher than that of
any major oil seed crop, thus cutting the cost
of land, infrastructure, maintenance and
harvesting. In the recent years, palm oil is
increasingly used as a source for biodiesel
in a number of countries.
Oil PPalm
alm RResearch
esearch in India
Indian Institute of Oil Palm Research
(under ICAR) leads the oil palm research
system in the country. Oil palm is an
introduced crop in India and through
intensive research and development efforts,
we could bring an area of 2.63 lakh ha under
oil palm cultivation. Oil palm sector in India
is at the “take off” stage that needs adequate
support from research system in the form of
new hybrids and crop management
technologies along with the required policy
support. Fortunately, a well established
research system with the required
infrastructural facilities is available in the
country for oil palm research. IIOPR is
equipped with good infrastructure facilities
for carrying out research on oil palm and
could formulate the production technology
under irrigated conditions. The Institute
could assist in establishing four new seed
gardens recently to produce 4.00 million
planting materials per annum with a
productivity potential of 6.00 tonnes of oil
per ha. With the recommended technology,
a record yield of 53.2 tonnes FFB/ha (10.6
tonnes of oil / ha) could be recorded by a
progressive farmer in Karnataka. Indigenous
oil palm hybrid seed production and supply
activity is also being monitored by IIOPR.
Scientists of IIOPR impart training on
various aspects of oil palm cultivation to
officials, entrepreneurs and farmers from the
18 States. Research in oil palm is being
strengthened remarkably to provide the
technology back up for the development
plan. The new technologies are expected to
play a critical role in improving oil palm
production and increasing the efficiency of
oil palm sector in the country. It could be
optimistically expected that the well
established oil palm research system along
with intensive efforts through Oil Palm
Development Programme would be able
to improve the vegetable oil production in

the country considerably in the years to
come.
Significant RResearch
esearch Achievements
The significant research achievements
made in oil palm could be summarised as
follows:
Genetic resources management: Oil
palm germplasm has been collected from
different oil palm growing countries with
wide variability for different characteristics.
Presently, IIOPR has an assemblage of 128
accessions. High yielding cross combinations
have been identified and mother palms for
production of new hybrids were planted in seed
gardens. Intensive evaluation of African
germplasm resulted in the identification of
a few remarkably high yielding accessions
that could play a major role in oil palm crop
improvement programme in India. Explant
samples were collected for tissue culture of
these valuable palms. Twenty best performing
tenera hybrids have been identified for use in
crop improvement programmes at Palode.
Screening of 240 African dura palms for
drought tolerance based on physiological and
biochemical characters have been
completed. With a view to develop dwarf
and compact palms and to facilitate planting
more palms per unit area and easy
harvesting, inter-specific hybrids were
developed which are being evaluated.
Evaluation of inter-specific hybrids at Palode
resulted in identification of three promising
dwarf palms that can be used for further
improvement. Work on developing an in
vitro regeneration protocol of oil palm using
explants from mature palms has entered into
the commercialization phase. Somatic
embryogenesis and regeneration could be
standardized and found repeatable with
inflorescence as explants and planted in field.
Production and processing system
management: Results from irrigation
experiments have indicated that when
114
irrigation was restricted to replace
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
evaporation losses by 100 per cent either
with drip or micro jet system, crop growth
and yields were superior to that of basin
irrigation. Sap flux studies in oil palm were
studied in relation to evapo-transpiration and
vapour pressure deficit as they could give
vital leads in developing an approach for
monitoring the environmental responses in
oil palm. Fertigation trial indicated that
palms applied with 1200:600:1200 g NPK/
palm/year through soil application recorded
the lowest FFB yield (18.43 t/ha) and
bunches (6.43/palm) while the highest FFB
yield (24.15 t/ha) and bunches (8.37/palm)
was obtained with application of
1200:600:2700g NPK/ palm/year through
fertigation. Annual carbon sequestered by oil
palm was 11.73 and 5.51 t ha-1 y-1 under
irrigated and rainfed conditions respectively.
The standing biomass of a ten year old oil
palm plantation was of the order of 59.62
and 36.53 t ha-1 under irrigated and rainfed
conditions. Oil palm based cropping systems
with heliconia, red ginger, bush pepper,
guinea grass and cocoa have been
standardized in adult oil palm plantations.
Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated
System norms and optimum leaf nutrient
concentration ranges have been developed
for Karnataka and Goa States for routine
diagnostic and advisory purposes. The
technique of vermin-composting has been
perfected for oil palm plantation wastes.
Based on the nutrient equivalence value, it
was found that almost 90% of N, 50% of P
and 75% of K requirement of palms could
be met through composting process. Height
adjustable hydraulically elevated platform to
reach up to a height of 5 metres has been
designed and developed for harvesting FFB
from tall palms. A low cost ablation tool was
designed and developed during the year, that
received great appreciation from the farming
community. Back pack mounted and trolley
mounted motorized sickles were developed.
Three models (DOPR - 1, 5 and 6) of
improved sickles with light weight high
strength poles were found to be promising.
Strategeis for Increasing Oil Palm Production
Standardized technology of mushroom
cultivation on oil palm factory wastes.
Isolated and identified various
microorganisms from Palm Oil Mill Effluent
and developed POME based animal and fish
feed formulations. Carotenoids were
extracted using different adsorbents and
developed a cost and time saving indirect
method for oil estimation. Studies on the
effect of low temperature on FFA content in
the oil after harvesting of the FFB indicated
that the increase in FFA content was steady up
to seven days and hence, there is no possibility
of storing FFB at lower temperature before
processing.
Plant health management: Roving
survey on the pests of oil palm in various
states of India revealed that rhinoceros beetle
is the most frequently observed pest in oil
palm plantations. Leaf eating caterpillar
damage was observed to be very severe in
some of the gardens. Management measures
for rhinoceros beetle have been standardized.
Infestation of rhinoceros beetle was brought
down from 8.25 per cent to 1.8 per cent by
release of baculo virus-infected beetles. A
wild boar scaring devise was developed for
oil palm nurseries and young plantations.
Use of bamboo noose traps was found to
reduce the burrowing rat population. Oil
palm is an entomophilous crop and
pollinating weevil Elaeidobius kamerunicus,
introduced from Malaysia has established
well in all agro-climatic zones of oil palm
in India. Integrated disease management
package for the management of basal stem
rot has been found to be successful.
Molecular diagnostic kit for rapid detection
of basal stem rot pathogen in oil palm has
been developed.
Social sciences: Technological gaps,
adoption and constraints faced by the farmers
in oil palm production were studied. Training
needs of stakeholders in oil palm were
assessed and need based training
programmes were conducted at regular
intervals. A digital video film on oil palm
cultivation “The Golden Palm” was brought
out in nine languages. Oil Palm Kisan
Mobile Message Services in the form of text
messages as well as voice messages were
sent to oil palm growers belonging to Andhra
Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland in four
languages.
Wayefor ward
ayeforward
Strategies for oil palm research
The role of Directorate of Oil Palm
Research is of crucial importance in the
emerging vegetable oil scenario in India. To
enable the Institute to remain competitive and
relevant, research planning is to be done on
a systematic basis alongwith continuous
monitoring of progress for on-course
corrections, if any, by focusing attention on
the development of cutting edge
technologies. An interdisciplinary mode of
research would be encouraged. Innovation
will be the key driving force for sustainable
productivity growth and other changes for
Green Revolution 2.0 by changing our
strategy from in put intensive to knowledge
intensive mode. Efficiency is the “core path”
to be achieved through the advent of new
hybrids, improved agricultural practices,
improved planting materials, frontier
technologies including biotechnology &
nano technology, without any associated
increase in demand for additional resources.
IIOPR would be strengthening its research
programmes in the following lines in the
years to come.
Genetic enhancement in oil palm
Breeding objectives: The primary
breeding objectives for oil palm would be to
achieve higher FFB yield with better oil
content (oil to bunch ratio)–Ideal selection
criteria could be15:20 (15bunches per year
with an average bunch weight of 20 kg)
yielding about 300 kg FFB per palm per year 115

(42.90 tonnes/ha) and ultimately to 350 kg
FFB per palm per year (50.05 tonnes/ha).
This would ensure better oil content in all
the fruits in a bunch resulting in better oil/
bunch ratio. The re is a need to increase the
oil to bunch ratio to 27 per cent that would
ensure the Oil Extraction Ratio in the
Processing Mills to a minimum of 25 per
cent. Thus, we have to aim at achieving a
genetic potential of 12.00 tonnes of oil/ha.
Search for new genes: Breeding in oil
palm would aim at development of new
planting materials that have the capability
for better oil yields with high quality, slow
height increment and larger kernels. These
traits could be improved through breeding
and biotechnology. The oil palm genome has
been sequenced and is approximately 1.8
billion base pair sin size, about four times
the size of the ricegenome and two thirds
the size of the maizegenome. Shell thickness
marker which is very important to identify
the fruit type at an earlier stage, gene for
increasing the mono unsaturated fatty acids
for edible purpose, introduction of dwarfing
gene into oil palm are some of the important
area so oil palm genomics research.
IIOP Rhas initiated molecular research
in oil palm mainly for analyzing the genetic
diversity of the existing germplasm mandal
so attempted to identify the marker for shell
thickness. IIOP0R has been successful in
raising a mapping population for shell
thickness. IIOPR has also succeeded in
identifying RAPD and SSR markers to
distinguish the two species, E.guineensis and
E.oleifera. Sequencing of oil palm genome
may facilitate the in-depth understanding of
genesen coding for several traits including
plant height, shell thickness, disease or pest
resistance, plant yield, oil quality, etc., and
this shall foster the development of an
improved oil palm cultivar in future .The
work could be taken up by utilizing the DNA
sequencing facilities and the bio informatics
expertise available at other ICAR
116 Institutions.
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Breeding programme: It is to be noted
that there a few germ plasm available in India
with high oil yield potential. By utilising these
base materials and through repeated crossing
and selection programmes, higher oil yields
could be achieved. In each cycle, an
improvement of 15-20 per cent yield could
be aimed at. Concurrently, planting materials
(dura) could be taken from selected parental
palms from better yielding families for the
establishment of new seed gardens. The
success in oil palm crop improvement
depends on the large number of Progeny
Evaluation Trials to be conducted with the
selected cross combinations and selection of
promising combinations and utilization of
results for establishment of new seed gardens
with the active participation of Public and
Private Sector Entrepreneurs. AICRP Centres
also would be actively involved in this task.
There is an urgent need to strengthen the
oil palm crop improvement programmes in
the country. The strengthening process could
be initiated with the germplasm resources
available at Palode (Kerala), Pedavegi
(Andhra Pradesh), Thodupuzha (Kerala) and
other germplasm evaluation centres at
Athirapalli (Kerala), Adilabad (Andhra
Pradesh), Mohitnagar (West Bengal), Mulde
(Maharashtra) and Gangavathi (Karnataka)
as well as in commercial plantations recently
identified at Little Andamans, Goa, Tamil
Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. Concurrently, efforts also would
be intensified for the import of base
germplasm from different sources (especially
from the Centre of Origin in West Africa) as
well as advanced breeding materials from the
countries conducting oil palm research for
more than five decades.
Progeny Evaluation Trials shall be
completed within 9 years (3 years of pre-
bearing stage i.e., initial stage and 6 years of
yielding phase). Crop management schedules
shall be appropriately modified to achieve
the peak yield by 6th year after planting in
the experimental fields. Based on the
Strategeis for Increasing Oil Palm Production
performance recorded during the 4 years of
peak yield period (6 th to 9 th year), elite
selections could be made. The adult palms
are to be used in the production of planting
materials for seed gardens and also for future
crop improvement programmes. Selection
shall always be made based on family and
individual performance. However, for further
use in seed gardens or advancement of
breeding cycles, better yielding palms of the
selected families shall be used. For
evaluation of any cross combination, 54
seedlings are to be selected for laying the
Progeny Evaluation Trial (to be planted in
RBD with 18 palms per plot in 3
replications). As the molecular markers for
high yield (to enable early screening) could
not be identified so far, stringent screening
could be done at nursery level based on early
splitting of leaves, stem girth and avoiding
plants with any morphological symptoms of
deficiencies.
Criteria for screening germ plasm
accessions for special characters could be (i)
height increment of less than 15 cm per year
with100kg FFB yield (if the height increment
criterion is raised to 20 cm per year, yield
parameter shall be increased to200kg FFB per
palm). (ii) Selection criterion for better oil
content could be fixed at 30 per cent oil to
bunch ratio. Evaluation programme for the
identification of core collections for
important traits is to be strengthened
especially for height increment and oil to
bunch ratio. Methodology for in vitro
screening of oil palm accessions and
progenies for biotic and abiotic stresses as
well as early selection of progenies with
better yielding potential are to be evolved.
Possibility of exploiting wider genetic
distances using inter-specific hybridization
alongwith embryo rescue technique is to be
explored.
A ‘Pollen Bank Repository’ needs to be
established to facilitate storage and exchange
of freeze dried viable pollen for increasing
the domestic production potential of oil palm
planting materials. Pollen selection
(gametophytic selection) methods for
evaluation of germplasm for abiotic and
biotic stresses would be attempted. As a part
of germplasm conservation programme, all
the basic germplasm as well as high
performance palms at various stages of crop
improvement are to be taken up for long term
conservation. Thirty embryos per type could
be collected after selfing the selected palms
and preserved at -80 oC for long term
conservation. When high yielding durapalms
are located, interse crossing between these
high yielding duras are to be attempted and
the progenies selected for progeny evaluation
trials (in RBD with18 palms per cross
combination in 3 replications). High yielding
dura palms thus selected in the dura
improvement programmes are to be
multiplied clonally through tissue culture for
planting in seed gardens.
Pisifera improvement: High yielding
tenera palms are to be inter-crossed for the
development of pisifera palms and at the
sixth year, 4 to 5 potential pisifera palms are
to be selected and each palm is to be crossed
with 20-25proven durapalms for Progeny
Evaluation Trials for selecting
th the best cross
combinations by 15 year-leading to the
selection of pisifera palms with better
General Combining Ability and Specific
Combining Ability. These pisifera palms
could be further utilized for the commercial
production of sprouts for the next 15 years.
Multiplication of pisifera palms through
tissue culture for use in seed gardens is to
be avoided. High potential pisifera palms
shall be fully utilized by collection of pollen
in different months and stored for regular use
in different seed gardens. Recent studies at
IIOPR have indicated that pollen could be
stored upto one year (without any loss of
germination) under low temperatures.
Tissue culture: In the recent years, tissue
culture protocol is transferred to public and
private sector entrepreneurs for the
establishment of Tissue Culture Laboratories 117

for refinement and commercialisation
through production of location-specific
planting materials. As the first step, field
performance of the plants is to be confirmed
and the protocol is to be refined to make it
more cost-effective. Concurrently, planting
material production level at IIOPR Tissue
Culture Laboratory could be gradually
enhanced to 20,000 plants per annum at the
earliest. Care should be taken to remove 5-
10 per cent of plants showing malformations
within the first four years. These materials
are to be replanted with good planting
materials. Tissue culture methodology could
be used more frequently for the
multiplication of dura and tenera palms.
Other Biotechnology Programmes:
Studies on the identification of molecular
markers for shell thickness are to be
strengthened at IIOPR to enable early
identification of pisifera palms in seed
gardens. Research Programme for the
decoding of oil palm genome is to be initiated
in collaboration with relevant ICAR
Institutes and oil palm research institutions
of other countries. Concurrently, studies for
the evolution of transgenics could also be
initiated– Malaysia has reported success in
transgenics in oil palm. Development of
transgenic plants in oil palm for higher bunch
number and low height increment would
receive greater attention in the
future.”Association mapping” procedure will
be used for oil content and bunch number as
an aid for crop improvement programme.
Production system management
Characterization of basic genetics of
biotic tolerance: A precise genetic analysis
for resistance to Ganoderma wiltd is ease and
stem wetrot disease is to be carried out.
Studies on genetic variation in disease
causing pathogens using molecular markers
are important. Large number of isolates of
the pathogen would be collected for further
studies.
118
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Agro techniques modulation: Studies
on “Induced Systemic Resistance against
diseases” using Pseudomonas and other
antagonists will be strengthened. Antagonists
that have been found to be effective against
diseases are to be field testedona large scale.
Early diagnosticsusing nano-
biotechnological applications:
Nanotechnology could be used for combating
the plant diseases by controlled delivery off
unctional molecules and also as a diagnostic
tool for disease detection. The endophytes
from oil palm will be isolated and screened
in vitro and in vivo for their field tolerance
potential against important oil palm diseases
like basal stemrot, budrot and stem wetrot.
The association of endophytes with oil palm
through nano fabricated pillared assay will
be studied. Early detection of incidence of
Ganodermawilt disease in oil palm by using
molecular techniques would be strengthened.
Use of nanotechnology for early diagnostics
would also be attempted. Detection of the
disease and exact interactions between
Ganoderma pathogen and oil palm host
would help in the better management of the
disease. Methodology for diagnosing
basalstemrot disease caused by Ganoderma
sp through quantum dots by SILAR method
would also be standardized.
Influence of bio-control agents: Studies
on identification and utilization of bio-
control agents, development of bio-
pesticides, bio-efficacy of botanical
pesticides and kairomonal influence of bio-
control agents would be strengthened.
Pheromones are to be developed for
combating the rhinoceros beetle in oil palm
by using electro physiological techniques.
Further refinement is required for better
dispensing systems for the pheromones.
Developing temperature tolerant strains of
bio-control agents for improving the bio-
efficacy of natural enemies would be another
major area of research.
Strategeis for Increasing Oil Palm Production
Pest risk analysis and SPS measures
assume importance in view of the
globalization process and prevalence of
catastrophic pests and diseases in palms in
other countries and large scale import of oil
palm planting materials from these regions.
Role of pollinators: In view of the low
fruit yield as compared to the number of
female flowers produced in oil palm, studies
on pollinators are to be strengthened on
priority. Pollination in oil palm is carried out
by various means including wind and several
species of insects, of which the weevil
Elaeidobius kamerunicus Faust .is the
predominant species. In the absence of the
native pollinating weevils in countries,
where oil palm was an introduced crop, E.
kamerunicus was introduced from Cameroon
to Malaysia and subsequently, too the roil
palm growing tracts of South East Asia and
South Pacific Islands, resulting in a
significant increase in fruit set and other
bunch characters. However, there have been
concerns regarding periodic occurrence of
poor pollination, bunch failure and yield loss
in certain locations due to insufficient
weevils or no weevil population and less
abundant male inflorescences. It is also
observed that population density of weevil
and fruitset vary from place to place and
season to season due to climatic conditions
and various other factors. Hence studies are
to be intensified to assess the genetic
diversity of pollinating weevil by
morphological and molecular analysis to
study the effect of climatic conditions on
pollination efficiency of the weevil, screen
the existing pollinating weevil populations
for evidence of infection by parasitic
nematodes and other biotic factors, develop
high and low temperature tolerant weevil
populations to suit extreme agro climatic
conditions and to screen effective pesticides
for their selectivity against pollinating weevil
and their pollination efficiency.
Management of abiotic stresses: As
“water” would become critical factor for
agricultural prosperity, and” water
availability” situation often varies in different
seasons and years, for perennial crops like
oil palm, adequate stress would be given on
soil moisture deficit management. Evolving
an Integrated Water Management Technology
package for higher water- use-efficiency
would receive priority attention. Similarly,
nutrient deficiency management and role of
low temperature on floral initiation in oil
palm and oil quality would also receive
adequate attention.
Management of adverse effects of
climate change: It is generally accepted that
there is a link between increase in average
temperature and higher concentration of
green house gases, particularly CO2 and
water vapour. The impact of climate change
on oil palm is witnessed in Malaysia,
Indonesia, Colombia and other oil palm
growing nation soft he world. Being grown
as an irrigated crop in India, oil palm is likely
to be more vulnerable due to excessive use
of natural resources particularly water with
poor adaptive mechanisms. Oil palm is
highly sensitive to moisture stress and is
strongly affected by climatic anomalies such
as ElNino in South East Asia. Under such
extreme climatic situations, when FFB yield
level in oil palm decreases, small and
marginal growers would be affected most.
Hence, consequences of climate change on
oil palm could be severe on livelihood
security of poor in the absence of proper
mitigation strategies. Study on climate
resilient oil palm is very much essential for
ensuring livelihood security of oil palm
growers in the context of climate change. The
study involves (a) Screening of oil palm
germplasm for drought, salinity and high
temperature tolerance using physiological
and biochemical markers; (b) Assessing and
quantifying impact of CO2 and temperature
in oil palm (CO2 enrichment studies); (c)
Studying the effect of environmental
variables on seasonal and annual variations
in growth, phenology and yield and (d) 119

Understanding sap flow dynamics and
quantifying CO2 flux, energy budget and
water transfer in oil palm canopies (Eddy
Covariance studies).
Climate resilient technologies would be
evolved especially to manage high
temperature conditions prevailing for 3-4
months in East Coast region, high rainfall
received in short spells causing flood in go
foil palm gardens in several States, low
temperature conditions prevailing for 2-3
months in Eastern and North-Eastern regions,
low rainfall received in specific districts in
certain years causing moisture stress
resulting in poor yield in the subsequent 2-3
years, sudden incidence off rost for ashort
spell in Eastern region. AICRP Centres also
would be involved in this task.
Diversification of cropping systems:
Methods of higher crop intensification with
oil palm as the base crop would beevolved.
Crop live stock integration with reference
toecology, crop and season would also be
attempted.
Integrated soil health management:
New agronomic practices based on precision
farming with new crop geometries, zero till
age and micro irrigation techniques are to
best rengthened. Total Factor Productivity
studies would be intensified to ensure better
Resource Use Efficiency for land, water,
fertilizers, chemicals and micronutrients.
Technologies for optimum use of macro and
micronutrients in combination with organics
and microbes would be evolved.
Converting waste into wealth: Oil palm
generates huge amounts of biomass
equivalent to10.3 tonnes per ha per annum
on dry matter basis, which in turn
provides108 kg N, 10 kg P, 139 kg K, 26 kg
Ca and 17 kg Mg. However, it is difficult to
manage the biomass as it decomposes very
slowly under normal field conditions.
Presently, fronds/leaves in oil palm gardens
are heaped in columnar space and left for
120 natural decomposition which not only takes
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
very long time for decomposition but also
adds back very little quantity of nutrients.
Considering the nutrient potential of oil palm
biomass, shortage of labour and high cost of
fertilizers, there is an immediate need to
standardize in situ composting of oil palm
leaves and male inflorescences in the basin
itself.
Precision farming: Precision farming
identifies the critical factors which limit yield
and determines intrinsic patial variability. In
general, oil palm plantations are managed by
conventional technology where in uniform
application of inputs without considering
patial and temporal variability is practiced,
which results in under/over utilization of
resources. Precision farming offers a
comprehensive approach to enhance the
productivity of oil palm by using the inputs
to full extent as it identifies the site specific
critical factors based on soil, crop, weather
and prior management acrosspace and over
a period of time. Precision farming would
help in developing site specific farming
systems, so that it could help in enhancing
oil palm productivity and improve economic
status of the farmers.
Agriculturally important microbes
and their utilization in oil palm: Studies
on diversity of microbes, their identification,
characterization, conservation and utilization
in oil palm would be initiated. Substrate
dynamics and rhizosphere engineering
studies would be conducted on the use of a
consortium of agriculturally important
micro-organisms viz., nitrogen fixers,
phosphate solubilizers, plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR),
mycorrhizae, organic matter decomposers
and microbial pesticides to enhance Nitrogen
Use Efficiency and Water Use Efficiency.
Farm mechanization: Fabrication of
harvesting device and spraying equipments
would receive priority attention, in view of
severe shortage and high cost of labour
(climbers)for bunch harvest.
Strategeis for Increasing Oil Palm Production
Processing and value addition: Though
research on oil palm processing and value
addition are not included in the mandate of
Directorate of Oil Palm Research, research
on the following lines could be initiated by
appropriate research organizations for the
benefit of oil palm sector in the country. Oil
extraction ratio in India needs to be improved
through the use of optimum mill
management practices. Major emphasis is to
be given for using crude palm oil for the
production of value addition materials that
includes oleo derivatives such as
pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and
cosmetics. In oil palm processing units, now
asteor effluent is to be permitted to go outside
the factory and the entire quantity of by-
products should be used through a number
of value addition enterprises and all the final
wastes including palm oil mill effluents
(POME) from the processing units are to be
utilized to produce methane, which can be
captured and stored to generate electricity,
that could be sold to the national grid. These
additional enterprises would enable us to
considerably reduce the cost of crude palm
oil, concurrently increasing the price of FFB
being offered to the farmers,
Social sciences
Policy studies on technology, investment
and credit, pricing, marketing and trade and
agri-business are some of the areas which
need attention. The Institute could serve as
a hub for generation and analysis of socio-
economic intelligence in oil palm sector and
increasingly involve in Policy Advocacy role.
Intensification of participatory technology
assessment should be promoted through
refinement, dissemination and strengthening
of production capabilities. Documentation of
indigenous technical knowledge, use of
information technology for TOT and impact
analysis on technologies need additional
focus.
Integrated development of oil palm in
north eastern region: Research
programmes are to be strengthened especially
on the combined utilization of soil and water
conservation technologies in oil palm
cultivation for ensuring large-scale
cultivation of oil palm in the region. This
programme would ensure better utilization
of land, labour and water in the region
resulting in better prosperity.
Strengthening of oil palm development
programme
In India, a potential area of 19.32 lakh
ha spread over 18 states is available for oil
palm cultivation. Productivity levels of 5.00
tonnes of oil/ha could be achieved by
progressive farmers who adopted
recommended package of practices. By
developing oil palm plantations in about 2.00
million hectares at the earliest, we would be
able to produce 10.00 million tonnes of
vegetable oil, thus avoiding imports to a
maximum extent. However, area expansion
in the country is progressing at a very slow
pace and average yields achieved are very
low due to various constraints. Hence
concerted efforts are needed to prepare a road
map for faster area expansion and increasing
productivity, which could ultimately help in
achieving self sufficiency in vegetable oil
production in the country.
121
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 122-131, 2015
Palm Production – A Best Option for Livelihood
and Rural Development
P. RETHINAM
Former Executive Director
APCC, & Former Chairman
Coconut Development Board. GOI
Introduction
Palms diversity is the greatest in the
tropics and sub tropics, where palms are of
immense ecological and economic
importance. However, palms are recognized
as increasingly threatened family, with a total
of 222 species identified by Palms Specialist
Group of the Species Survival Commission.
For the entire world, three plant families
stand out in terms of their past and present
utility to humankind: the grass family
(Gramineae), the legume family
(Leguminosae) and the palm family
(Palmae). If the geographic focus. Palms are
monocots, included in the section of
Angiosperms characterized by bearing a
single seed leaf. Scientifically, palms belong
to the family Palmae (the alternative name
is Arecaceae), are perennial and
distinguished by having woody stems. Palms
provide drink, food and shelter, eco friendly
products - bio fuel and bio lubricants, health
products (Pharmaceuticals) nutraceuticals
and cosmoceuticals. The majority of palms
are extracted from wild and exploited at
subsistence levels. Several palms like
Coconut, Arecanut, Oil Palm, Palmyrah
palm, Sago palm, Date palm etc., are widely
used for lively hood security in the rural.
They are also used in the landscaping,
ornamental gardening and as avenue plants.
Palm avenues are the good source of
absorbing CO2 in the atmosphere and hence,
it irus preferred to plant palms in the
industrial areas. Palms are eco friendly,
environmentally sustainable and provide
livelihood security to millions in the rural
as well as in urbanares.
Coconut
Coconut plays a significant role in the
agrarian economy of India. Apart from the
importance of Copra and Coconut Oil which
is widely used in the manufacture of Soaps,
Hair oil, Cosmetics & Other Industrial
Products, the husk is a source of fibre which
supports a sizable Coir Industry. The tender
nut supplies coconut water, a popular thirst
quencher of health and hygienic value.
Coconut is grown in more than 80 countries
of the world. India occupies a predominant
position in respect of production of Coconut
in the world. Coconut area, production and
productivity increased from 1.05 million ha,
60.75 million nuts and 5811 nut/ha in 1970-
71 to 1.90 million ha, with production of
157.5 million nuts and productivity of 10600
nuts/ha as on 2010-11. India ranks first in
the total production of number of coconuts
among coconut growing countries in the
world. As such 45% of the nuts produced
are consumed raw form for edible and
religions purposes 33% for production of
million copra for oil extraction, 10% as
Palm Production – A Best Option for Livelihood and Rural Development
tender coconuts, 8% for the production of
edible copra and the remaining 4% for the
production of various other products.
Traditional areas of Coconut in India are the
states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, West Bengal,
Pondicherry, Maharashtra & Islands of
Lakshadweep and Andaman and Nicobar.
Non-traditional areas are the states of Assam,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar,
Tripura, Manipur & Arunachal Pradesh. Four
southern states viz., Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh contributes
maximum. Coconut is a crop of small and
marginal farmers since 98% of about five
million coconut holdings in the country are
less than two hectares. In the west coast of
India, the palm is an essential component in
the homestead system of farming where it is
grown as rain fed. Coconut is a livelihood
security crop for millions in the world and
in India alone more than 10 million people
are directly or indirectly depend on coconut.
The coconut being a crop popularly known
as Kalpa viriksha, Tree of heaven, Tree of
Life and Natures Super market, every part
of the plant is used to make many economic
products essential for life. Coconut being a
versatile crop, many value added products
can be made out of coconut. The ranges of
products which can be produced from
Inflorescence Sap such as Sugar/Jaggary and
Confectionery Jelly, Coconut Meat such as
Puddings/Ice Cream and Partially De-fated
Coconut Powder, Coconut Milk such as Milk
Powder, Coconut Water such Coconut Water
Concentrate and Carbonated/Non carbonated
Coconut Water, Coconut Oil such as Dietary
Oil and Bio Diesel/Bio Fuel/Bio Lubricants,
Virgin Coconut Oil such as Body Oil / Baby
Oil and Pharmaceutical, Husk such as Coir
Geo textile, husk chips, Coconut Shell such
as Activated Charcoal, Coconut Wood like
Furniture, and Coir Pith such as Organic
Manure and Ornamental Plants Horticulture.
Coconut industry has not able to unleash its
true potential mainly because of its oil driven
market. However, by realizing the imperative
need to become competitive, the industry is
now undergoing modernization, product
diversification and byproduct utilization and
restructuring process. Consumer demands
for varied high value coconut products are
tremendously increasing and hence the
domestic industries have become vibrant.
This in turn would help make the industry
globally competitive.
Oil palm
Oil palm (Eleais guineensi, Jacq.,)
popularly known as African Oil Palm or Red
Oil Palm found originally in the wild form
in the forests of Guinea Coast was used by
the natives all over Africa as vegetable oil.
Palm oil is one of the 17 major oils traded in
the global edible oil and fat market. It is
consumed as food for the past more than
5000 years. Today, it is the largest source of
vegetable oil in the world. Oil Palm with its
two types of oil namely, palm oil (mesocarp
oil) as well as palm kernel oil (seed oil)
which is lauric oil is gaining importance in
the food, functional foods, pharmaceuticals,
cosmoceuticals, as well as bio fuel and bio
lubricants industries. Oil palm is the highest
oil (4 to 6 MT of oil /ha /year) producing
perennial palm tree which starts yielding
from 2 to 3 years up to 25-30 years of
economic bearing. Oil palm is one of the
world’s most efficient bearing crops in terms
of land utilization, efficiency and
productivity. World vegetable oil production
has touched 171.643 million MT during the
oil year 2009-10 itself even though the
Global Industry Analysts (GIA) had
indicated that the market for vegetable oils
is projected to reach 169 million MT by
2015. Substantial increase was observed in
the production of palm oil (45.619 million
MT) and Soya bean oil (40.11 million MT)
during the oil year 2010-11. In case of
coconut, rapeseed and sunflower oil showed
reduced production . Oil palm appears to be
an attractive new income opportunity to
Indonesian farmers, as attested by the 123

widespread uptake by many smallholder
communities. The Indonesian government
has used oil palm as a major vehicle for rural
socio-economic improvement. This has been
done largely through Nucleus Estate and
Smallholder schemes (NES). In these
schemes farmers transfer a proportion of
their land to an oil palm company for
establishment of an estate plantation
(referred to as ‘inti’); the remaining land is
also planted by the company but retained as
individual smallholdings by the farmers
(referred to as ‘plasma’). Typically
households are asked to give up 10 ha of
land to the company, and in compensation
are allocated 2 ha of oil palm plantation.
Once the smallholder receives his plot, he
can either manage it by himself or entrust it
to the company. Where smallholders cannot
allocate a sufficient portion of land they must
repay smallholding establishment costs to
the company. In some cases smallholders sell
their land directly to the company and are
paid compensation for loss of land use
opportunities. One third of the current area
under oil palm in Indonesia is cultivated by
smallholders, approximately 2.4 million ha
(Ministry of Agriculture of Indonesia 2009)
and much of the expected future expansion
will occur as a consequence of smallholder
uptake. Irrigated oil palm in India is by and
large a small holder’ s, crop introduced in
1986. Even though Oil Palm was introduced
as commercial crop in 1960 as rain fed crop
in India it had not made any impact in the
vegetable oil production in the country. Only
when the crop was reintroduced as irrigated
small holders ‘crop during the beginning of
VIII th Five Year Plan it took shape. The
targeted area and production are given in
Tables 1, 2 and 3.
The above table shows that when the
OPDP was started in VIII F.Y.P. initial
progress was slow due to the fact that oil
palm as small holders crop was a new
introduction and farmers were lot of doubts
124 about technologies , yield performance,
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
marketing , price , delayed start of the plan
activities etc. When the area started taking
up the fall in vegetable oil price affected the
price of FFB and in the subsequent plan the
progress was very slow. Again there was a
pick up when the support price was given
and additional increase in subsidy was
given.The real pick up was started in the X
th Plan period It is almost doubled in the XI
th Plan period. Now with this momentum
gained we should proceed fast by
encouraging the farmers with additional
increased subsidies and providing
infrastructure facilities for irrigation and
harvesting.
Now the area is picking up since the price
is good. This crop will be future crop for
meeting not only the vegetable oil deficit but
also biofuel needs in the country.
Arecanut
India is the largest producer and
consumer of areca nut. Major states
cultivating this crop are Karnataka, Kerala,
Assam, Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya and West
Bengal. Areca nut area, production and
productivity have increased from 0.17
million ha, 0.14 million tonsof nutsand 843
kg nuts/ha in 1970-71 to 0.41 million ha with
an annual production of 0.48 million ton and
productivity of 1364 kg/ha as on 2010-11.
India is the largest producer and consumer
of arecanut in the world. The major
producing states of areca nut production are
Kerala, Karnataka, Assam, west Bengal and
Tamil Nadu. The area, production and
productivity are almost static from the five
years. In the past productivity received also
ranges between 1.1 to 1.3 MT/ha. State wise
area, production and productivity. The
percentage change over the years between
1990-95 and 2005-09 in area, production and
productivity are 70.5%, 87.9% and 10.2%,
respectively.
As long as Pan Parag, Pan Masala and
similarproducts are in the market this will
Table 1: Total area targeted and achieved under OPDP (in ha)

S. No. Name of the state VIII Plan IX Plan X plan XI Total

Target Ach Target Ach Target Ach Target Ach Target Ach
1. Andhra Pradesh 47000 18888 48000 10672 22000 32170.86 105000 57833.31 222000 119564.2
2. Karnataka 18000 6431 10198 1116 8900 7138 24100 15991 61198 30676
3. Tamil Nadu 8000 6104 12258 4421 9800 5339.46 18875 8912.22 48933 24776.68
4. Gujarat 3100 300 2550 172 2550 288.58 5000 2254.88 13200 3015.46
5. Orissa 1700 893 3444 591 2300 300 8700 8691 16144 10475
6. Goa 1000 655 800 95 1450 95.77 190 23.29 3440 869.06
7. Tripura 500 85 200 111 1100 64 0 0 1800 260
8. Assam 400 10 650 0 1050 0 0 0 2100 10
9. West Bengal @ 300 0 450 0 0 0 0 0 750 0
10. Kerala 0 0 1000 102 1700 1004.64 1955 529.39 4655 1636.03
Palm Production – A Best Option for Livelihood and Rural Development

11. Maharastra @ 0 0 450 0 0 0 450 200 900 200

12. Andaman & Nicobar 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
13. Mizoram 0 0 0 0 1150 197 13466 11507 14616 11704
Total 80000 33366 80000 17280 52000 46598.31 177736 105942.1 389736 203186.4
*The existing area has not been included.

125
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 2: Plan wise target and achievement

Plan period Target (ha) Achievements (ha)

VIII 80,000 33,366
IX 80,000 17,280
X 52,000 46598
XI 177736 105942
Total 389236 203186

Table 3: Production of FFBs and CPO in India during 1992-93 to 2009-10

Year Production
FFBs’ 000’ t CPO ‘000’t

1992-1993 21.23 -
1993-1994 24.62 1.13
1994-1995 NA 3.00
1995-1996 9.14 5.17
1996-1997 14.23 7.92
1997-1998 47.41 10.06
1998-1999 67.37 10.94
1999-2000 144.43 18.16
2000-2001 142.82 25.29
2001-2002 128.87 22.61
2002-2003 157.74 28.17
2003-2004 168.42 28.82
2004-2005 176.14 30.84
2005-2006 244.69 51.33
2006-2007 258.90 43.96
2007-2008 259.01 45.40
2008-2009 309.99 52.93
2009-2010 396.70 66.49

have a better market. The moment these
products are banned the arecanut farmers
will have great problem for marketing and
getting fair price.
Palmyrah palm
Palmyra Palm Tree is considered as one
of the most valuable and important trees of
India. Palmyra Palm Tree has several
medicinal uses. It is also known for its
religious significance. Palmyra palm tree is
a tall and swaying tree well known as
126 ‘Borasus Flabellifer’. The word ‘Borasus’
was derived from a Greek word and it means
the leathery covering of the fruit and
‘Flabellifer’ means fan-bearer. Palmyra palm
tree belongs to the ‘Palme’ family. This tree
bears a lot of names in various languages in
India. For instance, in Hindi and Bengali,
the tree is called as Tal, Talgachh and
Tarkajhar. It is known as Pannei in Tamil
language. In Telugu, it is called as Lulu or
Tacli and in Malayalam this tree is named
as Karimpana. In English, the tree has some
other names except the Palmyra Palm Tree
and these names are the Fan Palm, Brab Tree,
Palm Production – A Best Option for Livelihood and Rural Development

Table 4: Area and production of arecanut in India

State 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

A P A P A P

Kerala 108.3 110.0 101.7 116.9 97.2 112.1

Karnataka 168.0 224.0 168.0 224.0 184.5 224.0
Goa 1.7 2.6 1.9 2.8 1.9 2.8
Maharashtra 2.2 3.6 2.2 3.6 2.2 3.6
Tamil Nadu 4.9 9.0 5.0 10.4 5.0 10.4
Andhra Pradesh 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.2
Assam 70.3 68.8 70.0 62.7 70.0 62.7
Andaman & Nicobar 4.1 5.7 4.1 6.0 4.1 6.0
West Bengal 9.0 22.0 11.4 21.2 11.4 21.2
Meghalaya 12.1 16.5 12.36 17.1 12.4 17.1
Mizoram 2.0 5.3 6.58 8.21 6.6 8.2
Nagaland 0.2 1.3 0.2 1.3 0.2 1.3
Pondicherry 0.1 0.1 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.1
Tripura 3.4 6.9 3.4 6.9 4.4 8.4
Total 386.6 476.0 387.1 481.3 400.1 478.0

A - Area in ‘000 Ha; P - Production in ‘000 MT

Toddy Palm and Tala Palm. This tree is found
in the drier areas of India, Sri Lanka, and
Burma and also in most of the tropical
countries.In its ideal condition the Palmyra
palm tree can grow up to a height from 12
metres to 18 metres when it becomes
matured. However, in some special
occasions, it can achieve the height of 30
metres and a diameter of 60 metres. The tree
can be very easily recognized amongst a
gathering of trees by its large and fan-shaped
leaves. The stem of the tree is black in colour
and looks like cylinders. It is also ridged by
the semi-circular scars of fallen leaves. In
the young trees, the dry bases of the leaf
stalks remain wavered in a plaited manner
at the top. The old trees to some extent
thicken above the middle and their base is
always puffed-up by a thick network of root
fibres. Further, the huge leaves of the tree
spring in a cluster from the top. They are
usually very hard and bear thick stalks. The
leaves of Palmyra palm tree are palm-shaped
and have the maximum size of 5 metres. The
heaving segments are normally 60 to 80 in
number. They remain linked for a part of
their length. After that they stretch out like
stiff and shining lances, folded up along the
midribs. The male and female flowers are
never contained by one single Palmyra palm
tree and they are held by two different trees.
Both the kinds of flowers stay together in
the side with split wrap. The male flowers
of the tree are relatively smaller than the
female ones. The female flower cover bears
only a few dotted flowers. The flowering in
the tree usually takes place during the months
of March and April and again later in the
year. The flowers of the Palmyra palm tree
are followed by the green circular fruits. The
fruits grow in loose bunches at the base of
the leaves. Each of them contains three nuts
within its fleshy pulp. This tree is considered
amongst the most valuable and significant
of Indian trees. Though India is not the native
of this tree, it is now expansively cultivated
here. As it has the capability of propagating
readily in its suitable regions, it is also found
growing wild.
127

Uses of palmyra palm tree
Palmyra palm tree has numerous uses.
Almost every part of the tree has some kind
of utility. People generally use the hard outer
wood to posts, beams and for domestic
purposes. The vacant stem of the Palmyra
palm tree is considered as best for making
water pipes. The leaves of the tree itself have
a large number of uses. People can make
fans, mats, baskets, buckets, hats, umbrellas
and sandals from them. They can also be
used as a very good thatch. People also enjoy
eating the jelly like pulp of the fruit and the
soft kernels of young fruit very much. The
developed nuts and their enlarged, fleshy
embryos are also cooked and eaten as
vegetables. Moreover, the midribs of the
leaves and the fibres from their stalks has the
ability to be used in making brushes and
people use the net-like material at the base of
the young leaf for making into torches as well.
The chief product of the Palmyra palm
tree is the Toddy. Further, the Palmyra palm
tree has a number of medicinal uses. If the
fresh Toddy is mixed with rice flour and
gently heated until it ferments, it makes a
precious stimulant poultice. The fruit is
popular as aperients and the ash attained after
burning the flowers is used in prescriptions
for biliousness. In the young age, the wood
of the tree is soft and it slowly hardens.
However, the heartwood remains less hard.
The tree has some religious values as well.
They use the leaves and fruits on their
ceremonial occasions by hanging them on
doorways and also they use them on marriage
Shamianas. It can be said that the Palmyra
palm tree also posses inestimable value to
the people of the country. Palmyra Jaggery
(SugaVida™ in the US), is the world’s most
nutritious natural sweetener brought to the
UK for the first time by Conscious Food.
It is the only plant-based, bio- available source
of vitamin B12 in the world, is low GI and
exceptionally rich in B complex, iron,
potassium, magnesium and other essential
128 minerals vital for maintaining good health.
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Just one tablespoon of Palmyra contains
133% of your RDA of Vitamin B12, 222%
of your RDA of Vitamin B6 (known as a
vitality and sex-drive vitamin) and 664% of
Vitamin B1.
“At a dose of 10 grams per day Palmyra
Jaggery (SugaVida™) has shown to have
adaptogenic and anti-ulcer activity due to its
ability to reverse hypothermia in stress
conditions. It has been shown to reduce
cholesterol in blood by 24%-38%”
(Pharmacological Research).
“Palmyra Jaggery (SugaVida™) has
been found to inhibit the increase in serum
glucose levels. It has been shown to reduce
weight and has shown potential for use
as anti-obesity and anti-diabetic food
component” T. K. Lim Edible Medicinal
and Non Medicinal Plants.
“Palmyra Jaggery (SugaVida) is as
effective as riboflavin injections in curing
ariboflavinosis. SugaVida™ is effective
therapeutic agent for anaemia and is
excellent for typhoid patients and for those
with heart and liver diseases” The Wealth
of India.
“There was significant reduction in
Total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, VLDL
cholesterol and improvement in HDL
cholesterol in diabetic rats. These results
indicated that Palmyra Jaggery
(SugaVida™) possesses a hypoglycemic
and antihyperlipidemic effect.”
Pharmanest, (International Journal in
Advances of Pharmaceutical Sciences)
Researchers in its native India are also
finding that it may also help to break down
the opiate-like addiction caused by processed
sugar, thus freeing you from that constant
desire to nibble and helping you to maintain
healthy weight that is essential for leading a
life full of vitality.
Palmyrah crop is not an organised one
and no systematic cultivation is going on.
But rural poor utilise this crop fully.
Palm Production – A Best Option for Livelihood and Rural Development
Palmyrah crop is not an organised one
and no systematic cultivation is going on.But
rural poor utilise this crop fully.
The chief product of the palmyra is the
sweet sap (toddy) obtained by tapping the
tip of the inflorescence, as is done with the
other sugar palms and, to a lesser extent, with
the coconut. The sap flows for 5-6 mo - 200
days in Ceylon - each male spadix producing
4-5 l per day; the female gives 50% more
than the male. The toddy ferments naturally
within a few hours after sunrise and is locally
popular as a beverage; it is distilled to
produce the alcoholic liquor called palm
wine, arrack, or arak. Rubbing the inside of
the toddy-collecting receptacle with lime
paste prevents fermentation, and thereafter
the sap is referred to as sweet toddy, which
yields concentrated or crude sugar (gur in
India; jaggery in Ceylon); molasses, palm
candy, and vinegar.
Palmyra palm jaggery (gur) is much
more nutritious than crude cane sugar,
containing 1.04% protein, 0.19% fat, 76.86%
sucrose, 1.66% glucose, 3.15% total
minerals, 0.861 % calcium, 0.052%
phosphorus; also 11.01 mg iron per 100 g
and 0.767 mg of copper per 100 g. The fresh
sap is reportedly a good source of vitamin B
complex.
The peeled seedlings are eaten fresh or
sun-dried, raw, or cooked in various ways.
They also yield starch, which is locally made
into gruel, with rice, herbs, chili peppers,
fish, or other ingredients added. It has been
proposed for commercial starch production.
Small fruits are pickled in vinegar. In
April and May in India, the shell of the seed
can be punctured with a finger and the
sweetish liquid sucked out for refreshment
like coconut water.
Immature seeds are often sold in the
markets. The kernels of such young seeds
are obtained by roasting the seeds and then
breaking them open. The half-grown, soft-
shelled seeds for the hollow jelly-like kernels
are sliced longitudinally to form attractive
loops, or rings and these, as well as the whole
kernels, are canned in clear, mildly-
sweetened water, and exported. Tender fruits
that fall prematurely are fed to cattle.
The pulp of mature fruits is sucked
directly from the wiry fibers of roasted,
peeled fruits. It is also extracted to prepare a
product called punatoo in Ceylon. It is eaten
alone or with the starch from the palmyra
seedlings). The fresh pulp is reportedly rich
in vitamins A and C.
Proximate analyses of leaves, fruit,
seedlings, immature seed, and “seed” of B.
flabellifer have been assembled from various
sources by Atchley (1984) (see below).
There are innumerable medicinal uses
for all parts of the palmyra palm. Briefly, the
young plant is said to relieve biliousness,
dysentery, and gonorrhea. Young roots are
diuretic and anthelmintic, and a decoction
is given in certain respiratory diseases. The
ash of the spadix is taken to relieve heartburn
and enlarged spleen and liver. The bark
decoction, with salt, is used as a mouth wash,
and charcoal made of the bark serves as a
dentifrice. Sap from the flower stalk is prized
as a tonic, diuretic, stimulant, laxative and
anti phlegmatic and amebicide. Sugar made
from this sap is said to counteract poisoning,
and it is prescribed in liver disorders.
Candied, it is a remedy for coughs and
various pulmonary complaints. Fresh toddy,
heated to promote fermentation, is bandaged
onto all kinds of ulcers. The cabbage, leaf
petioles, and dried male flower spikes all
have diuretic activity. The pulp of the mature
fruit relieves dermatitis.
The Palmyra plant is tall tree and grows
to about 20 meters in height with straight
trunk. It is popularly known as the primary
source of toddy, which is used as a beverage
in tropical Asia.
The following are the medicinal uses: 129

• To restore consciousness.
• To expel worms from the body
• Promotes flow of urine.
• Inflammation of the mucous
membranes of the urethra, and in
respiratory ailments.
• Checks gastric ailments.
• Stops bleeding from external wounds.
• Diabetes, gangrenous and painless
ulcers, boils and other skin problems.
• Antidote for poisoning.
This can be used in the following ways
• The decoction of the root is used to
restore normal physiological activities,
expel worms from the body, promote
flow of urine and check respiratory
ailments.
• The juice extracted from the leaves
relieves gastric ailments.
• The bloom that is produced on the base
of the leaves is used for the clotting of
blood I external wounds.
• The juice from the flowering stalks is
given in case of diabetes.
• Mixed with boiled rice, the juice
mentioned above forms a good base
poultice. After fermentation, it is
placed on gangrenous and painless
ulcers, boils and over other skin.
• The sugar of the palm is used as an
antidote for poisoning. It is also given
in case of chronic inflammation.
The roots, leaves and the flowering stalk
are to be used as medicine as indicated
above.
About 30,000 Scheduled Caste artisans
in Tamil Nadu are engaged in Palm Prod-
ucts Industry such as tapping of Neera,
manufacturing of Palm Jaggery, Palm Fibre
and Date Palm Baskets. There are many
130 welfare schemes.
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
(i) Evergreen revolution: Palm seeds
plantation programme has been
formulated under Waste Land Develop
covered under 15 programme of the
governmental Programme of the
Agriculture Department.
(ii) Food security: Neera and Palm
Jaggery are being consumed as natural
vitamin food. Awareness has been
created among the public about the
nutritious value of these edible palm
products.
(iii) Livelihood security: Further steps
will be taken in the matters of
providing training to artisans and the
technical know-how of the research
made on preservation of Palmyrah
Nungu to palmgur artisans and also in
exporting Palmyrah Nungu, Palm
Fibre and Palm Leaf articles to foreign
countries.
(iv) Ecological security : Palmyrah is
declared as the “State Tree” of Tamil
Nadu. Palmyrah tree prevents soil
erosion and protects natural
wealth. The palm products are free
from pollution environment and eco-
friendly. Hence, programmes have
been formulated with a long term view
to grow and protect Palmyrah trees, to
create awareness among the public, to
develop and fully utilise Palm Products
Industry for the improvement of
standard of living of the rural Palm
Products artisans.
To conclude
Palms are the best sources for livelihood
security. Even without owning the plantation
one can earn a sustainable income to have
decent livelihood security by selling various
palm products like tender coconut water,
copra, coconut oil, virgin coconut oil, raw
kernel, palm sugar, palm neera, palm
Jaggery, palm toddy, oil cakes, palm syru p,
shell based, products, carbon, activated
Palm Production – A Best Option for Livelihood and Rural Development

carbons, husk based products , palm leaf can fetch good money on selling. Utilising
based products, ornaments, carvings, etc. all palm wastes very good organic manure
Areca sheth can be used for making cups, can be prepared. Palms are part of rural life
plates, egg boxes, hats, chapels etc which which can provide everything man needs.

131
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 132-136, 2015

Dr
Dryy Flower for Employment and
Livelihood Option
RITU JAIN AND T. JANAKIRAM
1
Division of Floriculture and Landscaping
Indian Agricultural Research Institute
2
ADG, Hort. Science
ICAR, KAB II, New Delhi

Flowers play a significant role in every pomanders, festive decoration, sweet

occasion of human life and India has a long
tradition of floriculture. The domestic
consumption of flower products has
increased considerably. Similarly the exports
of cut flowers, value added products like dry
flowers, potted plants, etc. have gone up
noticeably. Due to urbanization and change
in lifestyle, the demand for everlasting and
ready to use flowers is increasing
tremendously. Dried flowers are one such
floral crafts which suit the need of the day
best. Dried flowers are used as decorative
item and for fragrance as well. Fresh flowers
though exquisite in their beauty are
expensive, short lived and sensitive to heat
and cold. On the other hand, the dry flowers
that are near naturals, dried and preserved
have an everlasting value that can be
cherished for longer periods. Dehydrated/
dry flowers can add colour and beauty to a
place and do not require frequent
replacement like fresh flowers. In dry
flowers microbial activity comes to a
standstill and can be stored in dry atmosphere
for longer period without losing their
appearance and decorative value in terms of
colour and beauty. Dry flowers are put to
many novel and varied uses. Apart from
bouquets and flower arrangements, their
flexibility enables them to make into long
lasting flower pictures, flower balls, cards,
smelling potpourri etc. Apart from adding
to aesthetics flower drying is a lucrative
income generating hobby for women
entrepreneurs.
Advantages of Dr
Dryy Flowers
• Available year round.
• Cheaper.
• Eco friendly and biodegradable.
• Easy to transport and can survive
heat and cold.
• Much longer shelf life compared to
fresh flowers
• Wide range of value added products
can be made.
Dr
Dryy Flowers - Scope and status
India, with its vast resources, varied
products and experience in the field of dried
flowers and plants enjoy a distinct advantage.
Dried flower products are in very high
demand and gives enriched value to the
flourishing industry. Dried flowers otherwise
called as dehydrated flowers/preserved
flowers/everlasting flowers; having greater
scope as it can be produced easily and last
longer than fresh flowers. Dried flowers are
in much demand in both national and
Dry Flower for Employment and Livelihood Option
international market. Due to urbanization
and awareness, people are more interested
in natural dried flowers, which require lesser
inputs for production and gives everlasting
appearances. Dry flowers may be arranged
in dry vases, they may be arranged in
bouquets or wall displays after fastening
them to decorative bands. Pressed leaves and
flowers may be used in making number of
products like greeting cards, book marks,
wall hangings, paper weights, table mats etc.
Dried flowers should be handled with care
since they are more delicate than fresh
flowers. Dry pods, seeds, nuts dried fruits,
flower skeletons after giving some artistic
touch can be best used for decoration and
various arrangements through value addition
which include; dried flower arrangements,
wreaths and wall swatches, painted gourds,
dried herbs, sachets, soaps made from home-
grown herbs. Value addition help in
providing employment to the people
especially women and also helpful in
generating the resources for self-help groups.
Being of low cost and having high demand,
small scale drying industry can be started at
various parts of the country.
India has a tremendous export potential
and is the fifth largest exporter of dried
flowers. India is one of the major exporters
of dried flowers to the tune of 5% world trade
in dry flowers. This industry shows a growth
rate of 15% annually. Dried flower industry
is one of the emerging segments of
floriculture in India and it contributes 80%
of the total quantity of floriculture products
exported from India. The value of export of
dried flowers during 2012-13 is ` 423 cores.
Though India is largely exporting dried
flower items, there is lot more to explore in
terms of research, technology and market
trend in decoration industry. At present, the
industry is not well organized and depends
largely on the plant material growing wild
in forests and no systematic growing of
specialized flowers exists anywhere in the
country. The demand for dry flowers is
increasing at an impressive rate of 8-10%
and, therefore, this industry can attracts many
entrepreneurs and gives employment to rural
and tribal people. Presently, the dry flower
industry is in private domain and very little
work is being done in public institutes.
Methods of flower drying: Various
methods are used for removing water from
plant parts are air-drying i.e in situ drying,
hanging drying; embedding drying (sand,
borax, silica gel and combination of these
materials), sun drying, oven drying,
microwave oven drying; freeze-drying;
glycerin drying and press drying etc.
a) Air drying: This is the easiest and
cheapest method of drying, the only
disadvantage is that the flowers are not
able to retain their original colour and
their petals also shrink. Air drying is
possible by
i) In situ drying: It refers to
naturally drying of flowers or
plant parts while attached to the
plant: e.g. Cassia, albizzia,
Koelreutaria, Pride of India,
bael, pine, reetha etc.
ii) Vertical/hanging drying:
Vertical drying can be done
either by hanging the flowers
upside down or by placing them
vertically on the racks. After
bringing the flowers to the
laboratory strip off the leaves
from the sides and then tie the
flowers in bunches with rubber
bands. When the flowers are in
bunches, hang the flowers
upside down with the help of
thread over a rope or bamboo
split in a dark warm place to
preserve the color. Leave the
flowers hanging for 3-4 weeks
for complete drying depending
upon the weather conditions.
e.g. paper flower, straw flower,
bougainvillea, statice etc. 133

b) Embedded drying: In this method,
retention of flower colour and shape
is good. After harvesting and preparing
the flowers for drying, flowers are
placed in desiccants like sand, silica
gel, boric acid, borax, sawdust, alum
powder, aluminium sulphate, corn
granules etc. Embedded drying can be
hasten by drying the flowers either in
sun, in solar dryer, hot air oven,
microwave oven etc.
i) Sun drying: In this method
plant material is embedded in
drying medium (sand/silica gel)
in a container and everyday
exposed to the sun to facilitate
rapid dehydration. Flowers like
small zinnias, marigolds,
pansies, and pompon
chrysanthemum can be
embedded in sand in an upside
down fashion and kept in the
sun. The flowers would dry in
3-4 days.
ii) Oven drying: Electrically
operated hot air oven at a
controlled temperature of 40-50
o
C is used for drying flowers in
an embedded condition. For
oven drying time and
temperature has to be
standardized. For instance
flowers like Helipterum,
Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, take
48 hours at 45 oC to completely
dry, whereas French marigold
takes 72 hours and African
marigold takes 96 hours to dry
completely.
iii) Microwave oven drying:
Electronically produced
microwaves liberate moisture
from organic substances by
agitating the water molecule. It
is a fast method and the product
134 quality is better in terms of
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
retention of colour and shape.
The flower has to be embedded
in silica gel medium in a
microwave safe open container
and kept in microwave along
with a small cup of water
nearby. For best results
standing time of 10 minutes to
few hours is needed after
drying.
c) Press drying: This method is used for
flowers where retention of shape is not
required. The press dried flowers are
used to prepared dry flower products
like greeting cards, wall hangings,
book marks, paper bags, etc. For press
drying keep the flowers or leaves or
floral parts in two folds of absorbent
paper like blotting paper or newspaper
and place the same inside the
herbarium press and put a layer of
corrugated paper over the paper and
make 3-4 layers in same fashion and
fasten the bolts of herbarium press. On
alternate days turn the side of flower
as well as blotting paper according to
the requirement, so that flowers are not
attacked by fungi. The drying process
can be hastened by placing the
herbarium press in the hot air oven at
45-50 oC temperature or by using
microwave oven.
d) Water drying: Water drying is the
most suitable method for the flowers
where shattering of petals occurs after
drying. In this method the stems of the
flowers are initially placed in water at
few inches depth where water is taken
up by the cut flowers to keep the petals
intact. The container and flowers
should be kept in a dry, warm and dark
location for 7-10 days to dry naturally.
e.g. Hydrangeas, yarrow, Bells-of-
Ireland and celosia.
e) Glycerin drying (Glycerining):
Glycerin preserves foliage by replacing
Dry Flower for Employment and Livelihood Option
the natural moisture present in the leaf
with a substance that maintains the leaf
form, texture and sometimes the
colour. Glycerin drying is used for
those foliage species which loose
moisture and luster very rapidly. Fresh
and fairly matured foliage is ideal for
glycerin drying. In case where water
content falls below 10 per cent in the
flowers and foliages tend to become
brittle. At high humidity, all
humectants absorb high level of water
from the atmosphere, and so
proportionally less humectants is
required to keep foliage flexible.
Humectants can be absorbed into plant
tissue either by transpiration stream
uptake or by immersing the cut foliage
in a humectants solution. Glycols are
modified alcohols containing two or
more hydroxyl (-OH) groups. Due to
presence of hydroxyl groups, glycols
are hydrophilic and have strong affinity
for water. This enables many glycols
to be used as a humectants or softening
agent. Glycols have high boiling point
with low viscosity and consequently
evaporates at a much slower rate than
water at a given temperature. Glycols
also have high viscosity and hence
appear thick and syrupy. Glycols can
be applied to plants either systemically
or by immersion. In the systemic
method, the glycol is absorbed by the
plant through the transpiration stream
while in the immersion method the
glycol enters the plant via diffusion
through the surface. e.g. eucalyptus,
magnolia and maple leaves,
Hydrangea, gypsophilla, corn flowers
etc.
f) Freeze drying: Freeze drying is based
upon the principle of sublimation.
High vacuum and low temperature is
essential for freeze drying. For freeze
drying lyophilizer is used. Freeze dried
flowers appears similar to the natural
fresh flower. In this method excellent
quality material is produced. The
flowers are arranged in lyophilizer and
temperature is maintained up to -7 oC
so that all the moisture is converted to
ice. Frozen ice crystals are then
sublimed with the application of heat.
A vacuum pump slowly pulls out the
water as vapour.
Dry flower industry gives opportunity for
entrepreneurship development in the country
due to lesser inputs required for production
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New
Delhi started working on dry flower making
and value addition. A fully dedicated
laboratory was established in the Division
of Floriculture and Landscaping. This also
helps the rural and tribal India to improve
their livelihood by income generation.
Success Stories
Success stor
storyy 1 - W omen empower
Women ment
empowerment
through dr
dryy flower entrepreneurship
Under the ICAR-NAIP Project “Value
chain on flowers for domestic and export
markets”, TNAU worked on a ‘Consortia
approach’ towards strengthening the value
chain on dry flowers. The University with
financial support from the ICAR-NAIP,
worked in collaboration with the Consortium
Partner M/s. Salem Spices Pvt. Ltd., located
at Salem by addressing the missing links in
the various levels of the supply chain on dry
flowers.
Dry flower industry being a field
demanding creativity and artistic skills, is
highly women-friendly and hence offers
immense potential for women empowerment
through employment generation for
womenfolk. With this view, the training
programmes on dry flower technology
conducted under the project intended to
benefit as many women beneficiaries as
possible.
During the project period, 703 135

unemployed youth, women and
entrepreneurs were trained on dry flower
technology through 16 training programmes
which were organized at Salem and Trichy.
Nearly 90% of the beneficiaries of the
training programmes were women belonging
to Self Hel Groups from different parts of
Salem and Trichy districts of Tamil Nadu.
The trainings included hands-on-experience,
demonstrations and entrepreneurial skill
development exercises. Besides the above
training programmes, dry flower
technologies were also disseminated to
womenfolk of Coimbatore district through
a Tamil Nadu Government sponsored
training programme exclusively targeting
women. Consequent to the training
programmes conducted at Salem and Trichy
districts, M/s. Salem spices Pvt. Ltd.,
engaged the trained beneficiaries in
production of various dry flower products
such as potpourris, table decors, etc., meant
for the domestic and export markets. SHG
women beneficiaries of Mosakudi, a village
in Trichy district were employed by M/s.
Salem Spices Pvt. Ltd., for filling potpourri
bags. Nearly 60-70 beneficiaries from the
village were involved in the venture of
making home fragrance dry flower products.
On an average, each beneficiary filled 150
bags per day for which she was paid ` 0.80/
bag, fetching each of the beneficiaries a
monthly income of ` 3600/-.(Sourec:Value
136
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Chain on Flowers, Jawaharlal 2014).
Success stor
storyy 2
At Indian Agricultural Research,
Institute, New Delhi, a fully dedicated
laboratory was established in the Division
of Floriculture and Landscaping and
moreover, dry flower technology was
commercialized with M/s Poonam Qamra,
MD Floral Images. This company named
Floral Images was linked to the farm women
of Rajpur and Badarpur village of NCR
region.
Success stor
storyy 3
Indian Agricultural Research Institute,
New Delhi started working on dry flower
making and preparation of value added
products. In value addition laboratory a large
number of training programmes were
conducted for both rural and urban women.
In this series, training was imparted to
women of Ghazipur slums who were
involved in the rag picking activity for their
livelihood. This training was imparted in
May 2013 in collaboration with IL&FS
company, which later on form a small NGO
named Gul Mehar. The members of this
NGO are making a large number of dried
flower value added product and earning their
livelihood.
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 137-144, 2015
Commercial Floriculture — An Option for
Livelihood and Rural Development
SUMANGALA H.P.
Scientist, Division of Ornamental Crops
IIHR, Banglore
Flowers are inseparable from the social
fabric of human life. Flowers being adorable
creation of God, befits all occasions, be it at
birth, marriage or death. In the past, flowers
were not of much economic importance. One
would grow flowers to fulfill his or her
aesthetic desire. At times, flowers were
offered for sale to meet the special
requirements of people. With the passage of
time drastic changes have come about in the
life style of people leading to
commercialized cultivation of flowers.
Today, flower plants are no longer meant for
only window garden but play an important
role in the decoration of the living houses
and office establishments and also to address
the environmental challenges faced by the
Urban population.
The science and art of commercial
floriculture has been recognized as an
economic activity with the potential for
generating employment and earning valuable
foreign exchange. In several countries of the
world, floricultural products are amongst the
main export items of agricultural origin. For
any country to diversify its agricultural base
geared towards export, the ornamental crop
industry presents one of the most interesting
and viable options. The aesthetic value of
flowers and ornamental plants, their use in
social events, overall satisfaction in working
with them and high income generating power
are attracting modern entrepreneurs to invest
money in the floriculture industry. The
demand for flowers and ornamental plants
for different needs like religious, official
ceremonies, parties, house decoration,
weddings, funerals, etc, is on the rise. This
demand for fresh flowers and plants is
increasing world-wide over the coming
years.
India has an ancient heritage when it
comes to floriculture. Floriculture has
emerged as an economically viable
diversification option in the Indian
agribusiness and has captured the interests
of many new entrepreneurs into agricultural
sector in recent times. Flower cultivation has
been practiced in India since times
immemorial but it is only in the recent years
that floriculture has blossomed into a viable
business sector. A growing market as a result
of improvement in the general level of well
being in the country and increased affluence,
particularly among the middle class, has led
to transformation of the activity of flower
growing into a burgeoning industry.
Availability of diverse agro-climatic conditions
facilitates the production of all major flowers
throughout the year in some or the other part
of the country.
India has a long tradition of floriculture.
The social and economic aspects of flower
growing were, however, recognized much
later. The offering and exchange of flowers

on all social occasions, in places of worship
and their use for adornment of hair by
women and for home decoration have
become an integral part of human living.
With changing life styles and increased urban
affluence, floriculture has assumed a definite
commercial status in recent times and during
the past 2-3 decades particularly.
Appreciation of the potential of commercial
floriculture has resulted in the blossoming
of this field into a viable agri-business
option. Availability of natural resources like
diverse agro-climatic conditions permit
production of a wide range of temperate and
tropical flowers, almost all through the year
in some part of the country or other.
Improved communication facilities have
increased their availability in every part of
the country. The commercial activity of
production and marketing of floriculture
products is also a source of gainful and
quality employment to scores of people.
Floriculture Status in India
India is one of the leading countries in
floriculture with an area of 2.33 lakh ha
producing 7673 million cut flowers and
17.29 lakh MTs of loose flowers during
2012-13 (Table 1). The floriculture industry
in India is characterized by growing
traditional flowers (loose flowers) and cut
flowers under open field and protected
environment conditions, respectively. The
major loose flower growing states are Tamil
Year Area (in Lakh ha)
Loose (in Lakh MT)
2006-07 1.44
2007-08 1.66
2008-09 1.67
2009-10 1.83
2010-11 1.91
2011-12 2.54
2012-13 2.33
138
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Gujarat,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Uttar Pradesh
(Fig. 1).
The states of West Bengal, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka, Gujarat
and Uttar Pradesh are major cut flower
growing states (Fig. 2). North Eastern and
other Himalayan states have become major
hubs for growing quality flowers in the
recent times. India also has a strong dry
flower industry, which contributes a major
share to the overall trade. Other segments
like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting
material, turf grass industry and value added
products also contribute a share in the overall
growth of the floriculture sector.
Floriculture sector is generating higher
income, profit and employment
opportunities to the India’s youth, promoting
greater involvement of women and
enhancement of exports. India has now
emerged as the second largest grower of
flowers in the world. The country has
exported 22,485.21 MT of floriculture
products to the world in 2013-14. India’s
total export of floriculture in 2013-14 was `
455.90 crores. The major importing
countries were United States, Netherlands,
Germany, United Kingdom, United Arab
Emirates, Japan and Canada.
Floriculture sector is generating higher
income, profit and employment
Production
Cut (Million Nos.)
8.80 3717
8.68 4365
9.87 4794
10.21 6667
10.31 6903
16.52 7506
17.29 7673
Commercial Floriculture — An Option for Livelihood and Rural Development

Fig. 1: Major loose flower producing states

Fig. 2: Major cut flower producing states

opportunities to the India’s youth, promoting
greater involvement of women and
enhancement of exports. India has now
emerged as the second largest grower of
flowers in the world. The country has exported
22,485.21 MT of floriculture products to the
world in 2013-14. India’s total export of
floriculture in 2013-14 was ` 455.90 crores.
The major importing countries were United
States, Netherlands, Germany, United
Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Japan and
Canada.
There are more than 300 export-oriented
units in India and more than 50% of these
are in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu. With the technical collaborations from
foreign companies, the Indian floriculture
industry is poised to increase its share in
world trade. India is exporting flowers and
flower products to different countries viz.,
United States, Germany, Netherland, United
Kingdom, Japan, United Arab Emirates,
Italy, Canada, Belgium, Australia, etc. (Fig.
139
3).

Fig. 3: Commodity wise share of exports of flowers from India 2012-13
In India, floriculture is emerging as an
important commercial crop. A lot of
importance has been given to this sector due
to its multiple uses, satisfying the aesthetic
needs of the people, creating more
employment, ensuring higher rate of returns
to rural people and facilitating earning more
foreign exchange. More specifically, they are
being used as raw materials in the
manufacture of essence, perfumes,
medicines and confectioneries for direct
consumption by the society.
Potential of Floriculture
India is one of the emerging urban
economies in the world. Because of high
economic growth and low urban base, our
cities are growing at a faster rate. At present,
India has second largest urban system in the
world with 310 million people and 5,161
cities and towns. The share of urban
population is expected to reach 40% by 2021,
and urban areas could contribute around 65%
of GDP. Clearly, the availability and quality
of basic infrastructure is key to sustaining
such growth. Given current trends in
population growth and migration, India’s
urban population is estimated to reach 575
million by 2030. Currently, flower trade has
attracted the largest demand from an
140 estimated 300 million middle-class flower-
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
loving people with consumption in the cities
and major towns at 40 per cent per annum.
Festivals, weddings, large scale political
functions and other special occasions are
driving demand for cut flowers as they are
mostly used for decorative purposes, as gifts/
bouquets for formal events.Flower retail
shops have mushroomed all over the place
from major metros to market shops and
flower boutiques. Further the supermarket/
hypermarket retail chains have fueled the
growth in the consumption.
Floriculture and Economic A venues
Avenues
Floriculture is the sunshine industry of
India as it offers excellent self employment
and good remuneration for the small and
marginal farmers. The world annual growth
rate for this industry is 8% to 10% p.a. there
are more than 140 countries who are active
floriculture production on large scale, The
world floriculture trade is characterized by
a high degree of concentration by product
and sources. Developed countries in Europe,
America, and Asia account for more than
90% of demand. International trade in
floriculture, to a large extent is organized.
Though the annual domestic demand for
the flowers is growing at a rate of over 25%
and international demand at around ` 90,000
crore India’s share in international market
Commercial Floriculture — An Option for Livelihood and Rural Development
of flowers is negligible. India has a blooming
future as far as floriculture is concerned.
Enormous genetic diversity, varied agro
climatic conditions, versatile human
resources etc offer India a unique scope for
judicious employment of existing resources
and exploration of avenues yet untouched.
India with a population of over a billion is a
big market. Domestic industry is growing at
an annual growth rate of 15-20% per annum.
Flower consumption in the cities and major
town is reportedly growing at 40% per
annum.
Floriculture products mainly consist of
cut flowers, pot plants, cut foliage, seeds
bulbs, tubers, rooted cuttings and dried
flower industry, Landscape gardening, Turf
industry, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical
compounds, essential oils, Pigments natural
colorants, plug plant production, protected
cultivation, seed production, tissue culture,
nursery, and allied industries like potting
media suppliers, pot suppliers, fertilizer and
bio pesticides industry, irrigation
equipments, gardening equipment industry
related to floriculture.
Dr
Dryy flower industr
industryy
Most promising area in floriculture is the
dry flower industry. Dried flower products
are in very high demand and add an enriched
value to the flourishing industry. Various
types of dry flower products are handmade
paper, lampshades, wall quilt, decorations,
books, candle holders, etc. The flower
arrangements using dried samples of cone,
foliage, flowers like rose buds, lilies and
other such plant material enhances the beauty
of dry flowers, adding more export value to
this industry. Indian floricultural exports
amount to over 120 million at present. The
dry flower industry exports 500 varieties of
flowers to 20 countries and are highly in
demand in USA and UK markets. The pot-
pourri variety of dried flowers is a purely
export oriented and has specialized
processing units. 70% of the Indian industry
is contributed by dried flowers.
Fresh flower industr
industryy
Traditional flowers: Traditional flowers
comprise of cultivation of loose flowers like
rose, jasmine, Crossandra chrysanthemum,
China aster, marigold, tuberose, gomphrena,
Nerium etc. under open field conditions.
There is huge demand for loose flowers as
they are used for different religious
ceremonies and for garland making. And
largely they are used for floral decorations
in different functions especially in south
India. The floral garlands are being exported
to different parts of the world.
Cut flowers: Cut flowers such as rose,
carnation, chrysanthemum, gerbera, orchids,
anthurium, lilium, alstroemeria, tulips, etc
in greenhouses. Gladiolus and tuberose are
grown under open conditions. The
production of cut flowers increased over the
years to 76732 lakh cut flowers during 2012-
13 from 37175 lakh cut flowers during 2006-
07. Among the cutflowers grown rose
occupies the top position .About 40 crore
cut roses are grown across India every year
and Karnataka al one accounts for about 75
per cent followed by Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir,
Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh,
(ASSOCHAM).
Filler flowers: Flowers like rock daisy,
gypsophylla, asters, button types of
chrysanthemums, golden rods are grown
under open conditions for floral
arrangements. The small land holdings can
make profit by growing filler flowers under
suitable agro climatic conditions.
Floral decoration
The demand for floral decorations is
increasing rapidly due to lavish arrangements
during social, political, entertainment and
sports events. This sector though unorganize-
doffersquite significant volume of business. 141

Foliage plants and nurser
nurseryy industr
industryy
Potted plants: In densely populated
citied more efforts are being put to bring
nature to man, the urban population is more
inclined to purchase and grow plants in their
houses, which has opened the avenue for the
large scale production of potted plants and
their marketing. It has also opened up a
newer avenue of plant rentals for interior
decoration in corporate houses. A huge
numbers of potted plants are available in
market.
Plant tissue culture: In India there are
approximately 90 tissue culture units
producing mostly foliage and flowering
potted plantswith the installed production
capacity of about 100 million plants annually
but only fifty percent of it is being utilized.
Hybrid Seed Production
Commercial cultivation of flowering
annuals for producing the open pollinated /
F1 hybridseed is fast expanding across the
country due to promising economic returns.
Seed production of marigold, verbena,
caladium, pansy, viola, stock, etc. holds
promise for peri urban locations of North
India for export to USA, Europe, Australia,
Japan, etc.
Essential oils: The flower crops
important for essential oil extraction include
rose, jasmine, tuberose, vanilla, narcissus
and marigold. And the global demand for the
essential oils progresses at a rate of 7-9%
per annum and offers unique scope for large
scale cultivation of essential oil producing
crops and their processing using both
conventional and ultra modern vacuum
distillation/solvent extraction/ liquid CO2
methods. The essential oils are widely used
in perfumery.
Aromatherapy: Since the beginning of
civilization, humankind has been aware of
the effects of scent on the body, mind, and
emotions. Flowers were used for their
142
essential oils provide us with a variety of
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
therapeutic benefits. Geranium, Jasmine,
rose are some of the most commonly used
essential oils from flowers, their uses, and
their healing properties. The scent of
essential oils is conveyed by the olfactory
nerve to areas of the brain that can influence
emotions and hormonal response. When
used in a bath or massage, the oils are
absorbed through the skin and carried by
body fluids to the main body systems; such
as the nervous and muscular systems for a
healing effect. Pure essential oils are blended
for harmonious, combined effect and
fragrance. Skillful blending balances the
therapeutic effect and aromatic quality of
individual essential oils.
Pharmaceutical and nutraceutical
compounds: Some of the flower crops are
rich sources of pharmaceutical compounds
like Catharanthin, Vincristine (from
Catharanthusroseus) used for cancer
treatment. Similarly, Vitamin C is isolated
from rose fruits (hips) and is marketed as
rose hip vitamin C. Nutraceutical is a blend
of two words “nutrition” and
“pharmaceutical” Thusprovidesbothhealth
and medical benefits. Flowers are rich source
of natural pigments that include
anthocyanins, carotenoids and
betalainswhich are potential nutraceutical
compounds. Product like rose tea prepared
from of rose petals and rose hips contains
vitamins and compounds that may help in
reducing stomach problems, such as bladder
infections and diarrhea. Rose petals contain
an astringent, tannin, and can also be used
to control bleeding. Besides rose, marigold
and calendula flowers are rich source of
lutein which prevents blindness. Carotenoid
pigments are used for intensification of
yellow colour of egg yolks and broiler flesh.
The pigments are also used in the food
industry as natural colour. A number of
flowers are rich in anthocyanins, flavonoids,
carotenoids and xanthophyll pigments that
are used in food, beverage and confectionery
industries and act as anti-oxidants.
Commercial Floriculture — An Option for Livelihood and Rural Development
Life style hor ticulture and economic
avenues
In every part of the world the harvest of
horticulture is on display in the home gardens
of those who understand and value the
beautifying aspects of growing things. Even
the rooftops in some cities have sprouted the
greenness of gardens.
The beautification of parks and streets,
the green foliage on freeways and the
ornamental plants are the essence of urban
landscape. This huge diversity is collectively
the mosaic of the world of horticulture.
Lifestyle horticulture, sometimes called
environmental, amenity or urban
horticulture, largely involves public and
commercial entities involved in the
production, management and servicing of
urban green spaces for environmental, social,
economic and health benefits.
The lifestyle horticulture sector includes
products, commodities and services that
range from ornamentals. Parks and open
spaces, the pot plants in your buildings and
the turfed lawns of suburbia may look purely
decorative but in reality they are lifestyle
horticultural economic powerhouses and
critical components of productive work
environments and healthy communities..The
demand for turf grass is increasing day by
day as new specialized parks, golf courses
and stadiums for sports events are emerging
in different locations of the country. The
corporate houses are evincing their
commitment to mitigate the pollution by
resorting to landscape the corporate premises
and their factories. The beneficiaries
including millions of homeowners, athletic
field managers, lawn care operators, golf
course superintendents, architects,
developers and owners, landscape designers
and contractors, seed and sod producers,
parks and grounds superintendents, roadside
and vegetation managers and cemetery
managers. Using a benchmark study as the
start point, and adjusting the relative
economic value of other regions of the world,
a 2008 study estimated that the economic
impact of amenity/lifestyle horticulture was
close to US$290 billion. The study used
reference points such as the value of a
property beside or close to a park, versus a
property that had no connection to a park or
reserve.
Gover nment initiatives
Government
Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation under the Ministry of
Agriculture is the nodal organisation
responsible for development of the
floriculture sector. It is responsible for
formulation and implementation of national
policies and programmes aimed at achieving
rapid agricultural growth through optimum
utilization of land, water, soil and plant
resources of the country. The Horticulture
Division in the Department of Agriculture
and Co-operation is vested with the
responsibility of overseeing the overall
accelerated development of the sector. It has
been set up with a mandate to implement
the programmes for improving the
production, productivity and utilization of
horticultural crops, support and formulate
policies aimed for accelerated growth of
horticulture, facilitate the availability of
disease free planting material and seeds of
horticultural crops, provide the leadership
and co-ordinate activities for the promotion
of horticulture, etc.
Several schemes have been initiated by
the Government for promotion and
development of the floriculture sector.
Integrated Development of Commercial
Floriculture is one such scheme
implemented with the objectives of improve
production and productivity of traditional as
well as cut flowers through availability of
quality planting material and transfer
technology, improve human resource
capabilities for growing flowers
scientifically, promote production of off
season and quality flowers through protected 143
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

cultivation as well as improve on farm post
harvest handling of flowers. State
Governments have set up separate
departments for promotion and development
of the sector in their respective States.
Pattern of assistance: Specific attention
for development of traditional flowers.
Strengthening of Model Floriculture Centres
for additional facilities and extension of
MFC in other potential States. Improvement
in productivity and production through
higher use of inputs and area expansion.
Assistance for off-season production of
flowers. Emphasis on on-farm post-harvest
management of flowers. Encouragement for
greenhouse cultivation of flowers. Farmer
participatory demonstration of cultivator
technology. Dissemination of Information
through training and media support.
Conclusion
Till a few years back floriculture
remained a part of agriculture activity of the
growers who sold their produce for early and
continuous flow of cash. However, presently
with collaborative effort of the Government,
scientists and entrepreneurs, technological
development and dissemination and proper
exploitation of the countries varied agro
climatic situation, floriculture has
transformed into a high value commercial
enterprise. The floral industry has an
immense potential for employment
generation and earning a foreign exchange.
The present day floral industry is a dynamic,
fast growing industry, which has achieved
significant growth rate during the past few
decades and has extended worldwide with
the major paradigm shift of production
centers from developed to developing
nations. India is also paving its way to
emerge as an important production base for
floriculture products. Floriculture being an
important agribusiness sector contributes
widely through opportunities in terms of
employment, income generation earning
foreign exchange and empowerment, thus
raising the socio – economic status in both
rural and urban areas.

144
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 145-149, 2015

Post Har vest Management of Hor

Harvest ticultural Crops
Horticultural
for Sustainable Livelihood & Rural Development
C. K. NARAYANA
Division of Postharvest Technology
ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research
Hessarghatta Lake (P.O.), Bangalore-560 089
E-mail: cknarayana@iihr.ernet.in

Though there is a constant decrease in
share of agriculture in national GDP (13.7%
during 2012-13), mainly due to the
substantial increase in contribution of service
sector (from 41.65% to 62.82%), the
contribution of horticulture sector to national
Agricultural GDP is has been substantially
high at about 30%. The green revolution
ushered India from a country of hungry
people to that of excess producers in the
world. This transformation was possible due
to hard efforts of scientists / technologists,
dedicated farmers and committed
governments. While the green revolution
ensured enough food to three times the
population during the last four decades, the
rainbow revolution started during the 8th plan
enabled the country to ensure nutritional
security. The year 2013-14 was a landmark
in history of horticultural production in the
country as it recorded a new height
surpassing the food grain production.
During the last two and half decades the
area under fruit, vegetables, plantation crops
and spices increased by 2.43, 1.64, 1.58 and
1.53 folds respectively. The average
productivity of fruits increased from 9.93
tonnes/ha to 11.64 tonnes/ha; vegetables
from 10.46 to 17.62 tonnes/ha; plantation
crops from 3.26 to 4.66 tonnes/ha and spices
from 0.95 to 1.87 tonnes/ha. The estimated
production of fruits during the year 2013-14
is pegged at 84.41 million tonnes, vegetables
170.25 million tonnes, plantation crops
17.46 million tonnes and spices 5.834
million tonnes. India occupies first position
in production of several fruit and vegetable
crops in the world and overall is placed at
second position after China. The fruits and
vegetables also constitute 91% of the total
horticultural production in the country. This
monumental achievement is becoming self
defeating, due to colossal postharvest losses,
which remains a matter of concern both for
the planners and the farmers. The postharvest
losses in horticultural commodities is
reportedly estimated to be between 5.8 to
18% with an estimated economic loss to the
tune of ` 14,466 crores or US $ 2333 million
(based on 2009 price index).
While the share of farmer in the
consumers’ rupee is dwindling making the
farming profession a sceptical option in the
eyes of the younger generation, high returns
on investment in horticulture is attracting
corporate to farming. The technological and
infrastructural gap from farm to market and
then to plate, is an area being eyed as
lucrative by foreign investors and domestic
corporations.
Though postharvest losses are inevitable
(as all foods are perishables) it can be

reduced with suitable technological
interventions at appropriate stages in pre-
harvest and postharvest phases. The Global
Food Loss and Food Waste Report published
by FAO in 2011 stated that about one-third
of the edible parts of food produced for
human consumption, gets lost or wasted
globally, which is about 1.3 billion tonnes
per year. In more developed and high-income
countries the food is wasted or discarded
after processing even if it is still suitable for
human consumption (due to expiry of best
before date). In low-income countries,
though the food is wasted throughout the
food supply chain (FSC), it is more at early
and middle stages of the supply chain and
very less food is wasted at the consumer or
household level. As per the report the losses
in fruits and vegetables in North America
and Oceania is less than 100 million tonnes,
while in Europe it is about 200 million
tonnes. In South and Southeast Asia it is
more than 300 million tonnes and in
industrialized Asia it is more than 600
million tonnes annually.
The report further states that these losses
in developing and under-developed world
are mainly due to lack of infrastructure at
production centres for scientific handling,
packaging, storage and processing of the
horticultural commodities. The very same
situation also makes Indian farmers
vulnerable to market risks, as he/she has to
sell the harvested produce without expecting
a decent return on the investment or often
making a loss. Among the horticultural
commodities fruits and vegetables are highly
perishable due to its high moisture content.
On one hand millions of tonnes of food
grains are lost due to lack of storage facility
in the country, while on the other improper
pre- and postharvest management practices
are leading to phenomenal loss of fruits and
vegetables. After success of green revolution
in India, though the country never faced a
critical food shortage, malnutrition has been
146 taking the toll by inflating the governments’
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
expenditure to keep the people of the country
healthy and productive. The Global Nutrition
Policy Review by WHO in 2013 revealed
that more than one-third child deaths are
attributed to under-nutrition. The rate of
calorie and protein malnutrition is alarming
besides deficiencies of important minerals
like iron and calcium. At the same time, the
rate of overweight and obesity are also rising.
Several epidemiological reports have
emphatically pointed out the fact that many
of the non-communicable diseases like
hypertension, hyperlipidemia, coronary heart
diseases, diabetes, cancers, etc., are on rise
due to changes in lifestyle and food habits.
Nutritional research across the globe has
proved that these diseases could be
prevented and to some extent corrected
through consumption of more fruits and
vegetables.
Though there has been several folds
increase in production of fruits and
vegetables, due to huge postharvest losses
and high demand world over, the prices are
still high making it inaccessible to common
man. A comprehensive view of definition of
food and nutritional security attract our
attention to address the issues related with
production of safe and quality food
(including fruits and vegetables), its
availability, access and affordability. To a
great extent the capability of Indian farmers
to produce safe and quality fruits and
vegetables in enough quantity has been
demonstrated by a constant improvement in
production and productivity of several crops.
The long and fragmented supply chain has
been identified as the culprit responsible for
the drainage of the efforts of farmers and
governments. A systematic and sustainable
model of integrated pre- and postharvest
management not only would plug the leakage
and increase the availability of fruits and
vegetables, but also improve accessibility and
affordability through economic
empowerment achievable by employment
generation and livelihood options.
Post Harvest Management of Horticultural Crops for Sustainable Livelihood & Rural Development
The main aim of the postharvest
management is to maintain the quality and
safety, minimize losses of horticultural crops
and their products between production and
consumption. The strategies to reduce
postharvest losses include use of elite
genotypes that have longer shelf life,
integrated pre-harvest crop management
practices that give better keeping quality and
safe produce. These results are possible with
interdisciplinary and collaborative efforts of
production specialists, food scientists and
engineers, market economists and extension
scientists. One of the major achievements
in the whole postharvest research was the
understanding of role played by ethylene in
postharvest life of perishable horticultural
produce, followed by identification of pre-
and postharvest factors responsible for
physiological disorders, biological causes of
deterioration of harvested produce and
understanding of storage behaviour of each
commodity.
Posthar vest Losses
ostharvest
The postharvest losses occur from the
time of harvest till they reach the consumer.
These include losses caused by mechanical
injuries, biological factors like diseases and
pests, environmental factors such as
temperature, relative humidity and gas
composition inside the storage rooms.
Improper harvesting and handling practices,
inappropriate packing and transport methods
can all lead to post harvest losses defeating
the purpose of improved production
practices. Post harvest losses could be
quantitative or qualitative or both.
Quantitative loss occurs due to reduction in
weight as a result of moisture loss and loss
of dry matter by respiration. Qualitative loss
is deterioration of freshness leading to loss
of consumer appeal and loss in nutritional
components like vitamins, minerals, and
other phytochemicals.
Pre-and PPosthar
osthar vest FFactors
ostharvest actors
Several pre-harvest factors like genetic/
varietal differences, physiological stress,
mechanical injury, abiotic stress like
temperature, humidity, water and nutrition;
biotic stress like invasion by pathogens and
insects are also responsible for postharvest
losses. The postharvest causes for losses
include improper harvesting, unscientific
handling and transportation, lack of cold
storage/ cold chain facilities, spoilages and
lack of processing facilities.
The technological advancements in
postharvest management has started making
in-roads in India as is evident from a slow
but definite improvement in quality,
presentation, distribution and marketing
systems. However, long strides need to be
taken and large areas have to be covered
before being contented. Some of the crucial
operations / phases where a lot more
practices need to be done based on scientific
principles and which could reduce the losses
and retain the quality of fruits and vegetables
are highlighted below.
Har vesting and Handling
Harvesting
Harvest maturity determines the storage
life of horticultural produce and its quality
in terms of sugar/ acid blend and aroma. A
good eating quality in non-climacteric fruits
like citrus and grapes and other crops like
apple can only be achieved when fruit are
harvested after well developed (mature) and
ripe, whereas maximum storability is only
possible when the fruit are harvested at a less
mature stage. Though the precise sequential
transitions phases from one stage to the next
are difficult to define, there are general
descriptions for the different stages like
immature (unripe), mature, ripe and overripe
in terms of sensory properties or eating
quality. Thus the harvest must take place
during the optimal maturity stage of the fruit
- considering the intended use such as direct
marketing or long term storage. 147

Though emphasis began to be given on
care during harvesting in several
commodities by well informed farmers, it
needs to become a common practice.
Experimental results and farmers’
experience have shown that improved
harvesting methods like use of secateurs,
clippers, fruit pickers, harvesters, etc., has
reduced the harvest losses in several
commodities like apple, mango, citrus,
sapota and grapes. Collection bins like
crates, baskets, and bags reduce the damage
to fruits and vegetables by 3-5% in general
and even upto 10% in crop like tomato, okra
and cauliflower. Improvement in conditions
of rural roads made accessibility of transport
vehicle into the orchards easy making
delivery of inputs and movement of produce
less cumbersome. However, the concept of
packhouse is yet to make an impact in many
commodities. Its advantage in reducing the
losses and retaining the quality has been well
demonstrated and accepted by progressive
growers in commodities like banana, apple
and tomatoes.
Sor ting, grading and packaging
Sorting,
Sorting and Grading goes a long way in
ensuring the quality standards in the supply
chain. This has to happen right at the farm
gate or atleast in assembly market so that
economic efficiency of the chain is better and
returns to the farmers are more. A drive to
create quality consciousness from farm level
is the only way for improving the farmers’
share in consumers’ rupee. Packaging comes
handy in grading as it helps in segregating
and pricing differently based on grade,
besides discharging its functions as a
package like containment, communication
and loss reduction. This has already proved
its effectiveness as an income enhancer in
crops like mango (Alphonso, Dashehari and
Banganapalle), grapes, apple, etc.
Cold Chain
148 Another important weak link presently
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
responsible for colossal postharvest losses
is the un-scientific distribution system. As
perishables, fruits and vegetables deteriorate
rapidly after harvest due to enhanced
respiratory activity. Temperature plays an
important role in its control and hence
establishment of refrigerated distribution
system is an essential part of the improved
postharvest management strategy in
perishables. Except for potatoes and apples,
the presently available 3500 plus cold
storages are not utilized effectively for
storage of fruits and vegetables. The concept
of use of cold stores for short & long term
storage of fruits and vegetables and to link
it with supply chain or distribution network
is lacking both at farmers and traders level.
The policy interventions that took place for
improving the postharvest management in
the country were on individual aspects like
pack houses, cold storages and not end-to-
end solutions. As a consequence, a
continuous chain could not be established
and the broken chain does not serve the
purpose.
Processing & value addition
Under the existing horticultural crop
production system, bringing uniformity in
the size, colour, shape and quality is
extremely difficult and therefore, at any
given point of time the produce harvested
show proportionate variation in these
characters. In complying with the other fair
trade requirements like grading, packaging,
etc., often huge quantities of lower grades
of produce is left out. Unless these are
utilized at the production or catchment
centres for processing into value added
products, the cycle would be incomplete. The
rate of growth in processing and
consumption of processed products in the
country is increasing approximately by 15-
20%. Establishment of processing and value
addition centres in and around production
catchment areas make sense as it would
reduce the cost of transportation to huge
Post Harvest Management of Horticultural Crops for Sustainable Livelihood & Rural Development
processing facilities at very distant place.
When the fresh produce become less
available, the demand for processed products
increases making it a circle in itself. This
would make the markets more structured and
stabilize the prices of perishable
commodities. Development of rural areas
into semi-urban clusters through small scale
rural industrialization provides urban
facilities in rural areas (PURA dream of
Dr.A.P.J.Abdul Kalam), as the supporting
environment like road, housing, banks,
schools, etc., would spring up on its own in
the surroundings. With rural industrialization
there would be need for skill development
centres to service to the rural industries. This
would enhance the employment
“Sarvto mukhabhivridhi rastu – Sarv jana sukhino bhavanthu”
opportunities to rural youth and will prevent
migration from rural areas to urban and
would help in retaining rural youth in
agriculture (ARYA) and allied activities.
This multiplier effect would bring overall
development in the rural areas, which would
ensure food, nutritional livelihood security.
A model based on sustainability should
include all these components where
horticulture remains at the core and all
related activities (grading, packaging,
processing, services, etc.) would revolve
around it, so that cycle is complete in itself
without depending and competing too much
on outside its periphery, except for those
which cannot fit into this model.
149
 Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 150-154, 2015

Banana Pseudostem W aste for Generating

Waste
Employment in Rural Areas of India
PATIL, R.G.1, KOLAMBE, B.N., PATEL, J.M., NACHANE, R.P2. PAWAR, S.L. AND DESAI, C.S.
Soil and Water Management Research Unit
NAU, Navsari 396 450 (Gujarat)
1
PI & Chief Scientist (Retd), Soil and Water Management Research Unit, NAU, Navsari (Gujarat)
2
Principal Scientist (Retd) QAI Division, CIRCOT, ICAR, Mumbai

Introduction presently the farmers are disposing this waste

either on field bunds and burning or in
Banana is a common man’s fruit being
borrow pits along the road side or nallas
grown in almost all the states of India. In
which causes environmental problems
India, the area under banana crop is steadily
particularly during monsoon season. For
increasing along with gradual rise in its
resolving this problem, the project entitled
productivity. The reasons for increase in area
“A Value Chain on Utilization of Banana
and productivity of banana are: increase in
Pseudostem for Fiber and Other Value
consumers’ demand for fruit owing to its
Added Products” was funded by World Bank
nutritional quality, more remunerative than
through ICAR, New Delhi under component
existing crops, availability of quality planting
2 of National Agriculture Innovation Project.
material, excellent technological backup by
This project was implemented in consortium
SAUs, ICAR institutes, strong net work of
farmers’ co-operatives, presence of mode involving four organizations viz.,
NAU, Navsari (Gujarat) as lead centre with
multinational companies in marketing/
CIRCOT, ICAR, Mumbai (Maharashtra),
processing, encouragement by the
MANTRA, Surat (Gujarat) and J.K. Paper
government through providing subsidy etc.
Mills, Songadh (Gujarat) as the partners.
With increase in area and productivity, the
Because of dedicated efforts of all the four
overall production of banana fruits has also
organizations, technologies useful for the
increased considerably during the past two
farmers and industries like textile, paper,
decades. The harvest index of banana crop
pharmaceutical, confectionary, fertilizer etc.,
is one or more i.e., it produces equal yield
were emerged during the project period
of fruit and fresh biomass. In some varieties
(2008-2014). In present paper, the
of banana, the yield of fresh biomass is more
technologies relevant only for rural
than fruit yield. The fresh biomass of banana
development are described.
predominantly includes pseudostem,
suckers, leaves etc. In general, the fresh Availability of Banana Pseudostem
biomass of banana crop is considered as
absolute waste. Not only this, but for Because of round the year demand of
removing this biomass from the fields, banana fruit, farmers are planting banana
farmers are spending around ` 20000/ha so during almost all the months. This has
as to prepare fields for next crop. Further, become possible due to availability of tissue
Banana Pseudostem Waste for Generating Employment in Rural Areas of India
culture plants during all the seasons. This
implies that banana crop is harvested round
the year and the pseudostems are also
available during whole year. The details
regarding quantity of pseudostem available
at different levels of adoption of fiber
extraction technology in India are given in
Table 1. The ample availability of banana
pseudostem in India is clearly substantiated
by the fact that even from only 10 per cent
of total area under banana in India, 48 lakh
tones of fresh pseudostems are available for
fiber extraction activity. This amount will
produce about 48000 kg dry fibers by
extraction using the technology standardized
under NAIP at NAU, Navsari (Gujarat).
Fiber Extraction Process
Step 1: Collection of banana pseudostem
After harvest of banana bunch at
appropriate stage, the stem needs to be cut
manually at least 6" above the ground level.
Similarly, the leaves at the base of lowest or
oldest leaf petiole or 12" from the apical
point have to be removed. Normally, banana
pseudostem processing should be done
immediately after harvest of bunch.
However, if excess pseudostems are
available, then pseudostem can be kept
standing in the field up to 8 - 10 days after
removing the top leaves or 15-20 days
without removal of the leaves. This period
may vary with the season i.e., fewer days
during summer and more during winter or
monsoon seasons. Further, after cutting the
pseudostem, it can safely be used up to 2-3
Table 1: Availability of banana pseudostem in India
Sl. No. Particulars
1. Area under banana crop (8.0 lakh ha)
2. Pseudostem available(@ 60 t/ha)
3. Fiber (dry) available (@ 0.6 t/ha)
days, so as to avoid the deterioration in
pseudostem.
Step 2: Processing of banana pseudostem
Splitting of pseudostem: Splitting of
banana pseudostem into two halves is
essential for separating the sheaths. The
splitting can be achieved either manually
using knife (Koyta) or mechanically by using
Pseudostem Cutter machine developed by
NAU, Navsari under NAIP (comp II). The
mechanical splitting is cheaper, faster and
more efficient than manual splitting. One
pseudostem cutter machine is good enough
to provide sheaths for 4-5 raspador
machines.
Preparation of sheaths for fibre
extraction: Once the pseudostem is split into
two halves, the sheaths can be separated
easily. After peeling out each sheath from
pseudostem, it should be cut at the both ends
so as to remove dry or rotten part. Similarly,
remove the thin portion longitudinally
present on either side of sheath with knife
(Koyta). This ensures cleaner fiber output
than non removal of thinner portion. The
prepared sheaths should be stacked properly
on the table behind raspador to enable
extraction of fibre more efficiently.
Step 3: Fibre extraction using raspador
machine
After preparation of sheaths, the fibre
extraction is to be done by using Raspador
machine developed by CIRCOT, Mumbai
and modified subsequently during NAIP
period. The prepared sheath is to be fed in
Unit Percentage of area of banana covered
by fiber extraction activity
10 20 40 60 80
Lakh ha 0.8 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4
Lakh tone 48 96 192 288 384
Lakh tone 0.48 0.96 1.92 2.88 3.84 151
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

between two rollers of raspador machine by

holding one end sheath firmly. The sheath is
fed and pulled back to get clean fibres. The
fibre should be rinsed in clean water
thoroughly and air dried. The dried fibre
should be collected and bundles are to be
prepared. The dried fibres are stored in dry
room (damp free). From one hectare banana
plantation approximately 600-800 kg dry
fibre are obtained.

Manpower RRequirement
equirement for Fiber Extraction
Activity
Based on our past five year experiences,
for operating one raspador machine six
person/day are required. An ideal unit
consisting of five raspador machines will
require 30 persons per day. One such unit is
good enough to process pseudostems
obtained from 40 ha banana plantation. The
details regarding machine, manpower etc.
requirement for one unit of five raspador
machines are given in Table 2. So from one
unit of fibre extraction employing 6000
labourers, about 24000 kg fibre will be
obtained in 200 working days. In order to
process pseudostem obtained from 8 lakh ha
area of banana, 20,000 units (one unit of 5
raspador machine/40ha) will be required.
This activity alone is capable of generating
12 crore man-days employment (20000
units × 6000 labourer/unit) in rural areas of
India.
Manpower RRequirement
equirement for Preparing
Handicraf ts Using Banana Fibre
Handicrafts
The potential uses of banana fibre are:

Table 2: Input and output details of one unit of five raspador machine

Sl. No. Particulars Value

1. Banana plantation required (ha) 40
2. Pseudostem available @ 60 t/ha from 40 ha plantation (tone) 2400
3. Banana fibre (dry) available @ 1% from 40 ha plantation (tone) 24
4. Scutcher waste available @ 30 t/ha from 40 ha plantation (tone) 1200
5. Sap available @ 15000 litre/ha from 40 ha plantation (lakh liter) 6
6. Central core available @ 10 t/ha from 40 ha plantation (tone) 400
7. Man power required for operating one unit (30 labourers/unit/day and 200 days/year) 6000
8. Raspador machines required for one unit (nos.) 5
9. Pseudostem cutter machine required for one unit (nos.) 1
10. Tractor with hydraulic trolley 1
152
Banana Pseudostem Waste for Generating Employment in Rural Areas of India

• Raw material for textile industry for
preparing yarn and fabrics (woven and
non woven)
• Handmade and high quality paper
• Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC-
pharmaceutical grade)
• Handicraft, ropes etc.
Preparing handicrafts using banana fibre
is another activity capable of generating huge
employment in rural area and more so in
tribal areas of India. Even by conservative
estimate, assuming one person prepare
handicraft using one kg of banana fiber per
day and one unit of 5 raspador machine
extracting 24000 kg fibre, it can provide
employment for 120 persons for 200 days
per year. This employment is specially suited
for tribal and rural women. The potential
employment generation at national level in
rural and tribal areas will be for 24 lakh
women. In other words this activity will lead
to women empowerment also. Not only this,
but this activity will also mitigate the
problem of migration of people from rural

Table 3: Details regarding proposed model

Sl. No. Activity Organizations Responsibility

1. Fibre extraction Farmers’ co-operative, • Provide training to the labourers at

Farmers group, NGO, Entrepreneur etc. NAIP unit, NAU, Navsari (Gujarat)
• Provide financial and strategic sup-
port (machines, shade, tractor etc.)
• Monitor fibre extraction activity as
well as collect and store extracted
fibre
• Supply fibre to the handicraft units
2. Handicraft preparation SHG, Mahila mandal, NGO, • Arrange training for the participat
Gram panchyat etc. ing women
• Supply fibre and collect prepared
handicrafts
3. Marketing KVIC, NGO, Entrepreneur etc. • Facilitate marketing of handicrafts
• Ensure regular payment to the con-
cern

153

and tribal areas to urban area particularly
during lean period of agricultural operations.
However, for implementing both the
activities viz., fibre extraction and
preparation of handicrafts in rural and tribal
areas, adoption of P-P-P model seems to be
an ideal option. The modalities of proposed
model are given in Table 3.
Apart handicrafts, banana fibres can also
be utilized for preparing good quality yarn
using Modified Medhalari Charkha
developed by CIRCOT, ICAR, Mumbai
(Maharashtra). Using this charkha, one can
154
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
prepare good quality yarn which is suitable
for preparing woven fabrics and high value
garments. This activity is also suitable for
tribal women. The advantages credited to
handicraft preparation activity are also
equally applicable for Medhalari charkha.
From the above discussion, it is
concluded that fibre extraction and
preparation of handicrafts activities highly
suitable for rural and tribal areas of India are
capable of generating huge employment in
rural areas of India. This will also provide
financial stability in these areas.
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 155-156, 2015

Nanotechnology to Battle Crop PPests

ests
DEEPA BHAGAT, 1PARIKSHIT MOITRA, 2SUMAN K SAMANTHA,
3
SANTANU BHATTACHARYA2, 4, 5
1
National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Bangalore –
560024, India. 2Department of Organic Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, India,
3
Alexander von Humboldt fellow, Bergische Universitat Wuppertal, Germany, 4J.C. Bose Fellow, Department
of Science and Technology, New Delhi, 5 Also at JNCSAR, Bangalore 560 012, India

Our research group members are leading
the fight against India’s often devastating
crop pests with high-tech, innovative devices
and strategies more familiar to today’s
specialized space-age science. Like ultra-
modern jet airplanes, satellite components,
and spacecraft that incorporate carbon
nanofibers into their construction for light-
weight, high stiffness, strength, fracture
toughness, thermal conductivity and
electrical conductivity, and other special
properties, we incorporate the latest
nanotechnology-based devices with special
properties and other 21st century scientific
advances into their battle to control crop
pests and better ensure the future food supply
of India and the world.
The realm of nano materials refers to
man-made or nature’s objects that are at least
in one dimension less than 100 nm.
Amazingly, such tiny objects have
properties, such as proportionately huge
surface areas or great strength, not
necessarily expected from our everyday
experience with large objects. Space-age
scientists often pull discoveries and insights
from seemingly disparate disciplines
together to achieve successful innovative
applications, which is exactly what our group
are doing.In internationally noted research
articles, conference presentations,
workshops for farmers, and related patents,
we are awaking the international community
of more traditional-thinking investigators in
crop pest control who depend on insecticides
and fertilizers to adopt nanotechnology and
other cutting-edge strategies and applications
that are more Green-friendly. 1,2. We have
developed innovative nanogels, seemingly
amorphous gel-like substances but having
an enormous internal surface area for the
adsorption of chemicals, to act as carriers
for pheromones, kairomones, and other
agents that can more naturally disrupt the
lifecycles of crop pests than insecticides. In
some cases, these nanogels are made from
common biological substances such as
alginate and chitosan that they have
demonstrated are Green-friendly and not
environmentally threatening.
Our group worked on slow release of
semiochemicals and sensor development for
early detection of pests prior infestation.
Highly effective nanogel carrier has been
developed for slow release of
semiochemicals which can be used at any
temperature and during any season.1
Nanogel loaded pheromones disrupt the
lifecycles of harmful crop pests like
Bactrocera dorsalis, Helicoverpa armigera,
Scirphophaga incertulas, Leucinodes
orbonalis, Xylotrechus quadripes, etc.
Nanogels can be used for transportation of
pheromones, kairomones, semiochemicals

to the field to control pests and to attract pest
predators, parasitoids.The fruit fly
Bactrocera dorsalis infests important fruit
crops, including apples, bananas, mango,
oranges, and guava. The infestation of
mangoes by fruit flies has limited the
importation of this much-wanted crop into
the U.S. and other countries with a growing
young population who want fresh fruits and
fruit drinks. Nanogels that can gradually
disperse pheromones like methyl eugenol
(ME) that normally the females use to attract
males can be used in traps to disrupt the life
cycle of fruit flies have been invented and
deployed by Bhagat and colleagues in
various field settings with impressive results.
They use inverted plastic water bottle traps
containing a vial with the ME-laced nanogel
and water in the bottom to drown
unsuspecting male flies. These simple traps
with their nanotech bait work remarkably
well in attracting and killing male fruit flies
during the simmering heat of a summer’s day
in the close quarters of a guava orchard or
crop field.
In another example, the Helicoverpa
armigera pheromone, methyl eugenol, was
encapsulated within an alginate chitosan
nanoparticle for dispersal in the field.
Helicoverpa armigera is commonly known
as the cotton bollworm and is a devastating
pest of numerous important crops. In another
case, kairomones - substances that attract the
natural enemies of a pest - were loaded onto
gelatin nanoparticles. While on the carrier,
the pheromone is protected from damage
from extremes of temperature and humidity,
and we have shown that these and other
properties also enhance the storage life and
suitability of nanoformulations for extended
use in fields and orchards. The nanomaterials
alone have been shown to have no
appreciable effect on the crop pests, whereas
those carrying pheromones or kairomones
have their predicted effects, even over
156
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
extended dry/wet or hot/cold periods in the
fields and orchards. Additionally, the
antennae of H. armigera are used by our
team for electroantennogram studies for
detecting pheromone concentrations in the
field. The development of such biosensors
is an ongoing part of their research.
Our group also developed sensors 4, 5,
6 with the potential for detection of presence
of insects which help for timely and localized
release of parasitoids and predators. These
devices can be configured to detect the early
stages of infestation by insects releasing the
semiochemicals having free aldehyde or
ketone functionality. Our aim is to develop
sensors for detection of pest infestations and
to monitor the environmental conditions
linked with pest infestations and also for the
early-bird detection of virus.
Nanotechnology holds out the possibility
that treatment delivery systems could be
activated long before macro symptoms
appear.
References
Deepa Bhagat, Suman Kalyan Samanta, & Santanu
Bhattacharya, Efficient Management of Fruit Pests
by Pheromone Nanogels. Scientific Reports 2013,
3, 1294 - 1302.
Deepa Bhagat, Suman Kalyan Samanta, & Santanu
Bhattacharya, Protocol Exchange 2013,
doi:10.1038/protex.2013.034.
Santanu Bhattacharya, Deepa Bhagat, Suman Kalyan
Samanta, “Nanogels, Methods and Device thereof
in Pest Management” Indian Patent, 372/CHE/
2014.
Santanu Bhattacharya, Rudra Pratap, Parikshit Moitra,
Deepa Bhagat, “A Pheromone detector”, Indian
Patent, 5201/CHE/2014.
Santanu Bhattacharya, Parikshit Moitra, Deepa Bhagat,
“Surface functionalization for sensing of volatile
organic compounds”, Indian Patent, 5166/CHE/
2014.
Santanu Bhattacharya, Rudra Pratap, Parikshit Moitra,
Deepa Bhagat, “A Pheromone detector”, PCT/
IN2015/000084.
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 157-162, 2015

Baby Cor
Cornn Production and Option
for Improved Livelihood
S.K. CHAUHAN
Chief Technical Officer (Hort.)
Horticulture Division
KAB-II, ICAR, Pusa Campus
New Delhi-110012

Introduction can also be obtained through intercropping

Baby corn is an unfertilized cob of maize
harvested early, while the ears are very small
and immature within 1-3 days of silk
emergence at young stage. Baby corn is a
vegetable eaten whole cob in contrast to
mature maize, whose cob is typically too
hard for human consumption. The de-husked
cobs can consumed both raw and
cooked.Baby corn is very nutritious and
useful to human being and its entire waste
is used as green fodder for livestock. Its
delicate sweet flavour and crisp nature
contribute in preparation of much value
added products and various fancy dishes in
several countries.
Baby corn is being cultivated a popular
urban and peri-urban vegetable crop in the
surrounding of nearby cities as it plays a
significant role in ensuring livelihood
security and green fodder all the year round,
thus, augmenting farmers’ income level. It
is a young small maize cob having an
attractive cream to light yellow colour with
desirable size of 6.0 to 10.0 cm long and 1.0
to 1.2 cm diameter, highly nutritive, sweet
and crispy in taste. Three to four pickings
can be taken depending on the climatic
conditions. Plants remain green even after
picking of baby corn which provides quality
fodder to the livestock. Additional income
with other vegetables, condiments like
coriander, pulse, flowers etc. Baby corn
cultivation is advantageous for its nutritive
value, amenable to crop diversification,
employment generation, promotion of
livestock industry, value addition, earning
foreign exchange, etc.
Production technology: The cultivation
practices of baby corn are similar to maize
grain crop except cultivars for early maturing
single cross hybrids, higher plant population,
higher dose of nitrogen application, de-
tasseling and harvesting of unfertilized small
cobs within 1-3 days of silk emergence.
However, following package of practices
should be followed for higher productivity.
Soil and climatic requirements: The
best soil for baby corn is a well-drained,
sandy loam to silt loam or loam type. It can
also be grown in well drained black soils. It
should be a type of a soil with high moisture
holding capacity, high amount of organic
matter and be slightly acidic (pH 5.5 to 7.3)
However, beyond pH range, problems of
toxicity are found with certain elements and
essential nutrients. In India, maize is
traditionally grown in monsoon (Kharif)
season, which is accompanied by high
temperature (<35 oC) and rains. A rainfall of
200 to 1,500 mm is required in its growing

period. However, the optimum rainfall for
baby corn is 400 to 600 mm per growing
period. In time of moisture deficiency,
irrigation is essential.
Land preparation: The land must be
deep ploughed once and the soil must be
worked up with a harrow and then a
cultivator to bring it to a fine tilth. Ploughing
is done when the field has the right moisture
and well decomposed FYM should be
applied and mix properly with soil by
running a cultivator. For animal-drawn
plough, a depth of 4 to 7 cm is sufficient.
When tractor is used, 12 to 14 cm is
preferable. Harrowing is done at the time the
soil has the right moisture content. It is done
again within two days before planting to
level the soil.
Suitable varieties: Short duration,
prolific(producing more than two ears per
plant) with medium height, with silking
period of 45-50 days in kharif, 75-80 days
in spring and 120-130 days in winter in North
Indian states should be selected. Presently,
hybrids HM-4 and Syngenta 5414 are
popular for baby corn cultivation in north
India. Hybrid HQPM-1 may also be tried for
baby corn cultivation. Good cob quality is
the principal factor determining the
marketability of baby corn. Quality is based
on ear characters such as straight row
alignment, petite ovule size, and tapered ear
tip shape are preferred. Cob quality and
appearance are more important than yield in
choosing a corn variety for baby corn
production.
Sowing method: Sowing should be
done on southern side of the ridges with 60
cm x 15-20 cm row x plant spacing
depending upon plant type(erect/spreading).
Optimum seed rate is 20-24 kg/ha depending
upon the test weight of the hybrid. Seeds
should be treated with fungicides and
insecticides before sowing to protect it from
seed and soil borne diseases and some insect-
158 pests. Application of Bavistin + Captan in
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
1:1 ratio @ 2 g/kg seed for Turcicum leaf
blight (TLB), Banded leaf and sheath blight
(BLSB) and Maydis leaf blight (MLB).
Treatment of Apron 35 SD @ 4 g/kg seed
for Brown stripe downy mildew (BSDM),
Captan 2.5 g/kg for Pythium Stalk Rot and
Fipronil @4ml/kg give control for termite
and shoot fly.
Nutrient management: Application of
nutrient should be based on soil test.
Generally 150-180: 60:60: 25 Kg/ha N, P, K
and ZnS04 with 8-10 tons/ha FYM should
be applied. Full dose of phosphorus, potash
and zinc and 10 % N should be applied as
basal dose. The remaining dose of nitrogen
should be applied in four splits viz. 20% N
at 4 leaf stage, 30% N at 8 leaf stage, 25% N
before de-tasseling and 15% N after de-
tasseling to avoid losses and to meet the
requirement throughout the crop cycle. One
to two hoeings are recommended for aeration
and uprooting of the remaining weeds. While
doing hoeing, the person should move
backward to avoid compaction of soil and
to facilitate better aeration.
Weed management: Broad leaf weeds
and most of the grasses can be controlled by
pre-emergence spray of Atrazine @1.0-1.5
Kg/ha in 500-600 litre of water. While
spraying, the person doing spray should
move backward so that the atrazine film on
the soil surface may not be disturbed.
Preferably, three nozzle booms may be used
for proper ground coverage and saving of
time. One to two hoeings are recommended
for aeration and uprooting of the remaining
weeds.
Water management: First irrigation
should be applied very carefully. Water
should not overflow on the ridges. Irrigation
should be applied in furrows up to 2/3rd
height of the ridges. Irrigation should be
given as and when required by the crop
depending upon the rains and moisture
holding capacity of the soil. Young seedlings,
knee high stage, silking and picking are the
Baby Corn Production and Option for Improved Livelihood
most sensitive stages for water stress for
crops and irrigation should be ensured at
these stages. Light and frequent irrigations
are desirable for crop. During winter (mid
December to mid February) soil should be
kept wet to avoid frost injury.
Intercropping: Baby corn is very
remunerative, if it is cultivated with
intercrops namely potato, green pea, rajmash
for green pods, palak, cabbage, cauliflower,
sugar beet, green onion, garlic, methi,
coriander, knol-khol, broccoli, lettuce,
turnip, radish, carrot, french bean, celery,
gladiolus in the winter season. In kharif
season, cowpea for green pods and fodder
purposes, urd, mung, etc. can be intercropped
with baby corn. Pea and potato can be taken
on large scale during winter season on
commercial scale.
Protection from serious insects and
pests: Stem borer (Chilo partellus), Pink
borer (Sesamia inferens) and Sorghum shoot
fly (Atherigona spp) are serious problems
in kharif, rabi and spring seasons,
respectively. Stem borer can be controlled
by 1-2 spray of Carboryl after 10 and 20 days
of germination. Spraying should be done in
the central whorl of plant. First spray of
Carboryl 500 gm in 500 litre water in the
central whorl of plant and 2 nd spray of
Carboryl (750 gm) in 700-800 litre water, if
required.
Detasseling: Detasseling is an essential
operation to maintain the quality of baby
corn, if the hybrid is male sterile, it is not
required. It is done by removing the tassel
of the plant as soon as it emerges from the
flag leaf. It should be practiced row-wise.
While de-tasseling, leaf should not be
removed which will otherwise affect net
photosynthesis and ultimately reduce
average baby corn yield. It has been observed
that the removal of 1 to 3 leaves along with
tassel reduces 5-15 % yield of baby corn.
The removed tassel being rich in nutrients
should be fed to the cattle and not be thrown
in the field.
Harvesting: A plant can be harvested 2-
3 times depending upon the numbers of cobs
per plant and the type of varieties/hybrids
used for baby corn. It is suggested that for
getting good regular harvest, the sowing of
baby corn should be done in batches in the
same plot after an intervals of 5-7 days. The
green cobs must be harvested 1-3 days after
silk emergence, while they are still
immature, to produce the small ears
characteristic of “baby corn”. It is necessary
to harvest the green cobs every day after first
silk emergence. Most varieties produce
marketable ears for 3-4 weeks, and if they
are harvested every 2-3 days during this
period, they amount to 5-9 harvests. By
knowing harvest dates and how long a
variety can be harvested, farmers can choose
varieties to extend the harvest season. This
is important because buyers want fresh baby
corn throughout the growing season, not just
once or twice. As for harvesting methods,
farmers should twist or snap green cob away.
Next, put them in containers like plastic
baskets, trays etc. However, gunny bags or
sacks should be avoided to transfer dehusked
cobs as handling is an important factor to
safeguard tender cobs from mechanical
injuries. They should be kept in places with
good ventilation, and should not be heaped
otherwise they will easily be rotten.
Normally, 10-15 harvesting of baby corn can
be made over a period of 3-4 weeks depending
on various factors viz. type of baby corn
varieties/hybrids used, different agro climatic
conditions, cultivation practices followed,
biotic and abiotic stresses etc.
Yield: It depends on potential of
genotypes and climatic conditions. In village
Aterna, of distt. Sonepat (Haryana), a good
irrigated crop of HM 4 hybrid on an average
produced 100-120 q/ha green husked or 10-
12 q/ha de-husked baby corn and hybrid
Syngenta 5414 140-180 q/ha green husked
or 14-18 q/ha de-husked baby corn. Green
fodder yield is about 300-400 q/ha that gives
additional income to the growers. 159

By-products: A number of by-products
are produced in the cultivation of baby corn
such as tassels, silks, husks, green plant
stalks etc. after harvest. All these by-products
are highly nutritive and can be fed to the
milching cattle which increase milk yield.
Improved livelihood for nutritional security
and health benefits
Baby corn is nutritive and its nutritional
quality is at par or even superior to some of
the seasonal non-leguminous vegetables
such as cauliflower, tomato, cucumber and
cabbage. Besides digestive proteins and
fibers, it is a rich source of several important
minerals and vitamins. It contains 3%
protein, 8 to 10% sugar, several minerals
such as potassium (370 mg/100g),
phosphorus (150 mg/100g), calcium (36 mg/
100g) and iron (0.88 mg/100g). It also
contains 12o Brix of total soluble solids
(TSS). Baby corn is one of the safest
vegetables to eat as it is almost free from
pesticide residual effects as the young cobs
are wrapped up with green husk and well
protected from insects and diseases.
Baby corn is high in folate, B-6 vitamin,
riboflavin and vitamin C. It contains two
carotenoids like zeaxanthin and lutein which
help to prevent cataracts, thus keeping eyes
healthy. It is a rich source of crude fibers
and fibrous proteins which help prevent
intestinal cancer. It also contains zero
cholesterol which helps preventing coronary
artery disease. Baby corn plants do not have
any problem of hydrogenic acid or prussic
acid production hence can be safely fed to
cattle at any stage of its growth. The green
stalks are used as fodder after harvest of
green cobs having good digestibility. Baby
corn cobs, not suitable for marketing, can
be used for fodder as well as in poultry due
to their high carotene content which impart
yellow colour to egg yolk and yellow tinge
to the milk. Baby corn is supposed to have
lactogenic effect hence specially suited for
160 milch cattle. The digestibility of baby corn
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
fodder is higher than sorghum, pearl millet
and other non-leguminous forage crops.
Crop diversification: Continuous rice-
wheat cropping system leads to several
problems like depletion of underground
water and degrading soil health and severe
incidence of pests and diseases. Hence, there
is a need to diversify the cropping system
which is more remunerative to the farmers.
Baby corn could be a good option for crop
diversification as it suits to peri-urban
agriculture. Being a short duration crop of
50-70 days during kharif , two crops of baby
corn can be taken in a year after wheat which
will add to the income of the farmers
providing a better substitute for rice in rice-
wheat cropping system, thus maintaining
good soil health.
Employment generation: Baby corn
being a short duration crop of 50 to 70 days
and based on climatic conditions of the
region, 3-5 crops can be taken in a year and
farmers can earn money in shorter period.
Therefore, it is a potential crop to generate
income and employment for the rural youth
and women throughout the year thus
promoting human resources in rural areas.
It also provides employment opportunity in
the form of cultivation, processing and
marketing of fresh/canned baby corn in
domestic market. Because of its great
demand in the international market, there is
a great potential to earn foreign exchange
through export of its processed value added
products.
Promoting dairy industry: The green
fodder promotes dairy as after harvest of
baby corn crop, the left over (tassels, silk,
green sheathes, stem, leaves etc.) which is
free from the harmful residual effects of
pesticides, insects and diseases provide good
green fodder throughout the year. The
farmers can save their land used for
cultivation of other green fodder crops for
the livestock industry.
Baby Corn Production and Option for Improved Livelihood
Value added products: The baby corn
finds extensive use for its delicious,
decorative and nutritive values. It is used in
the form of salad ingredient in various
preparations and has a variety of culinary
uses. Also it is used for the preparation of a
number of value added products and several
recipes like soup, mixed with other
vegetables, pickles (sweet and sour), raita,
manchurian, masala, kofta curry, chat,
cutlets, chutney, pakoras, candy, baby corn
chilli, murabba, jam, laddoo, burfy, kheer,
halwa, south Indian dishes. It can also be
consumed as fresh salads as well as used as
an ingredient in Chop-Suey (Chinese dish),
deep fried baby corn with meat and rice and
mixed with other vegetables.
Intercropping: Baby corn is very
remunerative if it is cultivated with intercrop
especially during winter. Intercropping of
vegetable crops, pulses and flowers can be
done with baby corn in winter to augment
income of the farmers. As many as 20 crops,
namely potato, green pea, rajmah for green
pods, spinach, cabbage, cauliflower, sugar
beet, green onion, garlic, fennel, coriander,
knol-khol, broccoli, lettuce, turnip, radish,
carrot, french bean, celery, and gladiolus
have been successfully tried for
intercropping with baby corn. This
mechanism of intercropping helps to
improve soil fertility and protect baby corn
crop from cold injury as it protects the baby
corn from northern cold wind. In general,
short duration varieties of other crops are
preferred for intercropping with baby corn.
Recommended dose of fertilizers of
intercrops should be applied in addition to
the recommended dose of fertilizers of baby
corn. In kharif season, cowpea (for green
pods and fodder purposes), urd, mung,
coriander, etc. can be intercropped with baby
corn. A numbers of intercrops could be
option for the farmers but for commercial
purpose, pea and potato can be taken on large
scale during winter season.
Entrepreneurship and mark
marketing
eting of Baby
cor
cornn
S.K. Chauhan, the author of this article
introduced Baby corn crop in village Aterna
in 1998-99, where Baby corn cultivation has
been proved to be a treasure trove for the
farmers of village Aterna of district Sonepat
(Haryana) as it has improved the farmer’s
economy many fold by providing
employment opportunity to the rural youth
and women and also promoted the dairy
industry. Aterna village is considered to be
a Model Village of baby corn in India where
all the farmers families cultivates baby corn
throughout the year for marketing in the
Delhi Azadpur Suzi mandi. Further, its
cultivation is almost free from pesticide
residues which also help to sustain the better
soil health besides taking care of its
consumer’s health. Baby corn being a short
duration crop, farmers near the urban and
peri-urban cities can take the advantage of
baby corn cultivation by growing it under
diversification throughout the year.
Therefore, this crop can play a significant
role not only to improve the farmer’s socio-
economic condition but also to save them
from vagaries of the nature which is a
teething problem now days.
Baby corn cultivation has immense
potential to create jobs for rural women and
youths by making them entrepreneurs
through marketing of baby corn in distant
markets and to set up canning units for
domestic markets and export purpose. Value
addition of Baby Corn has created interest
in rural women of village Aterna to form
‘Self Help Groups’ for packaging and
marketing of baby corn. There are
opportunities for baby corn seed processing
by cleaning, grading, bagging, etc.
Economics of cultivation: Various
items are included to work out the cost of
cultivation of baby corn. These include field
preparation, cost of seed, sowing, irrigation,
fertilizer cost, cost of plant protection, 161

Table 1: Economics of Baby corn Cultivation
1. Average yield of de-husked baby corn cobs (Kg/ha/)
2. Average green fodder yield (tones/ha/crop)
3. Market procurement price of Baby corn from the farmer @ ` 50-60*@ ` 55/- per kg. for 1400 kg.
4. Market selling price of green fodder @ ` 1/- per kg.
5. Total return from Baby corn and green fodder per crop. (`)
6. Total expenditure in cultivation of Baby corn per crop. (`)
7. Net return (`/ha/crop)
Net income of the farmer from 3 crops in a year: ` 67,000 X 3= ` 2,01,000/- (ha/year)
*Average market rate of de-husked Baby corn
picking, packaging and transport charges.
These figures may vary from region to region
and season to season. The average cost of
cultivation of baby corn per hectare is
presented below in Table 1.
Marketing: Baby corn can be marketed
as fresh husked and dehusked young cobs,
canned products and pickles. Most fresh
baby corn is packed dehusked in perforated
plastic clamshells or punnets for retail
markets. Plastic or thermocol trays wrapped
with plastic film are also used. Ventilation
is required in all four-side walls. These trays
may weigh 200-250 grams. The canned baby
corn is one which is canned in brine (baby
corn and brine as component). Processed
baby corn is often packed in metal cans and
glass jars. Baby corn preserved in brine and
packed in glass jars is more expensive than
canned baby corn and consequently has
higher quality. Baby corn in glass jars is a
specialty item found mostly in gourmet
supermarkets.
Baby corn mostly comes from Asian
countries like Thailand, India, China,
Taiwan, etc. Therefore, they are regarded as
producers rather than importers. The
162
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
1400-1800
35-40
77,000/-
35,000/-
1,12,000/-
45,000/-
67,000/-
consumption of baby corn in Asia is highest
in the world. Now, baby corn production and
markets are expanding worldwide, especially
in Asia, Africa and South America. However,
there are some Asian countries that import a
lot of baby corn. Japan and Malaysia usually
import canned baby corn.
Its marketing may include sales through
farmers’ markets, restaurants, local grocery
stores and health food stores. However, fresh
baby corn is preferred over processed
imported baby corn. As the harvest period
progresses, marketability of the ear cobs
decline significantly. In general, the first and
second ear cobs are of good quality followed
by third to fourth harvest onwards will be
subsequently of inferior quality, thus making
it unmarketable. From marketing point of
view, baby corn with husk is recommended
to retain ear freshness. The small ears are
very tender and thus there is a risk of damage,
discoloration and dehydration, if the husks
are removed prior to use.
Most of the baby corn growers sell their
produce to the local markets. An effective
market chain is already in the operation for
the marketing of baby corn in India.
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 163-182, 2015

Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for

Food and Nutritional Security – A PPerspective
erspective
H.P. SINGH
Chairman, Confederation of Horticulture Associations of India (CHAI)
249, 18A Sector, Dwarka, New Delhi-110078, India
email – confedhorti@gmail.com; hpsingh50@gmail.com

Abstract
Agriculture is the culture,which, supports livelihood to millions of people, and provides
food, feed, bio-fuel, fibre,medicine, industrial raw material and environmental services,
needed for sustained life. Performance of agriculture is always linked to the economic growth
and peace. Therefore, food and nutritional security of people is a prime objective of the
Nation. Undoubtedly, pasts efforts have made considerable changes in availability of food
but increasing hunger and malnutrition have become a cause of concern, internationally.
Indian agriculture has made a rapid stride in last 5 decades, converting the country from
food shortagestoself sufficiency, achieving the production level of 261.5 million
tones.Recognizing the essentiality of nutrition and improved farm income, and to meet the
growing demand, in last few decades, diversification of agriculture has gained focus.
Horticulture, which include fruits, vegetables, tuber herbs, plantation crops, floriculture or
ornamental plants and medicinal and aromatic plants, has emerged as a best option,
considering that, it has been rewarding in terms of production, productivity, availability and
profitability to farmers. During the decade horticulture maintained a growth rate of 6 per
cent reaching the production level of 288 million tones of horticulture produce.
Globally, food and nutritional security of growing population, which would be more
than 10 billion at the end of 2050, with declining land and water in the scenario of climate
change is a great challenge. Gene technology coupled with production system management,
in the past, have helped in improving production and productivity. But, these technological
changes have to be strengthened to harness the potentiality. In this context, biotechnology,
which is the use of living system and organisms to develop and make useful products, or
any technological application that uses biological systems, living organism or derivatives
thereof to make or modify product or processes for specific use, stands out as the frontier
area of research, with many success stories and concerns. Advancement in regeneration
system has helped in commercial production of disease free plants for improved production
and the system has also been used for embryo rescue. Molecular genetics, recombinant
DNA technology and ability to move genes across sexual barriers have opened new
opportunities. Understanding of gene through genetic analysis has improved, and
bioinformatical tools are used for the management of gene function. Consequently,
biotechnology has opened up uncommon opportunities for enhancing the productivity,
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

profitability, sustainability and stability in many cropping systems. The science of

biotechnology has created scope for developing crop varieties tolerant/resistant to biotic
and abiotic stresses through a appropriate blend of GM, Mendelian and molecular breeding
technologies, Marker Assisted selection has now become an integral part of breeding
programme. Many noble and powerful markers are available to the breeder for precise and
rapid transfer of desired traits. Biotechnological application in diagnostics have enhanced
reliability and rapidity of test for early diagnosis. While the benefits are clear, there are
concerns about the short and long term impact of GMOs on the environment, biodiversity,
human and animal health. There are also equity and ownership issues in relation to
biotechnological processes and products. Thus, there is need for transparent and truthful
risk-benefit analysis in relation to GMOs, on a case-by-case basis. Biotechnology offers
opportunities for converting the biological wealth into economic wealth and new employment
opportunities on an environmentally and socially sustainable basis. The papers deals with
all the dynamics of biotechnological application in agriculture with special reference to
horticulture.

Introduction of procedures for modifying living

‘Biotechnology is the use of living
systems and organisms to develop or make
useful products, or any technological
application that uses biological systems,
living organisms or derivatives thereof, to
make or modify products or processes for
specific use’. Biotechnological approaches,
coupled with production system
management, have helped in increasing the
agricultural productivity thus improving the
food and nutritional security of growing
population. Advances in regeneration
system, molecular genetics, marker assisted
breeding, recombinant DNA technology and
transgene technology coupled with
bioinformatic tools have opened up
uncommon opportunities for enhancing the
productivity, profitability, sustainability and
stability in many cropping systems.
Biotechnology, if used wisely ensuing
biosafety, offers opportunities for converting
the biological wealth into economic wealth
and new employment opportunities on an
environmentally and socially sustainable
basis.
Histor
Historyy
The wide concept of “biotech” or
164 “biotechnology” encompasses a wide range
organisms according to human purposes,
going back to domestication of animals,
cultivation of plants, and “improvements”
to these through breeding programs that
employ artificial selection and hybridization.
Modern usage also includes genetic
engineering as well as cell and tissue culture
technologies. The American Chemical
Society defines biotechnology as the
application of biological organisms, systems,
or processes by various industries to learning
about the science of life and the
improvement of the value of materials and
organisms such as pharmaceuticals, crops,
and livestock.
Brewing was an early application of
biotechnology. Indeed, the cultivation of
plants may be viewed as the earliest
biotechnological enterprise. Throughout the
history of agriculture, farmers have
inadvertently altered the genetics of their
crops through introducing them to new
environments and used selective breeding to
improve production of crops and livestock -
one of the first forms of biotechnology. In
1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure
microbiological culture in an industrial
process that of manufacturing corn starch
using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective
produce acetone. Biotechnology has also led
to the development of antibiotics. In 1928,
Alexander Fleming discovered the mold
Penicillium. The field of modern
biotechnology is generally thought of as
having been born in 1971 when Paul Berg’s
experiments in gene splicing had early
success. Herbert W. Boyer (Univ. Calif. at
San Francisco) and Stanley N. Cohen
(Stanford) significantly advanced the new
technology in 1972 by transferring genetic
material into a bacterium, such that the
imported material would be reproduced. The
formation of a new field, genetic
engineering, would soon bring
biotechnology to the forefront of science in
society, and the intimate relationship
between the scientific community, the
public, and the government would ensue.
Timeline of Biotechnology
Before common era
• 7000 BCE – Chinese discover
fermentation through beer making.
• 6000 BCE – Yogurt and cheese made
with lactic acid-producing bacteria by
various cultures.
• 4000 BCE – Egyptians bake leavened
bread using yeast.
• 500 BCE – Moldy soybean curds used
as an antibiotic.
• 250 BCE – The Greeks practice crop
rotation for maximum soil fertility.
• 100 CE – Chinese use chrysanthemum
as a natural insecticide.
Pre-20th Centur
Centuryy
• 1663 – First recorded description of
living cells recorded by Robert Hooke.
• 1675 – Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
discovers and describes bacteria and
protozoa.
• 1798 – Edward Jenner uses first viral
vaccine to inoculate a child from
smallpox.
• 1802 – The first recorded use of the
word biology.
• 1824 – Henri Dutrochet discovers that
tissues are composed of living cells.
• 1838 – Protein discovered, named and
recorded by Gerardus Johannes
Mulder and Jöns Jacob Berzelius.
• 1862 – Louis Pasteur discovers the
bacterial origin of fermentation.
• 1863 – Gregor Mendel discovers the
laws of inheritance.
• 1864 – Antonin Prandtl invest first
centrifuge to separate cream from milk.
• 1869 – Friedrich Miescher identifies
DNA in the sperm of a trout.
• 1871 – Ernst Hoppe-Seyler discovers
invertase, which is still used for
making artificial sweeteners.
• 1877 – Robert Koch develops a
technique for staining bacteria for
identification.
• 1878 – Walther Flemming discovered
chromatin leading to the discovery of
chromosomes.
• 1881 – Louis Pasteur develops
vaccines against bacteria that cause
cholera and anthrax in chickens.
• 1885 – Louis Pasteur and Emile Roux
developed the first rabies vaccine and
use it on Joseph Meister.
20th Century’’
• 1919 – Károly Ereky, a Hungarian
agricultural engineer, first uses the
word biotechnology.
• 1928 – Alexander Fleming notices that
a certain mould could stop the
duplication of bacteria, leading to the
first antibiotic: penicillin.
165
• 1952 – L.V. Radushkevich and V.M.

Lukyanovich published clear images
of 50 nanometer diameter tubes made
of carbon, in the Soviet Journal of
Physical Chemistry.
• 1953 – James D. Watson and Francis
Crick describe the structure of DNA.
• 1958 – The term bionics was coined
by Jack E. Steele.
• 1964 – The first commercial
myoelectric arm was developed by the
Central Prosthetic Research Institute of
the USSR, and distributed by the
Hangar Limb Factory of the UK.
• 1972 – The DNA composition of
chimpanzees and gorillas is discovered
to be 99% similar to that of humans.
• 1973 – Stanley Norman Cohen and
Herbert Boyer perform the first
successful recombinant DNA
experiment, using bacterial genes.
• 1974 – Scientist invent the first bio
cement for industrial applications.
• 1975 – Method for producing
monoclonal antibodies developed by
Köhler and César Milstein.
• 1978 – North Carolina scientists Clyde
Hutchison and Marshall Edgell show
it is possible to introduce specific
mutations at specific sites in a DNA
molecule.
• 1980 – The U.S. patent for gene
cloning is awarded to Cohen and
Boyer.
• 1982 – Humulin, Genentech’s human
insulin drug produced by genetically
engineered bacteria for the treatment
of diabetes, is the first biotech drug to
be approved by the Food and Drug
Administration.
• 1983 – The Polymerase Chain
Reaction (PCR) technique is
conceived.
166
• 1990 – First federally approved gene
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
therapy treatment is performed
successfully on a young girl who
suffered from an immune disorder.
• 1994 – The United States Food and
Drug Administration approves the first
GM food: the “FlavrSavr” tomato.
• 1997 – British scientists, led by Ian
Wilmut from the Roslin Institute,
report cloning Dolly the sheep using
DNA from two adult sheep cells.
• 1999 – Discovery of the gene
responsible for developing cystic
fibrosis.
• 2000 – Completion of a “rough draft”
of the human genome in the Human
Genome Project.
21st Centur
Centuryy
• 2001 – Celera Genomics and the
Human Genome Project create a draft
of the human genome sequence. It is
published by Science and Nature
Magazine.
• 2002 – Rice becomes the first crop to
have its genome decoded.
• 2003 – The Human Genome Project is
completed, providing information on
the locations and sequence of human
genes on all 46 chromosomes.
• 2007 – The first Nanoradio is described
by Alex Zettl.
• 2008 – Japanese astronomers launched
the first Medical Experiment Module
called “Kibo”, to be used on the
International Space Station.
• 2009 – Cedars-Sinai Heart Institute
uses modified SAN heart genes to
create the first viral pacemaker in
guinea pigs, now known as iSAN’s.
• 2012 – 31 year-old Zac Vawter
successfully uses a nervous system
controlled bionic leg to climb the
Chicago Willis Tower.
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective
Biotechnology has applications in four
major industrial areas, including health care
(medical), crop production and agriculture,
non food (industrial) uses of crops and other
products (e.g. biodegradable plastics,
vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental
uses. For example, one application of
biotechnology is the directed use of
organisms for the manufacture of organic
products (examples include beer and milk
products). Another example is using
naturally present bacteria by the mining
industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is
also used to recycle, treat waste, cleanup sites
contaminated by industrial activities
(bioremediation), and also to produce
biological weapons.
Biotechnology has been principally
associated with food, addressing such issues
as malnutrition and famine. A series of
derived terms have been coined to identify
several branches of biotechnology; for
example:
• Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary
field which addresses biological
problems using computational
techniques, and makes the rapid
organization as well as analysis of
biological data possible. The field may
also be referred to as computational
biology, and can be defined as,
“conceptualizing biology in terms of
molecules and then applying
informatics techniques to understand
and organize the information
associated with these molecules, on a
large scale.” Bioinformatics plays a
key role in various areas, such as
functional genomics, structural
genomics, and proteomics, and forms
a key component in the biotechnology
and pharmaceutical sector.
• Blue biotechnology is a term that has
been used to describe the marine and
aquatic applications of biotechnology,
but its use is relatively rare.
• Green biotechnology is biotechnology
applied to agricultural processes. An
example would be the selection and
domestication of plants via
micropropagation. Another example is
the designing of transgenic plants to
grow under specific environments in
the presence (or absence) of chemicals.
One hope is that green biotechnology
might produce more environmentally
friendly solutions than traditional
industrial agriculture. An example of
this is the engineering of a plant to
express a pesticide, thereby ending the
need of external application of
pesticides. An example of this would
be Bt corn. Whether or not green
biotechnology products such as this are
ultimately more environmentally
friendly is a topic of considerable
debate.
• Red biotechnology is applied to
medical processes. Some examples are
the designing of organisms to produce
antibiotics, and the engineering of
genetic cures through genetic
manipulation.
• White biotechnology, also known as
industrial biotechnology, is
biotechnology applied to industrial
processes. An example is the designing
of an organism to produce a useful
chemical. Another example is the using
of enzymes as industrial catalysts to
either produce valuable chemicals or
destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals.
White biotechnology tends to consume
less in resources than traditional
processes used to produce industrial
goods.
The commercial viability of a
biotechnology industry was significantly
expanded on June 16, 1980, when the United
States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically
modified microorganism could be patented
in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty. 167

Indian-born AnandaChakrabarty, had
modified a bacterium Pseudomonas capable
of breaking down crude oil, which he
proposed to use in treating oil spills. Revenue
in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9%
in 2008. In 1988, only five proteins from
genetically engineered cells had been
approved as drugs by the United States Food
and Drug Administration (FDA), but this
number would skyrocket to over 125 by the
end of the 1990s.
Another factor influencing the
biotechnology sector’s success is improved
intellectual property rights legislation - and
enforcement - worldwide, as well as
strengthened demand for medical and
pharmaceutical products to cope with an
ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.
Rising demand for biofuels is expected
to be good news for the biotechnology sector,
with the Department of Energy estimating
ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-
derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by
2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed
the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase
its supply of corn and soybeans - the main
inputs into biofuels - by developing
genetically modified seeds which are
resistant to pests and drought. By boosting
farm productivity, biotechnology plays a
crucial role in ensuring that biofuel
production targets are met.
In Indian horticulture biotechnology has
played an important role. The various fields
in which biotechnology has made significant
contribution are as given below.
Regeneration systems
In recent times biotechnological tools
have supplemented various conventional
approaches in conservation, characterization
and utilization for increasing the production
and productivity of spices. In many
horticultural crops viable micropropagation
technologies are available for and
168 commercial production of disease free
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
planting materials. Somaclonal variation is
important in crops where the natural
variability is low and useful somaclonal
variants were identified in many crops.
Efficient protoplast technology is limited to
few crops. In vitro, cryo preservation,
synseed and micro-rhizome technologies are
available for safe propagation, conservation,
movement, and exchange of germplasm.
Significant gains are made in in vitro
production of secondary metabolites, flavor,
colouringcompounds and production of
pharmaceutically important products using
plant based systems. In general horticultural
biotechnology has contributed significantly
in plant propagation industry in realistic
terms.
Micropropagationtechnology
Micropropagation is a powerful tool for
large scale propagation especially in
horticultural crops where there is great
demand for quality disease free planting
material. Technology for micropropagation
is available in over 200 horticulture crops.
High rate of multiplication coupled with
advantage of obtaining disease free planting
material makes micropropagation an
important and viable additive to
conventional propagation. However, many
of these technologies are still expensive and
hence their commercial feasibility is limited
to high value and high demand crops only.
Tissue culture is preferred method in many
ornamental crops like gerbera,
chrysanthemum, carnations, saint paulia,
anthurium, orchids, syngoniums and ferns.
In plantation crops like banana, cardamom,
vanilla, large cardamom etc.
Micropropagation played a significant role
in production of disease free planting
material. Micropropagation supplements
conventional propagation in fruit crops like
citrus, apple, peach, ficus, grapes, papaya,
strawberries etc. This is mainly because in
vitro culture can function as an effective filter
to eliminate viral and other pathogens and
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective
facilitating large scale safer cross border
transportation very efficiently. In tuber
yielding crops like potato, ginger, turmeric
and galangal microrhizome technology is
very efficient in production of large scale
disease free clonal planting material of elite
genotypes (Singh and Parthasarathy, 2011a).
Production of vir us free plants
virus
Horticultural crops are susceptible to
many viral pathogens. Meristem culture in
combination with thermotherapy or
chemotherapy, have been effectively used for
production of virus free plants in many
horticultural crops. The most important of
them are orchids, dahlias, garlic,
chrysanthemum, cassava, grape and banana.
Plant regeneration and somatic
embr yogenesis
embryogenesis
Globalization of agriculture is
increasingly calling for improved efficiency
and competitiveness of the existing
production systems. Efficient plant
regeneration protocol is essential for genetic
manipulation of any crop species. With little
more efficiency, cyclic somatic
embryogenesis can become very useful
technique for automation and large scale
propagation of horticulture plants, provided
that the somatic embryos are genetically
stable. Many efficient protocols are being
standardized for efficient cloning of plants
through somatic embryogenesis in mango,
banana, citrus, grapes, pineapple, papaya,
pomegranate, litchi, apple, peach,
strawberry, oil palm, date palm, walnut, ber,
cinnamon, ginger, turmeric, black pepper,
vanilla etc. However, these technologies
have to be scaled up and fine-tuned for
automation before they are commercially
viable(Singh and Parthasarathy, 2011a).
Somaclonal variation and In vitro selection
Variations generated in vitro (somaclonal
variation), can form a good source of
variability especially in ornamentals and
crops with limited genetic variability. In
addition, highly unstable callus culture and
plant regeneration systems are ideally suited
for in vitro selection for biotic and abiotic
stresses. A few useful somaclonal variants
have been selected for further use in breeding
programmes in banana, coriander, cardamom,
ginger, turmeric, vanilla and few variants
resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses were
selected through in vitro selection.
In vitro flowering, In vitro pollination and
Embr
Embryoyo rescue
In vitro flowering and seed setting of
coriander, cumin was reported. Inflorescence
culture and in vitro development of fruit was
also reported in ginger where there is no
natural seed set. In vitro pollination and
hybridization between two short duration
turmeric types VK- resulted in seed set and
seed development. This reduces the breeding
time and helps in recombination breeding.
In vitro culture and Embryo rescue technique
could be successfully used for germination
of seeds and selection of useful genotypes
from segregating progenies in vanilla and
grapes. This technique was also used to
obtain interspecific hybrids between
cultivated V.planifolia and wild V.aphylla
and V. piliferaandV.aphylla and grapes
through embryo rescue.
Development of haploids
Development of haploids and di-
haploids will come a long way in better
understanding of inheritance patterns and
hastening breeding programmes. Plant
regeneration and development of haploids
and di-haploids from anther and microspore
cultures are reported in many crop species
likeAnnona, papaya, Citrus, Litchi, apple,
pomegranate, grape, chilli, tomato, carrot,
potato, brinjal, lily, petunia, tulips etc.but
could not be exploited to its ultimate
utilization so far. The haploid genome if
available will also increase the efficiency of
in vitro transformation and mutagenesis. 169

Protoplast culture and development of
Somatic hybrids
The ‘protoplast’ is a naked cell and the
absence of cell wall makes the protoplast
suitable for a variety of manipulations that
are not normally possible with intact cells
and hence protoplast is an important tool for
parasexual modification of genetic content
of cells. Successful isolation and culture of
protoplasts were reported in citrus, tomato,
sweet potato, brinjal, carrot, cabbage, mint,
potato, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, vanilla,
capsicum, nutmeg, garlic, fennel, fenugreek,
peppermint and saffron. But utilization of
this technology for development of and
somatic hybrids and interspecific hybrid is
still a long way in many crops(Singh and
Parthasarathy, 2011a).
Commercialization of tissue culture
Micro propagation technologies are
available for commercialization in over 100
crops and some of them are given below
(Table 1). These especially in perennials and
medicinal plants can be scaled up.
National Cer tification System for Tissue
Certification
Culture Plants (NC
(NCS-S-TCP)
S-TCP)
National Certification System for Tissue
Culture Plants (NCS-TCP) is the unique
system developed by DBT to support the
plant tissue culture industry. The Department
of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of
Science & Technology, Government of India,
is the Certification Agency for the purpose
of certification of the tissue culture raised
propagules up to laboratory level and to
regulate its genetic fidelity as prescribed.
Biotech Consortium India Limited (BCIL)
has been identified as the Project
Management Unit (PMU for assisting and
managing the Certification System, in terms
of accreditation of tissue culture production
facilities and test laboratories. The Services
offered under NCS-TCP are - 1.
Accreditation of Test Laboratories; 2.
170
Recognition of Tissue Culture Production
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Facilities; 3. Certification of Tissue Culture
Raised Plants and 4. Capacity Building/
Training. Tissue culture standards were set
and guidelines for potato have already been
notified by Ministry of Agriculture and
Guidelines have been approved by Central
Seed Certification Board for other
economical crops like Banana, Apple, Citrus,
Sugarcane, Bamboo, Vanilla and Black
Pepper. Crop specific tissue culture
standards for Anthurium, Lillium, Gerbera,
Orchids, Carnation, Ginger, Cardamom,
Turmeric, Fig, Grape, Strawberry, Mangium,
Teak, and Jatropha are under development.
Two referral laboratories, many accredited
laboratories for virus indexing and genetic
fidelity testing and so far 86 commercial
tissue culture production units have been
recognized under NCS-TCP. This will help
in commercial production of genetically pure
and virus free planting material production
in the country.
Conser vation of ger
Conservation mplasm through In vitro
germplasm
conser vation and Cr
conservation yopreser
Cryopreser vation
yopreservation
The genetic resources of most of the crop
species are conserved either in seed gene
banks and or in field repositories. Storage
of germplasm in seed banks is not practical
in some crops as they are vegetatively
propagated and seeds are recalcitrant and
heterozygous and conservation of the
germplasm in in vitro gene bank and cryo
bank is a viable and safe alternative.
Technologies for in vitro conservation and
Cryopreservation are available for many
horticultural crops (Table 2). Some important
ones where this technology was utilized are
banana, potato, tuber crops, coconut, allium,
spices, citrus, etc. Gene banks for
conservation of horticultural crop
germplasm through in vitro conservation and
Cryopreservation functions at National
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources New
Delhi and a few crop based Institutes. A
pollen bank was also established for
horticultural crops at Indian Institute of
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective
Horticultural Research, Bangalore for
conservation of haploid genome as well as
assisted pollination between species that
flower at different seasons and inter specific
crosses and successful fertilization using
cryopreserved pollen was reported.
Production of Secondar
Secondaryy Metabolites
The use Biotechnology for the
biosynthesis of secondary metabolites
particularly in plants of pharmaceutical
significance holds an interesting alternative
to production of plant constituents.
Proliferation of stigma of saffron in vitro and
chemical analysis of metabolites produced
through tissue cultures was reported in
saffron, chilli, anise, lavender, mint,
rosemary etc. Though the feasibility of in
vitro production of spice principles has been
demonstrated, methodology for scaling up
and reproducibility need to be developed
before it can reach commercial levels. Once
up scaled this technology has tremendous
potential in industrial production of
important high value compounds.
Marker Assisted Selection
Marker
Understanding biology and genetics at
molecular level has become very important
for better understanding and manipulation
of genome architecture. The DNA markers
offer several advantages over traditional
phenotypic markers, have very rapidly
complemented the classical strategies. This
facilitated the development of marker-based
gene tags, map-based cloning of
agronomically important genes, variability
Table 2: Horticultural crops in which in vitro and cryo conservation technologies are available
Asparagus Allium sp.
Black pepper Coconut
Colocasia sp Cherry
Ipomoea batatas Jack
Prunus sp Pyrus sp.
Walnut Xanthosoma sp.
studies, phylogenetic analysis, synteny
mapping, marker-assisted selection of
desirable genotypes, etc. Molecular markers
have been widely used in barcoading of
species, genetic fingerprinting, identification
of duplicates and selecting core collections,
determination of genetic distances, genome
analysis, identification of markers associated
with desirable breeding traits which are
useful in marker assisted breeding, genomics
and development of transgenics. Molecular
level understanding of the inheritance of
agriculturally important traits creates new
opportunities to streamline plant breeding
and significantly reduces breeding time. This
is reflected in the fact that complete
molecular and genetic maps have now been
constructed for at least 100 major crop
species and many more have been
characterized (Tanksley 1993, Patterson
1996, Collard et al., 2005, Francia et al.,
2005 Singh and Parthasarathy, 2011b). Some
examples of molecular markers associated
with important traits of interest in few
horticultural crops are given in Table 3.
Diagnostics
Horticultural crops are attacked by a
large group of pathogens inflicting moderate
to heavy crop losses. Although availability
of planting material and designer agro-
techniques has increased in horticulture
sector but biotic factors continue to be the
bane of horticulture production. Crop health
management during active growth phase and
post harvest health management assumes
significance to reduce the loss and increase
Apium sp Apple Banana
Citrus Curcuma sp. Cardamom
Cassava Dioscorea spp. Grapevine
Mint Musa spp. Oil palm
Potato Populus Vanilla spp.
Zingiber sp. 171
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 3: Examples of association of molecular markers with traits of interest in different horticultural crops

Crop Trait of interest

Apple Columnar growth habit Scab resistance Morphological, developmental
Avocado Skin colour
Banana Fusarium wilt resistance, Sigatoka disease
Beans Bacterial blight resistance, Rust resistance
Capsicum Stunted growth, Fertility restorer gene
Carnation Bacterial wilt resistance
Citrus Dwarfing, CTV resistance
Crucifers Male sterility, Late bolting, Genic male sterility, Flowering time
Cucumber Downy mildew resistance
Grapes Downy mildew resistance
Lettuce Corky root resistance, Downy mildew resistance
Lupin Anthracnose resistance
Melon Fusarium wilt resistance, ZYMV resistance
Papaya Sex determination
Pea Green seed colour, Pea mosaic virus resistance, Fusarium wilt resistance Powdery mildew
resistance
Pear Fire blight resistance
Potato Potato virus Y resistance, Resistance to Phytophthora infestans, Cyst nematode resistance H 1
gene
Tomato Resistance against F.oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici race I, Spotted wilt virus resistance, Tm-1 locus,
Tm-2 locus, Pseudomonas resistance, Insect resistance, Nematode resistance Mi gene,
Cladosporium fulvum resistance, Resistance to powdery mildew, Jointless, Soluble solid content,
Early blight resistance Fusarium crown and root rot resistance, Fruit size
Black pepper Resistance to Phytophthor capsisi

the productivity. Production of quality
planting materials is fast becoming an
important input in disease management
programmes especially in production of
disease/virus free plants. Many accredited
laboratories are being established to test the
genetic fidelity and virus indexing of micro-
propagated plants. These laboratories rely on
various disease diagnostic methods
developed for detection of pathogens at an
early stage. May diagnostic methods like
Elisa, Radio Immunoassay, immuno-
fluorescence, immunoblotting, PCR,
RTPCR, LAMP, NESTED/TAIL PCR,
ARDRA, BIO-PCR, NCHOR/RACE/SLI/
AP-PCR, ITS-PCR, REAL TIME PCR,
MULTIPLEX PCRetc. were developed for
172 fruits, vegetables, plantation crops, spices
and ornamentals which are effectively used
in detection and management of diseases,
viruses and pests. (Singh et al., 2013a).
Bioinfor matics
Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary
field through which biological problems are
addressed using computational techniques.
This makes the rapid organization and
analysis of biological data possible. can be
defined as, “conceptualizing biology in terms
of molecules and then applying informatics
techniques to understand and organize the
information associated with these molecules,
on a large scale.” Bioinformatics plays a key
role in various areas, such as functional
genomics, structural genomics, and
proteomics, and forms a key component in
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective
the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
Several softwares and bioinformatics tools
and databases are available for handling the
complex nucleotide data, prediction of
putative, functional or structural components
of complex macromolecules, prediction of
transcription factor binding sites,
identification of sequence polymorphisms
and to predict the amino acid changes which
are responsible for changes in encoded
protein structure and/or function. Chemi-
informatics can be used for identifying
potentially new chemicals with usuful
medicinal properties. Bioinformatics is
effectively used in drug designing in pharma
industry.
Genomics
The development of Next generation
sequencing (NGS) platforms with increased
throughputhas made sequencing faster,
cheaper and more accurate. Wholegenomes
of many model plant species were
completely sequenced. The list contains
(both higher and lower plants) about 100
plant species where the complete genome
sequences that have been assembled,
annotated and published. The most important
of them are Arabidopsis, sugar beet, chinese
cabbage, Cannabis sativa, papaya,
watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, rubber
tree, Jatropha, cassava, caster, pegion pea,
chickpea, soybean,Medicago, cocoa, cotton,
neem, eucalyptus, apple, cherry, plum,
peach, almond, pear, sweet orange, grape,
tomato, potato, tobacco, chili, petunia,
barley, rice, sorghum, wheat, maize, banana,
date palm, oil palm, pine etc. The
information on whole genome gives us better
understanding of genome architecture and
helps us better equipped for genetic
manipulations and gene therapy.
Information on similar orheterologus
genes and pathogens is currently available
in various databases and on available BAC
genomic libraries, EST libraries, short insert
DNA libraries, repetitive DNA clones, and
molecular cytogenetic markers. The
information generated will also help in better
understanding of other related
families.Unique developmental aspects,
divergent phenotypes and habitats of
Solanaceae make the family an ideal model
to investigate the basis of diversification and
adaptation. In view of this uniqueness, a
global tomato genome sequencing project
designated “International Solanaceae
Genome Project (SOL) has been in
operation. Given the high degree of
similarity of tomato, potato, tobacco, and
pepper genomes, it will be particularly
interesting to apply tomato genome
information to pepper vice vesausing a
comparative genomics approach The
solanum genome network (SGN) was also
established. A similar consortium is aso
operating in banana, ieInternational Network
on Improvement of Banana and Plantain
(INIBAP). INIBAP has developed Musa
Germplasm Information System (MGIS)
which contains information - including
morpho-taxonomic descriptions, agronomic
traits, disease resistance, stress tolerance,
biochemical or molecular data, and GIS
information - on 5188 accessions.
Information, on BAC genomic and c DNA
libraries, EST libraries, short insert DNA
libraries, repetitive DNA clones, promoters
and molecular cytogenetic markers on Musa,
is also available at the global Musa genomics
consortium at INIBAP.Softwaretools for
storage, annotation and analysis of ESTs are
also available. This should lead to rapid
progress in the identification and
characterization of genes of interest from
Musa and their use in genetic improvement
programs (Singh and Parthasarathy, 2011c).
Metagenomics and proteomics in biomining
microorganisms
The use of acidophilic, chemolithotrophic
microorganisms capable of oxidizing iron
and sulfur in industrial processes to recover
metals from minerals containing copper, 173

gold and uranium is a well established
biotechnology with distinctive advantages
over traditional mining. A consortium of
different microorganisms participates in the
oxidative reactions resulting in the extraction
of dissolved metal values from ores.
Considerable effort has been spent in the last
years to understand the biochemistry of iron
and sulfur compounds oxidation, bacteria–
mineral interactions (chemotaxis, quorum
sensing, adhesion, biofilm formation) and
several adaptive responses allowing the
microorganisms to survive in a bioleaching
environment. The use of genomics,
metagenomics and high throughput
proteomics to study the global regulatory
responses that the biomining community
uses to adapt to their changing environment
is just beginning to emerge in the last years.
Systems microbiology approach , make it
possible to explore the new properties of
microorganisms that arise from the interplay
of genes, proteins, other macromolecules,
small molecules, and the environment. These
tools will be essential not only to perform
functional genomics and have experimental
demonstrations for the suggested gene
functions based on bioinformatics analysis
of the new post genomic data that is
progressively more available, but also to
improve bacterial capacity to oxidize iron
and sulfur, to form biofilms on the surface
of minerals and other properties by the
introduction of the corresponding key genes
involved.
Allele mining
Several challenging scientific tasks in the
postgenomic era, like hunting for the genes
underlying complex diseases from genome-
wide gene expression profiles and thereby
building the corresponding gene networks
are underway. Enormous sequence
information is available in public databases
as a result of sequencing of diverse crop
genomes. It is important to use this genomic
174 information for the identification and
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
isolation of novel and superior alleles of
agronomically important genes from crop
gene pools to suitably deploy for the
development of improved cultivars. Allele
mining is to detect naturally occurring allelic
variation at candidate genes controlling key
agronomic traits which has potential
applications in crop improvement programs.
Some of the major approaches for the
identification of given gene are TILLING
(Targeting Induced Local Lesions in
Genomes), the gene chip and DNA
microarrays., which allows mining and
determination of expression profiles on the
genome level with many hundred genes at
the same time. Allele mining through
sequencing would soon become a universal
tool to score variations at candidate genes
between individuals and become an effective
and economically viable method of choice
for identification and development of novel
genetic resources for deployment in plant
breeding. Many bioinformatics tools are
available for allel minig (Table 4). The
important horticultural crops in which allele
mining was attempted are given in Table 5.
With the dramatic increase in our
knowledge and competency in molecular
biology especially in isolation and cloning
of important and useful genes of agronomic
interest it is expected that these technologies
will play a major role in increasing the
production and productivity of crop species
and help in crossing the yield barriers.
Gene cloning is the process of extracting
DNA from a host cell and implanting it to
function in another type of cell. Cloning and
isolation of useful genes and transfer and
expression of these ‘foreign’ genes in plants
has become a major tool to obtain plant
varieties of potential agricultural interest.
Many useful genes responsible for
agronomically important characters,
especially for biotic and a biotic stresses
were isolated and being utilized in most
horticultural crops especially in potato,
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective

Table 4: List of bioinformatic tools/web resources/databases useful for allele/promoter mining

Sl. No. Name Utility Available at

1. PLACE (plant cis acting Database of Transcription http://www.dna.affrc.go.jp/
regulatory DNA elements) Factor (TF) binding motifs PLACE/index.html
2. Plant CARE Plant cis acting regulatory http://bioinformatics.psb.
elements database ugent.be/webtools/
plantcare/html
3. TRANSFAC Database of TF and TF http://www.gene-
binding motifs regulation.com/pub/
programs.html
4. JASPAR Transcription factor binding http://jaspar.genereg.net/
site database
5. W-Align ACE Motif discovery tool http://www1.spms.ntu.
edu.sg/chenxin/W-
AlignACE/
6. MEME (Multiple EM for Motif discovery tool http://meme.nbcr.net/
Motif Elicitation) meme4_1/cgi-bin/
meme.cgi
7. Plantprom DB Plant promoter database http://mendel.cs.rhul.ac.
uk/mendel.php?topic=
plantprom
8. MATinspector To predict TFBS and of promoter http://www.genomatix.de/
analysis products/MatInspector/
9. EPD Eukaryotic promoter database http://www.epd.isb-sib.ch/
10. TRRD Regulatory regions database http://wwwmgs.bionet.nsc.
(description of regulatory elements ru/mgs/gnw/trrd/
and TFBS)
11. SCPD Saccharomyces cerevisiae http://rulai.cshl.edu/SCPD/
promoter database
12. DCPD Drosophila core promoter database http://www-biology.ucsd.
edu/labs/Kadonaga/
DCPD.html
13. TRED (transcriptional regulatory Collection of mammalian regulatory http://rulai.cshl.edu/cgi-bin/
element database) elements TRED/tred.cgi?process=
home
14. ooTFD Object oriented -transcription http://www.ifti.org/ootfd/
factors database
15. AGRIS TF and RE databases http://arabidopsis.med.
ohio-state.edu
16. Module Finder and CoReg Gene co-expression and link with –
promoter elements
17. Fast PCR Nucleotide sequence analysis –
and primer design
18. Primer 3 Primer design http://frodo.wi.mit.edu/
primer3/
19. BioEdit Nucleotide sequence analysis www.mbio.ncsu.edu/
BioEdit/BioEdit.html
20. Clustal W Sequence alignment www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/
clustralw/
175

Table 5: The important horticultural crops in which allele mining was attempted
Sl. No. Crop Allele/locus
1. Apple Mal d 3
2. Apricot s Self-incompatibility
3. Grapevine VvmybA1
4. Pea TI1
5. Potato Rpi-blb1
6. Tomato Pto
7. Chilli pvr2-eIF4Epvr
6-eIF(iso)4E
tomato, brinjal, brassica, capsicum,
medicago, lettuce, tobacco, banana, pea,
cardamom, vanilla, black pepper, ginger and
many floriculture plants.
Discovery of new genes for biotic and
abiotic stress tolerance, combined with
controlled molecular breeding will have an
important role in shaping agricultural plants
in the post-genomic era. Important Genes for
Insect, bacterial, fungal, viral, nematode,
drought, salinity resistance were isolated and
are being utilized in crop improvement
programmes. Genes encoding Enzymes that
synthesize Osmotic and other Protectants,
Late Embryogenesis Abundant (LEA)-
Related Genes, Hormone regulating Genes,
Oxidative Stress related Genes, Genes
encoding Proton Pumps, Antiporters and Ion
Transporters, oat protein genes. The cloned
genes can be transferred to the target cells
using bacterial and viral vectors,
microprojectiles, Electroporation, Liposome
mediated, via pollen tube, calcium phosphate
precipitation etc.
Many successes were reported in
solation of genes responsible for
agronomically important characters,
especially for biotic and a biotic stresses.
Some examples are - Replicase gene of the
tomato leaf curl virus from Bangalore
(monopartite geminivirus), nucleocapsid
gene of tomato tospo virus and watermelon
176 budnecrosis gene and coat protein gene of
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Trait/name of the protein Author
Allergenicity Gao et al. (2005)
Halasz et al. (2005)
Transcriptional regulator of This et al. (2007)
anthocyanin biosynthesis
Trypsin inhibitors characterization Sonnante et al. (2005)
Late blight resistance Wang et al. (2008c)
Disease resistance Rose et al. (2005)
Pepper veinal mottle virus resistance Rubio et al. (2009)
citrus tristeza virus and PRSV were cloned
and sequenced. Plant expression vector for
all the above genes under the control of nos
promoter and terminator were made. Double
constructs for replicase gene of TLCV and
nucleocapsid gene of PBNV and plantibody
construct for coat protein of CTV under the
same promoter and terminator.
Chitinase was gene isolated from local
isolates of Trichoderma harzianum and
constructs was made. Efficacy of the gene
constructs in inhibiting the fungal growth in
vitro as well as in vivo in the detached leaves
of tobacco transformants containing the gene
has been demonstrated. Antimicrobial
peptides (AMP) gene for disease resistance
was cloned from onion seeds and construct
was prepared in pCambia 2301. For abiotic
stress DREB 1A and DREB 2A constructs
have been cloned and construct prepared For
delayed ripening anti-sense gene construct
of ACC oxidase gene of banana cvs. Robusta
and Ney Poovan and papaya cv. surya in
pCambia and pGreen binary vector
backgrounds have been developed.VIP gene
has been cloned from B.thurengiensis local
strains and expression vector preparedfor
insect resistance. Replicase gene (AC1) of
Indian cassava mosaic virus was cloned (full
length of gene 1055 bp – named as 19R) in
pBin AR plant transformation vector. In
black pepper Molecular cloning of a cDNA
fragment encoding the defense related
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective
protein β-1,3-glucanase in black pepper (P.
nigrum L.) and methyl glutaryl CoA
reductase in Piper colubrinum was reported.
Isolation and sequencing of CMV coat
protein gene infecting black pepper was done
and development of trasgenics using this
gene is in progress. In mushrooms, recently
attempts have also been made for
identification of the postharvest changes
related gene family and superoxide
dismutase, a stress-adaption gene cDNA and
genomic DNA has been fully sequenced.
Genetically Modified Crops
Genetically modified crops (“GM
crops”, or “biotech crops”) are plants used
in agriculture, the DNA of which has been
modified using genetic engineering
techniques. In most cases the aim is to
introduce a new trait to the plant which does
not occur naturally in the species. Examples
in food crops include resistance to certain
pests, diseases, stressful environmental
conditions, resistance to chemical treatments
(e.g. resistance to a herbicide), reduction of
spoilage, or improving the nutrient profile
of the crop. Since the first development of
the famous ‘FlavrSavr’ tomato, which failed
to take off in spite of many desirable traits,
lot of development have happened in the
field of genetic transformation of
horticultural crops. The most recent success
has been the release of the transgenic papaya
variety “Rainbow”, which is the first
commercialized transgenic fruit crops and
covers an estimated 71% of total papaya
variety in Hawaii.
Although the capacity to introduce and
manipulate specific gene expression in plants
provides a powerful tool for fundamental
research, much of the support for plant
transformation research has been provided
because of the generation of plants with
useful and rapidly discernible phenotypes
which are unachievable by conventional plant
breeding, i.e., resistance to viruses, insects,
herbicides, post-harvest deterioration. Plants
useful for production of materials ranging
from pharmaceuticals to biodegradable
plastics have been obtained using this new
technology.
The transgene studies carried out world
over in many laboratories for the past three
decades have led to development of many
interesting breakthroughs, notable among
them in the recent past are post transcriptional
gene silencing and small interfering RNA
(siRNA) for genetic manipulations.
Transgenic crops such as tomato, cotton,
maize, soybean, etc., are now available for
human consumption and by complementing
traditional methods of crop improvement and
thus becoming an integral part of agriculture.
Many more genetically modified organisms
were developed and are in the process of
development to overcome biotic and abiotic
stresses. The most important of them are
tomatoes with long shelf life, insect and virus
resistant Potatoes. Some of the Horticultural
Biotech Crops in the Market are virus
resistant papaya and squash. Herbicide
resistant lettuce, tomato, strawberries and
sugar beets were also developed for chemical
weeding. Insect resistant broccoli, apples and
walnut are available. Apples and brinjal with
Bt were already developed and are in field
trials and they can be cultivated without
insecticides. Virus resistant stone fruits
(plum pox virus), raspberries (bushy dwarf
virus), citrus (tristeza virus) and bacteria
resistant grapes (Pierce’s disease), citrus
(Bacterial canker), apples (Fire blight),
walnut (Crown gall) were the other successful
stories. Successful development of pumpkin,
watermelon, tomato and chili pepper resistant
to biotic stresses were also reported. A large
number of transgenics, essentially for studies
on gene expression and in some cases for
change in flower colour, shelf life etc, were
developed in major ornamental plants. They
have a profound impact on food production,
economic development and on the
development of a sustainable agricultural
system. 177

Genetic transformation technologies
were developed and are being used to
develop genotypes resistant to fungal, viral
pathogens, insects and also for drought and
salinity tolerance. The crops where
significant progress was made include
potato, tomato, papaya, brinjal, onion and
chilli. Significant progress was also made
in engineering for quality and delayed
ripening of fruits on tomato.
Transgenic watermelon cv Arka Manik
resistant to WBNVwas developed – T3
plants are being evaluated. Transgenic
tomato Arka Saurabh, Arka Vikas, Arka
Meghali for resistance to TLCV, Arka
Saurabh, Arka Vikas, Arka Meghali for
resistance to Tomato tospo virus, and for
combined resistance to TLCV and Tospo
virus have been generated and they are at
the evaluation stage. Transgenic tomato cv
Arka Vikas with chitinase gene, T1 stage
showed increased resistance to Alternaria
solani compared to control. Bt transgenic
brinjal and tomato have been developed and
the transformants are in different stages of
testing and multiplication.Transgenic tomato
and chilli plants with DREB 1A gene for
abiotic stress resistance have been developed
which are at T2 stage of evaluation.
The transgenics where field trials are in
progress are potato, tomato and brinjal in
public sector and potato, tomato, brinjal,
okra and cauliflower in private sector. The
genes used are cry1Aa,cry1Ac, cry1Ba,
cry1Aabc, cry1Ca, cry1Ec, rice chitinase,
tobacco osmotin, antisence replicase gene of
tomato leaf curl virus etc. Around 17 crops
are permitted fir field trails in India recently
(DAC 2012).
Issues RRegarding
egarding the GMOs
Acceptance of GMOs in to the
environmernt has the following apprehensions.
Transgenic hazards
178 • The movement of the transgene
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
• The transgenic plant itself
• Non-target hazards
• Resistance evolution in the targeted
pest population
• Seed dispersal
• Horizontal transfer
In addition other ethical concerns are
• New GM organisms are patented and
life could become commercial
property.
• Possible monopolization of world food
market by MNCs that control the
distribution of GM seeds.
• Using genes from animals in plant
foods may pose ethical, philosophical
or religious problems.
A fully integrated approach to the hazard
assessment and characterization of all
elements involved in producing a new GM
varietyis needed to address these concerns.
Regulator
egulatoryy frame work in India
Ministry of Environment and Forest ,
GOI, notified rules and procedures for the
manufacture, import, use, release of
genetically modified prganisms as well as
products made by them on Dec. 5.1989 under
Environmental protection act, 1986 and the
guidelines are continually updated. The
various agencies which monitor the
development and evaluation of GMO are
given below.
MOEF have six competent authorities to
implement the rrules
ules
1) Recombinant DNA advisory
committee (RDAC): Development in
at national and international level
2) Review committee on genetic
manipulation (RCGM): On going
research activities on GMO and small
field trial
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective
3) Genetic engineering approval
committee (GEAC): Large scale field
trial, food evaluation
4) Institutional biosafety committees
(IBSC): Monitors institute level
reserch
5) State biosafety coordination
committees (SBCC): Coordinate with
center regarding research on GMO
6) District Level CommitteeS (DLC)
Thus the regulatory mechanisam of
GMO development in Inadia is robust.
Acceptance of GMOs around the world
Farmers have widely adopted GM
technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the
total surface area of land cultivated with GM
crops had increased by a factor of 94, from
17,000 square kilometers (4,200,000 acres)
to 1,600,000 km2 (395 million acres). 10%
of the world’s crop lands were planted with
GM crops in 2010. As of 2011, 11 different
transgenic crops were grown commercially
on 395 million acres (160 million hectares)
in 29 countries such as the USA, Brazil,
Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay,
Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia,
Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina
Faso, Mexico and Spain. Commercial sale
of genetically modified foods began in 1994,
when Calgene first marketed its FlavrSavr
delayed ripening tomato. To date most
genetic modification of foods have primarily
focused on cash crops in high demand by
farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and
cotton seed oil. These have been engineered
for resistance to pathogens and herbicides
and better nutrient profiles. GM livestock
have also been experimentally developed,
although as of November 2013 none are
currently on the market.
Molecular far ming / biophar
farming ming
biopharming
The use of agricultural plants for the
production of useful molecules for non food,
feed or fiber applications is called molecular
farming, pharming or biopharming.
Remarkably also, plant biotechnology
techniques have been used to create plants
over expressing genes from human
pathogens, the resulting plants accumulating
proteins with immunogenic properties.
These plants have been proved to be effective
in causing oral immunization against
diseases such as hepatitis B, cholera and
rabies which demonstrate the feasibility of
using transgenic plants as expression and
delivery systems for oral vaccines
Examples in non-food crops include
production of pharmaceutical agents,
biofuels, and other industrially useful goods,
as well as for bioremediation.
Nanotechnology - an emerging technology
All organisms, from microbes to
humans, are powered by highly evolved
molecular and cellular machines that operate
at the nano level. Nature has been performing
‘nanotechnological feats’ for millions of
years. Nanotechnology is the creation and
utilization of materials, devices and systems
through the control of the properties and
structure of matter at the nanometric scale.
Nanobiotechnology is a new and exciting
field of research, in which recent advances
in nanotechnology are integrated into the
biology realm, in particular into molecular
biology and cell biology. ‘Nano’ usually
refers to a size scale between 1 nanometre
(nm) and 100 nm. Nanotechnology promises
to deliver novel products and processes or
enhance the performance of existing ones
across a range of domains like water, energy,
health, agriculture and environment. Though
nanotechnology is bringing about a rapid
revolution in consumer, medical and
industrial sectors, it may also pose a potential
threat to environment and human health
(Singh et al., 2013 b).
Nanotechnology has the potential to
revolutionize the agriculture and food
industry by developing new tools for rapid 179
disease diagnosis and to combat pathogens

of plants/ animals, enhancing nutrient
absorption etc. Applications of
nanotechnology in agriculture include, crop
improvement, nanobiotechnology, analysis
of gene expression and regulation, soil
management, plant disease diagnostics,
efficient pesticides and fertilizer
formulations, water management,
bioprocessing, post harvest technology,
monitoring the identity and quality of
agricultural products and precision
agriculture etc. Nanotechnology also
provides new tools specifically designed for
separation, identification and quantification
of biological molecules.
The important areas in agriculture where
nanotechnology is relevant are summarized
below:
1. Lower agricultural input efficiency
• Nanofertilizers for slow release
and efficient use of water and
fertilizers by plants
• Nanocides – pesticides
encapsulated in nanoparticles for
controlled release, and
nanoemulsions for greater
efficiency
• Delivery of nutrients and drugs
for livestock and fisheries
2. Unsustainable farm management
• Nanoparticles for soil conservation
• Early diagnosis of plant health
• Nanosensors for soil quality and
for plant health monitoring, and
for precision agriculture,
controlled environment
agriculture.
• Nanobrushes and membranes for
soil and water purification
• Nanomagnets for removal of soil
contaminants
3. Agricultural productivity enhancement
180
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
• Genetic improvements of plants
and animals
• Delivery of genes and drug
molecules to specific sites at
cellular levels in plants and
Animals
• Nano-array based gene
technologies for gene expressions
in plants and animals under stress
conditions
4. Vulnerabilities to climate change due
to global warming
• Nano based gene technologies in
crops bred to withstand heat, salt,
submergence or water logging.
5. Food packaging industry
• Use of nanomaterials in food
packaging for enhanced
protection of foodstuffs,
nanosensors for detection of food
spoilage and nanobarcodes to
track identity and quality of
packaged foods is another
important area.
The potential of nanotechnology in the
agricultural and food industry has still not
been realized.
Bio and FFood
ood Safety
There is broad scientific consensus that
food on the market derived from GM crops
poses no greater risk to human health than
conventional food. GM crops also provide a
number of ecological benefits, if not used in
excess. However there are many concerns
regarding GM crops per se on several
grounds, including environmental concerns,
food safety and genetic erosion. Another
concern is, whether GM crops are needed to
address the world’s food needs and economic
concerns raised by the fact these organisms
are subject to intellectual property law.
Stringent regulations are in place in
respective countries to ensure these concerns
Dynamics of Biotechnological Approaches for Food and Nutritional Security – A Perspective
are addressed scientifically and only safe
GMOs are released into the environment. As
public experience and understanding of plant
transformation increase, the regulatory
process to assess environmental risk will
focus on products rather than on the method
of gene transfer. Regulatory agencies and
commercial interests are concerned about the
environmental impact, distribution
uncertainty, and public perception of
widespread release of organisms expressing
genes that confer resistance to antibiotics or
herbicides. It is therefore desirable to
develop new environment friendly selection
methods.
Impact
Micropropagation is a big industry in the
world and this lead to increased employment
opportunities for skilled and semi skilled
personnel. In states like Kerala many small
units for micropropagation, multiplication of
biocontrol agents, mushroom cultivation etc
were established at district level to involving
economically weaker sections of the people
and women groups. Out sourcing the
hardening systems to women’s self help
groups like “Kutumbasree” and marketing
and sale of micropropagated plants through
local nurseries has helped.
Many women’s groups and women
entrepreneurs are involved in producing and
marketing mushrooms, orchids and
medicinal plants as village industry.
These have substantially helped local
communities in increasing their incomes at
the same time helped in distribution of
disease free planting materials. This also
made available high protein diets like
mushrooms with in the reach of lower
income groups, aroused interest in growing
nutritional and medicinal plant gardens in
their homesteads.
The use of biocontrol agents minimize
use of toxic fungicides and pesticides and
help in reducing the environmental pollution.
In vitro technology coupled with
conventional conservation efforts and
molecular characterization helping
identifying and conserving the core
collations of horticultural crop germplasm.
Molecular markers are fast becoming
diagnostic tools for genetic purity, pathogen
diagnostics and checking adulteration.
Marker assisted Breeding is helping to hasten
and increase the efficiency of plant breeding
and reducing the breeding cycle.
All these technologies will come along
way in improving the livelihood and quality
of human living standards.
Future thr ust
thrust
With the biotechnological back ground and
expertise developed a uturistic view of
horticultural biotechnology may focus on
Automation of micropropagation process for
large scale prodiction of quality disease fee
materials, using haploids and dihaploids in
reducing breeding cylcle and for efficient
transformation, use of chloroplast
transformation technology to circumvent
gene flow and associated biosafety concerns;
use of molecular markers for barcoading the
germplasm and avoid duplicates, tagging
agronomically important genes and MAS;
better understanding of the processes
involved of biotic and abiotic stress
mechanisms, population dynamics, host
parasite interactions, signal transduction path
ways, transcription factors coupled with
advancement in genomics, gene isolation
and transgenic development to address the
ever-changing scenario of climate and
environment and to maintain the balance
between production and population growth.
In addition concentration on improvement
of nutritional factors in horticultural crops
and use of plant systems for developing and
harvesting plantibodies and
pharmaceutically important prodicts and
compounds will come a long way to make
horticulture to take its rightful place in 181
human development and progress.

Impor tant RReferences
Important eferences
Collard, B.C.Y., Jahufer, M.Z.Z., Brouwer, J.B., Pang,
E.C.K. (2005). An introduction to markers,
quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping and marker-
assisted selection for crop improvement: The basic
concepts. Euphytica 142:169-196.
Department of Agriculture and Cooperation (2012). 37th
Report Committee on Agriculture (2011-2012).
Cultivation of Genetically Modified Food crops –
Prospects and Effects, Ministry of Agriculture
(Department of Agriculture and Cooperation), New
Delhi.
Francia, E., Tacconi, G., Crosatti, C., Barabaschi, D.,
Bulgarelli, D., Dall’Aglio, E., Vale, G. (2005). Marker
assisted selection in crop plants. Plant Cell Tissue
and Organ Culture 82: 317-342.
Patterson, A.H. (1996). Genome mapping in Plants.
Academic Press. P. 40-90.
Singh, H.P. and Parthasarathy, V.A. (2011a).
Biotechnology in Horticulture – Regeneration
Systems - Status, Progress and Future, In H.P.
Singh, V.A. Parthasarathy and K. Nirmal Babu (eds)
Advances in Horticulture Biotechnology- Volume
1, Regeneration Systems, Fruit Crops, Plantation
Crops and Spices, Westville Publishing, House,
New Delhi, p. 1-13.
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Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Singh, H.P. and Parthasarathy, V.A. (2011b). Molecular
markers and Marker aided selection, In H.P. Singh,
V. A. Parthasarathy and K. Nirmal Babu (eds)
Advances in Horticulture Biotechnology - Volume
3, Molecular Markers and Marker Assisted
Selection - Fruit Crops, Plantation Crops and
Spices, Westville, Westville Publishing House, New
Delhi, p. p. 1-12.
Singh, H.P. and Parthasarathy, V.A. (2011c). Molecular
markers and Marker aided selection, In H.P. Singh,
V.A. Parthasarathy and K. Nirmal Babu (eds)
Advances in Horticulture Biotechnology - Volume
5, Gene cloning and Transgenics, Westville
Publishing House, New Delhi. p. 1-15.
Singh, H.P., Anil Kumar, Parthasarathy, V.A. and Babita
Singh (2013b) Advances In Horticulture
Biotechnology- Volume 5, Nanotechnology in
Agriculture, Westville Publishing House, New Delhi.
pp. 367.
Singh, H.P., Anandaraj, M. and Bhat, A.I. (2013a),
Advances in Horticulture Biotechnology - Volume
7, Diagnostics for Horticulture Crops, Westville
Publishing House, New Delhi. pp. 348
Tanksley, S.D. (1993). Mapping Polygenes, Ann. Rev.
Genet. 27: 205-21.
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 183-191, 2015

Development of Orchid Biodiversity -based

Biodiversity-based
Microenterprises for Conser vation
Conservation
and Income Generation
D.R. SINGH
Director, National Research Centre for Orchids,
Pakyong-737 106 East Sikkim
e-mail: drsinghhort66@gmail.com

Summar
Summaryy
Today, orchids are being discussed and debated on many forums as flowers for trade,
livelihood and source to improve economy of hilly backward regions of the country. One
cannot keep himself out of sight from the decoration set for public or private gathering and
marriage. The bewitching beauty, bewildering shape and size, breadth taking colors allure
everyone. North eastern states of India are very rich in orchid biodiversity and orchids are
no exception. Nearly 860 species are known to grow wildly in this region. The two states,
Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim harbor largest orchid genetic resource of the country. The
biodiversity based enterprise has the potential to lift individuals and communities out of
poverty while conserving biodiversity. In this paper various options for setting biodiversity
based enterprises are discussed which would be helpful in conserving biodiversity at one
hand and creating livelihood opportunities among the people of orchid biodiversity rich
region of north eastern states of India.

Introduction of orchids from their natural habitats is still

cheaper option for the traders. Potential of
The orchids are admired world over for
orchid species in floriculture and medicine
their bewitching beauty, bewildering shape
and food has been debated at various forums
and size, breadth taking colors, therapeutic
and concluded that a large number of species
value and more importantly keeping quality
hold good promise for exploitation.
of flowers that surpasses with other
However, a very few systematic efforts have
flowering plants of the world. Owing to these
been made to this direction. The biodiversity
qualities, orchids are now ruling over the
based enterprise has the potential to lift
world floriculture market. However, the wild
individuals and communities out of poverty
genetic resources under this family are
while conserving biodiversity. The joint
declining very fast due to various regions
forest management policies of the
including overexploitation and clandestine
government are directed to provide
trade for various purposes. The collection

livelihood to forest dwellers by harvesting
minor produce from the natural habitats. One
can see, forest dwelling communities selling
live plants including orchids in Shillong,
Meghalaya. There is big demand for Indian
orchids in foreign markets. A large number
of orchid species are exported annually to
the destination like USA, Germany, Japan
and Canada. Apart from export, the wild
orchids are used as potted plant, cut flower
and medicine. At presently, such uses of
orchids are localized and primarily based on
the plants collected from the natural habitats.
Here is an opportunity to expand the market
based on plants produced in the tissue culture
laboratories. The twin strategy development
of orchid biodiversity based enterprises and
dealing firmly with unscrupulous collectors
would be helpful in establishing genuine
trade orchid species.
Orchid distribution, habit and habitat
There are 1331 species known to occur
within the political boundaries of India.
North Eastern Himalaya is very rich in orchid
biodiversity and nearly 860 species are
known to found in this region. The largest
biodiversity found in Arunachal Pradesh
followed by in Sikkim and Meghalaya. The
least orchid biodiversity has been recorded
from Tripura (Fig. 1).
184 Fig. 1: Orchid biodiversity in North Eastern States of India
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Orchids can be found growing in open
grass lands, marshy land or under the shady
forest floors (terrestrials), clasping the tree
trunks or branches in open or hiding under
the tree canopies (epiphytes), clinging with
the stones or rocks (lithophytes) and
surviving on dead or decayed organic matter
(saprophytes). The orchids that grow on
ground have varying requirements
requirement for substrate, water requirement
(soil) to which they are adapted. For
example, Paphiopedilum prefer to grow on
lime stone or calcareous soil while
Dactylorhiza hatagirea grows best on acidic
soils; Spiranthes sinensis and Satyrium
nepalensis grows in stony open grassy lands
having very low moisture content whereas
Goodyera procera prefers marshy soil;
Anthgonium gracile grows best on sun
facing steep mud embankments while
species of Calanthe, Odotochilus prefer to
grow on humus rich soils under the dense
forest cover. In some orchids, the growing
point (apical bud) grows ceaselessly and
flowers are borne on the stem (monopodial)
e. g. Vanda, whereas in others the growing
point ceases the growth and is replaced by a
new auxiliary bud (Sympodial) e. g.
Dendrobium, Cymbidium, Coelogyne etc. In
general, new shoot buds emerge just before
or after the flowering.
Development of Orchid Biodiversity-based Microenterprises for Conservation and Income Generation
The orchid rich habitats of the country
lie in alpine and sub-alpine zone (3500-5000
m), temperate and sub temperate zone (1850-
3500 m), subtropical zone (850-1850 m),
tropical zone (250-850 m) and plains (sea
level – 250 m). Each zone has its own
characteristic features with regard to climatic
and microclimatic conditions. Alpine and
sub alpine zone is characterized by open
grassy meadows exposed rock surfaces,
scrubby vegetation, very high light intensity
and very low temperature during winters. in
this zone orchid species like Didicea
cunnighmaii, Orchis puberula and
Cypripedium species grow on rocky banks
along the streams; Satyrium nepalensis,
Orchis species and Herminium species in
open grassy lands; Aphyllorchis species and
Epipactis on the floors of forests. The
temperate to sub temperate zone is
characterized by presence of fog and mist
almost round the year and high light intensity
coupled with low temperature during
winters. Here orchids like Pleione humilis,
P. praecox, Cymbidium hookerianum, C.
devonianum, C. elegans, C. gammieanum,
Dendrobium hookeriana can seen growing
on tree trunks or on the rocks while Satyrium
nepalense, Herminium species and species
Habaneria grow on grassy slopes. The
subtropical zone is characterized by heavy
summer rains and mild day temperature
between 25-30 oC along with slightly cooler
nights (20 oC) and dry and cold winters. The
orchids like Anoectochilus brevilabris,
Odontochilus lancelatus, Eulophia
brevilabris, grow on forest floors rich in
humus; the species of Coelogyne,
Cymbidium can be seen growing on trees
whereas species like Anthogonium gracile
grow on sun facing mud embankments. The
tropical zone is characterized by hot
summers (30-35 oC) and cooler nights (20-
25 oC) accompanied with a very high
humidity. Species of Dendrobium,
Cymbidium alofolim, C. pendulum,
Coelogyne favida, etc grow on trees whereas
species like Anoectochilus roxburghii
Goodyera hispida on shady embankments.
The plains are characterized by very high
summer temperature with relatively cooler
nights, lower humidity. The species which
inhabit in this zone incude Aerides
multiflorum, Dendrobium aphyllum, Vanda
tesselata, Eulophia comprestis, Phalaenopsis
speciosa etc.
Economic value
Orchids represent royalty and aristocracy
in medicine and floriculture. The flowers of
orchids are well known for their uniqueness
of shape, breath taking colors, and
exceptionally long shelf life that surpasses
many other floriculture crops. The life of
flowers on the plant varies with the species.
It has been found that life of the flowers on
the plants of Zygopetalum intermedium (18
days), Phaius tankervillae (24 days), Aerides
odoratum, A. multiflorum, Cymbidium
iridioides, Dendrobium nobile and
Renanthera imschootiana (28-56 days),
Paphiopedilum hirtutissimum, P. wardianum
(56 days) and Vanda coerulea, Vanda teres
(28-42 days). These qualities have made
orchid growing a highly profitable industry
all-over the world. Today, more than 1,
25,000 hybrids are known and cultivated for
cut flowers and potted plants and more and
more new ones are being registered every
month. A large number of species bear
attractive flowers and have capacity for
interspecific as well as intergeneric
hybridization that has generated tremendous
possibilities producing hybrids of diverse
floral characteristics. There are about 70
species of Indian orchids that have been used
for producing several primary and other
generation hybrids in and outside country.
Thus, wild native orchids are likely to play
a unique role in the development of new
cultivars/ hybrids and also restructuring of
existing ones with one or other attributes.
The orchids also have inherent capacity for
drought resistance, nutrient conservation,
long shelf life etc. which are not fully 185

understood today. For these reasons, it is
believed that orchids can contribute many
valuable genes to other crops.
The Indian orchids have also been used
in various indigenous systems of medicines
since time immemorial. In the Ayurvedic
system of medicine, a group of eight drugs
known as ‘Ashtavergha’ is used in the
preparation of various rejuvenating
formulations and the tonics such as
‘Chyavanprash’. Among eight drugs of
ashtawarga group, Jeevak (Malaxis
muscifera), Rishbhak (Malaxis acuminata),
Ridhi (Habenaria intermedia) and Vridhi
(Habenaria edgeworthii) come from orchids.
The ethnobotanical studies carried out in the
country have shown that various orchids are
used for treating ailments like Dactylorhiza
hatagirea, Cypripedium parviflora, Vanda
roxburghii, Orchis latifoia, used for
aphrodisiac and nervine tonic; Habenaria
pectinata for snake bite; Eria nuda for worm
infection; Dendrobium nobile for pulmonary
tuberculosis; Anoectochilus formosus for
Hepatitis, hypertension and cancer are
mention a few. There are many more orchids
that are used as medicine. Though most
important commercial product isolated from
orchids is Vanillin from cured beans of
Vanilla planifolia, which is used for flouring
chocolates, pudding ice cream and also used
as deodorants in soaps, perfumes and
powders. Till recent past little attention
was paid for isolation and identification
of therapeutically important
phytochemical constituents of orchids but
recently the utility of Cymbidium hybrids,
Epipactis hellebonie and Liparis ovata in
anti-AIDS medicine has been identified.
Orchids have now come under ambitious
chemical study for extraction of alkaloids,
polyphenols, terpenoids, steroids and other
molecules of biological interest. The future
application of such studies may eventually
turn commercial to create new forms of
drugs.
186
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Oppor tunities orchid biodiversity based
Opportunities
enterprise
Orchids are one of the most threatened
plants on this earth. The vulnerability stems
from two sources: the first being their highly
specialized lifecycle - dependency on
pollinators for pollination, lack of reserved
food material in the seeds, reliance on
micorrhizal fungi for seed germination and
second ornamental and therapeutic value
which they possess has made them so sought
after the man. Each species is adapted to life
in a specialized environment because of their
specialized requirements and many species
are very restricted in distribution. Any
destruction, degradation or defragmentation
of natural habitat beyond a tolerable limit
causes threat for their survival. But such
disturbances in orchid rich belts are
unabatedly continuing causing serious
damage to orchid biodiversity. Apart from
above mentioned factors a large number of
orchid species traded clandestinely, and also
used indigenously for various purposes like
medicine, research etc. In result, the
population iof these species has declined and
have been pushed to rarity. The number of
species facing various kinds of threats in
north eatern states is given in Fig. 2. There
is an urgent need to develop the orchid bio
diversity based enterprises that can reduce
the pressure on natural habitats. The
prospective orchid biodiversity based
enterprises are given as below:
Expor
Exportt of live plants
The orchids collected from natural
habitat are not allowed for export, however,
orchids propagated in nurseries are allowed
for export as per procedure of law. A large
number of plants are being exported from
India to several destinations like Germany,
Japan, USA, UK etc. It is unfortunate that
most of the trade is met through the plants
collected from the wild despite of law of the
land which prohibits the collection of orchids
Development of Orchid Biodiversity-based Microenterprises for Conservation and Income Generation
Fig. 2: The number of orchid species under various categories of threats in North Eastern States of India
from the natural habitat for commercial
purpose. There is great scope for
development of enterprise meant for export
of live orchids. The entrepreneurs of these
enterprises should have good knowledge
about the species found in the countries and
also knowledge about growing of such plants
especially rare ones.
Potted plant and cut flower production
A large numbers of species having
bizarre shape, exquisite colors size and long
lasting flowers for which some people even
might have not thought in their dreams, are
well suited as potted plants that could be
utilize for harnessing the markets for potted
plants. The species suitable floriculture
purposes are listed in Table 1. Apart from
floriculture importance, a large number of
plants are required by research institutions as
well as private and government garden which
can also can be a part of such enterprise.
Production of raw material for herbal
industr
industryy
A large number orchid species are used
in traditional system of medicine. Largely,
at present, the demand of orchids for
therapeutic purpose is met through the plants
collected from the natural habitats. There is
a large scope for cultivation of medicinally
important species in the country. Some
medicinally important species are listed in
Table 2.
Education/botanical tours
The tourism industry is gaining
importance in north eastern states of the
country. The linking of this enterprise with
tourist operators for educational/ botanical
tours would benefit both travel operators as
well as entrepreneurs.
Micropropagation for supply of planting
material
Tissue culture is tool by which a large
number planting material could be produced
in a limited period of time. For the
functioning of above mentioned enterprises
would require continuous supply of
planting material. This could be met
through tissue culturing the desired plants
in tissue culture laboratories. Thus, there
is scope for development of enterprises for
supply of planting material to the above
mentioned enterprises.
Orchid biodiversity based entrepreneurship
model
The commercial cultivation of orchids
is not very developed. A very few species of
orchids are cultivated by a very few person
as a hobby. Initially, the institutions like 187
 Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015

Table 1: Some floriculturally important orchids

Orchid Flowering season Flower colour

Aerides multiflorum April White flushed with purple
Aerides odoratum May-June White with purple blotch
A.fieldingii May Pink to dark pink purple
Phalaenopsis cornu cervi Varies Yellow green barred and botched with red brown
Phalaenopsis mannii May Sepal and petal golden yellow barred and
blotched with chestnut brown
Phalaenopsis lobii Mar-Apr White rusty brown lip
Rhynchostylis retusa June Pink fragrant
Holcoglossum amesiana Feb-Mar White lip pink
Vanda coerulea Oct-Nov Blue also known as blue vanda
Vanda coerulescens Apr-May Blue also known as shy blue vanda
Vanda tessellata Mar-Jun Yellow dotted purple
Vanda stangeana Mar-Apr Yellow lined with purple
Renanthera imshootina June Red also known as red vanda
Cymbidium aloifolium Apr-Jul Yellowish purple
Cymbidium devonianum May-Jun Greenish brown with purple blotch on lip
Cymbidium elegans Sep-Oct Tubular yellow
Cymbidium erythraeum Sep-Oct Pale green veined purple lip white blotched
purple
Cymbidium cyperifolium Nov-Dec Green lip blotched purple
Cymbidium tigrinum Apr-may Yellow green purple stripes on lip
Cymbidium lowianum Mar-Apr Green with lip red in v shape at apex
Cymbidium hookerianum Feb-Mar Green lip dotted purple
Cymbidium mastersii Oct-Nov White with yellow tinged lip
Cymbidium tracyanum Sep-Oct Green sepal and petal veined and lip blotched
purple
C. iridioides Oct-Nov sepal and petal veined and lip blotched purple
Calanthe biloba Sep-Oct Purple with pink lip
Calanthe herbacea Apr-May Green with white lip
Calanthe plantaginea Mar-May Lilac
Calanthe puberula Apr-May Lilac
Calanthe brevicornu Mar-Apr Purple
Calanthe triplicata Sep-Oct White with red
Calanthe masuca Apr-May Violet
Calanthe chloroleuca Mar-Apr Yellow
Dendrobium jenkinsii May Yellow
Dendrobium lindleyi Feb-Mar Yellow
Dendrobium densiflorum Apr-May Yellow with deep orange yellow throat
Dendrobium chrysotoxum Apr-May Bright yellow
Dendrobium farmeri Apr-May White with orange yellow lip
Dendrobium aphyllum Apr-May Pink
Dendrobium thyrsiflorum Apr-May White with bright golden yellow lip
188 (Contd.)
Development of Orchid Biodiversity-based Microenterprises for Conservation and Income Generation

Orchid Flowering season Flower colour

Dendrobium capillipes Mar-Apr Bright golden yellow
Dendrobium nobile Apr-May White tipped deep pink lip dark purple throat
Dendrobium devonianum Apr-May White tipped purple two orange blotch in throat
of lip
Dendrobium draconis Jul-Aug Shiny white orange blotch in lip throat
Coelogyne nitida Mar-Apr White lip blotched yellow
Coelogyne cristata Mar-Apr Pure white
Coelogyne flaccida Mar-May Dull yellow
Coelogyne viscosa Jan-Feb White
Coelogyne barbata Sep-Dec White with brown lip
Coelogyne corymbosa Mar-Apr White with 4 orange yellow blotch on lip
Coelogyne fuscescenns Oct-Dec White lip flushed with purlpe
Coelogyne occultata Apr-May White with 4 orange yellow blotch on lip
Peione humilis Feb-Mar White with purple spotted lip
Peione maculata Oct-Nov White with yellow and purple botched lip
Peione praecox Oct-Nov Rosy pink with purple blotched lip
Paphipedilum fairrieanum Oct-Dec Dorsal sepal white veined purple, green
Paphipedilum hirsutissimum Feb-Apr Pale green
Paphipedilum insigne Oct-Dec Pale green with white band on dorsal sepal
Paphipedilum spicerianum Oct-Feb Green and white streaked of purple
Paphipedilum venustum Feb-Mar Whitish green, lip pale yellow, tinged with purple
Paphipedilum villosum Feb-Mar Green and yellow
Anoectochilus brevilabris Jan-Mar Yellow with dark purple nerves
Liparis cordifolia Nov-Dec Green
Neogyne gardenerana Dec White
Pholidota imbricata May-Aug Dirty white
Pholidota rubra Nov-Dec Yellowish green

Table 2: Some therapeutically important orchids of North Eastern Himalaya

Botanical name Part used Therapeutic uses

Acampe papillosa Roots Rheumatism, sciatica, neuralgia, syphilis and
uterine diseases.
Aerides odorata Ground fruits Healing wounds. Juice of leaves to heal boils in
ears and nose.
Anoectochilus regalis Stem and leaves Ingredients in certain medicinal oils
Calanthe sylvatica Flowers to stop nose bleeding
Calanthe triplicata Swollen, diarrhea
Cephalanthera longifolia Roots and Rhizome As a tonic
Corymborkis veratrifolia fresh leaf juice to cure fever in children
Cremastra appendiculata Roots paste toothache and as emollient
Cymbidium aloifolium Whole pant with ginger Vomiting and diarrhea, to cure chronic illness,
weakness of the eyes, vertigo and paralysis
Dendrobium nobile Fresh and dried stems Preparation of Chinese drug Shih-hu for longevity
and as an aphrodisiac, stomachic, analgesic. 189
(Contd.)

Botanical name
Dendrobium jenkinsii
Echioglossum williamsoni
Eria pannea
Goodyera repens
Goodyera schlechtendaliana
Gymnadenia orchidis
Phaius tankervilliae
Pholidota imbricata
Pleione maculata
Ponerorchis chusua
Rhynchostylis retusa
Satyrium nepalense
Spathoglottis plicata
Tropidia curculigoides
Vanda coerulea
Arundina graminifolia
Dendrobium densiflorum
Cymbidium hookerianum
190 Fig. 3: Schematic diagram for development of orchid biodiversity based enterprise in North Eastern States of India
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Part used Therapeutic uses
Fresh and dried stems Preparation of Chinese drug Shih-hu for longevity
and as an aphrodisiac, stomachic, analgesic
Leaf juice Cure swellings of hands and legs and bone
fractures
Roots and leaves decoction Used in bathing in cases of ague
Roots and leaves Female disorders, stomach and bladder
diseases,chewed leaves applied to reptile bites
Tincture of the plant in rice wine Used as a tonic for internal injuries and to
improve circulation
Salep made from digitate tubers Used as aphrodisiac, tonic
Paste of Pseudobulbs Used to heal swellings of hands and legs, poultice
Pseudobulbs finely macerated Applied on joints forrheumatic pains
in mustard oil
Pseudobulbs Liver complaints and stomachache
Tubers Diarrhea, dysentery and chronic fever
Roots (Rasna) Plant used against Asthma, tuberculosis nervous
twitching, cramps, infantile epilepsy, vertigo,
palpitation, kidney stone, and menstrual
disorders.
Tubers Malaria, dysentery, also aphrodisiac
Decoction of the boiled plant Rheumatism and used in hot asa foment
Decoction of plant Cold stage of malaria, decoction of boiledroots
given for diarrhea
Leaf juice Diarrhea, dysentery, external application for skin
diseases
Scrapped bulbous stem Applied on heels to treat cracks
Leaves crushed to paste Applied on fractured area to setbone
with salt
Seeds Applied on cuts and injuries as haemostatic
Development of Orchid Biodiversity-based Microenterprises for Conservation and Income Generation
Ministry of Forest or North Eastern Hill
Council or both may fund some projects to
demonstrate the profitability and
sustainability of such enterprises. These
enterprises could be set up under the
institutions engage in development of
orchids in the region. The NERMAC may
help these enterprises for the marketing and
finding out the buyers of the produce. The
schematic diagram involving various
prospective institutions for achieving the
given objective is given in Fig. 3.
Conclusion
The genetic resources of orchids in their
natural habitats are declining very fast due
to various regions including clandestine
trade for various purposes. The orchid
biodiversity based enterprises would be
helpful in income generation as well as
reducing the pressure on natural habitat. As
the collection of orchids from their natural
habitats still cheaper option for the
clandestine traders. The unscrupulous
collectors would require to be dealt firmly
so that a space for the genuine trades is
created.
191
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 192-196, 2015
Combating Challenge of Declining Land and
Water RResources
esources by Smar
Smartt Hor ticulture
Horticulture
R.C. SRIVASTAVA
Principal Scientist, IIWM
Bhubaneswar & Ex-Director
CIARI, Port Blair
Land and Water RResources
Water esources Scenario
Land and water are two major natural
resources on which our agriculture as well
as rural economy is based. Any decline in
rural economy has a cascading effect on
overall health as the demand from rural area
decreases. In the case of land resources, there
has not been any significant reduction in
overall net cultivated area, but the last four
decades has witnessed a sharp decline in the
average size of operational land holdings in
India. This is reflective of the immense
population pressure on the limited land
resource available for cultivation. The
average size of operational land holdings has
reduced by half from 2.28 ha in 1970-71 to
1.16 ha in 2010-11. Consequently, the
number of land holdings in the marginal and
small categories have swelled by 56 million
and 11 million respectively, during the same
period. The size of the land holdings has
implications for investments in agriculture,
its productivity, farm mechanisation and
sustaining farm incomes itself. Land
holdings in the marginal category (less than1
ha.) constitute 67 per cent of the operational
holdings in the country (2010-11). In terms
of area operated, the share of marginal
holdings has doubled to 22 per cent (2010-
11) from a mere 9 per cent (1970-71).
Similarly, the share of(operated area under)
small farm holdings (1 to 2 ha) increased
from 12 per cent to 22 per cent during the
same period. Small and marginal holdings
together, constitute 85 per cent in terms of
number of operational holdings and 44 per
cent of the operated area in the country. Thus,
over the period, the marginal category has
emerged as a distinct and dominant class by
itself with its average size dwindling to a
mere 0.38 ha.
Similarly, there has been steady decline
in per capita water availability. The annual
water availability in the country is 4000
billion cubic meter (BCM). Out of this which
1869 BCM is available for use, also called
as blue water and rest goes as green water.
This 1869 BCM include 1537 BCM surface
water and rest 432 BCM of ground water
available for sustainable use every year. Out
of this utilizable water is only 690 BCM
surface water and 432 BCM ground water
making a total of 1122 BCM. The per capita
water resources is 3305 m3 and availability at
national average is about 1544 m3 which is
just at threshold level of water stress. This is
a sharp decline from 1951 values of 1221 m3
and 5633 m3 respectively. Again this value is
not same for whole country with western part
of the country coming under scarcity zone and
eastern and north eastern parts being in above
stress level zone. As per CWC figures the
water availability situation is going to worsen
in view of demand of increasing food
Combating Challenge of Declining Land and Water Resources by Smart Horticulture

production but also demand from other
competing sectors. Table 1 depicts this
scenario.
The major factor deciding the water
demand will be governed by changes in the
socioeconomic status of the population and the
extent of urbanization and industrialization. In
recent years, there have been significant
changes in the consumption pattern and the
share of non food grain items in food

Table 1: Sector wise projected water demand in India

(billion cubic meters)

Sector/Year 2000 2010 2025 2050

Irrigation 541 688 910 1072
Domestic 42 56 73 102
Industry 8 12 23 63
Energy 2 5 15 130
Others 41 52 72 80
Total 634 813 1093 1447

(Source: Central Water Commission, 2008 & 2010) 193


consumption is increasing. Due to this, there
is sharp increase in the demand of such
items, i.e., milk, eggs, meat, vegetables and
fruits. It is expected that this condition will
continue and the gaps will further widen in
the next 40 years unless corrective measures
are taken to enhance production.
Strategies to Combat
In view of above the future challenge to
water management will be to produce more
from less and lesser amount of water with
smaller land resource. This will require
searching of out of box solutions to enhance
yield by using land and challenged
ecosystems as well as using gray water. Few
of such solutions can be following which
need to discussed and researched by
scientific community in coming periods.
Protected cultivation with solar energy and
rain water har vesting system
harvesting
Protected cultivation has potential of
increasing productivity manifold both by
controlling environment as well as vertical
cultivation. To meet increasing demand of
vegetables and flowers, this technology can
194 Fig. 1: Rain harvesting system with protected cultivation structure to irrigate
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
be a boon. It can also be used to enhance the
productivity of arid zones and dry semi arid
zones where production of vegetables and
flowers is quite low which entails its import
from other ecosystems. We need to evaluate
the potential of protected cultivation in such
harsh climate to enhance the productivity as
well as profitability from a smaller patch of
land. As sunshine is available in plenty, solar
energy can be harnessed to meet the energy
requirement for maintaining the temperature
and humidity as well as supplying good
quality water. This will require fusion of
technologies from three sectors:
horticulturists, designers of protected
cultivation structures, and solar energy
experts. Both rain water and ground water
can be used for irrigation with solar energy
for pumping ground water. For areas having
poor quality water, solar energy can be used
to improve the quality as the required amount
will be low. Rain water harvesting from roof
of controlled structure with collection on side
of structure will facilitate easy availability
of water. With proper designing the whole
system can be converted in a self sufficient
one in terms of energy, water. Such a system
Combating Challenge of Declining Land and Water Resources by Smart Horticulture
will enhance the profitability of farmers,
higher water use efficiency and higher land
productivity. This will have potential of
retiring land for other uses as well as
diverting saved water competing users.
Use of gray water for oil palm cultivation
As stated earlier, there will be shortage
of about 325 BCM of water by 2050. This
shortfall can either be met by enhancing
water use efficiency or using gray water.
Municipal waste water is being used for peri-
urban horticulture but it has its own perils.
Untreated waste water is being used for
vegetable cultivation in peri-urban areas
creating a health hazard for unsuspecting
consumers. Total amount available is 38,254
million litres per day (mld) of waste water
equivalent to 14 BCM out of which only
11,787 mld, (31 per cent) get treated. This
will cross 170,000 mld (62 BCM) by 2051.
Unfortunately not much information on
effect of irrigation by contaminated water on
vegetable quality is available but this aspect
will be very critical for our future vegetable
production strategies. National Green
Tribunal (NGT) has ordered MP Pollution
Control Board to inspect nullahs used by
vegetable farms in state and submit a report
on heavy metals present in water and
vegetable samples. Tribunal took a serious
exception to vegetable farming being done
using sewage water in the city. Indore
administration has banned cultivation of
vegetables on the side of nullahs. The
collector has empowered municipal
authorities, the food and the health
departments to destroy all vegetables grown
along the side of the nullahs. Uprooted
vegetables from around five acres of land in
the Bhagirathpura area of Indore. Six acres
out of 35 acres of farm land irrigated by
sewage water in Bhopal district has been
destroyed by the district administration.
However such steps are not solution as
peri urban horticulture irrigated by municipal
waste water is a reality spread over in all
ecosystems. Thus it is essential that this
problem is tackled with two pronged
strategies: first develop decentralized system
to reduce contamination level within
tolerable limit, and develop protocol for
utilizing waste water with different
contaminant level for different crops. Under
first strategy, work has been initiated to
develop an on line filter which can be fitted
in the delivery pipe. The initial results have
shown significant promise. Work is in
progress to enhance the filtration efficiency
and study hydraulics of the system. If this
device is successful, it will be very effective
in reducing growth of contaminated
vegetables in peri urban horticulture.
Oil palm is a major growth area which
can reduce our dependence upon import of
oil from south east Asian countries. This
import beside taking toll on out balance of
trade, is also facing problem from an
unexpected quarter of environmentalists who
are opposing cultivation of oil palm in
Indonesia and its import by us. Oil palm can
be grown on in challenged ecosystem, if
proper irrigation is provided. The annual
irrigation requirement is about 1300 mm.
There is need to evaluate if municipal waste
water can be used for irrigating oil palm in
semi arid regions in terms of uptake of
contaminants in final products of oil and if
there can be a refining method to extract
contaminants from oil at processing stage.
Since the harvest index of oil palm is quite
low and in terms of oil it is further small,
this is achievable. If this technological
breakthrough can be made, we can utilize
land in our challenged ecosystems alongwith
gray water for meeting a vital demand of our
economy beside improving profitability of
land in challenged ecosystems.
Use of floating islands in wetlands for flower
cultivation
A huge area under wetlands especially
in high rainfall regions is unproductive.
Further a good number of them are being 195

used as sink of waste water. A technique of
floating islands is being used for cleaning
of these waters. The challenge before
horticulturists is to identify flowers which
can be cultivated in such conditions fulfilling
both purposes, i.e., economic utilization of
wetlands and treating the waste water by
removing contaminants.
196
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Conclusion
Declining land and water resources is
posing a major challenge to maintain as well
as enhancing production of horticultural
products. New approaches have to be
explored to meet this challenge.
Shodh Chintan. Vol. 7: 197-202, 2015

Tropical TTuber
uber Crops: Option for
Livelihood and Rural Development
S.K. CHAKRABARTI AND V. RAVI
ICAR-Central Tuber Crops Research Institute
Sreekariyam, Thiruvananthapuram 695 017, Kerala

Introduction status of rural population is in a precarious

situation. Prevalence of stunting,
The father of the nation Mahatma
underweight, vitamin A deficiency, anemia,
Gandhi once remarked that “The soul
iodine deficiency among children below the
of India lives in its villages”. According to
age of 5 years is at alarming level in rural
the 2011 census of India, 68.84% of Indian
India. Moreover, majority of the people in
population (around 83.31 crore) live in
rural areas depend mainly on the wages they
6,40,867 different villages distributed all
earn through unskilled casual labour. In fact,
over India. As per the latest estimate of the
almost 91% people in rural India are either
National Sample Survey Office (NSSO),
self-employed or casual labourer and only
Ministry of Statistics and Programme
9% are earning regular wage. Since large
Implementation, in the year 2012-13, rural
numbers of people are engaged in such
India nurtured nearly 156 million households
unsteady employment, they are often on
out of which 57.80% were dependent on
threshold of subsistence and are vulnerable
agriculture. Rural India contributes around
to the possibility of sinking from transient
35% to India’s GDP by way of agriculture,
to chronic poverty, in the event of inadequate
self-employment, services, construction etc.
labour demand. Besides, daily wages
Nevertheless, rural people and farmers face
received by a casual labourer was only Rs.
many problems which adversely affect their
138.62 in rural areas compared to ` 449.65
livelihood as well as living conditions
for regular wage labourer in urban areas in
(Hegde, 2002). Availability of clean drinking
the year 2011-12. All of the above factors
water, sanitation, hygiene and housing,
are responsible for mass exodus of rural
which constitute the vital components of
population to peri-urban or urban slums.
overall quality of life, are inferior in rural
Though quality of life in urban slums is
areas compared to urban India. A recent
worse than rural India, relatively better
survey by NSSO revealed that during 2012,
employment opportunity and better wage are
46.10% households in rural India got
the main reasons for such mass migration. It
drinking water within their premises
is, therefore, necessary to create profitable
compared to 76.80% in urban India; 62.30%
rural enterprises preferably based on
households in rural India did not have any
agriculture to create better employment
bathroom facility compared to 16.70% in
opportunity and reverse this trend.
urban India; and 24.60% rural households
Agriculture influences almost every sphere
still lived in houses with semi-pucca
of life in rural areas. Even those engaged in
structure. Besides, the health and nutrition

non-agricultural activities are indirectly
connected with agriculture. However, in
spite of agriculture being a major source of
livelihood, the productivity as well as the
profitability in agriculture is still abysmally
low in our country, thereby discouraging
people to engage in this occupation. The low
productivity can be attributed to several
factors like lack of awareness, poor adoption
of technology, inadequate investment in
agriculture, inefficient input delivery system
and weak communication and information
services. Lack of profitability is primarily
because of inadequate and inefficient
infrastructure required for forward and
backward integration, poor post-harvest and
processing facilities and poor market
connectivity. There is an emerging consensus
that the livelihood security and well being
of rural households improve with the
blending of farm activities with non-farm
economic activities and such diversification
of rural livelihood can positively impact the
farm efficiency. Micro-enterprises have been
successfully experimented for enhanced
rural livelihood security. This gives adequate
impetus for its scope in agricultural sector
too. Hence it is inevitable to tap the
opportunities for promoting entrepreneurship
in agriculture, which in turn can address the
present challenges related to agricultural
productivity, profitability and unemployment.
Potential of tuber crops for livelihood
improvement
Tropical tuber crops like cassava, sweet
potato, elephant foot yam, taro, tannia, yams,
yam bean, arrowroot etc. comprise a group
of plants with modified root or stem as
starchy storage organ which may be enlarged
roots, corms, rhizomes, or tubers usually
harvested from below ground. They are the
third most important food crops after cereals
and grain legumes and are unique in their
inherent qualities like high dry matter
production and capacity to withstand the
vagaries of climate change. These crops can
198
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
be grown under warm humid conditions of
tropical as well as sub-tropical agro-
ecosystem. They played a key role in the diet
of early human being before evolution of
settled agriculture. Till today, these crops
ensure food security to millions of people in
the tropical and subtropical countries either
as staple or subsidiary food for about one
fifth of the world population. Cassava is a
major staple food in the developing world,
providing dietary energy for around 500
million people. Tuber crops are known as
crops for adversity; there are many instances
showing the life sustaining role of tuber
crops in times of natural calamities and
famine. They do not need prime land for
cultivation and can be grown in marginal
farms. They have resilience to adverse
climatic conditions and never let down the
farmer who can expect a reasonable harvest
even when other crops fail. On the contrary,
predicted changes in climate may reduce
productivity and output of food grains in the
medium to long terms. In fact, global
production of wheat and rice has been
projected to decline by 2-6% by 2030 and
by 5-11% by 2050, relative to what would
otherwise have been the case. The likely
demand-supply gap in major food grains can
be effectively bridged by tuber crops that are
concentrated sources of carbohydrate.
Similarly, good nutrition is the foundation
for human health and well-being, physical
and cognitive development, and economic
productivity. Nutritional status is a critical
indicator of overall human and economic
development, and good nutritional status is
an essential social benefit in its own right.
Malnutrition in all its forms, i.e. under-
nutrition, micronutrient deûciencies, and
overweight and obesity, imposes high
economic and social costs on countries at
all income levels. The social cost of
malnutrition in India as measured by the
“disability-adjusted life years (DALY)” is
very alarming. It is estimated that nearly
60.58 million life years are lost due to child
Tropical Tuber Crops: Option for Livelihood and Rural Development
and maternal malnutrition and 27.32 million
years are lost due to underweight in India.
According to FAO “nutrition-sensitive
growth in a country can be ensured by
supporting increased dietary diversity”. In
that context, tropical tuber crops become
important for ensuring livelihood
improvement as well as food and nutritional
security particularly in rural areas of the
country. Most of the tuber crops have higher
biological efficiency as food producers with
high dry matter production per unit area per
unit time. Potatoes lead the way in energy
production (216 Megajoules/ha/day)
followed by yam (182 Megajoules/ha/day),
sweet potatoes (152 Megajoules/ha/day) and
cassava (121 Megajoules/ha/day). They also
have the potential of reversing extensive soil
degradation primarily caused by intensive
cultivation of grain crops. Tuber crops are
best suited for sustainable production
intensification campaign termed “Save and
Grow” by FAO in 2011.
Tuber crops have gained importance not
only as food crops but also for their scope in
feed and agro-based industries. Projection
of cassava starch demand in the sizing
industry, based on population projections and
projections of per capita availability of cotton
cloth shows that by 2016, sizing industry
would require 90,383 tonnes of cassava
starch, by 2021, the requirement would be
101,368 tonnes and by 2026, the sizing
industry would require 115,793 tonnes of
cassava starch. Cassava starch demand in
corrugation box industry also shows a very
favourable trend and nearly 1.61, 2.26 and
2.96 lakh tonnes will be the starch demand
by 2016, 2021 and 2025 respectively at a
projected growth rate of 7%, while the
demand by 2016, 2021 and 2025 would be
1.85, 2.98 and 4.36 lakh tonnes respectively
at a growth rate of 10%. The starch demand
by 2016, 2021 and 2025 would be 2.31, 4.65
and 8.14 lakh tonnes respectively at an
anticipated growth rate of 15%. Therefore,
it is very evident that large gap between
demand and supply of starch is likely to be
created by 2025 itself. It reveals ample
opportunity to establish Most of the tuber
crops are reservoirs of resistant starch,
minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, and dietary
fibres. With the rapidly changing food habits
and increased migration to urban areas
coupled with the projected rise in per capita
income, there is a projected increase in
demand for processed and ready-to eat
convenience foods in the next 30-40 years.
In that context, there exists vast potential to
develop prophylactic and therapeutic
functional foods from tuber crops. Sweet
potato, despite being a health food is seldom
consumed by urban and elite and factory
level processing does not exist presently in
India, unlike in China, Japan, Korea and
parts of America. The immense nutraceutical
value of tuber crops due to their anthocyanin
and carotenoids content has so far not been
fully exploited. Besides, there is immense
potential of cassava as raw material for bio-
ethanol production. All the above indicators
suggest immense potential of tuber crops for
rural enterprise development with respect to
production of value added food, feed and
industrial products, herbal products with
medicinal effects, bio-insecticides, natural
food colourants, etc. Creation of agriculture
related enterprises would invariably improve
livelihood security of rural India.
Role of tuber crops in rrural
ural development
More than simply food crops for the rural
poor, tuber crops can also serve as sources
of cash income for low-income farm
households and raw material for processed
products for both rural and urban
consumption. In India, around 8.5 million
tones of cassava is produced in 0.2 million
ha. Cassava is an important commercial crop
in the agricultural economy of states like
Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. In recent
times, the cultivation of cassava is taking off
in the non-traditional States like Maharashtra
and Madhya Pradesh, owing to its 199

importance as a bioethanol yielding crop. It
is also an important food crop in North-
Eastern States like Assam, Nagaland,
Manipur. In Tamil Nadu cassava occupies
0.11 million hectares with an annual
production of 4.50 million metric tonnes
tubers. In Kerala, cassava occupies 0.10
million hectares with an annual production
of 2.46 million tonnes tubers. In these states,
cassava is an important food security crop
of food-insecure population and thus a
“Poverty-Fighter”. Besides, cassava tubers
and shoot are fed to cattle and pigs and
therefore is an important cheap and readily
available animal feed. Cassava is consumed
as a cheap source of energy by population
living in remote villages in coastal plains and
hilly regions. In both these states, nearly 500
cottage industries are functioning for
processing harvested tubers into starch and
sago. The byproduct “thippi” left after the
extraction of starch is sun-dried, packed and
utilized in the poultry feed. The starch, sago
and thippi are then transported to the market
from where it is transported to stakeholders.
Cassava is made in to deep-fried chips, rava
and sold in local markets. The other cottage
industry which consumes cassava starch is
the wafer production units in rural towns.
Thus, some people make their livelihood
through making and marketing these
products. So, a huge rural population which
includes a considerable number of women
is involved in cassava production, processing
and marketing, right from the land
preparation, cultivation, harvest, transport to
the factory, processing and transporting to
the market.
Like cassava, sweet potato is an
important food security crop for food
insecure population in the remote villages.
In India, around 1 million tonnes of sweet
potato are produced annually from 0.1
million ha area. The major sweet potato
growing states are Odisha, West Bengal and
Uttar Pradesh. Both tender shoot and tubers
200 of sweet potato can be consumed as food.
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
Besides, it is also an important animal feed
particularly for pigs in North-Eastern States.
Sweet potatoes are rich in complex
carbohydrates, dietary fiber, beta-carotene,
vitamin C, vitamin B6, Mn and K. Yellow
and orange flesh sweet potato varieties are
rich in beta-carotene whereas purple flesh
varieties are rich in anthocyanin.
Considering fiber content, complex
carbohydrates, protein, vitamins A and
C, iron, and calcium the sweet potato ranked
highest in nutritional value as compared to
other vegetables. Orange fleshed sweet
potato is encouraged in areas where vitamin
A deficiency is a serious health problem.
Because of complex carbohydrate content,
sweet potato is considered as a low
glycaemic food and is suitable for diabetes
patients. A host of health foods having high
nutraceutical content like carotene and
anthocyanin could be developed from orange
and purple-fleshed sweet potato.
Nevertheless, sweet potato has not yet been
fully exploited for the development of health
foods. In China, sweet potato is largely
utilized for noodle production in cottage
industries and tubers are fed to pigs. These
potential utilities of sweet potato are yet to
be fully tapped in the rural areas of India.
Besides, processed foods like pasta and
noodles for specific target groups like
diabetic and obese people, cardiovascular
patients etc. could be developed using starch
from sweet potato and other tuber crops like
yams, elephant foot yam, Chinese potato etc.
Elephant foot yam (EFY), taro, tannia and
greater yam are important vegetables
throughout India and are used in various
dishes. Yellow/orange fleshed carotene rich
sweet potato and anthocyanin rich sweet
potato and yams can be fed to school children
in mid-day meals which can overcome the
malnutrition and vitamin deficiency among
rural children. Viable tuber crops based
multiple cropping systems including pulses
and onion can provide additional income to
the cultivators. Health foods like low
Tropical Tuber Crops: Option for Livelihood and Rural Development
glycaemic pasta / spaghetti developed from
cassava and sweet potato, had high
nutritional quality, substantiating the
emerging role of tuber crops for food and
nutrition security of India. Greater yams and
elephant foot yam are made into deep fried
chips and sold in the local markets in rural
towns. A number of post harvest processing
machineries viz., chipping machines, starch
extraction machinery, granulators, adhesive
plants etc. developed in the past have good
domestic and international demand. The
manufacturing workshops/units of these
machineries existing in the rural areas can
be benefited by manufacturing these
machineries and marketing for processing
tuber crops in the local markets.
Tuber crops for livelihood improvement of
tribal far
farmers
mers
Tropical tuber crops find unique niche
in the tribal food habits and play crucial role
in food and nutritional security of the tribals
in tribal areas of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and
Odisha (Photo 4).
In Odisha, sweet potato is grown in
43,460 ha. In Chhattisgarh sweet potato is
grown in 3,650 ha. Yams, taro and elephant
foot yam are mostly grown in backyards and
some-times collected from forest. Arrowroot
and Canna popularly called palua (Odisha)
or tikkri (Chhattisgarh) are grown for starch
extraction manually. A number of tuber crops
germplasm with pharmaceutical values are
available with tribals. Under Tribal Sub-Plan
(TSP) programme of the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research, systematic effort is
undertaken to improve the productivity of
root and tuber crops by careful application
of improved technologies. The TSP outreach
programmes complemented with need based
research modules supported by distribution
of planting materials of improved varieties
of tuber crops, knowledge dissemination,
production-processing linkage, capacity
building and entrepreneurship building could
significantly enhance the livelihood of tribal
farmers in these states. To quote a success
story, the mobile starch extraction unit
recently introduced for extraction of starch
from Canna and arrowroot rhizome could
enhance the starch recovery as well as it’s
quality and increase income generation.
Looking to the success of this machinery,
similar machinery has been replicated in
other tribal areas through local workshops.
Tuber crops for livelihood improvement in
Nor th-Easter
North-Easter
th-Easternn Hill (NEH) region
Tropical tuber crops play a crucial role
in the food and nutritional security of the
people living in the North-Eastern Hill
(NEH) region comprising of Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland and Tripura. Tuber crops are
indispensible ingredients in the north-eastern
cuisine and provided life support to the
indigenous tribal community during off-
season. Tubers are abundant in their diet in
a variety of forms as secondary staples,
nutritional adjuncts (boiled/fried/dried) and
curative medicines. In the NEH region,
cassava is grown predominantly in
Meghalaya, Assam and Nagaland, while
sweet potato is cultivated in Assam,
Meghalaya and Nagaland. Taro is the major
vegetable crop in most of the NEH states.
Yams are found mostly in Nagaland and
Tripura while taro and elephant foot yam are
widely grown in Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura
and Nagaland. Though tuber crops are found
in most of the homesteads under multiple
cropping systems in this Region, their
productivity is low owing to continued
cultivation of local cultivars. The NEH
outreach programme, one of major
technology intervention programmes,
complemented with need based research
modules supported by distribution of
planting materials of improved varieties of
tuber crops, advanced cultural practices
including weed control, irrigation and
fertigation, knowledge dissemination,
production-processing linkage, capacity 201

building and entrepreneurship building could
significantly enhance the livelihood of tribal
farmers in these states.
Conclusion
It is beyond any doubt that establishment
of micro- mini-, small- and medium-scale
enterprises dealing with agricultural inputs
and produces can effectively improve
livelihood security of rural India. Tuber crops
offer tremendous opportunity for
establishment of such enterprises at village
level. Besides, they also offer opportunity
for greening rural development through
healthy ecosystems support and sustainable
agriculture which is the major mandate of
the National Rural Livelihood Mission
(NRLM/Aajeevika) launched by the Ministry
of Rural Development, Government of India.
To realize that potential in a comprehensive
manner, greater thrust is necessary in tuber
crops research, by spreading their cultivation
to non-traditional areas, projecting the
nutritional and food security role of tuber
202
Shodh Chintan Vol. 7, 2015
crops, augmenting the utilization prospects
by developing value added food, feed and
industrial products, developing demand
assessment strategies and exploring new
market options, exploring hitherto under-
explored areas like developing herbal
products with medicinal effects, bio-
insecticides, natural food colourants, etc. The
effective dissemination of the technological
advancements for tuber crops for the
industrial and socio-economic upliftment of
India can help in a big way to unravel the
utilization prospects of these crops for the
benefit rural population.
References
CTCRI Vision 2050. Central Tuber Crops Research
Institute, Thiruvananthapuram.
Hegde, N.G 2002. Challenges of Rural Development and
Opportunities for providing Sustainable Livelihood:
Bharatiya Agro Industries Foundation (BAIF)’s
Approach. International Forum on Frontier
Technology for the 21st Century and Potential
Collaboration with Kasetsart University, Bangkok,
Thailand. May 30-31.
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