Introduction to Microbes

• Micro-organisms are a problem in foods

because they can cause food spoilage
or foodborne disease.
 Introduction to Microbes

• Micro-organisms may be present in the

raw ingredients of the food
• or may be introduced to the food during
preparation, from the food handlers or
the food production environment.
 Introduction to Microbes

• Microorganisms are tiny, mostly one-celled

organisms capable of rapid reproduction
under proper growth conditions.
• Those microorganisms important in the
food industry include the bacteria, viruses,
yeasts, molds, and protozoans.
 Food Microbiology-useful microbes
• Many microbes are helpful and serve useful
functions such as causing breads to rise,
fermenting sugars to alcohol, assisting in the
production of cheese from milk, and decaying
organic matter to replenish
nutrients in the soil.
 Food Microbiology-spoilage microbes

• Microorganisms can also cause foods to

spoil and make them inedible. Spoilage
organisms cost the food industry millions of
dollars each year.
 Food Microbiology-harmful microbes

• Microorganisms can also be harmful. These

are called pathogens and cause between 24
to 81 million cases of foodborne illness in
the U.S. each year.
 Bacterial cell
• Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms found
in nearly all natural environments. Outward
appearances of the cell such as size, shape, and
arrangement are referred to as morphology.
• Morphological types are grouped into the general
categories of spherical (the cocci), cylindrical (the
rods) and spiral. The cocci may be further grouped
by their tendencies to cluster.
• Diplococci attach in pairs, streptococci in chains,
staphylococci bunch like grapes, and sarcinae
produce a cuboidal arrangement.
 Morphology of Bacteria
• There are thousands of different kinds of bacteria.
• Some differ only slightly and it takes a highly
trained person to identify them.
• There are also groups which differ greatly in
growth habits and appearance and are quite easily
identified.
• But regardless of minor differences, most bacteria
can be classified according to the five basic cell
shapes illustrated.
Staphylococcus aureus
Bacillus
cereus Bacillus subtilis

Vibrio
parahaemolytices
 Bacterial cell

• Bacterial cells have definite characteristic

structures such as the cell wall, cytoplasm,
and nuclear structures.
• Some also possess hair like appendages for
mobility called flagella, fimbriae which aid
in attachment, plus cytoplasmic and
membranous inclusions for regulating life
processes.
 Viruses
Viruses are extremely small parasites. They
require living cells of plants, animals, or
bacteria for growth.
The virus(virion) is mainly a packet of genetic
material which must be reproduced by the
host.
Viruses contains either RNA OR DNA
enclosed in a protein coat usually referred to
as a nucleocapsid. Nucleic acid might be
single or double stranded
 Yeast and mold
• Yeast and mold are fungi which do not contain
chlorophyls. They range in size from single-celled
organisms to large mushrooms. Although some
are multi celled, they are not differentiated into
roots, stems and leaves.
• The true fungi produce masses of filamentous
hyphae which form the mycelium.
• Depending on the organism, they may reproduce
by fission, by budding as in the case of yeasts, or
by means of spores borne on fruiting structures
depending on the organism
 Protozoa
• Protozoa are single-celled organisms such
as the amoeba which can cause disease in
humans and animals.
They possess cell structure similar to
higher, more complex organisms.
 Reproduction
. Bacteria and similar organisms reproduce by
binary fission, a splitting of a single cell into
two. The control center for the bacterial cell is
the nuclear structure. Within it is the genetic
material which is duplicated and transferred to
daughter cells during reproduction.
These daughter cells can again divide to
produce four cells from the original one.
 Generation time
• The time it takes for a new cell to produce a
new generation of daughter cells is called
generation time.
• Under optimum growth conditions, certain
organisms can have a generation time of 15
minutes. In four hours over 65,000 cells
could be produced from a single
microorganism
 Growth
Microorganisms, like other living organisms, are dependent on
their environment to provide for their basic needs. Adverse
conditions can alter their growth rate or kill them.
Growth of microorganisms can be manipulated by controlling:
• Nutrients available
• Oxygen
• Water
• Temperature
• Acidity and pH
• Light
• Chemicals
 Nutrients

• Nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins,

vitamins, minerals and water, required by, man are
also needed by microorganisms to grow.
• Microbes differ in their abilities to use substrates
as nutrient sources. Their enzyme systems are
made available according to their genetic code.
 Oxygen Requirements

Microbes also differ in their needs for free

oxygen.
Aerobic organisms must grow in the presence of
free oxygen and anaerobic organisms must
grow in the absence of free oxygen.
Facultative organisms can grow with or without
oxygen, while microaerophilic organisms
grow in the presence of small quantities of
oxygen.
 Water
Water is necessary for microbes to grow, but microbes
cannot grow in pure water. A measurement of the
availability of water is aw or water activity.
The Aw of pure water is 1.0 while that of a saturated salt
solution is 0.75.
Most spoilage bacteria require a minimum aw of 0.90.
Some bacteria can tolerate an aw above 0.75 as can some
yeasts and most molds.
Most yeasts require 0.87 water activity.
An aw of 0.85 or less suppresses the growth of
organisms of public health significance
 Temperature

Microorganisms can grow in a wide range of

temperatures. Since they depend on water as a
solvent for nutrients, frozen water or boiling water
inhibits their growth.
• General terms are applied to organisms based on
their growth at different temperatures. Most
organisms grow best at or near room and body
temperature. These are mesophiles. Those growing
above 400 C (1050 F) are called thermophiles while
those growing below 250 C(750 F) are called
psychrotrophs.
 Acidity

• The nature of a solution based on its acidity or

alkalinity is described as pH. The pH scale
ranges from 0, strongly acidic, to 14, strongly
basic. Neutral solutions are pH 7, the pH of
pure water.
• Most bacteria require near neutral conditions
for optimal growth with minimums and
maximums between 4 and 9.
• Yeast and molds can grow below pH 4 upto pH
3.
 Acidity

• Many organisms change the pH of their

substrate by producing by-products during
growth. They can change conditions such
that the environment can no longer support
their growth.
• Yeasts and molds are more tolerant of
lower pH than the bacteria and may
outgrow them under those conditions.
 Light & Chemicals
• Ultraviolet light and the presence of
chemical inhibitors may also affect the
growth of organisms. Many treatments such
as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine can kill
or injure microbes.
• Under certain conditions those given a
sublethal treatment are injured, but can
recover.
 Industrial importance of molds

• Molds are important to the food industry. Among

their many contributions are the flavor and color
they add to cheeses and the making of soy sauce.
They also play a role in the making of such
chemicals as citric and lactic acid and many
enzymes.
• Molds can also cause problems in foods. Certain
kinds can produce poisons called mycotoxins.
Mycotoxins have only recently been discovered
and little is known about what causes molds to
produce them
 Molds produce a stem consisting of
several cells. Together, these cells
form a "fruiting body." The fruiting
body produces the spores, which
detach and are carried by air
currents and deposited to start new
mold colonies whenever conditions
are favorable

Mold spores are quite abundant in the air. So, any food allowed
to stand in the open soon becomes contaminated with mold if
adequate moisture is present. Some types of molds are also
psychrophiles and can cause spoilage of refrigerated foods
 Aspergillus fumagitus
Aspergillus flavus

Penicillium citrinum
 Yeasts
• Yeasts are small, single-celled plants. They are members
of the family fungi (singular, fungus), which also includes
mushrooms. Fungi differ from other plants in that they
have no chlorophyl.
• Bacteria thrive on many different types of food. But most
yeasts can live only on sugars and starches. From these,
they produce carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. Thus, they
have been useful to man for centuries in the production of
certain foods and beverages.
• They are responsible for the rising of bread dough and the
fermentation of wines, whiskey, brandy and beer. They
also play the initial role in the production of vinegar.
 Unlike bacteria, which
multiply by binary fission,
yeasts reproduce by a method
called budding.
Because they can grow under
conditions of high salt or
sugar content, they can cause
the spoilage of certain foods
in which bacteria would not
grow. Examples are honey,
jellies, maple syrup and
sweetened condensed milk.

Foods produced by the bacterial fermentation process, such as

pickles and sauerkraut, can also be spoiled by yeasts which
interfere with the normal fermentative process.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
 What is Food Spoilage
• Spoilage is a natural phenomenon; it occurs
at varying rates depending on the storage
temperature, kind of food involved, kind of
microorganisms present, packaging
materials used, food additives used and
method of preservation.
 Food spoilage

• Food spoilage is defined as any change in the

organoleptic qualities (flavour, appearance, odour or
texture) of the food that makes the food unacceptable to
the consumer.
• . A spoiled food is not necessarily unsafe to eat, but
unpalatable to the consumer. Foods are attacked in a
variety of ways that are harmful to the quality of the food.
• Foods are organic and provide adequate nutrients for the
growth of a wide range of chemoorganotrophic organisms.
• The physical and chemical characteristics of a food and
how it is stored determine its degree of susceptibility to
microbial spoilage
 Food spoilage

• Food is considered spoiled when an undesirable

change in the color, flavor, odor or texture has
occurred. Foreign substances in food products
make foods undesirable.
• The onset of food spoilage is rather indefinite. It
is a gradual process occurring because of poor
sanitation, enzymatic or chemical reactions,
improper temperature controls, microbial growth
or physical abuse
 Food Spoilage

• Foods are classed into three categories

based upon their water activity which is one
of the factors that determines their
susceptibility to microbial spoilage:
• (i) Highly perishable foods (meats, fish,
poultry, dairy products)
(ii) Semi-perishable foods (potatoes and
some vegetables)
(iii) Stable foods (dried foods).
 Types of food spoilage
Types of food spoilage fall into two major
categories, according to the cause of the
spoilage:
• microbial spoilage is caused by
microorganisms and their products;
• non-microbial spoilage can be caused by
foreign material in the foodstuff or by
enzymes that occur in the foodstuff
naturally.
 Conditions Necessary for Microbial Spoilage

Microbial spoilage is the major cause of food spoilage. It

occurs as a result of contamination of food by
microorganisms, provision of a suitable environment for
their growth, and degradation of the foodstuffs.
• To control microbial buildup, you must control the
following:
• The source of microorganisms - people, raw materials,
equipment, air currents, dust and pests.
• Food residues, which are required for bacterial growth.
 Conditions Necessary for Microbial Spoilage

• Moisture, which is required for growth;

relative humidity should be monitored.
• Time, during which food product is
exposed to a given set of conditions that
promote bacterial growth.
• Temperature since, in general, temperature
determines the generation time of
microorganisms.
 Enzymatic spoilage
• Enzymes are chemicals produced by all living
things. They help speed up or slow down chemical
reactions, act as transports for foods, and are a
normal constituent of foods. For instance, as a
banana matures, the color changes from green to
yellow to brown to black. The change is caused by
the enzymes (chemicals) in the banana. The
ripening, then softening, of other fruits such as
apples, peaches and tomatoes is another example
of enzymatic action.
 Enzymatic spoilage

• Enzymes can be inactivated by heat, which is the

reason for blanching vegetables; or they can be
inactivated by cold temperatures below 40 degrees
F, which is the reason for placing vegetables under
refrigeration. Think of green tomatoes in the
refrigerator compared to tomatoes sitting on the
window sill.
 Enzymatic spoilage

• Bacteria also produce enzymes that break

down food and allow them to obtain
nutrients through their cell walls. Therefore,
lowering the temperature reduces the rate of
enzyme action as well as the rate at which
bacteria can multiply.
• Refrigeration increases the time required to
spoil food.
 Enzymatic spoilage
• As the number of bacteria increases, the amount of
enzymes produced increases. Higher temperatures can
cause increased enzymatic activity. With large numbers of
bacteria and high temperatures, a food will spoil very
rapidly.
• When bacterial contamination is high and the storage
temperature is low, a food will keep for a moderate period
of time; when the bacterial contamination is low and the
storage temperature high, food will keep for a moderate
period of time.
• However, if the contamination of bacteria is low and the
storage temperature kept low, the food product will have
the longest possible shelf life
 Non-microbial spoilage
• Food may spoil as a result of chemical
changes within the food itself or by a
reaction between the food and the
packaging material
• Oxidation of fats & oils – rancidity
• Inclusion of foreign material in foods.
Washers, bolts, nuts and various other items
have been found in canned foods
 Non-microbial spoilage
• Presence of hair, flies, roaches, and other
pests or parts of pests have been found in
food products
• Problems with weevils in cornmeal and
similar products. Other pests can drill
through a plastic bag, an aluminum foil
wrap, a paper cup or through chocolate and
lay their eggs in the center of a peanut
butter candy bar.
 Sporulation
Under adverse conditions, certain bacteria
can protect the cell’s genetic material by
producing spores. These are extremely
resistant capsules of genetic materials.
Though there are no discernible life processes
in the spore, under proper sporulation
conditions, a viable, reproducing cell will
germinate from it
 Spores
There are certain basic differences between spores
and active or vegetative bacterial cells. Spores are
not easily killed. In fact, conditions which will
quickly kill active bacteria have little or no effect
on spores. A temperature of 1800 F will kill
bacterial cells within minutes, but bacterial spores
can resist this temperature indefinitely. This is
important to us in that all processing times for
canned foods are calculated by using both the time
and temperature required to kill bacterial spores.
 Fermentation
• Fermentation selects for the growth of one or
more bacteria which then inhibit the growth of
harmful microbes. Often the product of these
reactions alters the flavor and texture of some
foods. Many of the foods you eat are made with
microbes. Some of the flavors and textures of
food can directly be attributed to the bacteria
and the chemicals they produce as a result of
feeding on our food. These foods include yogurt,
cheese, buttermilk, sour cream, salami, coffee,
olives, pickles, sauerkraut, soy sauce, alcoholic
beverages, and vinegar.
 What is yogurt?

• Yogurt is a fermented milk product that can be

made from any milk, even soy milk. A mixed
culture of Lactobacillus acidophilus (or
bulgaricus) and Streptococcus thermophiles
(they work better together than they do
separately) produce lactic acid which lowers the
pH and makes it sour. The partial digestion of
the milk (lactose) which occurs during
fermentation makes the lactose easily
digestible, which is good for lactose-intolerant
people.
 Yoghurt

• Microbes Involved:
• Lactobacillus bulgaricus and/or
acidophilus & Streptococcus
thermophilus
 Role of microbes in yoghurt
• What they do
• The streptococcus produces lactic acid. Lactic acid lowers
the pH, thus changing the form of the milk proteins and
causing the mixture to thicken.
• The lactobacillus bacteria produce acetaldehyde, acetic acid,
volatile fatty acids, ethanol, carbon dioxide and various
other products which influence flavor and aroma.
• If streptococci outgrow the lactobacilli, the result is a
harsh, sour yogurt due to overproduction of lactic acid
relative to flavor components. The ratio for proper taste is
1:1
• Fruit and fruit flavors are pasteurized separately and added
later.
•
 Nutritional value of Yoghurt
• Yogurt Facts
• a good source of calcium, riboflavin and protein.
• has a fine curd which makes it more easily digestible than sweet
milk.
• lactose is converted to lactic acid; this makes digestion easier on
lactose- intolerant people
• Lactobacillus acidophilus may synthesize Vitamin B in the intestine.
• cultured yogurts are higher in folic acid than other yogurts.
• lactic acid bacteria fight pathogenic organisms: Salmonella typhi
die, E. coli are unable to develop, and S. paratyphi and
Corynebacteriae diphtheriae lose their pathogenic properties.
• fermented milk cultures have been reported to help treat peptic
ulcer, diarrhea, and dysentery.
• Freshly prepared yogurt contains 10,000,000,000 (109) bactria per
gram
 Food Safety
• Food safety is a very broad topic. Pesticides, herbicides,
chemical additives, and spoilage are all of concern, but
food scientists, food processors, and consumers focus
most on microbiological quality.
• Microorganisms pose a challenge to the food industry
and most food processes are designed with microbial
quality in mind.
• Microorganisms are often too small to be seen with the
unaided eye and have the ability to reproduce rapidly.
Many of them produce toxins and can cause infections.
• For all of these reasons, the microbiological quality of the
food we eat is scrutinized closely.
 Food-borne Illness
The sickness resulting from eating food
contaminated with either bacterial toxins
or by certain bacteria in the food, often
resulting in vomiting, diarrhea and
prostration.
Food-borne diseases are most often
caused by several species of bacteria,
although viruses, parasites, amoebas
and other biological as well as chemical
agents may be responsible.
 Food-borne Illness

Food poisoning would include illness

caused by naturally poisonous foods,
like certain wild mushrooms, or from
chemical contaminants in the food.
 Food-borne illness
• Today, food-borne illness is of serious
concern. Its frequency is not known because
a great majority of the cases go unreported.
Reporting food-borne illness to public health
authorities is not required in the United
States.
• Estimates claim as many as 200 million cases
in the U.S. per year. Only a small percentage
of these are hospitalized. Most are passed off
as traveler's diarrhea, 24 hour flu, or upset
stomach.
 Pathogen
• Any microorganism that can cause
disease.
• Salmonella is always considered a
pathogenic microorganism.
• E. coli is considered an opportunistic
pathogen. It is not always pathogenic,
but given the opportunity, it can cause
food-borne illness
Common Bacterial Food-borne
Pathogens
Vibrio vulnificus
Bacillus cereus
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Campylobacter jejuni
Yersinia enterocolitica
Clostridium botulinum
Clostridium perfringens
Listeria monocytogenes
Salmonella serovars
Staphylococcus aureus
Vibrio cholera
 Parasitic Diseases
• Amebiasis
• Ascaris, Round worms
• Cryptosporidiosis
• Cyclospora
• Cysticercosis
• Giardiasis
• Toxoplasmosis
• Trichinosis
 Viral Diseases

• Hepatitis A Virus
• Noro virus (formerly known as Norwalk
Virus
• Rotavirus
• Viral gastroenteritis