UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP

DALTA – CALAMBA

College of Engineering

Sample Field/Laboratory Reports of Some Topics in

Higher Surveying

BAHOY, Josh Howell G.

BSCE-3rd

ENGR. ROSELLE P. ALVIAR

Professor
STADIA INTERVAL FACTOR

1. Data

Distance (m)
a: ___5___ b: ___10___ c: __15___ d: ___15___ e: __20____
2. Sample Computations

Stadia Interval
S = Upper – Lower
= 1.337 – 1.118
= 0.149

Stadia Interval Factor

K = (D-C)/S
= (15-0.305)/0.149
= 98.6292

Stadia Interval Factor ( No C)

K (no C) = D/S
= 15/0.149
= 100.6711

Percent Difference
%DIFF = Calculated/Actual
= 14.94227/15
= 99.6%
3. Illustration

4. Data Analysis
Other than the data gathered from Point A, other data that was taken were
consistent enough to gain a definite conclusion to the value of the stadia
interval constant. This may have been a reading error as the other data were
consistent with each other, garnering a 98% to 98% accuracy. Through there
were little variations in the data gathered, consistency can still be seen.
However, having a point A, the closest to the instrument, become an error is
significant.

Other sources of possible error may also stem from other human errors such
as unsteady handling of vertical stadia rod, misreading, and so on.

If the stadia constant is removed for the calculations, the constant become ore
consistent with each other, as can be seen from the table. The data gets
relatively close to 100 exactly. This would entail that the instrument is
internally focusing and thus don’t require a constant.
5. Conclusion
From this experiment, we can conclude that utilizing the stadia interval is an
effective and rapid means in determining horizontal distances. The
determination of the distance is of course more calculations based than tape
measurements. However, this helps lessening errors in measurement,
especially with tape measurement as it has several disadvantages when it
comes to measuring.
INCLINED STADIA SIGHTS

In the figure, the difference in elevation between observed points A and B is

15 m and the horizontal distance between them is 35 m. With transit at Sta.
O, additional information was obtained as shown in the table. Determine the
stadia intervals at A and B. Assume K
= 100 and C = 0.
1. Objective
The objective of this exercise is to make use of the engineer’s transit or
theodolite in determining the horizontal and vertical stadia distances and the
difference in elevation of given stations from inclined stadia sights.

2. Background
In stadia surveying, most stadia sights encountered in the field are inclined
because of the varying ground surface elevations, however the stadia
intercept is still read with the stadia rod held vertical. Figure 2.1 shows the
typical setup of a transit and it is desired to determine the horizontal (H) and
vertical (V) stadia distances of a stadia rod from a given position under
inclined stadia sights.

Fig. 2.1 Inclined Stadia Sight

Figure 2.2 Detail of the stadia intercept for inclined sights

From Figure 2.2,  is known to be 017’, which is the angle subtended by the
projection of the middle cross hair and either the lower or upper cross hair.
The angle  is however neglected and the angle at corner F is assumed to be
equal to 90 degrees.
Considering Figure 2 and Figure 3, and relating it to horizontal sights
D = KS’ + C (2.1)

Considering triangle AFE, since AE is half of AB equal to S/2 and FE is half

of FG equal to S’/2

Cos  = (S’/2)/(S/2)

Simplifying,

S’ = S cos  (2.2)

Substituting Eq. 2.2 to Eq. 2.1,

D = K S cos  + C (2.3)

In Figure 2.1, consider  OEJ

cos  = H / D

H = D cos  (2.4)
Subs. Eq (2.3) into Eq. (2.4)

H = (K S cos  + C) cos 

H = K S cos2 + C cos  (2.5)

And, sin  = V / D

V = D sin  (2.6)

Subs. Eq. (2.3) to Eq. (2.6)

V = (K S cos  + C) sin 

V = K S cos  sin  + C sin 

But cos  sin  = (1/2) sin 

Therefore,

V = (1/2) K S sin 2 + C sin  (2.7)

If an external focusing telescope (C = 0) is being used, Eqs. 2.5 and 2.7
would become

H = K S cos2 (2.8)

V = (1/2) K S sin 2 (2.9)

3. Instruments and Accessories

1 Engineer’s transit or theodolite
1 100-m tape
1 stadia rod
1 Set of marking pins
2 range poles

4. Location
Any level open surface

5. Procedure
a. Select a sloping ground surface with clear distance of around 50
meters. Drive a hub into the ground at one end of this distance and
designate this as point O (See Figure 2.3) A marking pin may be used
to mark point O if a hub is not available.
Fig. 2.3

b. Set up and level the surveying instrument over point O.

c. With the telescope horizontal, measure and record the height of
intrument (HI) using the stadia rod.
d. At any point P, direct the rodman to hold the stadia rod vertically. By
setting the lower stadia hair on a whole meter mark on the rod, take and
record the foresight reading on the rod. Read and record the vertical
angle (+ for elevation and - for depression).
Note: Alternatively, set the middle cross hair to the mark on stadia rod equal
to HI, i.e. RR = HI. By doing this, calculations for DE can be simplified since
HI and RR cancel each other so that the difference in elevation DE is readily
equal to the vertical stadia distance V.
e. Repeat step 4 at two (2) other rod stations
6. Computations

Considering Pt. A
HA = KS cos^2θ
= 100(SA) cos^2(12)
= 95.677 Sa Eq. 1
Va = (1/2)KS sin 2θ
= (1/2)(100)Sa sin [2(12)]
Va = 20.337 Sa Eq. 2

Considering Pt. B
Hb = KS cos^2θ
= 100(Sb) cos^2(10)
= 96.985 SB Eq. 3
Vb = (1/2)KS sin 2θ
= (1/2)(100)Sb sin [2(10)]
VB = 17.101 Sb Eq. 4
From the Figure,
Ha – Hb = 35 Eq. 5
Substituting Eqs. (1) and (3) to Eq. 5
95.677Sa – 96.985Sb = 35 Eq. 6
Va – RRa – (Vb – RRb) = 15
20.337Sa – 1.863 – 17.101Sb + 1.500 = 15
20.337Sb – 17.101Sb = 15.363
Sa = (15.363 + 17.101Sb)/20.337 Eq. 7
Eq. 7 into Eq. 6,
95.677[(15.363 + 17.101Sb)/20.337] – 96.985 Sb = 35
72.2906 + 80.4688Sb – 96.985Sb = 35

Sb = 37.2906 / 16.516 = 2.258 m ANS.

Sb into Eq. 7
Sa = [15.363 + 17.101(2.258)]/20.337
Sa = 2.654 m ANS

7. Conclusion
From the problem we therefore conclude that ou are using an
internallyfocusing instrument. In this case, the instrumentconstant is zero
and can be disregarded. This is the advantage of an internally focusing
telescope.
STADIA LEVELLING

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

Introduction:
Differential leveling is the process used to determine a difference in
elevation between two points. A Level is an instrument with a telescope that
can be leveled with a spirit bubble. The optical line of sight forms a
horizontal plane, which is at the same elevation as the telescope crosshair. By
reading a graduated rod held vertically on a point of known elevation (Bench
Mark) a difference in elevation can be measured and a height of instrument
(H.I.) calculated by adding the rod reading to the elevation of the bench
mark. Once the height of instrument is established, rod readings can be taken
on subsequent points and their elevations calculated by simply subtracting the
readings from the height of instrument.

Objectives:
To learn how to run differential levelling, to learn how to determine the
elevation of points by differential levelling, to learn how to adjust the
differential levelling.

Instruments:
Stadia rod, engineer’s transit/theodolite, steel tape
Procedure:

1. A reference point of known elevation was designated. This point was

called as BM1.

2. The instrument was set up and leveled at a convenient location. A back

sight was taken and recorded on BM1.

3. A turning point (BM1 and TP1 are NOT necessarily to be in straight

line) was established, a foresight on TP1 was taken and recorded. The
back sight and foresight distance was kept equal to minimize error.

4. The instrument was transferred and leveled at any convenient distance

beyond TP1.

5. A back sight on TP1 was taken and recorded.

6. Another turning point (TP2) was established at a convenient distance

ahead of the instrument.

7. A foresight to TP2 was taken and recorded.

8. Procedure 4 –7 was repeated until BM1 was reached (this is taking a

foresight to BM1.)
Results and Discussion:

The table above shows the results in differential leveling. The elevation at
BM1 is known to be 30.8 meters, and we need to know the elevation of BM2.
The level is set up at a point near BM1, and a rod reading taken. The height
of instrument (HI) is calculated by adding the elevation of the benchmark and
the backsight. And then a rod reading to a turning point (TP1) is taken. The
reading of the foresight is subtracted from the height of instrument to obtain
the elevation at TP1. The rod stays at TP1, the level moves ahead and the rod
at TP1 now becomes the backsight. This procedure was repeated until the
final foresight to BM2 was obtained which has an average of 12.84 meters.
Conclusion:
I conclude that to run differential leveling, we have to know first the
benchmarks of the said elevation and need to get the basksights and
foresights from the first benchmark down to the last and then calculate the
height of instrument by adding the elevation of the station and the backsight.
Then finally, elevation is computed by subtracting the foresight from the
height of instrument.
PLANE TABLE SURVEY

General:

In case of plane table survey, the measurements of survey lines of the

traverse and their plotting to a suitable scale are done simultaneously on the
field. Following are the cases in which the plane table survey is found to be
useful:

1. Compass survey cannot be carried out with success in industrial areas

of the town. Plane table survey will be the best alternative in such
cases.
2. For preparing plans on a small scale, plane table survey proves to be
speedy, easy and accurate.
3. The city or town has expanded within two or three decades and it is
required to plot the developed area on the previously plotted plan of the
existing area.

Instruments required:
Alidade, Drawing board, Plumbing fork, Spirit level and Trough compass
Temporary adjustments of plane table:
Following three distinct operations at each survey station are carried out for
the temporary adjustments of a plane table.

1. Centering
The legs of tripod are well spread out to get the convenient height for
working on the board. Then, the operation of centering is carried out by
means of plumbing fork or U-frame and plumb bob. This process ascertains
the fact that the point on paper represents the station point on ground. The
pointed end of the plumbing fork is kept on point on paper and at the other
end, a plumb bob is fixed. The table or board is shifted bodily till the plumb
bob hangs exactly over the peg of the station.

2. Leveling
The process of leveling is carried out with the help of spirit level and it
consists of making the table level either by ordinary tilting the board or by
ball and socket arrangement or by adjusting the legs of tripod.

3. Orientation
The process by which the position occupied by the board at various survey
stations are kept parallel is known as the orientation. Thus, when a plane
table is properly oriented, the lines on the board are parallel to the lined on
ground which they represent. The methods of orientation are:
i. Orientation by magnetic needle: In this method, the magnetic north
is drawn on paper at a particular station. At the next station, the
trough compass is placed along the line of magnetic north and then
the table is turned in such a way that the ends of magnetic needle are
opposite to the zeros of the scale. The board is then fixed in position
by clamps. This method is inaccurate in the sense that the results are
likely to be affected by the local attraction.

ii. Orientation by back sighting: In this method, the orientation is

carried out by the back sighting of a particular line. Suppose a line is
drawn from station A on paper representing line AB on ground. The
table is centered and leveled at station B and then the alidade is
placed along the line ba. The table is turned till the line of sight
bisects the ranging rod at A. The board is then clamped in this
position. This method is better than the previous one and it gives
perfect orientation.
Methods of plane table survey:

Following are the four methods by which an object might be located on paper
by plane table:

1. Radiation
This is the simplest method and it is useful only when the whole traverse can
be commanded from a single station. The procedure is as follows:

i. Select a point P so that all the corners of the traverse ABCD are
seen.
ii. Carry out the usual temporary adjustments of centering and leveling.
Mark the north line on paper.
iii. Put the alidade on point P and dram a line of sight for station A.
iv. Measure the distance PA on ground and put this length to a suitable
scale on paper which will give point a.
v. Similarly, obtain points b, c and d on paper by drawing lines of sight
for stations B, C and D and measuring the distances PB, PC and PD
on ground respectively.
vi. Join points a, b, c and d on paper, as shown in figure.
vii. For checking the accuracy of work, measure the distances AB, BC,
CD and DA on ground and compare them with the lengths ab, bc, cd
and da respectively on paper.
 2. Intersection

This method is useful where it is not possible to measure the distances on

ground as in case of a mountainous country. Hence, this method is employed
for locating inaccessible points, the broken boundaries, rivers, fixing survey
stations, etc. The procedure is as follows:

i. Select two stations P and Q so that the points to be located on paper

are easily seen from them.
ii. Plot the line pq, which is known as the base line, on paper. This can
be done in one of the two ways:
a. The table can be centered and leveled at station P and then after
orienting at station Q, the distance PQ can be accurately
measured and put up to some scale on the paper.
 b. The line pq can be drawn to some scale on the paper and then the
board can be adjusted from station P by back sighting at station
Q.
iii. From station P, draw rays for stations A, B, etc.
iv. Shift the table to station Q and after proper orientation, take rays of
stations A, B etc.,
v. The intersection of rays from stations P and Q will give points a, b
etc. on paper, as shown in figure.
vi. For checking the accuracy of work, measure the distance AB on
ground and compare it with its corresponding length ab on paper.
MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE ( Plane table survey sample field work)

Introduction:
The accurate determination of the distance between two points on any surface
is one of the basic operations of plane surveying.
Any unknown distance may be approximately calculated by determining
one’s pace factor and by multiplying it by the mean number of paces (Paced
Distance=Pace Factor × Mean Number of Paces).

Objectives:
. To measure distance by pacing and taping over a smooth and level ground.

Procedure:
Determining Distance by Pacing
A. Look for a place having a level ground of unknown length and
designate the end points as point A and B.

B. Walk over the course at natural pace with either heel or toe and count
the paces made from point B to A, then A to B, until you reach five
trials. Record the paces made in your engineer’s field notebook.
Determining the distance by taping
A. In a group, a head tapeman, a rear tapeman, a rodman and a recorder
were chosen among the members. A line of unknown length of almost
level ground was called as endpoints A and B.
B. Range poles were placed behind each point. The rear tapemen with one
(1) pin station stayed at the point of beginning while the head tapemen
took the zero end of the tape and moved forward to the other end of the
line to be measured. When the head tapemen was near to a full tape
length, the rear tapemen signalled “okay” to stop the head tapeman.
The last mark of the tape was held by the rear tapemen and aligned it to
the other end of the tape held by the head tapeman on the range pole
behind the end point.
C. The rear tapeman signalled “okay”, with the last mark at the starting
point and when the head tapeman was aligned on the line of sight. The
tape taut was pulled by the head tapeman and a chaining pin was
sticked on the ground to mark the zero (0) mark end of the tape.
D. The chaining pin was picked-up by the rear tapeman and the tape was
pulled forward by the head tapeman . The process was repeated for the
next full tape length.
 E. When the end of the line was almost reached and the last full tape
length had been measured, the remaining partial length was then
measured. The tape was held by the rear tapeman until its full meter
mark was at the chaining pin while the tape taut was pulled by the head
tapeman and took note of the fractional measurement read from the
tape end.
F. . A second measurement was made along the opposite direction after
the measurement of the whole line was completed. The mean of the two
measurements was taken as the most probable value of the length of the
line.

Results and Discussion:

The easiest and quickest way to measure distance is to walk or pace the
distance and record the number of paces. Pacing consists of counting the
number of steps, or paces, in required distance. A pace is defined as the
length of a step in walking. It may be measured steps; and if the steps are
counted, distances can be determined if the length of a step is known. Pacing
furnishes a rapid means of checking measurements taken by other methods. It
is suitable in determining approximate distance in situations where a low
precision of measurement is sufficient. Distances by pacing are sufficiently
accurate for small-scale mapping, for locating details and traversing with the
plane table, and in reconnaissance surveys. It is also used for many purposes
in geology, forestry, engineering, and agriculture.
The second field work done last Monday, June 11, 2012, is all about
determining a distance by pacing in which we are asked to layout the steel
tape and as the procedure directs, we measured an unknown distance in

CONCLUSION:
Therefore, to measure a distance by pacing, you just have to multiply the
mean no. of paces by your pace factor while in measuring distance in taping,
you simply measure using steel tape or any measuring device. It can also be
concluded that it is still more accurate to use any measuring device than
pacing. Furthermore, pacing is one of the most essential techniques for
measuring distance because it allows a person to work quickly and accurately
without an assistant.
CLOSED TRAVERSE

EQUIPMENT:

100 Foot steel tape

2 plumb bobs
Keel
Range pole
Field book
No. 3 drafting pencil

INTRODUCTION:

A traverse is a series of connected lines of known length related to one

another by known angles. For short distances, i.e., distances less than 100 ft,
lengths are most often determined using steel tapes. The angles formed by the
intersection of two courses at a traverse station can be determined indirectly
using a steel tape. Recall that the angles at a traverse station can be
designated as interior angles, deflection angles, or angles to the right. The
student should be familiar with and understand these terms.
In general, there are of two types of traverses. The first type of traverse is a
closed traverse. Here the traverse begins and ends at the same point, or the
traverse begins and ends at points whose horizontal positions are known.
Closed traverses are known respectively, as loop traverses and connecting
traverses. A loop traverse forms a continuous closed circuit such as a traverse
that describes a property. A connecting traverse begins and ends at widely
separated points whose horizontal positions have been previously determined
by a survey of at least equal and preferably higher accuracy.
The second type of traverse is a open traverse. An open traverse will begin at
a point of known, or assumed, position and will terminate at a station whose
relative horizontal position is unknown. No means are available, therefore,
for calculating closure for this type of traverse. Traverses of this type are
generally used when making preliminary highway surveys.
The quality of taped measurements can be specified as having an accuracy
expressed by some fraction, say 1/15,000 of the length. This would constitute
a tolerance of ±0.007 feet per 100 feet. Stipulating an accuracy would imply
that from time to time the tape be compared with a standard length, suitable
corrections be applied for temperature effects, and that due attention be given
to other sources of error, especially slope, plumbing and marking. The
importance of good taping cannot be overemphasized. It is the major factor
affecting the accuracy of transit-tape traverses. Taping is also the most
important element affecting the productivity of the transit-tape survey party
and hence, the cost of the traverse survey.
The interior angles at each traverse station can be computed once certain
distances are measure in the near vicinity of the traverse station. The
horizontal angle measured at a traverse station serves basically to express the
difference in the directions of the two lines at that point. Although the transit
or theodolite are most often used to measure angles, it is possible to calculate
an angle from tape measurements.
PROCEDURE:

Taping distances
In theory taping is the simplest surveying method. But taping requires more
skill and practice than any other surveying method. Accuracy of the data
collected by means of taping depends more on the surveyor’s field technique
than on the equipment used. The laboratory instructor will identify all
stations of a closed traverse. The student survey crew will establish the
distance between each traverse station with steel tapes. In a later lab the
student survey crew will resurvey the same distances using an EDMI
(electronic distance measuring instrument). The survey point where tape
measurements begins is towards the back of the survey crew, and
measurements proceed forward to the next survey point. The individual at the
back is referred to as the rear tape man, and the individual at the front is the
head tape man. Any point on the straight line between the two survey points
is on line. If a point is not on line it is right or left looking forward from the
back.
Measure all lines between traverse stations by taping in both directions and
averaging your measurements. Be sure to maintain the tape horizontal and
make the necessary tension corrections if specified by the lab instructor. Note
that tape measurements are not made with the tape held on the survey points.
Good practice dictates that each end of the tape is held above the survey
points by means of a plumb bob attached to a string and gammon reel. A
range pole is held, or stuck into the ground, just beyond the survey point
ahead. This enables the rear tape man to keep the head tap man on line.
Be sure to use at least two ties for each survey point (bench mark) in the
traverse. Also note the direction of north in your field book sketch and make
your sketch approximately to scale. Make tape corrections if your tape is
other than standard and make temperature corrections if necessary. This
requires you to observe the temperature when taping a distance.
Taping angle data
The student survey crew will determine the necessary line segments that must
be measured in order to calculate the interior angles at all traverse stations.
Verify your proposed plan with the laboratory instructor. Two methods of
measuring an angle with a tape are depicted in the figure below. In Figure (a)
angle A lies at the intersections of lines AB and AC. Points B and C' are laid
off an equal horizontal distance from A, as shown, and the horizontal chord
B′ C′ is measured as well. Because AB′C′ is an isosceles triangle the bisector
of A must also bisect line B'C'. From the diagram.
sin(A/2) = (B'C′/ 2)/AB’
= B'C/2AB'
Therefore:
A/2 = sin^-1 (B'C'/2AB')
Because angle A is twice the half angle A/2, then
A = 2sin^-1[(B’C’)]/[(2AB’)]
In figure (b) point E' is laid out a convenient horizontal distance from D, a
perpendicular is erected at E', and point F' is established at the intersection of
the perpendicular with line DF. In the resulting triangle DE′F'
tan (D) = E′ F′/DE′
from which is obtained
D = tan^-[(E’F’)]/(DE’)
Be sure to maintain the tape horizontal and make the necessary tension
corrections if specified by the lab instructor. Note that tape measurements are
not made with the tape held on the survey points. Good practice dictates that
each end of the tape is held above the survey points by means of a plumb bob
attached to a string and gammon reel. A range pole is held, or stuck into the
ground, just beyond the survey point ahead. This enables the rear tape man to
keep the head tap man on line.
FIELD NOTES
Following are some examples of field notes which can be used as examples
for recording traverse data. The student is also advised to consult the text
book used in CVE 211.
A similar set of field notes can be used to record data for later use in
calculating the angles at each traverse station, e.g.,

CONCLUSION
I conclude that traversing by interior angle, all interior angles of horizontal
distances are measured. A line of known direction should either be given or
assumed. The adjusted angles should always be added to check whether their
sum is already the expected value. The surveyor should determine the bearing
or azimuth of the succeeding lines in the traverse. Interior angles should be
measured with sufficient repetitions to obtain the desired precision, half
should be observed with the telescope in direct position and the other half is
in reversed position.
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY

CONSTRUCTING GRAPHIC SCALES

I. INTRODUCTION
A graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map and is used to convert
distances on the map to actual ground distances. This may be drawn at a
convenient place on the chart and subdivided into nautical miles, meters,
etc. The graphic scale is divided into 2 parts. To the right of the zero, the
scale is marked and is called the primary scale. To the left of the zero, the
scale is divided into tenths and is called the extension scale. Most maps
have 3 or more graphic scales, each using a different unit of measure.

II. OBJECTIVES:

Too learn how to construct graphic scales for topographic maps

III. INSTRUMENTS:

Triangle, graduated straight edge, paper, pen, pencil

IV. PROCEDURES:
i. The group was given 4 problems. Designed and constructed
equivalent graphic scales according to specifications
prescribed for each problem with the use of the drawing
instruments.
ii. The primary scale unit should be converted into cm and the
equivalent length is computed to be portrayed in the scale
by means of ratio and proportion.
iii. The total length to be portrayed on primary scale
wassubdivided by the primary scale unit’s length.

iv. One must add another scale unit from the primary scale
unit called the extension scale. And the extension scale
will be subdivided from the number given in the problem.

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In constructing a graphical scale, it should be constructed using rulers or

any drawing materials that are graduated or has calibrations. The graphic
scale is made up of the primary scale (to the right of the zero), the
extension scale (to the left of the zero), and the zero that is found between
the extension scale and the primary scale is also called as the index point.
After this indoor laboratory exercise, the group was able to construct the
four (4) different graphic scales given its fractional scale, primary scale
unit, total length to be portrayed on primary and extension scale, and the
number of divisions on extension scale. In the first problem, since 1 cm on
the map represents 1,000,000 cm on the ground, then it can simply be
worked out using ratio and proportion, as follows;
And since the total length need to be portrayed on primary and extension
scale is 100km (10 cm on the map), and 50km (5cm on the map)
respectively, a line with a total length of 15cm long had to be drawn. The
extension scale was then divided by 5 subdivisions which will now have a
length of 1 cm each division on the map. The desired graphic scale was
then completed by labeling the extension and primary scales, and drawing
two closely spaced parallel lines with shaded alternating segments.

VI. CONCLUSION.
Therefore, in constructing graphic scales for topographic maps, ratio and
proportion is used or just simply solve the problem analytically. Just be
sure to use the correct scale for the unit of measure desired to avoid any
errors.
MEASURING DISCHARGE

ABSTRACT

An experiment was conducted to explore the use of an orifice meter and

manometer for predicting fluid discharge through a pipe. Fifteen sets of
measured discharge and manometer readings were obtained. Discharge was
measured by volumetric methods. The calibration equation was fit to the
observations. Discharge predictions from both the fundamental discharge
relationship and the calibration equation were evaluated and compared. Both
equations appeared to be suitable for predicting discharge. The calibration
equation provided predictions with less than 2% error while the fundamental
discharge relationship had errors as high as 8%. While the calibration
equation appears to be more accurate, the fundamental discharge relationship
has the advantage of being applicable for fluids other than water. The higher
errors associated with the fundamental discharge relationship may have been
caused by improperly zeroing the manometer. Measured values of the orifice
coefficient K were within 10% of published values.
INTRODUCTION

Discharge in a pipe can be measured with an orifice meter composed of an

orifice plate and a manometer. The orifice causes a pressure loss across the
plate that increases as flow increases. The manometer provides a means of
measuring the pressure loss and predicting the flow. This application of
orifice meters was explored through achieving the following three objectives:

1. Verify the applicability of Eqs. 1 and 2, and compare the resulting

equations.
2. Measure the dependence of K on Reynolds number in the apparatus and
compare it to published results.
3. Determine the uncertainty (using least squares analysis) in the
measured values of K, assuming that the uncertainty in K results from
uncertainty in both the manometer readings and the information used to
determine discharge.

According to Potter and Wiggert (1997) the fundamental discharge

relationship for an orifice meter is 0.5

(1)

Here the pipe discharge Q (m^3/s) depends on an orifice coefficient K, the

orifice area Ao (m^2), the gravitational constant g and the pressure-head
drop. In Eq. 1 the pressure-head drop is determined by the product R(S-1)
where R is the manometer reading in meters and S is the specific gravity of
the manometer fluid. The derivation of Eq. 1 depends on three assumptions:
 1. The Bernoulli Equation applies to this situation.
2. The pressure measured at the side of the pipe downstream of the orifice
plate provides an accurate means of determining the pressure at the
centerline of the pipe at that cross section.
3. Coefficients can be introduced into the equation to compensate for the
following:
-That the conditions required for application of the Bernoulli Equation
are not met;
-That the pressure at the downstream pressure tap does not allow
accurate determination of fluid pressure on the central streamline at that
cross section.

Experiments have shown that the coefficient K depends on two

dimensionless numbers—the ratio of the orifice and pipe diameters (Do/D),
and the Reynolds number Re of the flow. For any fixed diameter ratio, K
only depends on the Reynolds number of the flow and tends to a constant
value at large Reynolds numbers. As the diameter ratio increases, the
variation in K with Reynolds number increases. Eq. 1 may be used to predict
flow without calibrating the specific meter if the meter is constructed and
operated according to established criteria. In this case K must be obtained
from published relationships.
The calibration equation Q = C[R(S-1)]^m (2)
yields the relationship between pressure drop across the orifice plate and flow
rate. Here again the pressure drop is determined by the product R(S-1). To
determine the constants C and m one must measure discharge and manometer
readings.
Determining the coefficients in Eq. 2 by the method of least squares gave the
following calibration equation
Q = 0.0102R^0.4609 (3)
Evaluating the uncertainty δK in measured values of K was accomplished by
assuming the primary sources of error were the values of Q and R. With that
assumption, uncertainty δK could be calculated with the following equation

(4)

Here δR and δQ represent the uncertainty in measured R and Q.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The apparatus consisted of a pipe equipped with an orifice meter, a

differential mercury manometer, and a discharge control valve. A pump at the
upstream end of the apparatus supplied energy to the water in the pipe to
make high flow rates possible. A calibrated measuring tank, used to measure
water volume, was located at the pipe outlet. A digital stopwatch was used to
measure time.

Orfice meter used in this experiment

The following procedure was used to obtain the basic experimental data:
1. Close all operating valves.
2. Turn on the pump that supplies water to the pipe with the orifice meter.
3. Open the valve on the discharge side of the pump.
4. With no flow in the pipe loop, open the appropriate manometer valves
and adjust the manometer reading to show zero pressure drop.
5. Adjust the flow in the pipe by opening the valve at the measuring tank.
At this time the flow is diverted directly into the lower reservoir.
6. Divert the water into the measuring tank and measure the time required
for a specific volume of water to accumulate.
7. Record the following:
-water levels at the start of the timed period and at the end of the
period,
-the time interval,
-and the observed manometer reading.
8. Collect data for 10 to 15 different discharges.

RESULTS
The basic data collected, calculations from published values, as well as
properties of the system, appear in Tables 2, 3, and 4 in the Appendix (p 10-
11.). Z is water surface elevation in the measuring tank, t is time that it took
the water surface to rise from Z1 to Z2, and R is the manometer reading in
meters of mercury. Q is the measured discharge that was determined from
measurements of Z and t; Q=At(Z1-Z2)/t. Here At is the cross-sectional area
of the measurement tank (Table 1), Re is the Reynolds number of the flow
(Re=4Q/(πDν)), and K was calculated with Eq. 1 using the measured values
of Q and R.
Fig. 2. Comparison of Eg. 3 and Measured Relationship Between Discharge
and Manometer Reading
The relationship between measured discharge and manometer reading and the
relationship described by Eq. 3 are shown in Figure 2. For practical purposes,
these two relationships are identical.
Eq. 1 was also used to establish a relationship between Q and R (Table 2 in
Appendix). Here K was found using the published relationship between K
and Re by a trial and error process described by Potter and Wiggert (1997).
The relationship obtained with Eq. 1 is compared to the measured
relationship in Figure 3. Eq. 1 shows increasing deviation from published
values as the manometer reading gets smaller.
Fig 2. Comparison of Eq. 1 and Measured Relationship Between Discharge
and Manometer Reading

Measured values of K (Figure 4) were determined from the experimental data

using Eq. 1. Values of K depended on the Reynolds number of the flow. As
the Reynolds number increased from 41,100 to 137,000 the value of K
decreased from 0.784 to 0.710.
Fig. 4. Values of the Orifice Coefficient K vs Reynolds Number ( Do/D=0.7)
Table 1. Comparison of Measured and Predicted Discharge

Errors δQ were assumed to be due to errors in Z. The absolute errors of

±0.001 m in ∆Z and ±0.0005 m in R were assumed on the basis of least count
analysis.
DISCUSSION

Eqs. 1 and 3 can both be used to predict flow for manometer readings ranging
from 0.011 to 0.148 meters of mercury. Eq. 3 predicted the measured
discharges with errors less than 2%; Eq. 1 was in error by less than about 8%
(Table 1). Eq. 3 should provide predictions with less than 2% error so long as
the mercury manometer can be kept zeroed at the same position that was used
during the experiments. If the greater error observed with Eq. 1 is the result
of an error in zeroing the manometer during the experiment then it may be
possible to improve the results that can be obtained with Eq. 1. This
possibility may be worth exploring because Eq. 1 has a significant advantage
over Eq. 3 in that it permits the meter to be used for fluids other than water at
16 C.
The measured values of K fall within about ±10 % of the published values
(Fig. 4). This is reasonable agreement. Furthermore, these values show a
tendency to decrease with increasing Reynolds number just as the published
values show.
Standard error propagation methods showed that measured values of K were
subject to an uncertainty that ranged from about 2% at Reynolds numbers of
4.1(10)4 to less than 0.5% at Reynolds numbers of 1.4(10)5. The calculated
uncertainty δK (Table 4 in Appendix) was used to construct error bars around
each measured value of K (Fig. 4). This analysis suggests that the values of K
grow more uncertain as the Reynolds number of the flow decreases.
Nonetheless, within the range of the measured values, the uncertainties in R
and Q do not appear to explain the observed differences between the
measured values of K and published values.
The values of K best agree with reported values at high Reynolds numbers,
and they show an increased deviation from reported values as the Reynolds
number decreased. This consistent deviation suggests a bias in the results. A
likely explanation, although it must be verified by experiment, is that the
manometer was not properly zeroed during the experiment. The improved
agreement obtained by assuming a small (0.003m) zeroing error is shown in
Fig. 5 (in Appendix). To discover the true values of K in the apparatus
requires that the experiment be rerun to verify the cause of the observed
differences.

CONCLUSIONS

This experiment yielded the following conclusions:

- Eqs. 1 and 3 can both be used to predict flow in this system for
manometer readings ranging from 0.011 to 0.148 meters of mercury.
- Measured values of K fall within ± 10% of published values, a result
acceptable for all but the most carefully designed and executed
experiments. Measured values of K show the best agreement with
published values at high Reynolds numbers. That agreement decreases as
the Reynolds number decreases, but this effect does not entirely explain
the disparities. Eq. 3 will provide more accurate predictions if the
mercury manometer can be kept zeroed at or near the same position that
was used during the experiments.
- If the greater uncertainty in predictions with Eq. 1 is the result of an error
in zeroing the manometer during the experiment, then it may be possible
to improve the accuracy of predictions with Eq. 1. Further experiments to
resolve this issue may be worthwhile because Eq. 1 has a significant
advantage over Eq. 3 in that it permits the meter to be used for fluids
other than water at 16° C.
APPENDIX

Table 2. Experimental Data and System Properties

Table 3. Q vs R From Published values of K

Table 4. Error in K
Fig. 5. Values of the Orifice Coefficient vs Reynolds Number (Based on
Adjusted Values of R).
HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY

INTRODUCTION
In April 1994 HR Wallingford was commissioned by the Ministry of
Agriculture Fisheries and Foods (MAFF, now the Department of the
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs - DEFRA) to carry out numerical
studies to estimate the impact of seawall breaching on the surrounding creek
morphology at Tollesbury Creek (Figure 1). Further studies followed in
November 1996, November 1997, November 1998, November 1999,
December 2000 and November 2001, to survey the estuary and determine the
morphological trends at the site. HR Wallingford carried out a further survey
in November 2001. This report summarises the analysis of the bathymetric
changes.
A full set of technical reports have been prepared and submitted for this
project, as set out in the Reference section.

HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEY
Bathymetric surveys were carried out in Tollesbury Fleet in the late autumn
of 1994, 1996 and every year subsequently to 2001. The area of the surveys
is shown in Figure 1.
Line spacing for the survey was at 100m intervals in the widest part of the
Fleet, and at 50m intervals in the narrower creek reaches; additional cross-
check lines were run perpendicular to the survey lines. All lines surveyed
were repeated each year. The survey vessel was positioned using the Trinity
Lighthouse reference station at North Foreland (50° 34’ 32.29”N, 001° 17’
52.16”W, height 94.9m) using a Trimble 4000DL receiver and Trimble
Probeacon. Depths were measured using a Raytheon DE719C (210kHz) echo
sounder with depth data logged at 10Hz. All data was logged to a NAVBOX,
a PC-based navigational computer system which incorporates a helmsman
display to facilitate precise positional control. Bed levels were reduced to
ODN from visual observations to tide board gauges established at:
Woodrolfe Creek (NG 597500E,211000N) and Tollesbury Creek (NG
596580E,211510N)

DATA ANALYSIS
Previous technical reports assessed annual changes, but this report will only
present the total change from 1994 to 2001. The raw bathymetric data from
the recent November 2001 survey were used in conjunction with the raw
bathymetric data from the June 1994 survey taken prior to the breach, to
derive information on the changes in bed level. The changes in bathymetry
were computed in two ways.
- Survey data was sorted into pairs of points (one from each survey) less
than 0.1m apart. This procedure gives changes in bathymetry at more or
less exactly the same location and so removes uncertainty in bed level
changes where the bathymetry is variable. Secondary analysis was also
carried out which found pairs of points less than 1m apart. This was
considered acceptable due to the fact that the echo sounder method of
surveying averages the bed data over an area of the order of 1m radius,
due to the expansion of the echo beam. The figures from this analysis
could then be compared against the corresponding annual changes since
June 1994. The results are presented to show both the spatial variation of
changes and also to show the numerical distribution of changes.

- Further examination of trends within the Tollesbury Fleet was provided

by comparing the cross-section profiles from various locations within the
system, the data being derived from transects by the survey vessel over
different years. Although the transects presented in this report differ
 slightly in their location, they are separated by no more than 12m
upstream/downstream of each other and are considered to reflect an
accurate representation of changes in these cross-sections over time. For
presentation in this report the available data has been filtered.

RESULTS

Point-by-point analysis
The analysis for the June 1994 to December 2001 period again shows that
there has been noticeable deepening since 1994 in areas of the main channels,
particularly in Tollesbury Creek, Tollesbury Fleet and in Old Hall Creek
(Figures 2 to 6). It is considered that deepening in Old Hall Creek is
attributable to an increase in discharge through the upper end since breaching
in order to fill the back of the estuary. This aspect was predicted by the
numerical studies of the breaching process (Reference 7). Figure 6 highlights
the shift in the distribution of bed level changes in Tollesbury Creek
compared to other areas of the estuary, as it adjusts to a new regime. Note
also that the distribution exhibits a greater frequency of points across the
whole estuary with significant deepening compared to accretion. Tollesbury
Fleet also appears to show significant deepening.

Table 1 shows the average changes in bed level throughout the estuary and in
the different creeks. The mean changes for points separated by less than 0.1m
broadly agree with those separated by less than 1m except where the data sets
of the former are only represented by a relatively small number of points. The
results of this table (for points separated by up to 1m) are shown in graphical
form in Figure 7 which shows the cumulative changes that have occurred
within the estuary since June 1994. The figure shows clearly that the most
significant influence on the mean bed level changes is that of natural year on
year variation, probably due to variation in the annual wave climate.
However, since the breach there has been overall deepening in Tollesbury
Creek, in Tollesbury Fleet and Old Hall Creek that seems to have tailed off in
recent years, suggesting an underlying effect caused by the breach itself.

Analysis of cross-section profiles

Further analysis was undertaken by examining the changes to cross-section
profiles taken from various parts of the estuary. The locations of the cross-
sections examined are shown in Figure 8. The crosssections themselves are
presented in the Technical reports with only those for Tollesbury Creek
shown here in Figures 9 and 10 It should be noted that the cross-section
cannot be held to be representative of the whole estuary/creek but may serve
to indicate trends for corroboration by other data.
Figures 9 and 10 show the changes to cross-section profiles in Tollesbury
Creek. The figures show steady deepening over time of up to 0.4m (site A at
the mouth) and up to 0.6m (site B further upstream) at the deepest point of
the channel. Further upwards in the intertidal profile erosion is also shown of
up to 0.2m. The period 2000-2001 does not show any significant further
change at site A, but at site B the smaller channel to the south side has been
shallowing since 1994 with the main channel increasing in size to
compensate. This is to be expected as the flow in the main channel has
greatly increased relative to prebreach.
Changes to cross-section profiles in Old Hall Creek show that at the deepest
point of the channel there was steady deepening over time over the period
1994-1999 followed by accretion in the period 1999-2000 raising the channel
bed to levels similar to those in 1994. This suggests that steady accretion has
occurred on some parts of the intertidal of up to 0.2m. The period 2000-2001
appears to be characterised by a small amount of further accretion.
Changes to cross-section profiles in Woodrolfe Creek show steady deepening
over time of up to 0.4m at the deepest point of the channel. On the lower
intertidal erosion of up to 0.2m has occurred, however above 0mOD the
pattern is more mixed.
Changes to cross-section profiles in the North Channel of Tollesbury Fleet
indicate little overall deepening over time in the LW channel but intertidal
erosion of up to 0.4m on the Northern shallow bank of the channel, most of
this deepening occurring between 1994 and 1997. Since this time there
appear to be no significant changes to the section. Changes to cross-section
profiles in the South Channel of Tollesbury Fleet show deepening over time
of up to 0.2m on both the subtidal and intertidal, although over the 2000-
2001 period there does not appear to have been any further deepening.
The analysis of cross-section profiles in general shows that parts of the
estuary cross-section profile are displaying different types of bed level
changes. In order to identify the differences in behaviour further bed level
changes at different elevations were investigated.

Analysis of changes at different elevations

The data set for bed level changes between 1994-2001 was analysed for
changes at different elevations in the subtidal/intertidal profile. The results
are displayed in Figure 11. An important result of this analysis was that the
number of “subtidal” points, with elevation below MLWS, was small
compared to the number of intertidal points. This is because the creeks
virtually dry out at LW, although subtidal changes are recorded for
Tollesbury Fleet where the water depths are greater. The mean bed level
changes discussed in Section 4.1 (and presented in Figure 7) are therefore
biased towards intertidal changes.
Broadly speaking MLWS is at –2.5mOD and MHWS is at +3.0mOD. On
intertidal areas there has been erosion around the lower intertidal, -2.5mOD
to 0mOD, in the estuary as a whole and in each individual creek. The greatest
changes in the estuary as a whole appear to have taken place around the –
1.5mOD to -0.5mOD level, although in Tollesbury Fleet the greatest changes
have taken place in deeper water, around the –2.5mOD to –2.0mOD level. It
is likely that much of this effect is due to the breach as the depth of erosion at
this level is strongest in Tollesbury Creek and Tollesbury Fleet, those parts of
the estuary most experiencing changes in current speed as a result of the
breach. The figure shows that the estuary as a whole has experienced
deepening (on average) at all bed levels.
SUMMARY
In general, over the entire period June 1994 to November 2001 the whole
estuary has deepened, particularly along Tollesbury Creek and in Tollesbury
Fleet. This deepening has occurred in both subtidal and intertidal areas of the
estuary. The subtidal and lower intertidal areas appear to be affected by the
breach while the upper intertidal areas are affected by wave action. The most
significant mechanism on the bed levels in the estuary as a whole appears to
be the natural year on year variation in the wave climate. The estuary appears
to have deepened as a whole over the period 1994-1996 and remained
broadly stable since then. However, there is some suggestion that Old Hall
Creek has not yet stabilised since examination of point measurements and
cross-section profiles suggests it appears to be accreting and gradually
returning to the depths that existed before the breach occurred in 1994. At
other locations within the estuary there appears to be no significant further
deepening in the LW channel and on intertidal areas.
Figure 1 Location of Tollesbury Creek and breach
Changes in bathymetry December 2000 to November 2001 in the estuary,
pairs of points separated by less than 0.1m Figure 2 Changes in bathymetry
June 1994 to November 2001 in the estuary, pairs of points separated by less
than 0.1m
Figure 3 Changes in bathymetry June 1994 to November 2001 in the estuary,
pairs of points separated by less than 1.0m
Figure 4 Changes in bathymetry June 1994 to November 2001 in Tollesbury
Creek, pairs of points separated by less than 0.1m
TRIANGULATION SURVEY

TRIANGULATION OF A BRIDGE SITE

I. INTRODUCTION
The method of surveying called triangulation is based on the trigonometric
proposition that if one side and two angles of a triangle are known, the
remaining sides can be computed. Furthermore, if the direction of one side is
known, the directions of the remaining sides can be determined. A
triangulation system consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in
which an occasional side is measured and remaining sides are calculated from
angles measured at the vertices of the triangles. The vertices of the triangles
are known as triangulation stations. The side of the triangle whose length is
predetermined, is called the base line. The lines of triangulation system form
a network that ties together all the triangulation stations.
II. OBJECTIVES
1. To establish the control points for a low order triangulation system
(consisting of a single quadrilateral) needed to stake out a site for a
short-span bridge.
2. To learn how to apply the approximate method of adjusting a
quadrilateral and how to determine length of the bridge and the lengths
of other unknown sides of the quadrilateral.

III. INSTRUMENTS
Engineer’s Transit, Stadia rod, Chaining pins, and Hubs or Pegs
IV. PROCEDURES

1. The two end points defining the length of a proposed (or imaginary)
bridge was established and two other points within the vicinity of the
bridge site in order to form a triangulation figure in the shape of a
quadrilateral. These points were called A, B, C, and D with line AB
defining the length and centerline of the proposed bridge. Pegs or hubs
were used to mark these points.

2. Lines AD and BC were designated as the base line and check base,
respectively. Their respective lengths were measured accurately twice
and the mean measurements were recorded as the actual length of each
line.

3. The instrument was set up and leveled at A and each horizontal angle
about the station was measured in two repetitions. The observed values
were recorded accordingly.

4. . In a similar process, the horizontal angles at stations D, B, and C were

also measured.

5. The observed and calculated values were then tabulated accordingly.

V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 1. Data for Station Adjustment

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
Sum = 284 o35’20” + 60 o30’20” + 14o54’20” = 360 o
Discrepancy = 360 - 360 o = 0
Correction = 0
Table 2. Data for figure adjustment

SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
Sum = 60 o30’20” + 14 o54’20” + 15 o33’46.67” + 84 o44’46.67”
+ 77 o12’6.67 + 18 o54’26.67”+ 19 o40’40” + 68 o14’40”
= 359 o45’6.68”
Discrepancy = 360 - 359 o45’6.68” = 14’53”
Error = 14’53” / 8 = 1’51.67”
Table 3. Data for Adjustment of Opposite Angles

Table 4. Trigonometric Condition

SAMPLE COMPUTATIONS:
In Angle 2:
Log Sin<2 + 10
Log Sin(60 o 35’6.68”) + 10 = 9.940061474
diff in 1” = [logsin(<2 + 1”)]-[logsin(<2) + 10]
= [logsin(60 o 35’6.68” + 1”)]-[logsin(60 o 35’6.68”) + 10]
diff in 1” = 1.1871 x 10^-6

DISCUSSION:
Table 1 and 2 shows the station and figure adjustment, respectively. In the
first adjustment, all the observed horizontal angles about a station were just
added. The sum was then subtracted from 360o. The difference was then
divided by the number of angles about the station. The resulting value is then
added algebraically to each angle in order to make the sum of all angles about
each station equal to 360o. While in the second adjustment, the sum of the
interior angles of the quadrilateral must be equal to (n-2)180o, where ‘n’
represents the number of sides. In the third table, the opposite angles at the
intersection of the diagonals should be equal. The values of these angles were
previously adjusted in earlier adjustments and were compared and the
difference between them was divided by 4. The computed correction was
then added to smaller pair of angles and subtracted to the larger pair. In the
last table, it shows the trigonometric condition. It was satisfied by the means
of computations involving the sines of the angles. The angles were adjusted
so that the computed length of an unknown side opposite a known side will
be the same regardless of which of the four routes is used. In this manner,
route 1 and 3 were computed and its average will then represent as the
computed distance of BC or the check base.
VI. CONCLUSION
Therefore, the control points for a low order triangulation system
(consisting of a single quadrilateral) needed to stake out a site for a short-
span bridge was established. The application of the approximate method
of adjusting a quadrilateral was also learned, so as to determine the length
of the bridge and the lengths of other unknown sides of the quadrilateral.