Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Parameters influencing the productivity of solar stills – A review

P. Prakash a, V. Velmurugan b,n
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Anna University Chennai, Tuticorin Campus, Tuticorin 628008, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Infant Jesus College of Engineering, KeelaVallanadu, Tuticorin 628851, India

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, a review is made on the various parameters influencing the productivity of the solar stills.
Received 1 February 2014 The researches on the factors improving productivity such as area of absorption, minimum depth of
Received in revised form water, water–glass cover temperature difference, inlet water temperature, heat storage, phase change
14 March 2015
materials, vacuum technology and other methods such as using reflectors, condensers, multi effect
Accepted 23 April 2015
distillation, etc. are discussed here. The review showed that the productivity increases when the area of
the absorption is increased. The basin water depth is the main parameter that affects the productivity of
Keywords: the still. The increase of the water–glass cover temperature difference (Tw
Tg) also plays a vital role in
Productivity increasing the productivity. Preheating the feed water to the still basin shows a considerable
Solar still improvement in the productivity. The studies showed that solar stills with heat storage medium and
Review
phase change materials can produce distillate during off-shine hours (nocturnal distillation) and thereby,
enhance the productivity. Maintaining vacuum conditions and the use of reflectors and condensers
improves the performance of the solar stills. Various modifications in the solar stills such as weir type
stills, multi effect distillation, thermoelectric cooling, inclined type stills, etc. enhanced the productivity
of the solar stills.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
2. Area of absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
3. Minimum water depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
4. Glass cover temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
5. Inlet water temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
6. Heat storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
7. Phase change material (PCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
8. Vacuum technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
9. Other types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
9.1. Double basin type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
9.2. Hemispherical plastic cover still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
9.3. Reflectors and condensers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
9.4. Weir-type stills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
9.5. Humidification and dehumidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
9.6. Multi-effect distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
9.7. Thermoelectric cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
9.8. Tubular solar still. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
9.9. Hybrid solar still . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

Abbreviations: MPLC, micro programming logic circuit; ETC, Evacuated Tube Collector; UCZ, upper convective zone; NCZ, non-convective zone; LCZ, lower convective zone;
FPC, flat plate collector; SSP, shallow solar pond; PCM, phase change material; LHTESS, latent heat thermal energy storage system; CR, conversion ratio; PTSS, portable
thermoelectric solar still; TSS, tubular solar still; PV, photo voltaic; DC, direct current; TDS, total dissolved solvent; SGHT, symmetric green house type; ASGHT, asymmetric
green house type
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 91 9842119667.
E-mail address: svvvelmurugan@gmail.com (V. Velmurugan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.136
1364-0321/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
586 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609

9.10. Inclined solar stills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

9.11. Packed layer and rotating shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
9.12. Photocatalyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
9.13. Green house type stills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
9.14. Vertical solar still. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
9.15. Effect of insulation thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
9.16. Alcohol distillation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
10. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608

1. Introduction
Solar desalination is the process of converting the impure
brackish water into potable drinking water using solar energy.
The solar desalination methods have been used by the man kind
for thousands of years. Infact, solar stills were the first method
which was used on a small scale to convert impure saline water to
potable water. In the year 1872 in Las Salines, Chile, Caros Wison, a
Swedish engineer supplied fresh water to workers at a salt peter
and silver mine by the process of solar desalination. It operated for
around 40 years and produced an average of 22.7 m3 of distillate
per day using the effluent from the mine as feed water.
The main drawback of the solar desalination using solar stills is its
low productivity. Normally, a solar still can yield 2.5–5 l/m2/day of
distillate. Several researches have been done to increase the produc-
tivity of the solar stills. Murugavel et al. [1] conducted experiments in
basin type double slope solar still using different wick materials. The
layer of water with wick material in the basin will increase the
evaporation area and increase the productivity. Phadatare et al. [2]
studied the effect of water depth on the internal heat and mass
transfer in a single basin single slope plastic solar still. The results
proved that with the increase in the water depth, the productivity of
the solar still decreases.Velmurugan et al. [3] made an attempt to
enhance the productivity of the solar stills by connecting a mini solar
pond and a single basin solar still in series. Velmurugan et al. [4]
conducted experiments in a stepped solar still by maintaining mini-
mum depth of water. Theoretical and experimental analysis was made
for fin type, sponge type and combination of fin and sponge type
stepped solar still.
When the fin and sponge type stepped still was used, the
productivity increased by 80% than the ordinary single basin solar
still. Abdulrahman et al. [5] performed tests in four basin type
solar stills. Three stills had a glass cover of thickness 3 mm, 5 mm,
6 mm, while the fourth was plastic. The still with the thinnest
glass cover had shown the highest production rates, up by 15.5%.
Valsaraj [6] conducted experiments in a single slope basin solar
still after introducing a floating perforated and folded aluminium
sheet on the water surface. Due to the modifications made the
productivity of the single slope basin solar still is improved. Elango
et al. [7] conducted experiments with nanofluids of aluminium
oxide (Al2O3), zinc oxide (ZnO) and tin oxide (SnO2). The produc-
tivity of stills with nanofluids of Al2O3, ZnO and SnO was 29.95%,
12.67% and 18.63% higher than the still with water. Rahmani et al.
[8] used a natural circulation loop to improve the productivity of
the basin type solar still. The productivity of the still with natural
circulation loop was 3.72 kg/m2 and the maximum efficiency was
45.5%. Sathyamurthy et al. [9] conducted experiments on a
triangular pyramid solar still. The effect of water depth and wind
speed on the productivity of the still has been discussed. The
results show that increasing the wind speed from 1.5 to 3 m/s,
increases the productivity from 8% to 15.5%.
In this work, the researches on productivity of the solar stills are
reviewed. The parameters such as area of absorption, minimum
water depth, water–glass temperature difference, hot inlet water
temperature, heat storage, phase change materials, vacuum technol-
ogy and other types such as using reflectors, weir-type stills, etc. are
focussed.
2. Area of absorption
The rate of evaporation of water in the solar still is proportional
to the surface area of absorption of water [10]. The productivity
increases with the increase in the exposure area of the water. This
can be done by using jute cloth, wick, sponges, etc in the still
basin. Sakthivel et al. [11] conducted experiments in a single slope
solar still with jute cloth placed in a vertical position in the middle
and attached to the sides of the wall on one side as shown in Fig. 1.
Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that can be spun into
coarse, strong threads. Jute cloth is one of the easily available
natural fibres in India which can absorb water. It is 100% bio-
degradable and thus environment-friendly.
The bottom edge of the jute cloth is dipped into the basin saline
water. The presence of jute cloth increases the evaporation surface
and also it can attain very high temperature since it has very low
heat capacity. The effective area of the basin is 1 m  0.5 m. The
thickness of the still is 0.003 m. The glass cover was kept at an
optimum angle of 251 with the horizontal. For lesser angles of
inclination the condensing vapour may fall into the saline water.
The condensed water flows down through the aluminium channel
attached to the lower end of the glass cover. The condensate is
collected and measured using a measurement jar. A hole is
provided at the side of the still to feed the saline water and a
tap is provided to drain the saline water. The thermocouples are
provided at different points to measure the temperatures of the
basin, water, jute cloth, air–vapour mixture, inner and outer
surface of the glass cover and ambient temperature. Silicon rubber
is used as a sealant to prevent any vapour leakages. The intensity
of solar radiation is measured using solarimeter in the range of 1–
100 mW/cm2. The capacity of the measuring jar used is 2 l to
measure the hourly yield. The still is placed along the east–west
direction and the glass cover faces south to intercept maximum
intensity of solar radiation. Experiments were conducted in the
conventional still and still with jute cloth simultaneously with
different quantities of water from January to August 2006.
With 30 kg of saline water, the still yield with jute cloth was
4 kg/m2 which are about 20% more than the conventional still
yield. The maximum efficiency of the still with jute cloth was
found as 52% whereas the efficiency of the conventional still was
44%. The efficiency of a solar still is defined as the amount of
energy utilised in vaporising water in the still over the amount of
incident solar energy on the still. The use of jute cloth in the still
increased the area of absorption. Also any other cloth materials
such as cotton can also be used in the still and comparative studies
can be made.
 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609 587

Symbols and nomenclature θ angle in degree

T temperature, 1C Greek letters

m_ ew hourly condensate production, kg
hfg latent heat of condensation, J/kg Τα transmissivity–absorptivity product of the still cover
I (t) daily average solar radiation, W/m2 η efficiency of the still, %
A area of the still, m2
pb power of the blower, kW Subscripts
md mass of the distillate output, kg
G solar irradiance, W/m2
W saline water
Δt time interval, s
G glass cover
Vd daily distillate output volume, m3
J jute cloth
Vs daily input saline water volume, m3
B blower
mp rate of vapour that enters the condenser, kg/s
D distillate
me rate of water surface evaporation, kg/s
C condenser
Vc volume of the condenser in the evaporator air space
R radiation
volume, m3
E evaporation
Qe energy required to evaporate the specific daily yield,
a air
MJ/m2/d
m mirror
Ho total solar energy incident on the glass cover, MJ/m2/d
s still
q heat flux, J/m2

Minasian et al. [12] developed a wick-type still and a conven-

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of a single slope solar still with vertical jute cloth [11].
tional still which are connected and formed as a single unit as
shown in Fig. 2. The wicks absorb the water by capillary action
(also known wicking). The hot waste brine water from the wick-
type still was fed into a conventional still and thus the productivity
was improved. The study proved that the wick basin solar still was
more efficient and economical when compared to the other stills.
The experiments were done for a year at the Solar Energy Research
Centre, Baghdad, Iraq (33.331N latitude).
A conventional basin type and wick-basin type solar still were
investigated. The basin material used in the conventional still was
galvanised iron (22 gauges). The glass cover with 4 mm thickness
was inclined to 151 with the horizontal. A single layer of poly-
styrene (5 cm thick) and 1 cm thick saw dust was used as

Fig. 2. Schematic of the wick – basin type still set up [12].

588 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
insulation in the bottom and sides of the basin. The insulation
beneath the basin was wooden frame with 2 cm thickness. The
basin surface was painted black. A constant water level of 5 cm
was maintained in the still with the use of a float valve.
The wick-basin type consists of two parts. The first part is the
tilted wick-type solar still and the second part is a conventional
type still. The hot saline water from the wick type was fed to the
conventional still through a pipe. The tilted wick type still had an
evaporating area of 1 m2 (1.4 m  0.72 m) and covered with 4 mm
thick glass cover. The material of the wick was blackened jute
cloth. A storage tank was placed at a height of 1.5 m above the
ground level. The water level was maintained constant with the
use of a float valve. The wick type still was kept at an angle of 251
in summer and 451 in the winter to receive maximum solar
radiation.
The second part is a conventional basin of area 0.8 m  0.5 m.
The cover material used was galvanised iron of 0.6 mm thick and
inclined at 151 to the horizontal. To prevent the combined still
from direct solar radiation, a wooden sheet was set over the cover
at a distance of 50 cm apart. The metallic cover was cooled with
the use of a cooling system, which includes a thermally insulated
reservoir with dimensions 100 cm  25 cm  6 cm, installed on the
upper side of the still. A jute wick was used, the upper end of
which was dipped into the reservoir to soak the water. The still
was kept facing north to keep the metallic cover as cold as
possible. This was done to enhance the condensation process.
The experimental results showed that the wick-basin type solar
still has better productivity and economical than the wick-type
and the basin-type conventional still. The wick-basin type could
produce distillate of 85% more than the basin type and 43% more
than the wick type still.
Kabeel [13] conducted experimental tests in pyramid shaped
still as shown in Fig. 3. A concave wick surface was used for
evaporation and the four sides of the pyramid shaped still were
used for condensation of the distillate. The still basin is concave in
shape with a square aperture of 1.2 m  1.2 m. The wick material
placed on the concave surface had a thickness of 5 cm. The
productivity of the still for 24 h is 4 l/m2 and its efficiency was
45%. The cost of one litre of distillate was found to be 0.065 $.
Mahdi et al. [14] designed and fabricated a tilted wick type still.
Charcoal cloth was used as the wick material. It was found that
with the increase of the input water mass flow rate, the efficiency
of the wick type still decreases. With the increase in the salinity of
the input saline water the efficiency of the still decreased. When
the sodium chloride salt concentration was increased from 0% to
5% by weight for an input water flow rate of 2.5 kg/m2 h, the
efficiency reduced from 37.7% to 28%. For outdoor testing; it
Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of a concave wick pyramid still [13].
decreased from 53.4% to 33% when the concentration was
increased from 0% to 5%. Hence, the outdoor process is more
efficient than indoor. Omara et al. [15] conducted experiments in
solar stills by increasing the surface area of the absorber of the
still. Three stills were designed and fabricated to study the
improvement in the productivity of the still. The first one is a
conventional still and the second one is a finned type still and the
third one is a corrugated solar still. The performance of the above
three stills were tested for same water depth (50 mm) and the
same quantity of saline water (30 ml and 50 ml). The productivity
increased by 40% for the finned still and 21% for the corrugated
still compared to the conventional still. The efficiency of the
finned, corrugated and conventional stills was 47.5%, 41% and
35% respectively.
Srivastava et al. [16] done experiments in a modified solar still
with multiple low thermal inertia porous absorbers. The absorbers
are made up of jute cloth and they float on the basin water with
the help of thermocol insulation. The surfaces of the absorbers
were always wet and hence there were no dry spots. The results
showed that the productivity was 68% more than the conventional
still and 35% more on cloudy days. The basin water below the
floating absorber remained warm during off-shine hours; hence
distillate was produced even at nights. A twin reflector booster
was placed perpendicular to each other on the modified stills. The
productivity increased by 79% over the still without booster.
3. Minimum water depth
The distillate productivity is maximum for the least water
depth. It is very difficult to maintain minimum water depth
because dry spots may occur which affects the performance of
the still. Abdulla [17] performed experimental tests in a convec-
tional still and a stepped still. The effect of solar radiation on the
performance of the solar still was studied with different modifica-
tions such as passing hot air beneath the steps using a blower and
solar air heater, use of aluminium filling beneath the absorber
plate, effect of water flow over the glass cover.
The stills and all the systems were manufactured in the Faculty
of Engineering, Tanta University, Egypt (latitude 301 471N and
longitude 311E). The tests were done between June and August
2011. The basin area of the conventional still is 0.5 m2 (0.5 m
width  1 m length). The wall depth on the higher side is 450 mm
and on the lower side is 160 mm. The material used for the still
was galvanised steel. The basin surfaces were coated with black
paint from inside to increase the absorptivity. The bottom and side
walls of the basin are insulated by fibreglass of 5 cm thick. The
 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609 589

Fig. 4. Layout of the stepped still with reflectors [22].

Fig. 5. Cross sectional view of a hemispherical solar still [23].

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of a regenerative still [24].

distillate was collected with the use of trough fixed at the end of
the lower side of the basin. Commercial clear glass of 3 mm
thickness was used as cover over the basin. The glass cover is
inclined at an angle of 311 (latitude of Tanta, Egypt) to receive
maximum solar radiation. The set-up was kept in the south
direction to receive maximum solar radiation.
The stepped still has the same dimensions and construction of
the conventional still. Additionally, the absorber plate was made
up of 5 steps (each of size 0.1 m  1 m). The flexible cylindrical air-
heater consists of a plastic hose of diameter 0.50 m and length
20 m. It was made of a black low density polyethylene sheet of
thickness 0.7 mm acting as an absorber and two transparent
covers of polyvinyl chloride sheet having 0.7 mm thickness. The
air gap between the two covers is made with a thickness of 4 cm
which works as insulation layer. Air was blown through the air pre
heater at a discharge of 1500 m3/h. The preheated air from the air
heater passes through the base of the stepped still. The flow of
cold water over the glass cover was kept uniform and constant
590 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
with the use of a regular and a constant head tank. The dimensions
of the tank are 0.6 m  0.6 m  0.8 m. The main tank also has the
same dimensions measured using copper constantan thermocou-
ples. The temperatures of the brine, glass cover and solar air heater
were measured. The total solar radiation and the amount of
distillate were also measured. The solar radiation was measured
with the use of a solarimeter with an accuracy of 7 1 W/m2. To
measure the hourly yield, a float of 2 l capacity and an accuracy of
5 ml were used. The wind speed was measured using Vane type
digital anemometer with an accuracy of 0.1 m/s. The depth of the
saline water was maintained 5 mm throughout the day. The rate of
flow of water used to cool the glass cover was about 0.03 kg/s and
the flow rate of air heater was maintained at 0.13 kg/s. The
efficiency of the still was obtained by
P Sawdust was filled in the bottom of the basin to a height of
m_ ew  hf g
ηP
A  IðtÞ þ P b
The results showed that the daily efficiency of the stepped solar
still (without any modifications) and conventional still are 48% and
34% respectively. While it was 52%, 55%, and 59% for preheated air,
aluminium filling and cooling of glass cover respectively. When
both hot air and glass cover cooling were used, the productivity of
the stepped still increased by 112% over the conventional still.
While maintaining minimum water depth, hot spots may occur.
Hence, utmost care may be taken to prevent those hot spots.
Rajesh et al. [18] conducted experiments for different water
depths in the basin (0.05 m, 0.1 m and 0.15 m) for active and
passive solar stills. It was noticed that the convective heat transfer
coefficient between the saline water and inner glass cover depends
on the water depth in the still basin. For higher water depths, the
productivity was high after the sunset due to the storage effect.
Tiwari et al. [19] conducted experiments in a south facing, single
slope solar still for 24 h for different water depths from 0.04 m to
0.18 m. It was observed that the nocturnal distillation was higher
because of the storage effect. Rajamanickam et al. [20] have done
experiments in a double slope (DS) solar still and a single slope
(SS) solar still simultaneously. Both the stills were of the same area
and tests were conducted for different depths of water such as
0.01 m, 0.025 m, 0.05 m and 0.075 m. The productivity was 3.07 l/
m2/day in the DS still and 2.34 l/m2/day for SS still. The increase in
the depth of water in the basin resulted with a decrease in the
productivity of the solar still. Khalifa et al. [21] conducted experi-
ments in a solar still with five different water depths such as 1 cm,
4 cm, 6 cm, 8 cm and 10 cm. A relation (y¼3.17d
0.19) was devel-
oped to compare the productivity (y) versus brine depth (d). The
study revealed that the still productivity could be influenced by
the brine depth by upto 48% for depths ranging from 1 to 10 cm.
Omara et al. [22] performed experiments in a stepped solar still
with internal reflectors as shown in Fig. 4. A comparative study
was done in the stepped still with trays (5 mm depth  120 mm
width) and a conventional still under the same climatic conditions.
The productivity of the stepped still with and without reflectors
Fig. 7. Schematic diagram of the “V” type solar still [26].
was higher than the conventional still by 75% and 57% respectively.
The efficiency of the stepped still with and without reflectors was
56% and 53% respectively, whereas, the efficiency of the conven-
tional still was only 34%.
4. Glass cover temperature
Several researches have demonstrated the significance of the
water flowing over the glass cover of the still in the field of
desalination. As shown in Fig. 5, Arunkumar et al. [23] conducted
experiments in a hemispherical solar still with and without the
cooling water flowing on the glass cover. The experiments were
done in the city of Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India.
0.15 m. Glass wool was insulated at the sides of the basin. The saw
dust is less expensive, but its durability may be affected if it gets
wet. Separate devices were designed and fabricated for injecting
and collecting the flow water at the top surface of the cover. The
temperatures were recorded using K-type thermocouples and
digital temperature indicators. A precision pyranometer was used
to measure the solar radiation. The important parameter of the
solar distillation technique is the water–glass cover temperature
difference (Tw
Tg). The conventional still had an efficiency of 34%
whereas the still with cooling water system achieved an efficiency
of 42% for a flow rate of 10 ml/min of feed water.
Zurigat et al. [24] conducted experiments in a solar still with
two basins, with provision for cooling water to flow in and out of
the second effect as shown in Fig. 6. Due to this arrangement, the
temperature difference between water and glass cover increased
in the first effect and uses the latent heat of the condensate on the
glass of the first effect to produce more fresh water in the second
effect. The productivity of the regenerative still was 20% higher
when compared to the conventional still. Also, if the wind speed
was increased from 0 to 10 m/s, the productivity was increased by
50%. Janarthanan et al. [25] performed experiments in a floating
cum tilted-wick type solar still. The effects of water flowing over a
glass cover were analysed. The glass cover temperature decreased
significantly and hence the glass cover–water temperature differ-
ence increased. The optimum flow rate was found to be 1.5 m/s.
Suneesh et al. [26] conducted experiments in a “V” type solar
still with a Cotton Gauze Top Cover Cooling (CGTCC) with and
without air flow over the glass cover as shown in Fig. 7. The stills
were tested with three variants such as bare glass cover, cotton
gauze and cotton gauze with air flow over it. Water flowing over
the bare glass cover is not evenly distributed over the width of the
glass cover and hence cotton gauze was used to distribute the
water evenly over the glass cover. The productivity of still with
water flowing over bare glass (No. CGTCC) was 3300 ml/m2/day.
The productivity increased to 4300 ml/m2/day with the use of
CGTCC and it further increased to 4600 ml/m2/day with CGTCC
and air flow.
 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
5. Inlet water temperature
Preheating the feed water to the solar still basin plays an
important role in increasing the productivity of the still. Ragh
Vendra Singh et al. [27] conducted experiments in a solar still with
Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC). The feed water is preheated with
the use of an ETC in natural mode as shown in Fig. 8(a). Also, the
effect of depth of water in the still basin on yield, energy and
exergy efficiencies has been estimated. The system has been
optimised to find the best combination between the size of the
ETC and water depth in the still for increasing the productivity.
The ETC consists of a number of concentric borosilicate tubes
which are inclined to 451 to the horizontal. The ETC was mounted
over a diffuse reflector. The ETC tubes are filled with water and
blackened on the outer surfaces to absorb maximum solar radia-
tion. The tubes transfer the heat to the water inside. The heated
water rises up due to low density and the cold water from the
basin enters the ETC tubes due to gravity and high density. The
flow rate of water depends upon the solar energy input, fluid
temperature and the configuration of the collector. The complete
set up was kept facing south to absorb maximum solar radiation.
The natural circulation rate increases upto a maximum of 44 kg/h
in an individual tube and the basin water temperature increases
upto 80 1C. The productivity was 3.8 kg/m2 for a basin water depth
of 0.03 m. The variation of instant overall energy efficiency of the
system was found to be in the range of 5.1–54.4% and the exergy
efficiency in the range of 0.15–8.25% between 9.00 and 15.00 h.
The exergy of a system is the maximum useful work possible
during a process. The maximum daily energy and exergy efficien-
cies have been found to be 33% and 2.5% respectively. The
productivity was higher with 10 evacuated tubes with water depth
of 0.03 m in the basin. It was also found that the productivity does
Fig. 8. (a) Schematic of the solar still with ETC. (b) Schematic of ETC with one tube [27].
591
not increase proportionately with the increase in the size of the
integrated ETC, due to high thermal losses.
Velmurugan et al. [28] conducted experiments in a mini solar
pond for different salinity as shown in Fig. 9. A solar pond is a pool
of salt water that stores the solar thermal energy and supplies it
when required. The solar pond can be used for process heating,
desalination, refrigeration, drying and power generation. In this
research, the optimum value of the salinity was found to be 80 g/
kg of water. The effects of sponge cubes in the still and the effect of
integrating mini solar pond with the solar still and combination of
both are discussed. The pond supplies hot water to the still. Many
experiments have been conducted for different combinations such
as still with sponge, still integrated with pond and still with
sponge integrated with mini solar pond. The productivity was
higher for the still with sponge integrated with the pond. When a
pond is integrated with the still the average increase in produc-
tivity was about 27.6% and for the mini solar pond integrated with
sponged still the productivity was 57.8% more than the
ordinary still.
Tiwari et al. [29] performed experiments in an active and
passive solar still as shown in Fig. 10. A flat plate collector (FPC)
was coupled to the solar still in the active mode. A water pump
was used to circulate the water in the FPC and other piping
arrangements. The heated water in the FPC enters the solar still
basin. Hence a large temperature difference exists between the
water surface and the inner glass cover. El-Sebaii et al. [30]
coupled a shallow solar pond (SSP) with a solar still. A completely
insulated storage water tank was integrated to the pond to
improve the thermal performance of the SSP. The still was
fabricated using galvanised iron sheet of dimensions 1 m  1 m.
The depth of the SSP was 0.088 m and bottom surface area was
1 m2. Insulation was provided on the bottom and sides of the SSP.
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A serpentine heat exchanger was welded to the upper surface of
the pond absorber plate. Another serpentine heat exchanger was
placed in the water in the storage tank. The fluid in the storage
tank enters the heat exchanger in the SSP and takes the heat and
returns back to the storage tank to form a closed cycle. The cold
water from the cold water tank flows into the storage water tank
and takes the heat from the heat exchanger and the heated water
enters the solar still as input. The productivity of the still with and
without SSP was found as 5.740 kg/m2/day and 1.830 kg/m2/day
respectively. The efficiency of the still with SSP was higher by
54.98% than the conventional still.
Karuppusamy [31] conducted experiments in a single slope
solar still integrated with evacuated tubes. Several experiments
were done to improve the productivity of the still, namely, still
alone, still with black stones, still with evacuated tubes and still
with evacuated tubes and black gravel. The experiments were
conducted at the Solar Energy Park, Tamil Nadu Engineering
College, Coimbatore (771E, 111N), Tamil Nadu, India. It was found
that the productivity increased by 49.7% by coupling the evacuated
tubes with the still and to 59.48% by coupling evacuated tubes
with the still containing gravel. The payback period of the system
was 235 days. Abad et al. [32] have done experimental tests in a
still coupled with a pulsating heat pipe (PHP). The use of a flat
plate collector with PHP in a still improves the productivity. The
set-up consists of two sections. The first section is the solar still
and the second section is the flat plate collector with PHP. The
material used for PHP was copper to improve the productivity. The
productivity was found to be 875 ml/m2 h for this set-up. The
optimum water depth and filling ratio of the PHP were found to be
1 cm and 40% respectively. The filling ratio is defined as the
volume of working liquid divided by total volume. Also, the
productivity was maximum when the angle of inclination of flat
plate collector and PHP was equal to 351 (latitude of Tehran, Iran).
6. Heat storage
Tabrizi et al. [33] conducted experiments in a still using sand as
a heat reservoir at the bottom of the basin liner as shown in Fig. 11.
The heat stored by the sand can be used at nights and during the
cloudy days. Sand was used as a heat reservoir because of its easy
availability and cheap cost.
The still basin is 0.41 m2 of area and it was fabricated from a
matte black painted galvanised iron sheet of 0.3 cm thick. Below

Fig. 9. Schematic diagram of a mini solar pond integrated with a still [28].

Fig. 10. Solar still coupled to a flat plate collector [29].

 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
this sheet a gap (74 cm  57 cm  12 cm) was loaded with sand of
density 2.5 g/cm3. The specific heat capacity of the sand was
measured with a Differential Scanning Calorimetry device with a
temperature accuracy of 0.02 1C. The average specific heat capacity
of the sand was found to be 704 J/kg 1C. Advanced Motic image
3.2 software was used to determine the particle size of the sand
sample. The basin side surface and the heat reservoir (sand) body
were separated by a 4 cm layer of poly-urethane foam with
thermal conductivity 0.03 W/m k. Ordinary window glass was
used as glass cover of 0.5 cm thick and inclined at 451 facing
south. The distillate was collected through the output drainage
provided below the glass cover. The average conductivity and pH
of the input saline water are 711 ms/cm and 8.1 respectively. The
temperatures of water and heat reservoir were measured by PT-
100 resistance thermometers. The glass cover temperature was
measured with the use of a copper-constantan thermocouple. Both
the instruments have an accuracy of 0.1 1C.
An optimum water depth of 4 cm was maintained in the still.
The amount of distillate, wind velocity and temperature at
different parts of the still were measured for every 1 h. In order
to increase the precision, the glass cover temperature was mea-
sured in 12 nodes. The average temperature of the 12 nodes on the
glass cover was reported as the glass cover temperature. The heat
reservoir cost's about 10% of the total cost of the still. About 12% of
the total daily production was produced in 4 h of experiment after
the sunset. The productivity of the still was 75% higher than the
conventional still.
The use of absorbing materials also plays a vital role in improving
the productivity of the solar stills. Abdulla et al. [34] conducted
experiments by using three different absorbing materials as shown in
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of a sandy reservoir solar still [33].
Fig. 12. Absorbing materials used in solar stills: (a) uncoated metallic wiry sponge, (b) coated metallic wiry sponge and (c) black rock [34].
593
Fig. 12. The absorbing materials are (a) uncoated metallic wiry
sponges, (b) coated metallic wiry sponges and (c) black volcanic
rocks. Experiments were carried out in three different stills using the
above absorbing materials in each still. The fourth still was used as a
reference still with no absorbing materials. The top cover of the stills
was at an angle inclined to 321 with the horizontal. It was made of
glass of 4 mm thickness. Water was poured at a height of 6 cm into
all the stills. The volume of the basin with untreated water was
69.3 cm  69.3 cm  6.3 cm. The tests were done in the Renewable
Energy Laboratory at the Applied Science University, Amman. The
temperatures of the basin area, outer surface of glass, basin water
and water vapour were measured in all the stills using K-type
thermocouples connected to a digital thermometer in the range of
50–150 1C.
All the three stills with absorbing materials gave better pro-
ductivity than the reference still. The water collection gain in the
black rock was 60% whereas for coated and uncoated metallic wiry
sponges it was around 28% and 43% respectively. Also, there are
corrosion problems in the metallic wiry sponges. Hence it was
concluded that the black rocks are effective than coated and
uncoated metallic wiry sponges.
7. Phase change material (PCM)
A PCM is a substance which while melting and solidifying at a
certain temperature, is capable of storing and releasing large
amounts of energy. Heat is absorbed when the material changes
from solid to liquid and heat is liberated when the material changes
594 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
from liquid to solid. Hence, PCM's are also called as latent heat
storage systems.
Arunkumar et al. [35] placed a solar still above a concentrator
as shown in Fig. 13. Thick copper balls of diameter 1.2 mm are
placed in water. Each ball has a small hole on its top to allow filling
paraffin wax which is used as PCM. After filling, the hole was
sealed with a high temperature rubber cork. The experiments
were done between 9 AM and 6 PM. The temperatures of ambient
air, basin water, ambient air and glass cover (inner and outer) were
measured using K-type thermocouples. Paraffin wax was used as
PCM because of its easy availability and low cost.
The solar radiation was transmitted through the glass cover and
was absorbed by the PCM and the basin, hence, these tempera-
tures increase. Some part of the energy was transferred to the
basin water by convection and the remaining was transferred to
the PCM by conduction. As the balls are heated, heat is stored as
sensible heat until the PCM reaches its melting point. Sensible
heat is the amount of energy that is normally absorbed or released
by a substance during a change in temperature. The PCM starts to
melt and after complete melting of the PCM, the heat will be
stored in the melted PCM as a sensible heat.
When the solar radiation starts to decrease the components of
the still starts to cool. The liquid PCM transfers heat to the basin
liner and from the basin liner to the basin water till the PCM
solidifies completely. Thus, the PCM acts as a heat source during
less sunshine hours and even at nights. The still continues to
produce fresh water after sunset. The productivity of the concen-
trator – coupled single slope solar still with and without PCM was
found to be 4.46 l/m2/day and 3.520 l/m2/day, respectively.
Radhwan [36] conducted experiments in a stepped solar still
with a built-in latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTESS) as
shown in Fig. 14. Heating and humidification of agricultural green
house was done using the above set-up. The still has an absorber
Fig. 13. Schematic of a concentrator coupled still with PCM [35].
Fig. 14. Solar still with LHTESS [36].
that consists of five stepped basins that carry the saline water. The
basins were placed on the slab containers which are filled with
paraffin wax to store the thermal energy. Air from the green house
circulates between the hot basin water and the glass cover. The air
was heated and humidified and flows back to the agricultural
green house. The solar still's efficiency was 57% for the still with
LHTESS and 61% for the still without LHTESS. The productivity was
about 4.6 l/m2 and 4.9 l/m2 for the still with LHTESS and without
LHTESS respectively.
El-Sebaii et al. [37] conducted experiments in a single basin
solar still by integrating a thin layer of stearic acid as a PCM
beneath the basin liner to improve the productivity of the still. The
results were compared with the still without PCM. The productiv-
ity was found to decrease with the increase of the mass of the
PCM. But, the overnight productivity increased with the increase
of the mass of the PCM. The productivity of the still was found to
be 9.005 kg/m2 day and 4.998 kg/m2/day for the still with PCM
and without PCM respectively. Ansari et al. [38] highlighted the
effects of the heat energy storage on the desalination of the
impure saline water by using a passive solar still integrated with
a PCM beneath the basin liner. The heat energy produced during
the day time was stored in the PCM for later use during the night
and cloudy days. The choice of the PCM depends on the maximum
temperature that can be attained by the saline water.
8. Vacuum technology
Al-Kharabsheh et al. [39] conducted experiments in a water
distillation system using low grade solar heat as shown in Fig. 15.
The system uses the gravity and atmospheric pressure to create a
vacuum. The water evaporates at lower temperatures and pressure
in the vacuum conditions. The set-up consists of an evaporator
connected to the condenser. The vapour produced in the evapora-
tor was condensed in the condenser and the distillate was
collected. The productivity of the above system was 6.5 kg/m2/
day and 3–4 kg/m2/day for the conventional still.
Nassar et al. [40] conducted experiments in a solar desalination
system working on the basis of evacuation. Concave mirror was
used to concentrate the solar energy on the still. The still works
under vacuum conditions (25 kPa absolute) to reduce the boiling
point of the saline water. A condenser condenses the outlet vapour
and the distillate was collected. The productivity of the still was
found to be 20 l/m2/day of the reflector compared to 5 kg/m2/day
for the conventional still. The results showed that the productivity
of the still was about 303% compared with the other stills. The
performance ratio was found as 900%. The vacuum pump in the
still may be operated by means of photovoltaic system to provide
potable water to the nearby villages.
9. Other types
9.1. Double basin type
Rajaseenivasan et al. [41] fabricated a double basin double
slope and single basin single slope solar stills with same basin
area and tested for different basin conditions as shown in Fig. 16.
Both sides of the upper basin were divided into three compart-
ments to spread water. The performances of both the solar stills
were compared for different depths of water and different
materials for the double slope, single and double basin solar
stills. The dimensions of the basin were 0.9 m  0.7 m  0.008 m.
The lower basin was coated with black colour to maximise the
absorptivity of solar radiation in the basin. The material used for
fabrication was mild steel plate of 1.4 mm thickness for the
 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609 595

Fig. 15. Schematic diagram of the desalination system [39].

Fig. 16. Schematic of single and double basin solar stills [41].

double slope, single and double basin stills. The dimensions of
the basin were 0.9 m  0.7 m  0.008 m. Ordinary window glass
was used as transparent cover of 4 mm thickness. The covers
were inclined at an angle of 301 to the horizontal. The lower
cover was fixed at 8 cm above from the bottom of the basin and
the upper cover was fixed at 10 cm above the lower cover. The
three compartments are made up of glass plates of 8 cm height.
The material used for insulation was thermocol of 50 mm
thickness. The distillate was collected at the bottom using
troughs and measuring jar.
The experiments were done on both the stills for the same
basin condition at the Energy park, National Engineering Col-
lege, Kovilpatti (91 111N, 771 521E), Tamil Nadu, India in the
months of March–May 2012. The readings were taken for every
30 min interval from 6 A.M. to the next day 6 A.M. PV type sun
meter was used to measure the global radiation. The wind
velocity was measured using digital anemometer and mercury
thermometer was used to measure the ambient temperature.
The temperatures of the lower basin, lower and upper basin
water, lower and upper glass cover surfaces and distillate were
measured using K-type thermocouples with multi channel
digital display unit. The water mass in the upper basin was kept
constant as 4 kg for all the experiments. The performances of
the stills were studied for different depths (2, 4, 6 and 8 cm),
different wick materials such as black cotton cloth, waste cotton
pieces and jute cloth and porous material (clay pot- facing up
and down). Also, energy absorbing material (black painted mild
steel pieces) was used in the single basin and lower basin of the
double basin still. For double basin still, different wicks and
other materials were used only in the lower basin. The water
mass equivalent of 2 cm depth was maintained in both the stills.
The additional basin increases the cost a little, but hugely
increases the distillate. The use of the wick or porous or energy
storing material in the basin increases the distillate production.
The productivity was 5.68 l/m2/day for double basin still. The
production increase was 85% for the same basin condition and
169% when compared with minimum production condition of the
single basin still. The upper basin, lower basin absorber surface
and basin materials were cleaned daily. Pure raw water was used
in the upper basin.
Elango et al. [42] fabricated and tested a single and double
basin double slope glass solar still with same basin area as shown
in Fig. 17a and b. The experiments were done for different depths
of water from 1 cm to 5 cm for both insulated and un-insulated
conditions. The productivity of the double basin double slope solar
still was higher than the single basin double slope solar still. The
results showed that the productivity of the insulated stills was
higher than un-insulated stills. For 1 cm water depth, the produc-
tivity of double basin insulated and un-insulated stills were 17.38%
and 8.12% higher than the single basin still.
596 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
Fig. 17. (a) Schematic diagram of the double slope glass solar still [42]. (b) Schematic diagram of the double slope double basin glass solar still [42].
Fig. 18. Schematic of a hemispherical plastic cover still (not to scale) [43].
9.2. Hemispherical plastic cover still
Ismail [43] designed and fabricated a transportable hemisphe-
rical solar still as shown in Fig. 18. It consists of a circular basin
(tray) and absorber plate. The condensed water (distillate) was
collected in the conical-shaped structure provided at the bottom of
the circular basin. Aluminium was used to fabricate the basin,
absorber plate and the distillate collector. The absorber plate area
is 0.5 m2 and has a thickness of 4 mm. The saline water was fed
into the basin through a hole of 25.4 mm. The absorber was
painted black to receive maximum solar intensity. The hemisphe-
rical cover located on the top of the solar still unit was made of a
transparent plastic cover with absorptivity and transmissivity
equal to 0.9 and 0.8, respectively. Rubber gaskets were used to
seal between the hemispherical cover and the basin and C-clamps
were provided to tighten it.
The distillate was collected frequently in the conical-distillate
port provided below the circular basin. The experimental tests
were started at 8.00 A.M. and readings were taken for every
30 min time interval. The still efficiency and performance conver-
sion ratio (CR) were calculated using
md hf g Vd
η¼ CR ¼
AGðταÞΔt Vs
The productivity of the still varies from 2.8 to 5.7 l/m2 of
absorber area. The maximum efficiency of the still was found to
be 33%.
9.3. Reflectors and condensers
The water-glass cover temperature difference (Tw
Tg) can also
be increased by preheating the inlet saline water. Monowe et al.
[44] fabricated a still with an external reflecting booster and an
outside condenser as shown in Fig. 19. The loss of latent heat of
condensation to the environment is minimised. The latent heat is
stored in a condenser and it is used to preheat saline water for
domestic purposes or to operate the still during night times. The
still requires solar radiation and little amount of electrical energy
as input.
An electrical fan operated by a photovoltaic panel removes the
water vapour into the outside condenser to preheat the feed water
or to operate the still during night time. The water vapour in the
solar still was sucked by an exhaust fan and is passed through a
P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609 597

Fig. 19. Cross-section of the still with reflector [44].

Fig. 20. Schematic diagram of a tilted wick type still with reflectors [47].
598 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
condenser. The power of the fan is 25 W/m2 of the basin area. If
the power of the fan is too high, it would lead to a temperature
drop of water in the basin. The distillate preheats the saline water
entering the still basin. The preheated water in the condenser was
fed to the solar still. The preheated water must be removed from
the condenser everyday for domestic uses and to operate the still
at night. The productivity of the still varied from 5 to 8 l/m2/day
and 6 to 10 l/m2/day during day and night. The performance of the
above still could further be improved by using good insulating and
reflecting materials.
When the exhaust fan was off and without booster the produc-
tivity was 3.5 l and the efficiency of the still was about 30%. When
the exhaust fan was off and the booster was adjusted according to
the sun's movement for every hour during sunshine the productivity
of the still was 5 l and the efficiency was 43%. With exhaust fan on
and booster tilted for every hour the productivity was 8 l and the
efficiency was 68%. Thus, the use of exhaust fan and the reflectors
enhances the productivity of the still.
A condenser was added externally to a single basin solar still
with minimum inclination of 41. It was designed and fabricated by
El-Bahi et al. [45] in the Physics Engineering Department, Hacet-
tepe University, Antara (391571N), Turkey. The still basin area is
1 m2 and is made of 0.35 mm galvanised iron sheet. The thickness
of the glass cover is 3 mm and it was inclined at an angle of 41 to
the south. The base was painted black and the still was insulated
with 50 mm polyurethane foam and enclosed in a wooden box to
reduce the loss of heat. A reflector made of stainless steel was
added to the glass cover to reflect the solar radiation into the still
basin through the glass cover. Temperatures were measured in the
glass cover, inlet water, vapour and the condenser using thermo-
couples. The intensity of solar radiation was measured by a
pyranometer (CM 11/14) fixed at 5 cm above the glass cover. The
capacity of water in the still was 20 kg with 4% salinity.
A data acquisition system, PCL-812 PG records data for every
5 min and a PC unit stores the measured data. The yield of the
distillate was measured every 1 h. The sun radiation entered
through the glass cover and heated and evaporated the saline
water. A fraction of the vapour condenses in the glass cover while
the rest of the vapour condenses in the outside condenser. A major
part of the vapour enters the condenser due to the pressure
Fig. 21. Schematic diagram of the weir-type still [50].
difference. The rate of vapour entering the condenser was found
to be proportional to the condenser evaporator volume ratio.
 
Vc
mp ¼ me
Vs þVc
The efficiency of the solar still was calculated by
Qe
η¼
Ho
Since a major part of the vapour condenses in the condenser,
the pressure inside the evaporator was minimum. The formation
of vapour droplets on the inner glass cover surface and conse-
quently the reflection and absorption of solar radiation were
decreased. The efficiency of the solar still was as high as 70%
and the distillate was up to 7 l/m2/day with 8 h sunshine.
Tanaka et al. [46] presented a theoretical analysis of a basin
type solar still with internal and external reflectors. It was found
that the productivity increases considerably throughout the year
except for the summer season. During the summer season, the
external reflector makes shadow on the basin liner in the morning
and the evening and hence the productivity decreases. The
increase in the productivity for one year by adding the internal
and external reflector was 48% and by adding only internal
reflector, the average was 22%. Tanaka [47] presented a theoretical
analysis of a tilted wick solar still with an external flat plate
reflector as shown in Fig. 20. The reflector may be able to be
inclined forwards or backwards depending upon the season. The
productivity of the still was predicted throughout the year and it
varies with the inclination angle of both the still and reflector. The
optimum angle of the still and the reflector for each month was
301N latitude. By adjusting the inclination of the still and reflector
according to the season, the productivity was about 21% more than
the conventional tilted wick still.
Tanaka et al. [48] presented a theoretical analysis of a tilted-wick
type solar still with an inclined flat plate external reflector during
winter at 301N latitude. The productivity of the still with an inclined
reflector would be about 15% greater than that of a vertical reflector if
the reflector's length was half of the still's length. If the reflector's
length was same as the still's length, the productivity was 27% greater
than that of a vertical reflector. Tanaka [49] analysed theoretically in a
 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609 599

basin type solar still coupled with a flat plate external reflector
extending from the front wall of the still in addition to the internal
reflectors. It was predicted that the productivity of the solar still with
internal and external bottom reflectors was 41%, 25% and 62% greater
than the conventional still on the spring, summer and winter solstices
respectively.

9.4. Weir-type stills

Weirs are barriers placed across rivers to alter the flow

characteristics. In solar stills, weirs are placed to alter the flow of
the inlet saline water. Researches show that the productivity of
weir type stills is higher than the conventional stills. As shown in
Fig. 21, Sadineni et al. [50] designed and fabricated a weir-type
solar still to recover rejected water from the water purifying
systems for solar hydrogen production. It consists of an inclined Fig. 22. Humidifier–dehumidifier solar still [54].
absorber plate formed to make weirs, and also a top basin and a
bottom basin. Water was allowed to flow from the top basin over temperature. The other parameters like wind velocity, basin
the weirs and then to the bottom collection basin. A small pump insulation thickness, mass of saline water has negligible effect on
returns the unevaporated impure water to the top tank. The productivity. Also, decreasing the air flow rate has very little effect
productivity of the still with double and single pane glass covers on the productivity. The productivity increased from 5.2 to 5.3 l/
was measured and the latter showed higher productivity. The m2 for decreasing air flow rate from 0.1 to 0.001 kg/s.
average productivity of the still for double and single pane glass
covers was 2.2 and 5.5 l/m2/day respectively. Also, the productivity
9.6. Multi-effect distillation
of the still with single pane glass covers was 20% higher than the
conventional basin.
Reddy et al. [55] developed a multi-stage evacuated solar
Tabrizi et al. [51] designed and fabricated a cascade solar still
desalination system by utilising the latent heat as shown in
(C.S.S). The Dunkle's relation was unable to predict the C.S.S
Fig. 23. The productivity was increased by the presence of thin
behaviour because of its peculiar geometry and operational con-
layer of water in the stages. The multi-stage evacuated desalina-
ditions. The weirs are used on each step of the stills and these
tion system is a combination of flat plate collectors and an
weirs keep the water film as shallow as possible and thereby avoid
evaporative–condenser unit. Each unit consists of bottom (eva-
the dry spots. The productivity was found to be 7.4 kg/m2/day for
porative surface) and top (condenser surface) trays. The units are
minimum flow rate and 4.3 kg/m2/day for maximum flow rate.
called as stages and they are placed one over the other. The
The maximum and minimum overall efficiencies for the minimum
optimum number of stages was found to be 4. The productivity
and maximum flow rates were about 63.3% and 36.6% respectively.
increases with a decrease in mass flow rate from 150 kg/m2/day to
Tabrizi et al. [52] conducted experiments on two cascade solar
55 kg/m2/day due to increased evaporation which was due to the
stills with and without latent heat thermal energy storage system
thin layer in the stages. The productivity increases with decreasing
(LHTESS). The productivity of both the stills was almost equal on
the gap between the stages and it decreases with increase in the
sunny days. But on cloudy days, the productivity of the still with
salinity. The optimum yield was a maximum of 28.04 kg/m2/day
LHTESS was greater than the still without LHTESS. The productiv-
and a minimum of 13.33 kg/m2/day.
ity was 3.4 kg/m2/day for still with LHTESS and 2.1 kg/m2/day for
Xiong et al. [56] designed and fabricated a multi effect
still without LHTESS in cloudy days.
desalination system with enhanced condensation surface. The
Dashtban et al. [53] conducted experiments in a weir-type
saline water in the solar still was heated by two heat sources.
cascade still by integrating with a LHTESS. Paraffin wax with 18 kg
One is the heat pipe vacuum tube collector installed on the bottom
mass and 2 cm thickness was used as LHTESS below the absorber
and the other is the black titanium alloy coating on the upper
plate to produce distillate during night times. Theoretical models
surface of the top stacked tray that absorbs the solar radiation and
were developed for the still with and without PCM and the results
heat the saline water. The stacked trays are made up of stainless
were compared with the experimental data. The productivity was
steel and are folded into corrugated shape. V-shaped troughs
theoretically obtained as 6.7 kg/m2/day and 5.1 kg/m2/day for still
present below the stacked trays are used to collect the fresh water
with and without PCM respectively. The efficiency of the still with
on the lower surface of the trays. The still can produce potable
PCM was 64% and for the still without PCM was 47%.
water both in the day and night times and the productivity was
43 kg/day.
9.5. Humidification and dehumidification

Fath et al. [54] investigated the thermal performance of a
humidification–dehumidification solar still as shown in Fig. 22.
The still consists of a rectangular box with a glass cover at the top
and a condensing cover at the bottom. The still was divided into
two chambers namely the upper evaporation chamber and the
lower evaporation chamber. Both the chambers are divided by a
central insulated stepped sheet carrying a group of basins. Air was
circulated between the upper evaporation chamber where it is
heated and humidified and the lower condensation chamber
where it was cooled and dehumidified for water production. The
productivity increases with the increase of the solar intensity,
ambient temperature, basin absorptivity and initial saline water
9.7. Thermoelectric cooling
Esfahani et al. [57] attempted to produce a portable solar still. It
consists of a solar collector, a wall covered with black wool, a
water sprinkling system to increase the evaporation rate and a
thermoelectric cooling device to condense the water. The walls of
the still are made of Plexiglass. There are two zones in the still
namely the evaporating zone and the condensing zone. The
evaporating zone was filled with saline water to its maximum
capacity of 4 l. A thermoelectric cooler was used to condense the
evaporated water and a small portable solar collector was used to
increase the saline water temperature. The maximum efficiency of
600 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609

the still was 13% in the winter. The average productivity of the still
was 1.2 l/m2.
Rahbar et al. [58] designed and fabricated a new type of
portable thermoelectric solar still (PTSS) as shown in Fig. 24. A
thermoelectric module was provided to improve the tempera-
ture difference between the evaporating and condensing zones.
A heat pipe cooling device was used to cool down the hot side
of the thermoelectric cooler. The maximum efficiency of the
still was 7%.
9.8. Tubular solar still
Ahsan et al. [59] proposed a new model of a Tubular Solar Still
(TSS). It consists of a transparent tubular cover and a blackened

Fig. 23. Multi-stage solar desalination system with flat plate collectors [55].

Fig. 24. Schematic diagram of the thermoelectric solar still [58].

 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
Fig. 25. Schematic diagram of the hybrid solar still [61].
rectangular trough inside the cover. The incoming solar radiation
transmits through the cover and is absorbed by the saline water in
the trough. The water vapour condenses on the inside surface of
the cover and collected at the bottom in a collector. Ahsan et al.
[60] made a detailed comparison between the old TSS and the new
TSS. The cover material of the old TSS is vinyl chloride sheet which
was heavy, expensive and cannot be able to form desired size
easily. For the new TSS, polythene film was adopted as cover. The
new TSS was made up of cheap and locally available materials. The
weight and cost of the new TSS was considerably reduced.
9.9. Hybrid solar still
Gaur et al. [61] optimised the number of collectors for the
hybrid active solar still to increase the productivity as shown in
Fig. 25. To perform the optimisation, the number of collectors for
hybrid active solar still, exergy analysis, productivity and energy
efficiency for different heat capacity of water mass have been
made. The system consists of hybrid flat plate collectors (FPC) and
a conventional still. The hybrid FPC is partially covered by a semi-
transparent photo voltaic (PV) module to produce DC power which
runs the pump. The DC pump circulates the hot water from the
hybrid FPC to the solar still. The productivity was approximately
7.9 kg for 50 kg of saline water and mass flow rate of 0.055 kg/s.
The optimum number of collectors increases with the increase in
the mass of water in the solar still basin.
9.10. Inclined solar stills
Boutebila [62] investigated a free flow inclined flat plate solar
still. The effects of the important parameters on a laminar falling
liquid solution over the inclined still are studied. The parameters
that affect the still's performance the most are the initial film
thickness (initial mass flow rate), inclination of the plate, length of
the still and absorber heat flux. Particularly, the variation in liquid
film thickness has a significant effect on the condensation process.
The productivity increases with the increase in the length of the
still. The velocity of liquid and film thickness reduced with the
still's length. Also, the productivity increases with the higher
values of inclination of the plate heat flux because of the flowing
characteristic time.
Aybar et al. [63] designed and tested an inclined solar water
distillation system in Cyprus, Turkey. The inlet feed water was
made to fall down on the absorber plate and the system produces
601
potable water and hot water simultaneously. It was proved that
longer the flowing water was held on the absorber plate, higher
the productivity. Hence, the still was tested with three different
variations namely bare plate, black-cotton wick and black-fleece
wick. The wicks increased the productivity by two or three times
that of the bare plate.
Hansen et al. [64] conducted experiments in an inclined solar
still with different new wick materials such as wood pulp paper
wick, wicking water coral fleece fabric and polystyrene sponge as
shown in Fig. 26. The experiments were done with the wicks on
various absorber plate configurations such as flat absorber,
stepped absorber and stepped absorber with wire mesh. The
productivity was higher for the still with coral fleece and wire
mesh with stepped absorber plate. It was found that the produc-
tivity was increased by 71.2% and 48.9%, when water coral fleece
with stepped wire mesh absorber was used instead of flat absorber
and stepped absorber respectively.
9.11. Packed layer and rotating shaft
Rehim et al. [65] performed experiments in a solar still with
two modifications. The first one was that using a packed layer that
was installed in the bottom of the basin to increase the still
efficiency. The packed layer was formed of glass balls which can
store the thermal energy. The second modification was that using
a rotating shaft near the basin water surface. The purpose of using
the rotating shaft was to break the boundary of the basin water
surface, which increases the vaporisation and condensation pro-
cesses. The performance of the above two stills were compared
with the conventional one. The efficiency of the still with packed
layer was increased by 5% in May, 6% in June and 7.5% in July and
for the still with rotating shaft and PV system, it was increased by
2.5% in May, 5% in June and 5.5% in July.
9.12. Photocatalyst
Patel et al. [66] enhanced the productivity of the solar stills by
using different semi-conducting oxides (Photocatalysts) like CuO,
PbO2, and MnO2. The use of the metal oxides improves the
efficiency as well as the productivity of the stills. Also, the quality
of the water like pH, TDS, etc. are analysed for both the input water
and the potable water. It was concluded that all the three oxides
were effective. They lowered the pH of raw water, however the
same can be observed with photocatalysts also. The conductivity
602 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
Fig. 26. Schematic diagram of the still with wick and wire mesh [64].
and alkalinity of the raw water was reduced particularly with the
use of PbO2 which was the most effective comparatively.
9.13. Green house type stills
Hayek et al. [67] investigated the productivity of two different
types of stills, namely the asymmetric green house type still
(ASGHT) and the symmetric green house type still (SGHT). It was
proved that the ASGHT having mirrors at its inner walls had 20%
higher productivity than that of the SGHT. Also, the decrease of the
water depth and the addition of dye improved the productivity of
both the stills.
9.14. Vertical solar still
Boukar et al. [68] designed and fabricated an indirect vertical
solar still. It consists of a flat plate collector, an evaporation
chamber and a condensation chamber. The flat plate collector area
was 0.942 m2 and the evaporation area was 0.869 m2. The pro-
ductivity of the still varied from 0.863 l/m2/d to 1.323 l/m2/d and
the efficiency ranged from 47.69% to 57.85%.
9.15. Effect of insulation thickness
Khalifa et al. [69] studied the effect of insulation thickness on
the productivity of the solar stills. Experiments were done on four
stills with insulation thickness of 30 mm, 60 mm, 100 mm and the
fourth one was the still without insulation. It was noticed that the
insulation thickness had an important effect on the distillate
productivity of the solar still upto a thickness of 60 mm and
asymptotically afterwards. The increase in insulation thickness
increases the productivity of the still by upto 80%.
9.16. Alcohol distillation
Meukam et al. [70] conducted experiments in two solar stills, a
single compartment model and a two compartment model. In the
two compartment model, the transparent glass cover of compart-
ment 1 has an inclination of 161 and absorber area of 0.30 m2. The
glass in the compartment 2 allows the condensate to flow towards
the potable water collector. Also, the glass shades the sun and is
used as a condenser. It has been observed that the distillation of a
38% alcohol solution produced a product containing 48% of alcohol
with the single cover model and 71% of alcohol when used in the
two compartment model.
10. Conclusions
Table 1 summarises the comparison of the effects due to the
modifications in the solar stills. A detailed review is made on the
researches done on improving the productivity of the solar stills.
 The use of water absorbing materials like jute cloth, wick and
charcoal cloth increases the area of absorption and thereby
increases the productivity of the stills. The use of finned plate,
corrugated plate and floating thermocol insulation in the still
basin also increases the performance of the solar stills.
 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609 603

Table 1
Comparison of the effects due to the modifications in solar stills.

Sl. Author(s) and Modifications Specifications Month/year Effects/observations

no. place of
experiments

1 Sakthivel et al. Jute cloth placed in basin area¼1 m  0.5 m Jan.–Aug. Productivity is 20% more than conventional still; maximum
[11] vertical position 2006 efficiency of the still is 52%
Coimbatore, Still cover ¼ 0.003 m thick
India
Daily yield ¼ 3.9 kg/m2

2 Minasian et al. Jute wick is used in the Conventional still 1992 Wick-basin type still productivity is 85% more than the basin-
[12] still type and 43% more than the wick-type still
Baghdad, Iraq Basin area¼ 1.5 m  0.67 m
Basin material¼ galvanised iron
sheets
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Cover inclination ¼151
Wick – type still:
Evaporating area¼1.4 m  0.72 m
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Wick material¼ jute cloth

3 Kabeel [13] Black wick is placed on Basin area¼ 1.2 m  1.2 m June–July Productivity is 4 l/m2 and efficiency is 45%
concave absorber surface 2007
Egypt Basin material¼ galvanised steel
Insulation ¼glass wool
Glass cover¼ 3 mm thick

4 Mahdi et al. Charcoal cloth is used as Basin material¼ galvanised sheet 2010 Indoor testing: efficiency reduces from 37.7% to 28%, outdoor
[14] wick material testing: efficiency decreases from 53.4% to 33%
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Wick material¼ charcoal cloth

5 Omara et al. Finned and corrugated Basin area¼ 50 cm  200 cm July 2010 Productivity increased by 40% for finned still and 21% for
[15] stills corrugated still compared to conventional still; efficiency of
finned, corrugated and conventional stills are 47.5%, 41% and 35%
respectively
Egypt Glass cover¼ 3 mm thick
Still material¼iron sheets (3 mm
thick)
insulation ¼saw dust
Cover inclination ¼301

6 Srivastava et al. Multiple low thermal Basin size ¼ 0.8 m  0.65 m 2012 The productivity was 68% more than conventional still and it
[16] inertia porous absorbers increased by 79% over the still without booster
used in the still
Rewa, India Glass cover¼ 3 mm thick
Cover tilt angle ¼241
7 Abdulla [17] Stepped still with Basin area¼ 0.5 m  1 m June– Efficiency of the stepped still (without any modifications) and
modifications August 2011 conventional still is 48% and 34% respectively. It is 52%, 55% and
59% for preheated air, aluminium filling and cooling of cover
Egypt Insulation ¼fibre glass (5 cm thick)
Glass cover¼ commercial glass (3 mm
thick)
Cover inclination ¼311

8 Rajesh et al. Different water depths Still material¼Fibre-reinforced 2004 Convective heat transfer coefficient between water and
[18] plastic (FRP) glasscover depends on water depth
New Delhi, Glass cover¼ 3 mm thick
India

9 Tiwari et al. Different water depths Basin material¼ glass-reinforced 2004 Nocturnal distillation was higher due to storage effect
[19] plastic(GRP)
New Delhi, Basin area¼ 1 m  1 m
India
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Cover inclination ¼301

10 Rajamanickam Different water depths: Still material¼galvanised iron sheet Feb. 2011 Productivity was 3.07 l/m2/day in DS still and 2.34 l/m2/day for
et al. [20] DS and SS stills SS stills
Annamalai Glass cover¼ 3 mm thick
Nagar, India

11 Khalifa et al. Experiments conducted Still material¼0.8 mm thick April–May Productivity influences brine depth upto 48%
[21] for five different water galvanised steel sheet 2008
depths
Baghdad, Iraq Insulation ¼polystyrene of 10 cm
thick
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Cover inclination ¼ 351

12 Basin area¼ 0.5 m  2 m

604 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609

Table 1 (continued )

Sl. Author(s) and Modifications Specifications Month/year Effects/observations

no. place of
experiments

Omara et al. Stepped still with internal June– Productivity of stepped still with and without internal reflectors
[22] reflectors August 2012 was higher than the conventional still by 75% and 57%
respectively; efficiency of the stepped still with and without
reflectors was 56% and 53% respectively, whereas the efficiency
of the conventional still was 34%
Egypt Absorber plate¼0.1 m  2 m
(Stepped still)

13 Arun kumar Cooling water flowing Basin diameter¼0.95 m April–May Efficiency of the still is 42% whereas the efficiency of the
et al. [23] over glass cover 2010 conventional still is 34%
Coimbatore, Basin material¼ mild steel
India
Hemispherical cover
diameter¼ 0.945 m
Insulation (bottom) ¼ saw dust
Insulation (sides) ¼ glass wool

14 Zurigat et al. Cooling water flows in Still area¼1 m2 – Productivity of the regenerative still was 20% higher than the
[24] and out of the second conventional still
effect
Muscat, Oman Water thickness¼ 2 mm

15 Janarthanan Floating cum tilted-wick Glass cover ¼ 4 mm thick March 2004 Optimum water flow rate is 1.5 m/s
et al. [25] type still
Coimbatore, Insulation ¼glass wool
India

16 Suneesh et al. “V” type still with Cotton basin area¼2 m  0.75 m  0.005 m March 2013 The augumentation of the rate of condensation by uniform
[26] Gauze Top Cover water distribution over a glass cover is optimised.
Tamil Nadu, Glass cover ¼ 3 mm thick
India

17 Ragh Vendra Still coupled with ETC Basin material¼ Fibre Reinforced May 2008 Productivity is 3.8 kg/m2; maximum daily energy and exergy
Singh [27] Plastic (FRP) efficiencies are 33% and 2.5% respectively
New Delhi, Glass cover ¼ 0.004 m thick
India
Cover inclination¼ 301

18 Velmurugan still integrated with mini Inclination ¼101 Feb.–April Productivity is 27.6% when pond is integrated with still and for
et al. [28] solar pond 2006 pond integrated with sponged still the productivity was 57.8%
more than the ordinary still
Tamil Nadu, Insulation ¼saw dust
India
Height of still¼ 44.5 cm

19 Tiwari et al. Solar still integrated with – – Large temperature difference exists between saline water and
[29] FPC inner glass cover

20 El-Sebaii et al. Solar still integrated with Basin material¼galvanised iron sheet August Productivity of still with and without SSP was found as 5.740 kg/
[30] shallow solar pond 2009 m2/day and 1.830 kg/m2/day respectively; the efficiency of the
still with SSP was higher by 54.8% than the conventional still
Tanta, Egypt Basin area¼ 1 m2
Glass cover ¼ 0.003 m thick
Cover tilt angle ¼101

21 Karuppasamy Solar still integrated with Still area¼100 cm  100 cm May 2008– Productivity increased by 49.7% by coupling evacuated tubes
[31] evacuated tubes March 2009 with the still and to 59.48% by coupling evacuated tubes with
the still containing gravel
Coimbatore, Insulation ¼Polyurethane foam (4 cm
India thick)
Glass cover ¼ 0.4 cm thick
Cover inclination¼ 111

22 Abad et al. [32] Still coupled with a PHP Basin material¼ galvanised sheet August 2011 Productivity was found to be 875 ml/m2 h
Tehran, Iran Glass cover inclination ¼ 351
insulation¼ 3 cm Polyurethane layer

23 Tabrizi et al. still with sand as heat Basin area¼ 0.41 m2 2009 productivity is 75% higher than conventional still
[33] reservoir
Zahedran, Iran Basin material¼ 0.3 cm thick
galvanised iron sheet
Glass cover ¼ 0.5 cm thick
Cover tilt angle ¼451

24 Abdulla et al. Stills with absorbing Cover tilt angle ¼321 August– Productivity using black rock was 60% and for coated and
[34] materials September uncoated metallic wiry sponges it was 28% and 43% respectively
2007
Shafa Badran, Cover thickness¼4 mm
Amman
 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609 605

Table 1 (continued )

Sl. Author(s) and Modifications Specifications Month/year Effects/observations

no. place of
experiments

25 Arun kumar Solar still with PCM filled Cover inclination ¼111 2012 Productivity of concentrator coupled still with and without PCM
et al. [35] copper balls placed above was found to be 4.46 l/m2/day and 3.520 l/m2/day, respectively
a concentrator
Coimbatore, Copper ball diameter¼28 mm
India
PCM used ¼ paraffin wax

26 Radhwan [36] Stepped still with built-in Insulation ¼Styrofoam sheeting 2003 Efficiency of still with LHTESS is 57% and for still without LHTESS
LHTESS is 61%; productivity of still with and without LHTESS were 4.6l/
m2 and 4.9l/m2 respectively
Jeddah, Saudi PCM used ¼ paraffin wax
Arabia

27 El-Sebaii et al. Still integrated with PCM Basin area¼ 1 m2 2004 Productivity of the still was 9.005 kg/m2/day and 4.998 kg/m2/
[37] (stearic acid) beneath the day for the still with PCM and without PCM respectively
basin liner
Jeddah, Saudi Basin material¼galvanised iron sheet
Arabia (0.2 cm thick)
PCM used ¼ commercial grade stearic
acid
Insulation ¼saw dust (3 cm thick)

28 Ansari et al. Passive still integrated PCM used ¼ paraffin wax June 2011 Choice of the PCM depends upon maximum temperature
[38] with PCM beneath the
basin liner
Morocco

29 Al-Kharabsheh Set-up consists of Evaporator July Productivity of the system was 6.5 kg/m2/day and 3.4 kg/m2/day
et al. [39] evaporator and condenser for the conventional still
Florida Area¼0.2 m2
Height¼ 0.2 m
Condenser
Material¼ 40 0 copper tube
Length ¼0.5 m
Thickness¼0.25 cm

30 Nassar et al. concave mirror used as Compressor capacity ¼120 W April–May Productivity of the still was 20 l/m2/day than that of 5 kg/m2/
[40] solar energy concentrator 2003 day for conventional still
Libya Operating pressure¼ 562.5 torr

31 Rajaseenivasan Comparison of DS and Still material¼1.4 mm thick mild March–May Productivity of DSDB still was 5.68 l/m2/day
et al. [41] DSDB stills steel plate 2012
Kovilpatti, Still
India dimensions ¼ 0.9 m  0.7 m  0.008 m
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Cover inclination ¼301

32 Elango et al. Glass solar stills Still material¼0.008 m thick window March– At 1 cm water depth, double basin insulated and un-insulated
[42] glass April 2014 stills gave 17.38% and 8.12% higher production than the single
basin still
Kovilpatti, Still size¼ 0.9 m  0.9 m  0.01 m
India
Cover inclination ¼301

33 Ismail [43] Transportable Basin June Productivity varies from 2.8 to 5.7 l/m2; maximum efficiency
hemispherical still was 33%
Dhahran, Saudi Material¼ aluminium
Arabia
Area¼0.5 m2
Thickness¼4 mm

34 Monowe et al. Inlet water preheated Fan capacity ¼ 25 W/m2 2010 Productivity ranges from 5 to 8 l/m2/day and 6 to 10 l/m2/day
[44] during day and night. The maximum efficiency was 68%

35 El-Bahi et al. Condenser added Basin m2 June 1998 Productivity was 7 l/m2/day and efficiency was 70%
[45] externally to still
Ankara, Turkey Basin material¼galvanised iron sheet
Glass cover¼ 3 mm thick
Cover inclination ¼41
Insulation ¼50 mm polyurethane
foam

36 Tanaka et al. Still with internal and – – Increase in productivity by using internal and external reflectors
[46] external reflectors is 48% and by adding only internal reflector it was 22%

37 Tanaka [47] Tilted wick still with Still inclination – Productivity was 21% more than the conventional still
external flat plate
reflector
Summer ¼ 101
606 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609

Table 1 (continued )

Sl. Author(s) and Modifications Specifications Month/year Effects/observations

no. place of
experiments

Winter¼501

38 Tanaka et al. Tilted wick still with Still – Productivity ranges from 15% to 27%
[48] inclined flat plat external
reflector
Length ¼1 m
Width ¼1 m

39 Tanaka et al. Basin type still coupled Glass cover – Productivity of the still with internal and external reflectors was
[49] with flat plate external 41%, 25% and 62% greater than the conventional still on the
reflector spring, summer and winter solstices respectively
Thickness¼3 mm
Inclination ¼201

40 Sadineni et al. Weir-type still Still inclination ¼ 21.151 September Average productivity of still for double and single pane glass
[50] 2006 covers was 2.2 l/m2/day and 5.5 l/m2/day respectively;
productivity of still with single pane glass covers was 20% higher
than conventional still
Las Vegas Absorber plate
Material: 1 mm thick galvanised steel
sheet
aperture area¼ 1.7  0.57 m2

41 Tabrizi et al. Weir-type cascade solar Insulation ¼glass fibre (15.24 mm June–July Maximum productivity was 7.4 kg/m2/day and maximum
[51] still thick) 2009 efficiency was 63.3%
Zahedan, Iran Still material¼aluminium
Still inclination¼ 30o
Size of absorber
plate¼120 cm  60 cm

42 Tabrizi et al. Weir-type cascade solar Still material¼aluminium May 2009 Productivity was 3.4 kg/m2/day and 2.1 kg/m2/day for still with
[52] still with LHTESS LHTESS and without LHTESS respectively
Zahedan, Iran PCM used ¼ paraffin wax
Weir
Height¼ 5 mm
Length ¼59 cm

43 Dashtban [53] Weir-type cascade still Absorber plate material¼aluminium June–July Productivity was 6.7 kg/m2/day and 5.1 kg/m2/day for still with
integrated with PCM sheet 2009 and without PCM respectively; efficiency of still was 64% and
47% with and without PCM respectively
Zahedan, Iran Glass cover ¼ 3 mm thick
PCM used ¼ paraffin wax

44 Fath et al. [54] Humidification and Still material¼ 1 mm thick aluminium – Productivity ranges from 5.2 l/m2 to 5.3 l/m2
dehumidification still sheet
Egypt Glass cover ¼ 3 mm thick

45 Reddy et al. Multi-effect distillation Area March and Maximum yield was 28.08 kg/m2/day and minimum yield was
[55] December 13.33 kg/m2/day
Chennai, India Flat plate collector¼1.35 m2
Evaporator¼ 1 m2
Condenser ¼1 m2

46 Xiong et al. [56] Multi-effect distillation Glass cover: April–May Productivity was 43 kg/day
2010
Dimensions: 2 m  0.64 m  0.005 m
Inclination ¼201

47 Esfahani et al. Thermoelectric cooling Still material¼plexiglass (10 mm December Maximum efficiency of the still was 13% and average
[57] thick) 2009 productivity was 1.2 l/m2
Semnan, Iran

48 Rahbar et al. Portable thermoelectric Still material¼6 mm plexiglass August and Maximum efficiency of the still was 7%
[58] solar still December
2010
Semnan, Iran

49 Ahsan et al. Tubular solar still Still 2008 Proposed model can predict the daily and hourly production of
[59] the TSS
Length ¼1.2 m
Outside diameter¼ 0.18 m

50 Ahsan et al. New tubular solar still Cover 2008 A linear relation was found between the total heat and mass
[60] transfer coefficients
Material¼ polythene film
Length ¼0.52 m
Diameter¼0.13 m
Thickness¼0.15 mm

51 Gaur et al. [61] Hybrid solar still Still basin area¼1 m2 May 2008 Productivity was 7.9 kg/50 kg of saline water
 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609 607

Table 1 (continued )

Sl. Author(s) and Modifications Specifications Month/year Effects/observations

no. place of
experiments

New Delhi, Cover inclination ¼301

India
Insulation ¼glass wool (4 mm thick)
PV module area¼ 0.27 m  1.20 m

52 Boutebila [62] Inclined flat plate solar – – Productivity increases with the increase in the inclination of the
still plate

53 Aybar et al. [63] Inclined solar water Absorber plate material¼galvanised May 2004 Wicks increased the productivity by two or three times that of
distillation system steel the bare plate
Glass cover¼ 3 mm thick
Still inclination¼ 301

54 Hansen et al. Still with different wick Still basin March– Still with coral fleece and weir mesh – stepped absorber plate
[64] materials April 2014 was more productive
Kovilpatti, Dimensions ¼1 m  0.75 m  0.157 m
India
Material¼ mild steel
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Cover inclination ¼301

55 Rehim et al. Packed layer and rotating Still May–July Efficiency of the still with packed layer ranges from 5% to 7.5%
[65] shaft dimensions ¼ 109 cm  97 cm  54 cm 2003 and for still with rotating shaft and PV system it was 2.5–5.5%
Cairo, Egypt Glass balls diameter ¼ 13.5 mm

56 Patel et al. [66] Photocatalysts (metal Still 2005 Use of metal oxides improves the productivity
oxides) used in the still
Area¼598  580 mm2
Height¼ 515 mm (back side)
Height¼ 160 mm (front side)
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick

57 Hayek et al. ASGHT and SGHT stills Still August ASGHT had 20% higher productivity than SGHT
[67] 2002
Amman, Jordan Area¼1 m2
Material¼ 1.5 mm thick galvanised
stainless steel sheets
Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Insulation ¼rock wool (100 mm thick)

58 Boukar et al. Vertical solar still Solar collector¼1.55 mm thick black December Productivity varies from 0.863 l/m2/day to 1.323 l/m2/day and
[68] steel 2005– efficiency ranges from 47.69% to 57.85%
January
2006
Adrar, Algeria Glazing ¼ 4 mm thick

59 Khalifa et al. Effect of insulation Still material¼0.8 mm thick April and Increase in insulation thickness increases the productivity by
[69] thickness galvanised steel sheet May 80%
Baghdad, Iraq Glass cover¼ 4 mm thick
Cover tilt angle ¼351

60 Meken et al. alcohol distillation insulation: 2003 Distillation of 38% alcohol solution produced a product
[70] containing 48% of alcohol with single cover model and 71% of
alcohol in the two compartment model
Cameroon Bottom¼ 4 cm thick polystyrene
Sides ¼1.5 cm
Absorber ¼1.5 mm thick stainless
steel
Glass cover¼ 5 mm thick

 Maintaining minimum water depth in the basin increases the
productivity of the solar stills. The increase in the depth of
water decreases the still productivity.
 The water–glass cover temperature difference should be
increased to increase the performance of the solar stills. The
glass cover can be cooled by flowing water over the glass cover
at an optimum flow rate.
 The inlet water may be preheated to increase the productivity
of the solar stills. The evaporation and condensation rate for
preheated water is more compared to the ordinary water. The
water may be preheated by integrating the still with a flat plate
collector, solar pond and heat pipe.
 The heat energy from the sun may be stored using sand,
absorbing materials and PCM. The stills can produce distillate
during off-shine hours. Paraffin wax and stearic acid may be
used as PCM.
 Maintaining vacuum conditions in the still improve the
productivity.
 The performance of the still with double basin is comparatively
high than the single basin stills.
 The use of hemispherical plastic cover, reflectors and conden-
sers and other types such as weir type stills, stills with
humidification–dehumidification process, multi-effect distilla-
tion can improve the productivity.
608 P. Prakash, V. Velmurugan / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 49 (2015) 585–609
 Stills with thermoelectric cooling, hybrid type stills, inclined
stills, stills using packed layer and rotating shaft, photocatalyst,
etc enhances the productivity.
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