Algebra: MTH-376

These notes are prepared for the course of Algebra offered at COMSATS Institute of
Information Technology Virtual Campus. These are only designed to supplement the video
lectures. There is another file provided which contains the notes of Joseph J. Rotman which
should be consulted for extensive reading. In preparation of these notes the author has
taken help from the book “A first course in Abstract Algebra by John B. Fraleigh.”

1. Introduction to Groups

We will try to make this course self-contained where ever possible. So we will start
off with the very basic definition of a set. You might have now seen the following
definition of a set a few times.

Set:
A set is a well-defined collection of objects. The objects of a set are called its
elements. The sets are usually denoted by capital letters and their elements by small
letters. Given below are some examples of sets.

Examples:
1. S={1,2,3,…,10}

2. S={The set of all prime numbers up to 10}

3. S={The set of all cities of Pakistan}

4. S={The set of all students of MSc(mathematics) at virtual campus of

COMSATS}

Some very important number sets:

The following number sets are very important and we will use them again and again

throughout this course.

 • 𝐍 = {1,2,3, … } The set of natural numbers
• 𝑾 = {0,1,2,3, … } The set of whole numbers
• 𝒁 = {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … } The set of integers
𝑝
• 𝑸 = {𝑞 | 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑞 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜} The set of rational
numbers
• 𝑰 = {𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠}
• 𝑹 = {𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠} = 𝑄 ∪ 𝐼
• 𝑪 = {𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏| 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠} The set of complex numbers (𝑖 = √−1 )

In the above list of sets 𝐼 is the set of irrational numbers. Some examples of irrationals are
𝜋, 𝑒, ln(2) , √2 etc. There are infinitely many such numbers. For example √𝑝 is irrational for
all prime numbers 𝑝.

Subset, proper subset and more definitions:

Subset
A set 𝐵 is a subset of a set 𝐴 if every element of 𝐵 is also an element of 𝐴. For
example let 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and 𝐵 = {1,2,3} then 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴. Clearly
every set is a subset of itself.

Empty subset
A set containing no elements is called an empty set denoted by {} or 𝜙. Note that
empty set is also a subset of every set.

Proper/Improper subset
A nonempty subset 𝐵 of a set 𝐴 is called a proper subset if 𝐴 contains some
elements different form 𝐵. In the example of subsets above 𝐵 = {1,2,3} is a
proper subset of the set 𝐴 as 𝐴 has elements 4,5,6 which are not in 𝐵.

Every set has at least two subsets i.e. the empty set and the set itself. These two
subsets are called improper subset. All other subsets are proper subsets.

Union of sets:
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. Then union of 𝐴, 𝐵 denoted 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the collection of all
elements of both 𝐴 and 𝐵. Note that if an element is common in both sets then we
 write it only once. For example let 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 = {2,4,6} then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 =
{1,2,3,4,6}.

Intersection of sets:
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. Then intersection of 𝐴, 𝐵 denoted 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the collection of
all those elements which are common in both 𝐴 and 𝐵. For example let 𝐴 =
{1,2,3,4}, 𝐵 = {2,4,6} then 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {2,4}.

Some basic symbols:

For all/ For each/ For every: ∀
There exist/ There is one: ∃
Implies/ If then: ⇒
If and only one/ Iff: ⇔
Belongs to/ Is in: ∈

Function:
A function 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 between two sets 𝐴 (domain) and 𝐵 (codomain) is a rule
that assigns to each element𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, a unique element𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝐵.

Mathematically 𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 is a function if

i. 𝑓(𝑎) ∈ 𝐵 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and

ii. 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 implies 𝑓(𝑎1 ) = 𝑓(𝑎2 ), for all 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴

Examples:
1. Identity function on 𝑹
This is clearly a function because it is defined for all elements and gives a
unique element in the range.

2. Zero function on 𝑹
This is also a function as it assigns the unique value zero to every element of
the domain.

3. 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅

This is again a function. Square of every real number exists and is unique.
 4. 𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅
Not a function because square root of negative numbers does not exist. For
example there is no image for −2 in this function as √−2 is not a real number.

Binary Operation:
A binary operation ∗ on a set 𝑆 is a rule which assigns to every ordered pair of
elements of 𝑆, an element is 𝑆. More precisely ∗ is a binary operation if ∗: 𝑆 × 𝑆 → 𝑆
is a function.

Examples:
• Let ∗ denotes the operation of addition on the set of integers 𝒁. Then ∗ is a
binary operation because sum of two integers in again a unique integer.
Similarly addition is a binary operation on 𝐍, 𝑸 and 𝑹.

• Let ∗ denotes the operation of multiplication on the set of integers 𝒁. Then ∗ is

a binary operation because product of two integers is again a unique integer.
Similarly multiplication is a binary operation on 𝐍, 𝑸 and 𝑹.

• Let 𝑆 be the set of real valued functions defined for all real numbers, then the
usual sum and product of functions are binary operations on 𝑆.

• Subtraction is not a binary operation on 𝑵. This is true because 2 − 3 = −1

which is not a natural number. Also division is not a binary operation of 𝒁
2
because 3 is not an integer. Similarly you can find other examples.

• The operation ∗: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined by 𝑥 ∗ y = ±√𝑥 + 𝑦 is not a binary operation

because it assigns two values to every real number. Moreover square root
may not exist for some real numbers. Also ∗ (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is not a binary operation
as it is not being applied on an ordered pair.

Motivation for defining groups:

One of our primary motivations for defining groups is the solution of linear
equations. Given below are two linear equations. Let’s suppose we want to
solve them in a particular set. More precisely we want to find all those sets in
which the solution to given equations can be found. For details see your video
lectures as well.
 If we have a look at each step of the solution one by one, from the first step it
is clear that we are adding −5 to both sides of the equation. In order to do so
we must have −5 in the set. So equation quiet clearly cannot be solved in sets
like 𝑵, 𝑾. Similarly you can look at each step just like we did in the video
lecture and conclude that we can solve this equation in 𝒁, 𝑹, 𝑸. These sets
contain all the required conditions to solve this equation.

5+𝑥 =2

−5 + (5 + 𝑥) = −5 + 2 (existence of inverse)

(−5 + 5) + 𝑥 = −3 (bracket change)

0 + 𝑥 = −3 (existence of zero)

𝑥 = −3 (property of zero)

Similar argument will help you decide that we cannot solve the following
equation in N, W, Z but we can solve it Q, R.

2𝑥 = 3
1 1
(2𝑥) = 2 (3) (existence of inverse)
2

1 3
(2 2)𝑥 = 2 (bracket change)

3
1. 𝑥 = 2 (existence of 1)

3
𝑥 = 2 (property of 1)

Now if we combine the conditions required to solve a linear equation we will get the
following definition.

Group:
A group (𝐺, ∗) is a set 𝐺, together with a binary operation ∗ on 𝐺 such that the
following axioms are satisfied:

1. The binary operation ∗ is associative.

2. There is an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑥 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺.

3. For each 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, there is an element 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑥 −1 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 −1 = 𝑒

for all x ∈ 𝐺.
Discussion and remarks:
The associative law in the above definition is what is being called the bracket change
operation in solution of linear equations. If the binary operation is addition and
𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 then the associative law means (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑧 = 𝑥 + (𝑦 + 𝑧).

The identity element is zero in the case of addition and one in the case of
multiplication.

If the binary operations is addition them inverse of 𝑥 is −𝑥. Similarly in case of

1
multiplication inverse of 𝑥 is 𝑥.

Examples:
Let’s look at some number sets first.

1) Is (𝑵, +) a group?

This is not a group as the identity element 0 is not in the set.

2) Is (𝑾, +) a group?

This is also not a group because the inverse of 2 is −2 but it is not present in the
given set.

3) Is (𝒁, +) a group?

This is an example of a group. We know that addition is a binary operation on

integers. Also associative law holds in 𝒁 (Real Analysis). Moreover the identity
element zero is in the set and inverse of every element is also present.

4) Is (𝑹, +) a group?

This is also a group by the same argument as above.

5) Is (𝒁,×) a group?
1
It is not a group. The multiplicative inverse of 2 is 2 which is not an integer.

6) Is (𝑹,×) a group?

It is also a group. Why?

Define 𝑹× = 𝑹 − {0}, 𝒁× = 𝒁 − {0}, 𝑸× = 𝑸 − {0}.

 7) Is (𝑹× , ×) a group?

Exercise

8) Is (𝑸× , ×) a group?

Exercise

We will denote by 𝒁+ , 𝑸+ , 𝑹+ the set of positive integers, positive rational numbers

and positive real numbers respectively.

9) Is (𝑹+ , ×) a group?

Exercise

Finite Groups:
Question: How many elements must a set have to form a group? Let’s have a look
at different options one by one.

I. Let S has no elements i.e. 𝑆 = {}.

𝑆 is not a group because a group must have an identity element which is not present
in this set.

II. Let 𝑆 has only one element.

A set with one element can only be a group if the element is the identity element. So
𝑆 = {𝑒} and then 𝑒 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 and identity is inverse of itself and associative law trivially
holds.

III. Let 𝑆 has two elements.

For a set having two elements one element must be the identity element. So the set
may look like 𝑆 = {𝑒, 𝑎} where 𝑎 is any arbitrary element. To make this set into a
group we should be able to define a binary operation on it. We will try and define a
binary operation with the help of the following table. In this table only nontrivial entry
is the product 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎. Moreover 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑒, if we take 𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎 then this set is not a
group because we do not have an inverse of 𝑎 in the given set. We summarize these
observations in the table below.
 ∗ 𝑒 𝑎

𝑒 𝑒 𝑎

𝑎 𝑎 𝑒

We will leave it to the reader to verify that the set 𝑆 together with the binary operation
defined in the above table forms a group.

IV. Suppose that 𝑆 has three elements.

If 𝑆 has three elements then one of them has to be the identity element. So we may
write 𝑆 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏} where 𝑎, 𝑏 are arbitrary elements. We define a binary operation on
the set by the following table.

∗ 𝑒 𝑎 𝑏

𝑒 𝑒 𝑎 𝑏

𝑎 𝑎 𝑏 𝑒

𝑏 𝑏 𝑒 𝑎
Again we will leave it for you to verify that 𝑆 forms a group. Is there another binary
operation on the set of three elements under which it forms a group?

V. Let 𝑆 has four elements say 𝑆 = {𝑒, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐} then a binary operation on this set
is given by the following table.

∗ 𝒆 𝒂 𝒃 𝒄

𝑒 𝒆 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

𝑎 𝑎 𝒆 𝑐 𝑏

𝑏 𝑏 𝑐 𝒆 𝑎

𝑐 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎 𝒆

• The group of four elements given by the above binary operation is known as
the Klein 4-group.

Exercise: Find another group table on a set of four elements.

It may seem that the group tables given above are formed by a bit of a hit and trial
method. These tables follow some standard rules which are given below.

Rules for Group Tables:

i. The binary operation ∗ must be associative.

ii. Each row of the group table must contain every element of the group once
and only once.
 iii. Each column of the group table must contain every element of the group once
and only once.

Some Conventions:
• We will usually denote our binary operations by ⋅ and will write 𝑎𝑏 for 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏

• Also we will use the letter 𝐺 to denote our groups. So 𝐺 is a group means 𝐺
together with a binary operation is a group.

Proposition: Let 𝐺 be a group with a binary operation ⋅ , then

i. The identity of 𝐺 is unique

ii. For every element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, its inverse 𝑎−1 is unique

iii. For every element 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, (𝑎−1 )−1 = 𝑎

iv. (𝑎𝑏)−1 = 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Proof:

For the proof of this result see the additional notes provided.

Matrix Groups:
We will now look at some set of matrices along with some binary operations. Our aim
𝑎 𝑏
is to find out which of these sets form a group. Let 𝑀2×2 = {[ ] | 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑹 } be
𝑐 𝑑
the set of all 2 × 2 matrices with entries from real numbers. For example the
1 0 0 0 1 2 11 −1
matrices[ ],[ ], [ ], [ ] are in the set 𝑀2×2 . We know how to add
0 1 0 0 3 4 2 √2
and multiply matrices from our early classes.

Examples:
• Is (𝑀2×2 , +) a group?

This is a group because sum of two matrices is again another matrix of the same
size. Similarly the zero matrix is the identity matrix and every matrix have an
additive inverse in this set.
 • Is (𝑀2×2 , ⋅) a group?

This is not a group because not all matrices have a multiplicative inverse. As an
example we can take any matrix of determinant zero.

• 𝑀3×3

This is a group under addition but not under multiplication.

• 𝑀𝑛×𝑛

Exercise

• 𝑀𝑚×𝑛

Exercise

A fundamental property of “some” groups:

1 1 −1 0
Consider the matrices𝐴 = [ ]𝐵=[ ] then we can easily verify that 𝐴𝐵 ≠
−1 1 1 −1
𝐵𝐴.

Commutative Groups:
A group (𝐺, ⋅) is said to be commutative if 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

Examples:
Some examples of commutative groups are 𝒁, 𝑸, 𝑹 under addition. Also 𝑸, 𝑹 under
multiplication are commutative. An example of a non-commutative group is the group
of all invertible 2 × 2 matrices under multiplication.

Subset:
A set 𝐵 is said to be a subset of a set 𝐴 if every element of 𝐵 is in 𝐴.

Subgroup:
A nonempty subset 𝐻 of a group (𝐺, ⋅) is a subgroup of 𝐺 if 𝐻 is also a group under
′ ⋅ ′ . Every group 𝐺 has at least two subgroups i.e. the set {𝑒} and 𝐺 itself.
Examples:
1. Subgroups of (𝒁, +)

As explained in the lectures some subgroups of Z are 2𝒁, 3𝒁, … In fact 𝑛𝒁 for
every positive integer 𝑛 is a subgroup.

2. Subgroups of (𝑹, +)

Some subgroup of (𝑹, +) are(𝒁, +), (𝑸, +), (𝑛𝒁, +) and others.

3. Subgroups of (𝑹× , ⋅)

Exercise

4. Subgroups of (𝑀2×2 , +)

Exercise

5. Subgroups of (𝑀2×2 , ⋅)

Exercise

Subgroup Criterion:
A nonempty subset 𝐻 of a group (𝐺, ⋅) is called a subgroup if and only if 𝑎𝑏 −1 ∈
𝐻 for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐻.

Proof:
Please consult the additional notes provided for the proof. The proof is also given in
video lectures.

We have seen some examples of groups. Most of them are infinite groups. In order
to find more examples of finite group we will construct a new set from integers. The
mathematical construction is given below but the rough idea is that we fix a positive
integer 𝑛 and divide the set of integers 𝒁 by 𝑛 and record the remainders. For
instance if we take 𝑛 = 2 and divide the set 𝒁 by 2 and put the all possible
remainders in a set we will get {0,1}. We will denote this set by 𝒁𝟐 . This set has two
elements so clearly a finite set. Now if we can define a binary operation on this set
then we can possibly make this into a group. The precise details are given below.

Integers modulo′𝒏′:
Let 𝑛 be a fixed positive integer. Define a relation on 𝒁 by

• 𝑎 ~ 𝑏 if and only if 𝑛 | (𝑏 − 𝑎)

This is an equivalence relation (verify).

• We will write 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛 if 𝑎~𝑏.

• ̅ Clearly 𝑎̅ = {a + kn | k ∈
We will denote the equivalence class of 𝑎 ∈ 𝒁 by 𝑎.
𝒁}.
𝑍
• Addition and multiplication in 𝑛𝑍 or 𝑍𝑛

𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎+𝑏

𝑎̅𝑏̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑎𝑏

The operations defined above are respectively called modulo addition and modulo
multiplication.

Examples:
i. 𝒁2
As explained above the set has two elements{0,1}. The set is a group under the modulo
addition defined above. The set is clearly closed as 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 1 = 2 =
0 𝑚𝑜𝑑 2. Hence all the resulting elements are in the set. The identity element of the set is 0.
Both elements are inverse of themselves. The associative law is trivial to check in this case.
The nonzero elements of the set form a group under multiplication.

ii. 𝒁3
Exercise

iii. 𝒁n
Exercise

iv. 𝒁p
Exercise

Permutation Group:
A permutation is a rearrangement of objects. For example we have three balls say of
colours red, blue and pink. One arrangement could be to have them in the given
order. We can rearrange these three balls in the order blue, red, pink. There are also
other arrangements of three balls. All of them are permutations. A mathematical
definition of a permutation is given below.
Def.(Permutation):
A permutation of a set 𝑆 is a one to one, onto map from 𝑆 to itself. There are a
couple of things worth emphasizing here. Firstly it is a map from the set onto itself.
So domain and range of the set are same. Also the function is one to one and onto
so all elements of the set must be used. So it’s just a rearrangement and no
elements can be missed in a rearrangement.

Let 𝐴 be a set and 𝑆𝐴 denote the set of all possible permutations of 𝐴. Our aim is to
define a binary operation on this set such that it form a group. As the set 𝑆𝐴 contains
functions it makes sense to define the composition of elements in this set.

Let 𝜌1 , 𝜌2 ∈ 𝑆𝐴 then define a binary operation ∗ by 𝜌1 ∗ 𝜌2 = (𝜌1 𝑜𝜌2 )(𝑥) = 𝜌2 [𝜌1 (𝑥)],
where 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴. Then (𝑆𝐴 , 𝑜) is a group. We will now considers some special cases of
this.

Symmetric Group:
If 𝐴 is the finite set {1,2, … , 𝑛}, then the group of all permutations of 𝐴 is the
symmetric group of 𝑛 letters, and is denoted by 𝑆𝑛 .

• 𝑆𝑛 has 𝑛! Elements

The group 𝑺𝟑 :
Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} then 𝑆3 contains all permutations of this set.

𝑆3 = {(11 22 33), (13 21 32), (12 23 31), (11 23 32), (13 22 31), (12 21 33)}.

We will label the elements as {𝐼, 𝜌0 , 𝜌1 , 𝜇1 , 𝜇2 , 𝜇3 } respectively, where 𝐼 is the identity

element of the set. The elements of the set 𝑆3 represent all possible permutations of
𝐴. This set together with the binary operation composition of functions form a group.

Dihedral Group:
The group of symmetries of a regular n-gon is called the dihedral group.

So far we have used the two rows notation to write a permutation in which first row
contains the elements of the given set. As elements of the set remain fixed, so it
makes sense to try and find a shorter notation for permutations. This is one of the
reasons for defining the following concepts. This is not however the most important
reason. The importance will become clear when we define the alternating group.
Cycle:
• A 𝑘 −cycle (𝑖1 , 𝑖2 , … , 𝑖𝑘 ) is a permutation which sends 𝑖𝑗 to 𝑖𝑗+1 for all 𝑗 ≠ 𝑘,
sends 𝑖𝑘 to 𝑖1 .

• The elements which do not appear in the cycle are fixed!

• 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5} then (1,3,5,4), (2,1,5) are cycles.

• Two cycles are said to be disjoint if there is no element common in them.

• 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6} then (1,6), (2,5,3) are disjoint cycles.

Theorem:
Every permutation 𝜌 of a finite set 𝑆 is a product of disjoint cycles.

The above theorem clearly says that we can represent every permutation as a
product of disjoint cycles. So basically we can we can replace the two rows notation
with the cyclic notation given here. We consider the following example.

Examples:
Here we will write down every element of 𝑆3 in cyclic notation.

123 123 123 123

( ) = (132), ( ) = (123), ( ) = (23), ( ) = (13),
312 231 132 321
123
( ) = (12).
213
The main idea here is that we start with the first element of the permutation see
where it is mapped and continue with the image element until we get the first
element back. For instance in the first permutation above we get 1 → 3 → 2 → 1. We
will write this as (132). Similar argument will give us the other permutations in the
form of cycles.

Length of a cycle:
The number of elements in a cycle is called the length of the cycle. For examples
length of (132) is 3.

Transposition:
A cycle of length two is called a transposition. In the group 𝑆3 the transpositions are
(12), (13)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (2,3).

Theorem:
Any permutation of a finite set of at least two elements is a product of transpositions.

Theorem:
The number of transpositions whose product is a given permutation of a finite set is
either always even or always odd.

From the above theorems it is clear that we can write every permutation as a product
of transpositions. To demonstrate this process we will write every element of 𝑆3 as a
product of transpositions.

123 123 123

( ) = (132) = (13)(12), ( ) = (123) = (12)(13), ( ) = (23),
312 231 132
123 123
( ) = (13), ( ) = (12).
321 213
Clearly every element written above is a product of transpositions. It is an easy
exercise to verify that all sides of the equation give the same permutation. In general
we have (𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 ) = (𝑎1 𝑎2 )(𝑎1 𝑎3 )(𝑎1 𝑎4 ) … (𝑎1 𝑎𝑛 ).

Furthermore the product will either contain an even number of transpositions or an

odd number of transpositions. So it makes sense to give the following definition.

Even/Odd permutation:
A permutation is called even if it can be represented as a product of even number of
transposition. Otherwise it is called odd. Note that the identity permutation is an even
permutation.

The Alternating Group:

The set of all even permutations in 𝑆𝑛 forms a group under the same operation as on
𝑆𝑛 . This group is called the alternating group and is denoted by 𝐴𝑛 .

Example:
It is not hard to verify that 𝐴3 = {𝐼, (132), (123)} is a group and it is also a subgroup
of 𝑆3 .

Theorem:
𝑆𝑛 is non abelian for all 𝑛 ≥ 3.

Cyclic Subgroups:
If 𝐺 is a group and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, then

𝐻 = {𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 ∈ 𝑍}

is a subgroup of 𝐺. This subgroup is called the cyclic subgroup of 𝐺 generated by 𝑎.

Example:
Consider the group (𝒁, +). Take an element 2 ∈ 𝒁 then the subgroup generated by 2
is given by 2𝒁 = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, … }. The operation is addition so 2, 2 + 2, 2 + 2 +
2, 2 + 2 + 2 + 2, …. So all the elements which can be obtained by addition of 2 to itself
any number of times. Hence 2𝒁 = {𝑛𝒁|𝑛 ∈ 𝒁}.

Cyclic Group:
Given a group 𝐺 and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, and if 𝐺 = {𝑎𝑛 |𝑛 ∈ 𝑍} Then 𝑎 is a generator of 𝐺 and the
group 𝐺 =< 𝑎 > is cyclic.

Theorem:
Every cyclic group is abelian.

Theorem:
Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Order of an element:
The order of an element 𝑎 in a group 𝐺 is the smallest positive integer 𝑛 such that
𝑎𝑛 = 1.

Order of a group:
Number of elements in a group is called the order of the group.

Relation between groups:

Homomorphism:
Let (𝐺, ∗) and (𝐻, ⋅) be two groups. A map 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝐻 is called a homomorphism if

𝜙(𝑔1 ∗ 𝑔2 ) = 𝜙(𝑔1 ) ⋅ 𝜙(𝑔2 )

Examples:
• Define a map 𝜙: 𝑀𝑛 (𝑅) → 𝑅 by 𝜙(𝐴) = det(𝐴)

• Define a map 𝜙: 𝐺𝐿𝑛 (𝑅) → 𝑅 × by 𝜙(𝐴) = det(𝐴)

• Define a map 𝜙: 𝑍 → Zn by 𝜙(𝑚) = 𝑚 modulo 𝑛

Isomorphism:
A bijective homomorphism is called an isomorphism.

• To show that a map 𝜙 is an isomorphism we need to show that

i. 𝜙 is 1-1

ii. 𝜙 is onto

iii. 𝜙(𝑥𝑦) = 𝜙(𝑥)𝜙(𝑦)

Examples:
• 𝜙: 𝑅 → 𝑅 + such that 𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥

• 𝜙: 𝑍 → 2𝑍 such that 𝜙(𝑥) = 2𝑥

Theorem:
Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to 𝒁.

Non isomorphic groups:

• By definition it means that there is no isomorphism between the groups, so we
have to rule out all the possibilities.

• This is not really possibly unless there is no 1-1 map between the groups

To show that groups are not isomorphic we can use any of the following

i. Show that there is no 1-1/onto map

ii. There is a property (cyclic, order of elements, order of subgroups, and

solution of algebraic equations) satisfied in one group but not the other.

Examples:
• 𝑍4 and 𝑆6 are not isomorphic.
• (𝑍, +) is not isomorphic to (𝑅, +)
• (𝑍, +) is not isomorphic to (𝑄, +)
• (𝑄 × ,⋅) is not isomorphic to (𝑅 × , ⋅)
Reason: Solution of 𝑥 2 = 2
• 𝑉 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍4 are not isomorphic, where 𝑉 is the Klein 4-group

Cosets:
Let 𝐺 be a group and 𝐻 be a subgroup of 𝐺. Then the sets

𝑎𝐻 = {𝑎ℎ |𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, ℎ ∈ 𝐻},

𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ𝑎 |ℎ ∈ 𝐻, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}
are respectively called left and right cosets of 𝐻 in 𝐺.

• Note that Cosets are not necessarily subgroup of 𝐺.

• Not every left coset is a right coset!

Normal Subgroup:
A subgroup 𝑁 of 𝐺 is called normal if 𝑎𝑁 = 𝑁𝑎 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. This is same as saying
every left coset of 𝑁 is also a right coset.

• If 𝐺 is abelian then every subgroup of 𝐺 is normal.

Quotient Group:
Let 𝑁 be a normal subgroup of a group 𝐺 then define

𝐺⁄ = {𝑎𝑁 | 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}
𝑁
i.e. the set of all left cosets of 𝑁.

Define a binary operation of 𝐺⁄𝑁 by (𝑎𝑁)(𝑏𝑁) = 𝑎𝑏𝑁

Fact: The above binary operation is well defined.

Is 𝐺⁄𝑁 under the above binary operation a group?

Kernel of a Homomorphism:
Let 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝐻 be a homomorphism. Then

𝐾𝑒𝑟 𝜙 = {𝑔 ∈ 𝐺|𝜙(𝑔) = 𝑒𝐻 }

Where 𝑒𝐻 is the identity element of 𝐻. Note that 𝐾𝑒𝑓 𝜙 is a subgroup of 𝐺.

Image of a Homomorphism:
Let 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝐻 be a homomorphism. Then
 𝐼𝑚 𝜙 = {ℎ ∈ 𝐻|𝜙(𝑔) = ℎ, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺}

Note that 𝐼𝑚 𝜙 is a subgroup of 𝐻.

Homomorphism Theorems:

Theorem:
If 𝑁 is a normal subgroup of a group 𝐺 then the natural (canonical) map 𝜙: 𝐺 →
𝐺⁄ given by 𝜙(𝑎) = 𝑎𝑁, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 is a homomorphism.
𝑁

Fundamental Homomorphism Theorem:

Let 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝐻 be a group homomorphism with kernel 𝐾. Then 𝐺⁄𝐾 ≅ 𝐼𝑚 𝜙

First Isomorphism Theorem:

Let 𝐻 and 𝐾 be normal subgroups of a group 𝐺 with K a subgroup of H. Then

𝐺
𝐺⁄ ≅ ( ⁄𝐾 )⁄
𝐻 (𝐻⁄𝐾 )

Cayley Theorem:
Every group is isomorphic to a group of permutations.

Rings
Definition:
A ring 𝑅 is a set together with two binary operations + and ⋅ such that

1. 𝑅 is an abelian group under addition

2. 𝑅 is closed under multiplication and elements of 𝑅 are associative under

multiplication

3. 𝑎(𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎𝑐 and (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑐 = 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑐

Examples:
 𝒁
 𝒁𝒏
 𝑴𝒏×𝒏 (𝑹)
 𝑹[𝑿]

Commutative rings:
A ring 𝑅 is commutative if 𝑟𝑠 = 𝑠𝑟 for all 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑅.

Zero divisors:
The element 𝑟, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑅 are called zero divisors if 𝑟𝑠 = 0 with 𝑟 ≠ 0 and 𝑠 ≠ 0.

Ring with unity:

A ring 𝑅 is called a ring with unity if it contains the multiplicative identity.

Units:
An element 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅 is called a unit element if it has the multiplicative inverse.

Integral domain:
A commutative ring with unity is called an integral domain if it has no zero divisors.
Subring:
A subset 𝑆 of a ring 𝑅 is called a subring if 𝑆 is an additive abelian group and 𝑠1 ⋅ 𝑠2 ∈
𝑆 for all 𝑠1 , 𝑠2 ∈ 𝑆.

Ring Homomorphism:
Let (𝑅, +, ⋅) and (𝑆, +, ⋅) be two rings. A map 𝜙: 𝑅 → 𝑆 is called a homomorphism if

1. 𝜙(𝑔1 + 𝑔2 ) = 𝜙(𝑔1 ) + 𝜙(𝑔2 )

2. 𝜙(𝑔1 ⋅ 𝑔2 ) = 𝜙(𝑔1 ) ⋅ 𝜙(𝑔2 )