Susan Thomas Ma Ioe Dissertation 2014

MA in Applied Educational Leadership and Management
Institute of Education, University of London
Changing Lea dershi p and Learning in th e

United Arab Emirat es: A Case Study in
Seconda ry S chool R efo rm
By Susan Thomas
SRN: 090400678
August 2014
Submitted to the Institute of Education, International Programmes, University of London in partial

fulfillment of the post graduate MA in Applied Educational Leadership and Management.
Changing Leadership & Learning in the UAE: Page 1 of 68

A Case Study in Secondary School Reform
Abstract
This study analyses the way national culture has influenced the implementation of an
adoptive reform in a United Arab Emirates secondary school. It seeks to illuminate how
leaders and teachers are responding to the mandate to use leadership for learning
practices and constructivist teaching strategies through a narrative case study. Data was
gathered using a cross-sectional survey of 41 teachers then triangulated with 11
interviews to develop a narrative structure exploring perceptions of reform at the teacher,
leader and advisory level.
Analysis has shown that principals are beginning to use elements of transformational and
instructional leadership despite the challenges this poses to deeply held cultural values.
Likewise, teachers have blended traditional reception models with constructivist
strategies, in an effort to reconcile the cultural importance of memorization with the
pressure to conform to contemporary educational trends.
There is keen interest in discovering which sort of leadership style is best suited to bring
about organizational change. However, literature exploring how culture mitigates such
recommendations is still developing. Literature related to organizational change, culture,
constructivism and leadership are all consulted in pursuit of culturally relevant
recommendations specific to the school at the heart of this study.
Conclusions call for leaders to engage further in the transformational and instructional
practices in a culturally sensitive approach to foster greater support for the reform agenda
at the school level, thereby encouraging change at the teacher, parent and student levels.
A series of specific recommendations are included which may be relatable to other
institutions seeking to affect change.

Acknowledgements
This research would not have been possible without generous support from all of the
willing participants who enhanced my understandings of ABAB school and the ADEC
reform agenda. Thank you for your honest opinions and the time you devoted to this
study.
Thanks are also due to my family who helped me balance work, home and study
demands. Your support has proved critical particularly as the study draws to a close.
To the dedicated, knowledgeable and helpful professors at the Institute of Education,

University of London, thank you for your continued support throughout the course of my
studies. Your feedback and encouragement along the way have been invaluable. Thank
you particularly to Nigel Jackson, my supervisor for your much appreciated critical
questioning of my work throughout the year.

Table of Contents
Abstract __________________________________________________________ 2
Table of Contents___________________________________________________ 3
Chapter 1: Introduction ______________________________________________ 5
1.1 The Context of the UAE __________________________________________ 5
Chapter 2: Literature Review__________________________________________ 11
2.1 Cultural Analysis of the UAE ______________________________________ 11
2.2 Leading Change in International Settings _____________________________ 13
2.3 Leadership for Learning___________________________________________ 17
2.4 Implementing Constructivism in Classrooms __________________________ 21
Chapter 3: Methodological Discussion __________________________________ 25
Chapter 4: Findings & Discussion ______________________________________ 33
4.1 Leadership for Learning in ABAB School ____________________________ 33
4.2 Constructivism in ABAB Classrooms ________________________________ 39
4.3 Leading Change in ABAB School___________________________________ 44
Chapter 5: Conclusion & Recommendations______________________________ 45
References ________________________________________________________ 52
Appendix A: Teacher Survey Schedule__________________________________ 59
Appendix B: Leader Interview Schedule_________________________________ 63
Appendix C: Teacher Interview Schedule ________________________________ 65
Appendix D: Informed Consent Form ___________________________________ 67

Chapter 1: Introduction
Transitioning from reception learning to constructivism is not easy in any context,

(Carnell & Lodge, 2002; Varvrus & Bartlett, 2012; Wong & Cheung, 2009; Thompson,
2013; Clarke et al., 2009, Hallinger, 1998; Anderson et al., 2010). Leadership support is
widely seen as essential in making this change according to western educational
researchers, (Day & Sammons, 2014, Mulford, 2008, Hallinger, 2011). Will the same
hold true when change is implemented in government run Arab schools by thousands of
western guest workers in an oil rich sheikdom?
Too often, western developed best practices are mandated in Eastern contexts leading to
discomfort, (Anderson et al., 2009; Hallinger & Leithwood, 1998, Phillips & Ochs, 2004,
Chakroun, 2010). Thus, it seems that broader aspects of culture, including historical
legacies, national priorities, and religious values, (Earley & Mosakowski, 2004) may
impact the how these policies are understood and used in diverse nations. Consequently,
this research, which ultimately focuses on one school in the United Arab Emirates
(UAE), begins by examining these three potential challenges.
1.1 The Cultural Context of the United Arab Emirates
The unification of Bedouin tribes in 1971 by leader Sheikh Zayed Al Nayhan, just after
the establishment of oil based trade agreements marked the foundation of the UAE.
Tribal loyalties have remained an important societal element today, given that these
national borders are a ‘recent acquisition’ (Findlow 2005, p.288) and have not changed
traditional notions about leadership, (Albon, 2009). In the short history of this nation,
balancing traditional values with international commerce has been a priority, (Findlow,
2005). Leaders in the UAE have a great deal of status and a small circle of ruling families
holds top positions.

Education has historically been a major focus in the UAE’s growth and development.
Prior to unification, tribal education was offered in the form of Quranic schools.
Knowledge transfer from teacher to student was the dominant form of learning, as the
reception model identified by Lodge and Carnell (2002). Immediately after the
foundation of the UAE, a national school system emerged, charged with a mandate to
enhance the quality of life for nationals and to build a skilled workforce to participate in
the global economy. General Sheikh Mohammed, the current ruler states that:
The UAE citizen is the real asset of our state and he is the basic pillar to move
forward for further progress and success. Providing him with…a high quality of
education, will remain at the centre stage of our attention.
Source: (Khaleej Times Oct 11, 2013)
To support this vision, the UAE government has consistently rewarded those who
complete various levels of education with financial gifts. The prioritization of education
as a means of development is part of a wider Arab Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)
emphasis, wherein strategic international partners are cultivated to reform school systems
so that they become internationally competitive, (Mukerji & Jammel, 2008).
Initially, the UAE looked to regional countries for support. With similar language,
religion and cultural backgrounds, Egyptian intellectuals imported their Islamic
understandings of education. Islamic education is historically different from educational
models developed in the West. Understanding how education developed in Egypt lays a
foundation for understanding the UAE conceptualization of education.
Islamic learning is a critical part of the UAE’s culture and heritage; it necessarily plays
an important role in schools today. It is historically characterized by a focus on
memorization of religious texts, particularly the Holy Quran. This form of knowledge is
believed to be the unchanging word of the Divine; therefore it must be embedded in the
minds and hearts of students, (Boyle, 2006) not questioned through a process of critical
inquiry, (Anderson, et al. 2010).

The role of teachers in Islamic schools was to pass on this knowledge to students. As it is
a tradition for Muslims to memorize Holy Quran, we can assume students were motivated
to engage in this learning process. To facilitate learning, teachers developed very close
personal relationships with their students, (Yousef, 2012). That practice continues in
Islamic schools today.
When Egyptian schools were reformed by colonial powers, teaching methods did not
change, (Yousef, 2012). Instead, Egypt became a center of tension between colonial and
Muslim ideas of education, and only experienced a reform to the structure of their system
of schools so that an emphasis on discipline and rules prevailed, (Kadi, 2006). This
implies there would have been strong, powerful leaders in schools that could implement
such structures, possibly Western. Further, it suggests that the passive transference of
knowledge would have exactly mirrored that used in schools within the imperial powers,
signaling no real need for a shift in teaching methods.
Western colonial powers set out to provide the minimum necessary education for the
population. The new system would erase the Arab language and remove the close
relationships between teachers and students that characterized the learning in madrassas
prior to colonial influence, (Yousef, 2012). Postcolonial Egypt undertook its own
educational reforms aimed at indigenizing policies, attempting to balance the Islamic
traditions of knowledge transmission and European systems with the goal of producing
civil servants able to run the government. At this stage, debate centered on how much
ijtihad (individual reasoning) as compared to taqlid (following precedents) would be the
right blend for Egyptian education, (Kadi, 2006, 320).
In reviewing some of the history of education in the Arab region, we can draw some
conclusions about the nature of schools in UAE that will come into focus with the
following study. When compared with contemporary Western schools, is clear that there
are major historical differences in learning that may well challenge the reform efforts.
From the discussion presented above, it is clear that schools had a well-established role

for rote learning (Macpherson et al., 2009) and a palpable discomfort with critical
inquiry, (Anderson et al., 2010). Teachers transferred religious knowledge leaving little
flexibility to adapt to current situational needs. Power was tightly held by a few leaders
and was not widely and comfortably shared, (Albon, 2009). Further, there was an ever-
present tension between the modern, symbolized by Western influence, and the
traditional, signaled by Arab influence, (Findlow, 2005). All of these factors have
implications for changes to leading learning in UAE schools.
In 2005, a series of scathing criticisms of the UAE public education system appeared in
the Arabic language media, (Macpherson et al., 2009). In a move that subverted the
traditional ways in which highly power distant countries operate, (Hofstede, 2010) these
reports revealed system wide failings including ineffective school leaders, lack of trained
professional teaching staff, poor quality assessment methods, weak school culture and
discipline. Lambasted for discouraging creative critical thinking, school leaders and
teachers were found to be in dire need of considerable professional development. Those
criticisms were the catalyst to a major reform initiative that began in 2007 with the
creation of a new government entity in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi called the Abu Dhabi
Education Council (ADEC).
With the stated mission to raise school standards to international levels, the council was
endowed with a substantial budget and given a 10-year time frame to modernize
education in the UAE. Numerous western trained staff have been employed in the service
of this mission at many levels. Ideas from the UK, the US, Australia, Finland, and New
Zealand were all examined and blended in a way that Thorne (2011, p. 173) described as,
‘a deliberate policy tactic of ‘sampling’ a variety of educational ‘products’ before
deciding which to choose.’
One major catalyst for school level reform was the establishment of the English Medium
Teacher (EMT) project in 2009. This initiative brought thousands of Western trained
teachers to UAE classrooms to implement constructivist teaching in classrooms. It was
the intention of this project to reform learning in one step. This way, ADEC would not

need to worry about retraining teachers and could concentrate on developing leadership
capacity for existing Emirati principals.
School leaders have traditionally held a strong managerial role within schools, (Al Jaber,
1996) therefore the concepts of instructional and transformational leadership are probably
new to most, if not all of these school leaders. With low staff morale, poor working
conditions and inadequate forms of professional development (Oplatka, 2004) it is not
surprising that many principals have retreated to their offices and taken a very hands off
approach to school leadership. Equally, prior change initiatives within the UAE were
adoptive (Hopkins, 2002) leading to resistance in implementation.
ADEC has mandated that school principals become the primary instructional force in
their schools and has begun a campaign to embed transformational and instructional
leadership practices into their evaluations. Change in this case may be difficult
considering the historical tensions Arab educators have with Western influence, and the
lack of control they have had to make systematic changes. Now, school leaders must act
as a Western principal might. Suddenly, they are expected to team build, communicate,
motivate, allocate resources, set the emotional climate of their schools and lead the
learning program. All of these roles are completely new to leaders who generally are very
good linking with the larger community and scheduling. Many school leaders have had
little formal training and few have been teachers in the old system.
One barrier to implementation is the segregation of Western guests from nationals,

suggesting that Western teachers and advisors are treated in a more transactional way,
potentially not welcomed into their schools, (Mercer, 2005 & Findlow, 2005). Such a
welcome would impede the development of a trusting school culture that could support
change. This is a particularly crucial shift of mind given the importance of trust in
collectivist cultures and the pivotal role it plays in building teams and leading change,
(Day & Sammons, 2013; Handford & Leithwood, 2012; Stephenson et al., 2012 &
Strasser, 2014).

ADEC conceptualized the EMT project as a way to jump start instructional change at the
teacher level. These EMTs were to model constructivism so other teachers could copy
what they were doing. Cultural tensions interrupted this agenda. Arabic Medium
Teachers (AMTs) were not initially interested in making changes to the way they taught.
Thus, making the shift to constructivism for all secondary school teachers was not so
straightforward.
Changing leadership and learning is never easy. The ADEC reform seeks to make deep
change at both of these levels in secondary schools within difficult contextual
circumstances. There are many potential benefits to this change process as well as many
obstacles to overcome. Thus, this research seeks to address the following three questions
through a narrative case study:
• How do leaders use transformational behaviors in their schools?

• How do leaders use instructional behaviors in their schools?
• How do teachers use constructivism in their classrooms?
ABAB school, the subject of this study is a top ranked urban girls school in the UAE. It
values achievement and status according to UAE league tables. There are three senior
leaders, of whom two have participated in this study and sixty-three teachers with a
handful of support staff. There are about 600 female students ranging in age from sixteen
to twenty-two. The researcher has been an EMT in the school since 2009 but did leave
for one and a half years before returning in 2013. As such, the researcher has been a part
of the school reform from the beginning, experienced the introduction of the program and
contributed to the agenda as a grade 12 English teacher, a position still held.
While this research should not be considered as directly transferable it may be

generalizable to other similar schools within ADEC or in external contexts where systems
seek to effect change by using foreign teachers. Strengths and challenges associated with
the ADEC reform related to improving leadership and implementing constructivism will
be considered.

Chapter 2: Literature Review
Each one of the key research questions must be couched in the culture where reform is
embedded, as this plays an important role as a backdrop in any school, (Hallinger, 2011;
Ghamrawi, 2013; Hallinger & Leithwood, 1998). Indeed, reformers may fall short of
their goals if they do not understand the culture in which they work, (Albon, 2009).
Therefore the literature review will begin by exploring how the broader culture of the
UAE affects the way schools function so that each area of investigation can be considered
from its unique cultural positioning. Following that analysis, it will move to consider
literature related to how to effect change, then it will examine literature on the two main
areas of change in ABAB school; leadership and learning. Throughout this review, the
theme of cultural appropriateness will be considered.
2.1 Cultural Analysis of the UAE
For the purpose of this research, culture will be considered the “ongoing process of
humans creatively adapting to one another, to social structures, and to political and
economic institutions” (Vavrus & Bartlett, 2012, p. 3), highlighting the shifting nature of
this concept in response to various social forces. Despite the contested claim of each
nation having a unique identity, and the pitfalls associated with the seminal study of
culture conducted by Hofstede (2010) it still has some predictive value, (Alion, 2008;
McSweeny, 2002). Hofstede’s research provides a starting point to analyze aspects of
culture that may influence the country’s functioning. Linking culture to a changing values
system seems most appropriate when considering the convergence of ideas and
preferences that are increasingly informed by global media. With this in mind,
Hofestede’s notion of culture as values and desires seems inadequate as global
preferences are becoming less divergent over time, (Stoll & Fink, 1996).

UAE scores high on power distance. This suggests that leadership is held tightly by a
few, and not easily shared. Tribal loyalties influence who can be an effective leader, a
factor to be considered when appointing organizational leaders. Given the narrow pool of
available leaders, one might expect they would act autocratically given their near
absolute power. However, Sarayah (2004) notes that Islamic leaders are meant to solicit
input from their followers through discussion and debate (shura) that seems similar to
democratic representation. In fact, this emphasis throughout all levels of society counters
coercive images associated with Arab leaders (Sidani & Thornberry, 2009). In fact,
Sarayah contends that this autocratic form of decision-making emerged with the
establishment of national governments in relationship to colonial influence.
A low individualism score indicates UAE is a collectivist culture. This is evident in focus
on group achievement. However Ali, (1993) in Sidani & Thornberry (2009) clarifies that
individualism is present within the confines of a group and is developed in relationship to
its norms. Salzman (2007) proposed the idea of ‘balanced opposition’ as a key to
understanding Arab collectivism. Within each group are sub units, and any level group
can unify in opposition to an ‘enemy’ or distasteful idea. This complex idea means that
Arab groups are best described as a loose network that can be constantly reconfigured.
Thus, creating conditions for trust is essential in making changes to Arab institutions.
Uncertainty avoidance is the area that Hofestede’s research is least aligned with
experience. Too literal an interpretation of his findings suggests that UAE is a rigid
culture that cannot accept last minute change and resists innovation. There are two levels
of change, surface and deep that require different responses. Experience from the public
sector shows constant surface change initiatives that require staff at all levels to respond
flexibly. More profound levels of change require shifts in deeply held values. Generally,
resistance to such change on principle, (Sidani & Thornberry, 2009). The idea of having,
but not following, a rigid set of behavioral norms is a large part of life in government
schools, but this is shifting.
Lastly, The UAE is characterized as a masculine country, suggesting a cultural bias

towards competition, achievement, and the idea that people focus their lives around their
work. Many UAE nationals are just beginning to develop professional careers, and
generally place a greater value on family life than work achievement. ‘Tender’ (Ailon,
2008, 897) values of modesty are seemingly of equal value, especially in girls’ schools.
Considering the culture of the UAE, as measured by Hofstede for its predictive value,
school leaders can be expected to work within a hierarchy and value compliance with
rigid behavioral norms. There may be some elements of shura, although those who
participate in discussion and decision-making would be those with status and favor.
Leaders would respond flexibly to unforeseen circumstances but initially resist deep
change. Principals would maintain a focus on high levels of achievement but may not
understand how to balance it with family time. When leading change, this suggests that
principals could struggle.
Clearly, it is important not to discount the influence of culture on reform. While there is a
debate related to how much schools should adjust international best practices to suit their
cultural context, two things become clear. First, internationally developed leadership and
learning styles are traveling around the world, finding homes in different countries.
Second, the culture where leadership and learning frameworks land will shape their
application.
One of the ways culture can impact international best practices is in the openness to
change. Being more traditional, the UAE may be hesitant to embrace change, particularly
those coming from Western origins, (Findlow, 2005). With this in mind, the literature
relating to change will now be examined considering how to effect change in a place that
may not welcome it.
2.2 Leading Change in International Settings
Changing schools is a challenging dynamic process with many interdependent complex

parts that need to change together, with no clear path to improvement due to the
uniqueness of each context, (Hallinger & Heck, 2010; Fullan, 2003; Fullan, 2002; Syed,
2013; Leithwood, 1992; Darling-Hammond et al., 2006; Earl et al., 2006). Studies from
around the world can inform this discussion which will go on to consider four key aspects
that facilitate change; scale of change, leadership, teacher attitudes and school culture,
before examining change models. Cultural appropriateness will be questioned
throughout the process.
When faced with large scale change including leader and teacher empowerment due to
decentralization and pressure to make learning more active for students, Thai leaders and
teachers were intimidated. High power distance, collectivism, and preference for
familiarity may have facilitated initial resistance. (Hallinger & Lee, 2011; Hofstede,
2014) Lower power distance leaders in California (seeking to create instructional leaders
through mandate) and Manitoba (seeking to create systematic support for improvement)
interestingly both used a jolt to the system (Earl et al., 2006; Darling-Hammond et al.,
2006) followed by pressure and support (Stoll & Fink, 1996) to initiate different changes
in very different ways in a highly individualized culture. Powerful Hong Kong principals
were the focus for decentralization of power to schools given the competitive nature of
this high power distance country. (Cheng, 1994) Portuguese schools, with a higher level
of collectivism and an emphasis on caring, (Hofstede, 2014) took an indirect route by
promoting a positive school culture via increased feedback to maintain motivation for
reforms seeking to embed schools with a culture of sustainable innovation. (Correia de
Sousa, 2006) Turkish teacher attitudes proved to be a barrier in sustaining a positive
school culture when seeking to implement teacher leadership programmes. (Kiranh,
2013), suggesting a mismatch in policy and context due to a cultural preference for clear
rules, making a shift in school culture too ambiguous.
While each of the reforms provide a glimpse into the reform project, they are offered as
samples, not given as rules applicable in all schools in the national context. Nonetheless,
by looking through a culturally informed lens, it becomes clear that reformers must

consider how cultural values interact with policies. While there are many factors to
consider, leaders are often key in the change process (Evans, 1998) and are expected to
provide a clear vision, structures to support changes and foster a positive school culture
by being concerned about individuals, (Hallinger & Heck, 2003). However, eastern
school principals may not be able to follow this advice. High power distance may make it
difficult for leaders to overtly implement new school structures, as this may cause them
to lose face among groups that prefer the status quo. Additionally, collectivist cultures
place far greater value on harmony within groups, making individualized attention to
particular teachers potentially unrealistic.
There is some debate about the most effective leadership styles to bring about change, but
in the Thai context, effective leaders seemed to use many behaviors associated with
transformational leadership (Bass & Avolio, 1994) that often lead to positive school
cultures. While difficult to define, MacGilchrist et al. (2004) offers professional relations
as one indicator of school culture that may inhibit or facilitate change, (Ghwarmi, 2013).
Conservative cultures are the most difficult to change (Quinn, 2006), therefore, if
reformers set this as a goal, care must be taken because they prefer clear, established
rules and processes. Further, if this approach is taken within a collective culture, it would
be easy for teachers to unite around resistance.
However, even in collective cultures, change ultimately happens in individuals who may
experience up to fifteen negative responses including fear, loss of status, and confusion,
(Morrison, 1998). In conservative societies, individuals are more likely to become
luddites (Fidler, 2002), resisting change on principal before benefits clear. If this happens
in a collective culture, then the potential for resistance to pervade the school exists.
Therefore, those leading change processes, even in higher power distance countries,
might promote the benefits of change at the group level using pressure and support (Stoll
& Fink, 1996) so that change happens not through fiat, but for more authentic reasons.
Arab leaders, who have a history of disengagement (Al Jaber, 1996) may see this as a
non-essential step.

Too much change at too fast a pace can become a destructive force, (Argyris, 1977, Earl,
et al., 2006, Darling-Hammond, et al., 2006, Fullan, 2002). Argyris, (1977) adds that if
change is initiated under conditions of crisis or revolution, it can be draining for an
organization. Given this advice, it would seem multifaceted Thai reforms should have
failed, however, with adequate resources and support throughout the system, change did
occur over a long period of time. Therefore, the scope of change an organization can
handle would seem to depend on many factors including funding, goals and time-frame.
After considering four key factors impacting the change process: leadership, school
culture, staff attitudes and scale of change it becomes clear that each organization will
respond to change differently. One way for organizations to effect change is through a
process of double loop learning, (Argyris, 1977, 1982). This framework was developed
in the business world to increase organizational efficiency (Argyris, 1994 in Fontaine et
al. 2012) and is apt paradigm for schools given the values based approach.
The double loop learning model interrogates the deeply held norms and values of
organizations so that they become explicit subjects of discussion and revision. Norms are
developed and enacted intentionally, making old operating paradigms obsolete, (Tagg,
2007). Because long held beliefs could be questioned, it may be an uncomfortable
process for those preferring stability and predictability. Strong support from leaders is
necessary. When considering the potential for leadership loss of face, it might seem
inappropriate to propose this model in a highly power distant country. However, Fontaine
et al., (2012) argues from a Malaysian perspective that this is an appropriate way for
Islamic leaders to approach change because it is related to shura (discussion) and reflects
a moral obligation. He argues that Muslims should align their words, actions and works
within the transformational leadership framework that is taking shape in the Eastern
world, (Fontaine et al., 2012).
Having considered the challenges to change in Western and Eastern contexts, it is clear
that leaders, staff attitudes, school culture and the scope of change all play a part in

school reform but are mitigated by culture. Further, double loop learning may facilitate
the change process particularly when Muslim schools seek to change many aspects of
school at once.
2.3 Leadership for Learning
Leaders have an undeniable impact on the organizations they lead, (Day & Sammons,
2013; Ochieng & Price, 2009, Clutterbuck, 2007, Brett et al., 2006). While literature is
replete with adjectival forms of leadership including situational (Hershey, 1985),
instructional (Leithwood, 1999), transformational (Bass & Avilo, 1994), interpersonal
(Bush & Glover, 2003), authentic (Duignan & Bhindi, 1999) and blended (Coleman,
2011), to name a few, there is no one style for everyone, (Ghamrawi, 2013). Each
proposed framework is a set activities for leaders that may support their organization.
In times of change the need for strong leadership is even greater, (Akoyo & Konrad,
2012; Day & Sammons; 2013). Literature analyzing how to lead sustainable, internally
driven change, (as contrasted with managerially imposed change) has favored
transformational (Akoyo & Konrad, 2012) and instructional leadership (Leithwood,
1999), which blend into leadership for learning (Hallinger, 2011).
Transformational leadership is linked with double loop learning (Argyris, 2004 in

Fontaine, 2012) and is recommended for leaders who would like to enhance learning via
promoting a positive school environment. This is focused around building collaborative
teams embedded with sense or moral urgency about the power of their work, (Leithwood,
1992). Transformational leaders rally people around vision, and encourage team
processes to set directions such that optimism and energy prevail. They focus around
building school capacity for innovation, improvement and change, (Hallinger &
Leithwood, 1998).
Such leaders make assumptions about the nature of their team and its values. To be
effective, teachers must demonstrate high levels of professionality, (motivation and
commitment) (Evans, 1999). If this is not the case, transformational leadership might be

best used within the pressure and support model identified by Stoll & Fink (1996) for
effecting change in which a jolt can ignite the change process along with a program of
customized support that encourages, motivates, and rallies individuals around the
reforms. While this recommendation may align with a managerial approach, the overall
tone of relationships, team processes, and communication systems can override the
coercive approach to change and provide an initial catalyst in the face of resistant staff
who may not want to be transformed.
Open systems of communication are key to facilitating effective transformational

leadership. Structurally, a task culture (Handy and Aitken, 1990) would best support-
focused input coming from all levels. Decisions are made in a collaborative manner,
which works best when team members value the same process and time frame for
decision-making (Wright & Drewery, 2006) and see it as their right to contribute ideas to
the process. However, when team members have chosen ‘peace and pay’ (Quinn, 2006) it
takes a leader who can spark greater participation through modeling change then
expecting participation from all. Therefore, the effectiveness of transformational
leadership may be mitigated by team cohesion as well as culture, structure, teacher
professionality, and communication.
Instructional leadership has a focus on producing tangible improvement to student

outcomes. (Day & Sammons, 2013) It emphasizes the role of the principal (Hallinger,
2011) as a direct link between leadership and student attainment. Leaders with this focus
are visible as beacons of learning, model lifelong learning, monitor and evaluate the
teaching and learning in class rooms and provide professional development directly
linked to improved student outcomes.
Such a focus leaves out many aspects of organizational life, and operates on a different
set of principles. Implicit in this framework is the idea that leaders want to be visible as
leaders of learning and teachers within the school are inspired and motivated to do their
best. It also assumes students are motivated to learn. It further assumes a school wide
system of support to help teachers deal with behavioral challenges.

In reviewing the international literature, many recommendations emerge suggesting a
different prioritization of leader’s work to combine instructional and transformational
recommendations. There are six key factors at stake: team building; communicating;
inspiring and motivating; modeling authentic behavior, managing emotions, and leading
learning. Each will be reviewed in its own right, allowing for a deeper interrogation.
Leaders cannot improve schools alone, (Fullan, 2002; Kessler & Snodgrass, 2014) so
team building is a top priority. Building social and professional relationships provides a
platform for team development, (Joshi et al., 2009 & Day & Sammons, 2013). Setting
communication expectations and norms begins to build conditions for trust. This can
mitigate conflict and allow for innovation and risk taking, (Tschannen-Moran &
Tschannen-Moran, 2014; Day & Sammons, 2013; Spillane, 2006; Esquith, 2014;
Stephenson et al. 2012, 61; Strasser, 2014; Fullan, 2002; Ayoko & Konrad, 2012).
Clear and timely communications help facilitate leaders’ initiatives, (Klassen et al., 2010;
Strasser, 2014). Setting directions, relaying information, giving and receiving feedback,
both positive and negative, (Quinn, 1996; Kessler & Snodgrass, 2014; Stephenson et al.
2012, 61; Eisenbach, 2014) are critical communications leaders contribute, potentially
preventing the conditions for the negative aspects of micro-political activity conflict and
gossip to block leadership initiatives. (West, 1999; Najafbagy, 2008; Kessler &
Snodgrass, 2014) If these damaging dynamics are allowed to flourish, the positive
aspects of team building could be neutralized. Therefore, the interconnectedness of these
behaviors becomes clear and leaders may wish to consider using several of these
activities concurrently so that their collective impact increases.
Within the context of strong teams and clear communications, leaders would have
already taken two big steps towards motivating staff. Leaders can further enhance
motivation by creating a positive culture by having positive interactions with all staff,
developing a sense of urgency about school goals and using specific recognition
programs, (Ghamrawi, 2013; Klassen et al., 2010; Earl, et al., 2006; White, 2014).

While the first two points sit easily in a collective culture, the second two may be
inhibited by it. Considering the feminine values (Albon, 2009) and the recent acquisition
of professional work roles, leaders may not yet be able to demonstrate a passionate
(Davies, 2008) approach to leadership. In implementing a rewards program, culture
(Klassen et al., 2010; Esquith, 2014), specifically, collectivism and power distance may
impact how this happens. It may be most appropriate for leaders to strike a balance
between individual and group rewards in a multi national team.
Indeed, motivating can also involve alignment, or authenticity and is linked with bringing
about successful change, (Quinn, 1996; Argyris, 1977; Harris & Cullen, 2008). Leaders
must also strive to align words, actions and the school’s mission and vision, (Mulla &
Krishnan, 2012; Tschannen-Moran & Tschannen-Moran, 2014; Duignan & Bhindi,
1999). Resources must be allocated to match the espoused priorities of the school,
(Strasser, 2014). When leader behavior and resources all match the espoused school
values, teachers are more likely to follow the set example. This is where leaders would be
helped if they were able to engage on a passionate (Davies, 2008) level with their work,
and this may naturally emerge over time, in a culture that values achievement.
Alignment is further linked with leaders’ ability to convey appropriate work place
emotions. If leaders project reasonable responses to key school events, they are showing
authenticity, which can contribute to a positive school culture, (Ayoko & Konrad, 2012;
Crawford, 2009). Being positive about challenges, modeling hope and optimism promote
change process, (Tschannen-Moran & Tschannen-Moran, 2014; Ghamrawi, 2013;
Goodwin, 2014). Doing so can also help to mitigate stress for staff, (Klassen et al., 2010).
Collectivism and feminine values could help leaders, who may have close interpersonal
connections to key staff, making it easy for empathy and appropriate emotional displays
to occur naturally.
Leader may see this as a daunting list. However, complexity theory proposes the school
as a set of interrelated factors where each aspect of the system will fade in and out of
importance as events dictate, (Mason, 2008; Morrison, 2008). Therefore, leaders must

understand the individuals on their staff well enough to predict which behaviors will be
more important at any given time. To help leaders navigate the path of school
improvement amid constantly reconfiguring parts, a figurative astrolabe of sorts may
assist. A leadership astrolabe could help leaders ‘read’ their schools and help to
determine which set of leadership behavior best suits the ‘stars’ on their staff.
Although mitigated by many factors including individual staff motivation, commitment,

organizational structure, communication patterns, and cultural factors, it seems clear that
leadership for learning has a place for international leaders seeking to bring about change.
2.4 Introducing Constructivism in Classrooms
Constructivist learning is a popular in the West, and is used internationally in very

diverse cultures. In doing so, it poses challenges to traditional ways of learning.
Constructivism is an epistemology that suggests all knowledge is constructed in the mind
of the learner in response to experience. There are several variations of this idea,
(Airasian & Walsh, 1997) with two original branches, (Olsen, 1999). Piaget championed
developmental constructivism as an individual phenomenon, whereas Vygotsky
postulates social learning. These two viewpoints have the greatest bearing on Western
schools. Both approaches advocate an active approach with students directly engaged in
critical questioning, (Olsen, 1999; Perkins, 1999; Caine et al., 2002; Milbrandt et al.,
2004). Based on the idea of equality of all, teachers act as facilitators while students
question and test established ideas, (Palinscar, 1998).
Taking a critical discourse approach, (Taylor, 2004) the language associated with
constructivism signals several assumptions that may not transfer across cultures. The
lexicon itself suggests that it hinges on low power distance, critiquing, and equality. Not
all schools will operate within these assumptions, making implementation challenging
even in the west, (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). Nonetheless, many countries embrace it as a
recommendation. As such, the literature regarding the nature of constructivism is

reviewed with emphasis on the changing role of teachers and students and how it is
applied in other contexts.
In comparison with transmission teaching where teachers give subject knowledge to

students and which is often used synonymously with ‘rote’ and ‘reception’ learning,
constructivism requires a shift. Teachers must cede responsibility to students to build
understanding and to process information, (Carnell & Lodge, 2002). Consequently,
assessment, planning, and methods of instruction all change and require specialized
knowledge. Thus, teachers must build new competencies.
If teachers follow constructivism, the first step for individualized learning is assessing
student levels (Brookhart, 1999), then customizing experiences for each learner, (Brooks
& Brooks, 1999) To do this well, they need to feel connected to their students, (Split et
al., 2011). Such a personalized program is a radical departure and suggests that each
student will follow a different curriculum according to interests and strengths.
Collectivist culture students may feel overwhelmed in having to express different ideas
from their peers. Further, they may not feel empowered in the wider community to follow
up their interests, where they may exist, despite a teacher’s urging.
Assessment for learning is another hallmark of constructivism that sets it apart from rote
learning. This ongoing formative process eschews testing in the traditional sense and can
be done without student awareness and can prove to be a challenge at higher-grade levels
where assessments are gatekeepers to universities, (Bonner & Chen, 2009). Critics of
constructivism assert that allowing students to follow their own interests, without testing
will not properly prepare them for the future, (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). Proponents
counter that if teachers provide critical feedback against set learning outcomes, students
create a better future for themselves. Therefore, immediately useful feedback, (Brookhart,
2012) emerges as an important aspect of constructivism. This poses a challenge for
teachers who have not been trained in the specific methods associated with assessment
for learning, customizing education and providing feedback for improvement.

It is clear that there are many implications for the transition to constructivism for schools,
when considering the role of the teacher, the student and assessment, particularly in non-
Western contexts, where the same cultural underpinnings do not exist. Often, the
challenges related to implementation are unanticipated as educationalists champion their
view of the ‘best’ ways to teach.
In making the shift to constructivism, Khaled (2013) noted that teachers will feel a loss of
control. This helps explain teacher reticence to change, suggesting leaders seem have an
essential role in supporting changes. This assumes that leaders first understand what
constructivism is, and second want to have it in their schools. Neither seems likely in
contexts where it is a radical departure from the existing transmission model they have,
themselves experienced and potentially brings with it other management issues. Thus,
leadership may in fact emerge as a barrier in some places, as is the case in both Puerto
Rico and Nigeria. (Clarke et al. 2009; Thompson, 2013) Nigerian teachers wanted to
make changes but found themselves disempowered with minimal leadership support. In
Puerto Rico, leaders held much power but did not use it to encourage change. Rather,
they mandated change and remained distant from classrooms.
In summary, moving from transmission to construction of knowledge is challenging

regardless of context; however, the difficulty is compounded by culture. When
considering this shift from the perspective of teachers, there are implications for all
related to planning, assessment, and methods of instruction. Power distance, collectivism,
and history are the dimensions with mitigating influences for constructivism. Indeed,
power distance suggests that authentic leadership support for constructivism is necessary.
Historical context and religious values may prevent students from critiquing scholarship
and following one’s own interests. Collectivism could shift focus away from
individualized learning to a preference for whole group learning. Implicit in this shift of
roles is the notion that leaders, teachers and both understand and embrace the concept of
constructivism and are striving to it. Further challenges may emerge if they are not ready
to change.

Literature related to culture, change, leadership, and learning have all been considered in
the development of the three key research questions identified earlier which will now
become the focus of an in-depth study at ABAB school. This will shed light on the
process of secondary school reform in the UAE. So, through the eye of leaders, advisors
and teachers:
• How do leaders use transformational behaviors in their schools?

• How do leaders use instructional behaviors in their schools?
• How do teachers use constructivism in their classrooms?

Chapter 3: Methodological Design
The approach to the three fundamental research questions is a blend of relativist (Robson,
2011) and interpretive (Thomas, 2013) epistemologies. Therefore, it is a pragmatic
(Robson, 2011) mix aimed at creating a thick description (Geertz, 1973) of the complex
influences associated with change and culture in three aspects of a school: leadership,
culture, and learning. By exploring multiple perceptions, the goal of this project is to
shed light on the internal and external dimensions of reform. The result of this research is
a narrative mixed method case study focused on a single school (Bell, 2010) employing a
cross-sectional survey (Fogelman & Comber, 2007) of forty-one volunteer teachers and a
series of eleven interviews with leaders and advisors. It seeks to investigate the way
leading and learning have changed and been influenced by culture and will lead to
recommendations that may help the school improve by providing insights into teacher
and leader ideas.
ABAB School, the subject of this case study is a non-western school studied by a western
researcher, therefore aspects of intercultural research apply. This dynamic adds a series of
questions about research methods and the means of interpreting data that should be
clarified at the onset of the process. The purpose of this discussion is to examine what
potential pitfalls exist (Dimmock, 2007) along with the precautions used to maximize the
authenticity of the process, findings and recommendations.
There are ethical issues about causing harm to participants where language is a barrier to
understanding the interview or survey questions. The potential harm would be that ideas
are misrepresented or that participants may feel uncomfortable speaking English for a
long period of time. In the context of a semi-structured interview, the conversational
nature of the process allowed for the researcher to clarify. When speaking English for an
extended period of time, each interview was less than one hour and ended upon signaling
from the participant. Thus, care was taken throughout the process to guard against

unethical treatment of non native English speakers.
Further, language may not be the issue, rather, comprehension of globally used
educational terms could be a challenge given the different ways each participant might
understand them. (Shaw, 2004) To guard against this problem, the researcher used the
five-year-old lexicon of the ADEC reform and a school based translator to ensure Arabic
translation would contain familiar terms. Trusting insider relations (Dimmock, 2007) are
another way of guarding against harmful data interpretation, which this researcher has
with a long-term presence in the school. In interpreting data, Shaw cautions against
pushing similarities ‘to the background by perceived differences’ (Shah, 2004, 551)
suggesting disconfirmed expectancies (Helson, 1964) may take center stage in cross
cultural studies. To mitigate this tendency, she suggested an approach based on values of
individual, communal and social well being which the researcher has adopted. Thus, it
would seem that there are unique ethical issues to be considered with cross-cultural
research in relationship to preventing harm to participants.
In ADEC, as in other contexts, (Dimmock, 2007) there is a preference for quantitative

research, producing ‘truth’ as statistics. A positivist approach of this nature has been
rejected for the purposes of this research. Statistically generated facts do not get at
participant intentions, experiences and understandings, which are naturally varied given
their diverse nationalities and professional experiences. Intentions and perceptions are
often linked with inner values and norms that are usually not articulated clearly.
Therefore it is not appropriate for a researcher of another culture to attempt to interpret
the actions and behaviors of those from an indigenous culture based only on statistical
data.
In embracing a more subjective way of exploring experience and meaning, the kinds of
questions asked here may have seemed strange to those accustomed to seeking factual
evidence. This seems particularly likely given the cultural nature of knowledge as facts to
be received. To increase the acceptability of this research in its context, mixed methods
are employed and a quantitative survey to explore opinions to be compared with

subjective meanings unveiled in interviews.
Despite the dilemmas of cross cultural research, including divergent research preferences,
ethical issues related to causing harm and possible misinterpretations of data, care and
respect guided the research process to minimize cross cultural mismatches. In many
cases, the presence of a researcher can have a palpable impact, sometimes called
experimenter-expectancy effects (Thomas, 2013, pg. 141), on the context being studied
and this can skew results, (Busher & James, 2007). Here, the presence of the researcher
in the school is long term, and this prolonged involvement in ABAB School has lead to
an optimistic bias of the possibilities for successful reform, (Robson, 2011, p. 157). To
mitigate this influence, data collection tools were designed with neutral wording. (See
Appendixes A, B & C)
Once data had been collected, the researcher applied the process of interpretive inquiry in
a contextually sensitive way that influenced how findings would be presented. Such
inquiry seeks to conduct research collaboratively and is done with, rather than done to an
organization, (Savin-Baden, 2004). Because it values perceptions and experiences and
allows for complexity to emerge, it may be an ethical way to respond to the potential
problems of misunderstandings linked to culture. Interpretive inquiry allows participants
to work with the researcher to construct meaning and requires trust to be effective. Thus
it links in with the essential conditions for conducting ethical intercultural research.
There are three stances suggested in using this approach, not all of which are realistic in
the context of ABAB School. The roles of researcher and sympathizer best fit the project
and will be used. The role of co-inquirer requires too heavy a bureaucratic burden to be
realistic for participants in this project, therefore it will not be used in this case. In these
identities, the researcher is asking questions to colleagues about their individual
experiences and perceptions to make sense of and understand the multidimensionality of
a shared experience. The third identity of a co-inquirer implies that the research is done
collaboratively, beyond the conversational aspect of an unstructured interview. It requires
co-analysis of findings, which would add a heavy time burden (Thomas, 2013, p. 41)

onto participants making it unrealistic considering language barriers. Therefore, this role
will not be used.
Consequently, the researcher will impact the process in various ways, firstly, as an
expatriate from a western country, there are ethical issues related to cross cultural
research. Additionally, the researcher exerts influence in the way the study is structured,
carried out and interpreted via their own biases. Further ethical issues related to
confidentiality, reliability and validity also require consideration.
Confidentiality is a key concern in this research for interviewees as they may reveal some
uncomfortable inconsistencies within the school, (Bell, 2010, p. 50). Interviewees were
quite concerned that their names and identities would not be discoverable in the reporting
process. Therefore, rather than making the biographies and the researchers’ subsequent
reflections on them a transparent part of the reporting process, that information is
necessarily omitted.
Participants for the interviews included two members of the senior leadership team
(Shamsa and Hind), one middle leader (Michelle), two EMTs (Jen and Mary), two AMTs
(Reem and Fatima), and four external advisors to the school (Vanessa, Marie, Emily and
Charloette). Charloette spoke mainly about leader training, which did not relate to the
study at hand, therefore her contributions are reserved for future studies. Pseudonyms
have been given to help develop the narrative structure and make it easier for the reader
to follow each participant’s contribution. Including any further personal data such as
position titles and countries of origin could be enough to compromise confidentiality and
has therefore not been included. Surveys were likewise designed to preserve anonymity
(Bell, 2010, p 49) and confidentiality and did not seek to categorize responses in terms of
specific nationality or subject taught. However, a natural distinction occurs between
Arabic and English speakers throughout the research and is visible in the findings
through the speech patterns each participant uses.

Validity is the notion that the findings are ‘true,’ despite the contested nature of truth,
(Robson, 2011, 156). For interpretive case studies, it is not the intention to produce
absolute findings, (Thomas, 2011, p 134). However, overall validity can be increased by
via data triangulation (Denzin, 1988 in Robson, 2011, p 158) that occurs throughout the
presentation of findings by blending the results of the survey and the interviews
according to theme. A further way to increase validity is by making the influence of the
researcher explicit through clearly delineating the research process and methods. In this
research, a key threat to validity is instrument invalidity, (Thomas, 2011, 140). Using a
bilingual survey and interview schedule, there are possible threats because the researcher
cannot be sure of the correctness of the translation. This has been addressed through the
use of a trusted in school colleague as a translator.
Reliability is the concept that the research can be replicated with similar results, (Bush,
2007, p. 92). Given the concept of change and reform as the context of the study, it would
be unrealistic to expect perceptions and understandings expressed to remain static. In
fact, it would be a potential sign of successful reform if subsequent results from a
repeated study showed stronger understanding of the principles being considered. There
is further difficulty to applying the concept of reliability to this research as the interviews
are semi structured and give equal importance to the narrative the participant wishes to
tell as to the questions the researcher would like answered, (Bush, 2007, p. 95). However,
to enhance overall reliability interviews were conducted so that for each position, two
individuals gave their views so it becomes possible to analyze data for consistency. This
means of increasing reliability provided a way for the researcher to further triangulate
findings, (Ribbins, 2007, p. 208).
On the basis of this consideration of confidentiality, reliability and validity, two main
data collection tools were employed: survey and targeted interviews. A four section cross
sectional survey had ten questions in each category. A group of willing English-speaking
teachers who commented on the clarity and implications of each item piloted surveys.
Surveys were then revised in accordance with feedback. Each response was a Likert
rating scale with a neutral response possible. This option was included because often

times, there are ideas in development or in flux that may make rating an item as either
agree or disagree would not get at how the participant feels at the moment. Nevertheless,
some researchers argue that it is best not to have neutral responses on the grounds that
this can be a safe way of hiding feelings that might otherwise be forced out into the open.
In each section, there was an open comment box inviting participants to comment on that
category broadly. Comments written into the survey were anonymous and were translated
into English using an external source, to preserve anonymity. However, only three
participants elected to add ideas using this section.
Sixty-three teachers are employed at ABAB School and all were invited to participate in
the survey process, making this a convenience sample of willing participants, (Thomas,
2013, 136). After a briefing on ethical issues including confidentiality and anonymity,
and signing an informed consent letter (Appendix B) (Busher & James, 2007) explaining
the purposes and potential benefits of the study as well as possible risks, forty-one
teachers returned the survey for analysis. Eight EMT teachers were eligible to participate,
as they did not have a dual role as either the researcher or middle leader, and all elected
to complete the survey. Therefore sixty five percent of teachers completed the survey.
Surveys were completed anonymously, and comments in Arabic were translated using an
external source. Confidentiality was assured, but surveys were done in a group setting
where teachers were working in close proximity to one another and might have been able
to see each other’s responses. This might have lead to data skewing in that participants
would have sought to self-report desirable behaviors, (Thomas, 2013). It might be even
further compounded in a communal culture where sameness is valued over individuality.
Survey results were tabulated using excel and findings were sorted into three categories:
areas of strength, middle areas and areas for improvement. Given the collective nature of
the culture, the emphasis on achievement and the meaning attached to ‘marks’ it was
wondered if AMT teachers who comprise 80% of the participants would feel confident
selecting disagree or strongly disagree. Therefore, the way results were interpreted
attempts to counterbalance a positive skew by categorizing areas of strength. Areas for
improvement are indicated by questions that received less than 50% positive responses.

Middle areas are those with response rates between 50-70% and areas of strength were
considered any fields that received higher than 70% positive response.
Interviews were semi structured and were varied in the amount of time available to each
participant. In developing interview questions, the same language concerns were present
when developing questions for AMTs and Arabic speaking leaders. Questions were given
in both English and Arabic in advance of the interviews, giving all time to reflect on the
questions in advance. The goal for the interview questions was to develop an in-depth
portrait of the school adding dimensionality to the survey responses around the categories
of the school ethos, and the role of leadership, learning, and professional development.
Initially, the research design was to survey teachers about their ideas and interview only
school leaders for the purpose of triangulation. However, interview data from school
leaders did not paint a complete picture of the school experience and seemed inadequate.
Therefore, interviews were broadened to include ADEC advisors who added another
layer of leadership perspectives. By including these voices, it was more possible to
triangulate findings from leadership interviews. Later, when complexity at the leadership
level began to emerge, the experience of teachers themselves seemed incomplete,
therefore, four teachers were invited to participate as interviewees. Thus, a purposive
sampling process was used, (Thomas, 2013, 137). It was not possible to invite all 63
teachers to give their perspectives, so AMT’s were selected based on two factors. First,
their length of time at the school was considered. Preference was given to those teachers
who have been at the school for at least five years and were able to comment on changes
they have seen from the start of the reform. Secondly, English language proficiency was a
further criterion. For English staff, everyone was invited to participate, and two teachers
volunteered.
Transcribing each interview was straightforward for English speakers. Their interviews
were recorded, and then transcribed by the researcher. A typed transcript was provided to
each participant for editing with a two-week window for return. For non-native English
speakers, transcription was more challenging where grammatical errors in spoken English

marred meaning. When the speaker was able to make their intention and meaning clear
even through there were grammatical errors, their words were not altered. However, if
meaning was unclear to an external source because such errors obscured meaning,
grammar was corrected to clarify the statement. Where this has happened the researcher
makes it clear in the reporting of the findings. These choices were made to allow external
readers to experience the voices of those involved in the project, as they are experienced
in the school. This preserves authenticity and allows the reader to more clearly imagine
the participants in the school setting.

Chapter 4: Findings and Discussion
The ADEC reform focuses on changes to leadership to complement the main goal of
transitioning teaching from memorization to constructing meaning. EMTs and advisors
joined schools en masse in 2009 to facilitate this, substantially shifting school life.
Therefore, data analysis will use that as a starting point to inquire into the nature and
depth of change to leading and learning. Findings will be presented in a narrative
structure to allow themes of culture and change to emerge.
4.1 Leadership for Learning in ABAB school
As a communal culture, it is not surprising that one of the first areas of focus at ABAB
school was an emphasis on team building. Staff at ABAB school welcomed EMTs with
animosity and distrust. Advisor Vanessa cited cultural and religious reasons for an
immediate rejection of EMTs. Shamsa, a member of the senior management team, told a
story, illustrating the need for team building in the face of an adoptive change (Hopkins,
2002) with inadequate planning; the school community responding negatively to having
surprises foisted upon them, (Morrison, 1998):
Parents become upset (Emphasis in original transcription) (Laughter) students

become upset (laughter). I was crazy with all of that, everybody was upset!
Teachers became upset! The community was asking why they are coming here.
Parents were coming all the time asking me why they brought foreign teachers.
Why, why why, why, why they bring these teachers. What’s this new vision from
ADEC, no, I don’t want this change!
Vanessa recalled how little planning went into implementing the EMT program,
commenting that it was only when EMTs had already arrived that school readiness for
change was considered. Planning at the ADEC level could have helped to prepare the
community to welcome these new teachers, although, consistent with high power

distance countries, this plan was kept secret, possibly to prevent the community from
using shura to attempt to block the implementation.
When EMTs arrived, many principals encouraged the development of social relations
between AMTs and EMTs. Shamsa could relate the difficulty AMTs had given some had
never worked with foreigners; it was new for her as well. In setting this as a focus, her
actions fall under the first stages of team formation, (Clutterbuck, 2007).
School leader Hind confirmed that team functioning is integral to the school, however,
advisor Marie recalled that at first, these team processes were not so simple and were in
fact structured and mandated by ADEC. While the larger UAE culture is communal, one
might think this would lead naturally to a collegial school setting, however, there was
limited collaboration around teaching. Michelle, a middle leader in the school, recalled
AMTs focused on social relations and today this is a very different because collaboration
across departments is happening for teachers and students mutual benefit. Hind noted that
it is students who are asking for teacher collaboration. Advisor Marie added collaboration
‘is part of the annual teacher appraisal,’ suggesting a link with Vogt’s (2002) description
of coercive teamwork.
Survey results indicated that ABAB school does well and is strong in team building
within each department, (75% positive); and building interdepartmental connections
(78% positive). However, Jen and Mary, both EMTs, both commented on language
barriers, as a hurdle to committee effectiveness while Mary perceived distrust as a further
hindrance. Interestingly, Mary noticed that on her committee, many of her suggestions
are seemingly for the purpose of putting ideas on paper, not actually for implementation.
This suggests there are perhaps some issues with contrived collegiality (Hargreaves,
1997), and authenticity around the purpose and functioning of these teams. AMTs Reem
and Fatima were less critical saying that they value time working together.
Considering the evidence from interviews and survey data, team building is an area that
has worked well, despite a rigid policy mandate, making it an example of success due to

leadership support. While there are still some improvements that could be made to
current interdepartmental team functioning such as holding bi-lingual meetings and
putting new ideas into practice, this is an area of strength for ABAB School. Given that
EMTs already had a five year presence in ABAB school, it is surprising that language
barriers have not been addressed. This may indicate that AMTs are responding to change
with resistance (Fidler, 2002) probably because they are skeptical about how EMTs affect
their status at school, fear loss of control, (Morrison, 1998) and experience job insecurity.
Cultural aspects of power distance may mitigate school leaders ability to develop warm
social relations with teachers whose social standing is lower than theirs, explaining the
relatively low percentage of teachers rating their relationship with school leaders as good
(60%). As such, Mary reported having a good relationship with school leaders, but
questioned the utility saying she has no real power to voice her opinions. Fatima, an
AMT, was happy and felt school leaders communicate regularly. Reem, also an AMT,
characterized her relationship with leaders as ‘based on love, respect, cooperation and
appreciation,’ echoing the traditional close relationships that formed a cornerstone of
Islamic education prior to the 1900s in Egypt. Shamsa, a senior leader, prioritized
maintaining relationships, however, in the diverse responses from AMTs and EMTs it not
consistent across the school, possibly signaling bureaucratic approach to power structure
and leadership preferences, (Bush, 2003). Middle leader Michelle speculated that school
leaders inadvertently foster an isolationist attitude towards EMTs through their
communication systems, which she felt destabilized the relationships Shamsa is trying to
build. Therefore, formal adherence to power roles related to decision-making is a barrier
to effective team processes as experienced through committee functioning.
Survey results revealed only 46% of teachers rated the communication of information as
effective. Issues of language and timing are possible reasons for this relatively low rating,
making it an area school leaders might wish to improve. A group consisting of a middle
leader, two EMTs and one external advisor, all cited it as a barrier to their performances;
describing communication as unpredictable, last minute or chaotic. However, without
language and cultural barriers, AMTs did not report communication problems.

Nonetheless with a 46% success rate, there are those who clearly felt there is room for
improvement. If communications are left in this way, harmful micro-politics may emerge,
(West, 1999).
When asked what the school values, there was not one unified response, signaling that
values are not clearly articulated for all staff. EMTs used words like ‘traditional’, ‘social
standing’, ‘competition’, ‘appearances’ and ‘perfection’ to describe what they think the
school values. AMTs understand school values to be centered on creating a positive
environment for learning and to improve student outcomes while maintaining high marks
for students. School leaders talk about care, responsibility and success in terms of
rankings on league tables. Survey findings indicated that 73% of teachers feel they
participated in activities related to the school mission vision and values, but only 48% felt
that these activities contributed to advancing the values and vision. Thus, an interesting
dimension of authenticity emerges as a possible need for improvement. EMTs
commented on the gap between words and action consistently throughout the interviews
claiming that their ideas are put on paper, and that activities are done ‘to check off boxes’
rather than to really engage in the higher purpose of the activity. Similar to research from
Australia (Mulford et al., 2001), decision making in ABAB school seems linked to an
individual’s status in the organizational hierarchy, with leaders attempting to develop
collegiality but inefficiency in meeting structures gives teachers the sense of wasting
time. As such, ABAB’s school culture is much like a Handy & Aitken’s (1990) club
culture.
From her middle leader perspective, Michelle commented on this saying school values
are currently in flux and recognized that there seems to be one set of values for the EMTs
and one for AMTs. For instance, Fatima saw the school acting as a family, where Jen saw
it as a chaotic jungle, (Fidler, 2002). This disjuncture may be a result of language
barriers, compounded by a further assumption that EMTs are here in a transactional way
to perform without need for leadership.

Advisors, EMTs and AMTs all agreed that feedback could improve. According to the
teacher survey, only 46% of teachers receive feedback related to their performance.
Advisors commented that feedback is not easy for leaders to give and is offered yearly in
a performance evaluation report per ADEC requirements. Marie commented that this
leads to resentment for teachers who feel their work is not appreciated. Mary only
received feedback from students and Jen was unclear about how her evaluation is
completed, assuming it is done based on reputation. Fatima recalled receiving feedback in
2009, but has not has any since then. Reem however reported hearing positive feedback
on a regular basis. Communication of information, values and feedback are all areas that
could be improved in ABAB School.
The survey instrument touched on several aspects related to motivation. Findings

revealed just over half of the survey participants felt that the school is a positive working
environment (53%) and their work is appreciated (53%). Most teachers (75% ) felt the
school celebrates its successes. Accordingly, seventy-three percent of teachers are
motivated to do their best. EMT Mary’s motivation is student driven while all other
teacher interviewees self-reported high levels of internal motivation. Yet, an external
advisor, Marie, commented that blame is communicated more frequently than praise,
raising the question of how leaders seek to motivate staff. None of the leaders were able
to comment on this aspect. This suggests a focus on harder HRM management styles. As
a consequence, internally motivated teaches may experience depressive guilt
(Hargreaves, 1994) resulting from high expectations, low levels of support and
reinforcement, and challenging work conditions if they perceive they are not effective in
meeting reform goals.
Considering elements key to transformational leadership such as team building, creating

social relations, communicating values and feedback, and motivating, ABAB School has
a clear focus on team building, which has developed under challenging circumstances.
Communication of values and feedback, as well as motivating teachers, are areas which
leaders need to develop to get the best performance out of their staff. There may be
cultural dimensions that prevent school leaders from fully embracing those aspects of

leadership, despite the fact that there are those who seek to discount it’s influence.
Communication is often linked to power and leaders may not feel they need to
communicate with those lower on the social hierarchy. Feedback may fall into this same
category, and Marie spoke of a cultural bias against communicating negative information.
Motivating may be linked to the transactional way teachers are viewed, implying that
they should not need leadership to motivate them.
Prior to the ADEC reform, Vanessa, as an advisor, commented that Emirati leaders
generally possessed a certain skill set including working with the community and
scheduling.
But those instructional leadership skills, like doing observations and giving
teachers feedback, and being an active participant in the daily running of the
school, that’s new for them.
Her colleague, Emily confirmed this, characterizing traditional skills as ‘managerial’.

Speaking of the ADEC vision, she wanted to see ‘principals step up and take the lead and
be recognized by his or her peers as the main instructional force in that school.’
It would seem that instructional leaders should make their performance expectations clear
for teachers and students so that people know how to behave in school. As a middle
leader, Michelle spoke well of Shamsa as ‘developing clearer expectations of what she
wants with each year.’ Survey responses show 43% of teachers know the school leaders
have high expectations of them. AMT Fatima stated, ‘they expect everything!’ she went
on to say the she must not cause problems, making it important to have strong relations
with students so that administrative support is unnecessary. Jen echoed these two
priorities while Mary, her EMT colleague, remarked that school expectations have never
been made explicit to her.
Monitoring student learning is another important job for leaders. Mary indicated leaders
seek student feedback about her performance. Survey results confirm this showing 58%
of teachers know leaders are evaluating their work in class via students. Both interviewed

members of the senior leadership team commented on this. Hind talked about the
empowering effect this has for students. Shamsa was quick to say that she ‘knows
everything’ in her school. However, EMTs disliked the lack of transparency in this
process.
Implicit in the approach to instructional leadership is support for teachers in the face of
challenges with students. In ABAB School, 46% of teachers felt they would be supported
in this circumstance. Interestingly, this item had the most disagree responses (39%) of
any item on the survey. Consistent with being a more conservative institution, these
findings suggest leaders hesitate to admit to having problems in their school. Tellingly,
both an AMT and EMT confirmed this, but Jen and Fatima agreed that ultimately leaders
will assist when needed. Another EMT, Mary, offered this cultural vignette:
When I have called a meeting for a student and there’s a problem, I find it
awkward because I will be the only non-Arabic speaker in the room. I only get
relayed back to me what they choose to offer me and I’m the one facilitating that
meeting so it can be really frustrating.
This indicates are area of development for ABAB school where leaders may wish to
clarify what they can and will do to support teachers as well as to re-visit how they
apportion blame to those that seek assistance.
4.2 Constructivism in ABAB Classrooms
Considering constructivist teaching is a radical departure from traditional Islamic

learning, the next section of findings will investigate how leaders and teachers are
responding to this change. Overtly, our senior leaders, Hind and Shamsa, both supported
constructivist teaching. Hind was more enthusiastic in her support which is evident in her
use of ‘mash’ Allah’, the Arabic word to ascribe credit to Allah:

Yes, I can see this when I observe classes. I see the students mash’allah, the
change is very clear. There is discussion and participation with the students. I see
the students doing big projects and can show and develop their talents. We can
see students become excited in class.
Shamsa’s support for ‘modern’ teaching methods, as Fatima called them, is less sure. She
spoke first of the mismatch between teaching methods and examination skills. However,
given the tenacity of the traditional and automatic cultural skepticism towards Western
influence (Yousef, 2012), it is not surprising then to find that only 48% of teachers
agreed that leaders value constructivist practices, felt supported (48%) and focus on
student improvement (43%). As a case in point, EMTs Jen and Mary both use
transmission model lessons for formal observations suggesting constructivism has not
taken deep root in ABAB school. Fatima picked up on the split saying, ‘You know, they
believe in this way. They believe in it and they encourage it. But we have a lot of
opposing things that doesn’t (sic) help you.’
This would indicate that from a teacher perspective there is a sense of verbal support for
the core change of the ADEC reform, but double loop learning has not taken place in the
minds of key school leaders. It leads on to the next section of findings which will report
on the extent to which teachers report using constructivist teaching methods and will seek
explore how teaching has changed.
Prior to the reform, teaching and learning was packaged into a model lesson based on
memorization of a centrally determined bite of knowledge. Advisor Vanessa suggested
that when constructivism came in with EMTs it opened Pandora’s box, letting new
energy flow into the school environment. She commented from a principal’s perspective
on the four major influences that are critical to manage in trying to reign in these forces:
You had teachers trying to teach in a student centered manner, students who are
used to rote instruction, students are going wild, behavior management is a
disaster, and you’ve never dealt with that so you don’t know how to help the

classroom teacher, or help the students, or help the parents who are complaining
because there’s no classroom management and the students aren’t learning
anything.
Teachers, students, leaders and parents are all major parts in the change process. The role
of leadership has already been considered, now changes to teaching and learning will be
reported from teacher, students and parental perspectives. Findings reported here are
naturally the result of those willing to participate in this study. Less than twenty percent
of teachers opted out of the process, raising questions about their reasoning. Those who
have returned the survey are likely those with higher levels of professionality as there
was some level of bureaucratic burden associated with the process of filling out another
form. Thus one may wonder if participants represent a more open minded and willing
contingent of teachers, which would potentially be reflected in their responses.
Survey results show that many teachers are in the process of making the shift to
constructivism and blend elements of rote and constructivist methods. The first 5 items
on the teaching section of the survey measured how frequently teachers use rote methods.
The next seven items asked how often teachers use constructivist practices. Nearly all
teachers (92%) felt it is their job to deliver a specific body of knowledge to students.
Historically, teachers only used a small textbook as the main tool for teaching; for most
(63%) this has not changed. Many (63%) of teachers feel their responsibility is to ensure
students get high marks on these exams, making the text book important to achieving this
goal. The same group (63%) of teachers uses mostly summative assessments throughout
the term to report student progress. Memorization seemingly forms a relatively small
portion of learning time with 39% of teachers self-reporting that they encourage students
to memorize lessons.
Moving into constructivist practices, teachers reported that they have transitioned beyond
being just a source of knowledge with 92% agreeing that they welcome students to ask
questions they can’t answer. This would be a significant departure from rote teaching,
and as such, it needs to be qualified as a possible case of the researcher’s impact

compounded by collective culture, recalling that the survey was done in a large group
setting, making it a semi-public affair. Regardless, AMTs do seem to have moved away
from rote methods of instruction. A large majority of respondents (82%) reported
facilitating group work and displaying student work. Nearly all teachers (90%) claimed to
give feedback for the purpose of skill building and reported knowing student strengths
and weaknesses (95%) Almost all teachers (90%) said they encouraged students to
develop their strengths beyond the curriculum.
Despite the apparent embrace of constructivist teaching, Michelle, the middle leader
interviewed, has observed that students still experience quite a lot of pressure to
memorize texts. Fatima and Reem, both AMTs, said they used constructivist lessons
about once or twice a week because they felt unable to manage so much individualized
learning. Fatima commented on the need to balance between the old and new ways.
AMTs have been slow to make changes, according to Marie from her perspective as an
external advisor.
Students in ABAB school now experience a more active, individualized learning

program. However, EMTs Jen and Mary have found far from all students respect
constructivist lessons, possibly given they must now engage differently in learning and
are far more responsible for their own success. For them, this move may lead to similar
uncertainty and loss of control, (Morrison, 1998). Fatima disagreed saying her students
enjoyed her constructivist lessons more, noting their increased confidence.
For Michelle, there is a connection between the student’s personalities and how well they
are able to benefit from constructivism. She has found that more traditional students are
likely to reject student centered learning and display disruptive behavior in those kinds of
classes. The implication here is that if students are more progressive in their own
thinking, and less concerned with tradition in general, they are more likely to engage with
the constructivist process and learn from these lessons. Mary and Jen agreed commenting
that there is a religious aspect at play. They reported more traditional students prefer to

memorize lessons, linking in with the tension that accompanies bringing Western
concepts into an Arab school, (Yousef, 2012).
The same need emerges when considering the parental response to this change. All of the
AMTs and EMTs interviewed observed that parents do not fully understand or support
changes to the way learning happens. Fatima connected having an ‘open mind’ as a
prerequisite for support for change, linking this comment with those of middle leader
Michelle’s about students personality mitigating their understanding and support for new
teaching methods. So, it seems that parents, teachers, leaders, and students alike display
similar responses to change. Many Teachers, fearing their jobs, have responded to change
almost as Fidler’s luddites, Students, showing ambivalence and skepticism most likely
are fearful of failure, having to learn in a new way, Fidler, 2002; Morrison, 1998).
Parents, with a focus on achievement, need to become clear about the benefits of this
change (Morrison, 1998) so that they can potentially become cooperative, (Fidler, 2002).
Consequently, main challenge remains in helping leaders, teachers, parents and students
to understand and engage in a new kind of learning.
Having considered the perspectives of the four major constituent views that can support
or hinder the change process in ABAB school, it becomes clear that an active approach to
teacher training has facilitated a major shift, so that most teachers are now using a blend
of rote and constructivist practices. This would naturally vary from teacher to teacher,
and may be informed by the degree of curriculum freedom, time, and teacher comfort
level with constructivist strategies. Most teachers have strong behavior management
systems and make learning explicit for students in the context of any lesson. Parental
reaction remains in control of leaders who manage parental relations. Leadership support
for constructivism remains less deeply rooted due to the importance of league table
ranking, therefore mitigating the extent to which teachers will embrace the reform
agenda.

4.3 Leading Change in ABAB School
Given these conclusions, the next section of findings will inquire into how changes have
happened considering the voice of Marie. Her words are self reported and those who
would be in a position to deny or confirm are no longer within the organization.
Marie was the advisor in charge of making change happen in the English department with
AMTs of English at ABAB School starting in 2009. She recalled the initial resistance
from AMTs as they made it clear to her that she was part of a passing educational trend,
and they would outlast her. Her approach to training at first was that of a traditional
instructor, using a more coercive approach leading to resistance. AMTs did not attend or
appear to pay attention to the professional development and showed a callous attitude
toward her feedback. Reflecting on this problem, Marie switched to an individualized
approach to match teacher’s needs. Using a blend of pressure and support, she modeled
lessons then conducted observations. Although her strategy included elements of
coercion, this seemed necessary given that more transformational strategies including
developing strong relations, rallying around vision, authenticity, regular communication
and specific praise did not work. At this early stage in the reform, AMTs who at that
stage often appeared to behave as luddites or resisters (Fidler, 2002) left no real option
for implementing mandated change. It was simply not possible to adjust the reform
standards; only the approach to implementation could be adjusted.
Marie’s experience highlights the importance of understanding individual and

organizational responses to change and the way culture may amplify these. In her case,
transformational behaviors were necessarily blended with managerial change strategies in
an effort to spark change and move past resistance. Her efforts have largely been
successful due to the continued use of transformational behaviors, particularly an
enduring emphasis on social relationships, which she has used as a gateway to
professional development for AMTs.

Chapter 5: Conclusion & Recommendations
Leadership for learning and constructivism do not fit easily into the UAE context. There
is relatively little synchronicity between the countries of origin and the country of
application in terms of culture, history, national priorities and religious values, mitigating
their applicability. However, where UAE values do match up with the spirit of these
western concepts, the ideas prove useful and helpful in effecting change in schools. This
value match happens where collectivism supports relationship and team building, and can
really help in rallying staff around a common goal. However, the same collective value
flies in the face of the individualism implicit in constructivist learning. Power distance
often prevents leaders from making change and using leadership for learning activities,
but this could also be their biggest tool in effecting change, if they are authentically
interested in taking constructivism forward in their school.
While eschewing and only too aware of the dangers of stereotyping, applying cultural
preferences may assist in predicting how people may respond in particular circumstances,
making some generalizations possible, but not binding. In light of this, even the concepts
of how to effect change should be called into question when traveling to the UAE, as
many change models make assumptions about the nature of power and communication
which have bearing on how organizations will conduct change initiatives. Middle Eastern
countries generally have high power distances, where strong leaders may not wish to be
transparent in the way they operate, making norm interrogation and open communication
systems unlikely to occur. However, where there is a strong professional development
program for leaders along with a model of pressure and support coming from a higher
level of power change can happen.
In considering the position of ABAB school, 7 specific recommendations have been

developed to address the challenges it experiences in embracing change, building whole

school cohesion, increasing communication, motivating, developing behavior policy and
parental communication. These recommendations, which emerge and are extrapolated
from the research findings, have been designed to address issues at leadership, teacher,
student and parent levels. They center on leadership action given the high power distance
of the context and the need for leaders to be visible champions of the change process. If
followed, the school would likely be able to embrace more fully constructivist teaching
and take a further step from dependence on transmission teaching. Each recommendation
will be considered before moving to self –reflection on the efficacy of the research
process and a future research agenda.
1. Leaders should model being a change agent by conducting a confidential school self
assessment process.
Advisor Emily argues that significant change takes at least 5 years at the secondary
school level and begins with effectively identifying problems or areas in need of major
development. It would provide a strong signal to teachers if leaders began a confidential
school assessment process. To do so, they may wish to solicit feedback in a manner
similar to 360 degree feedback making the focus the school values rather than their own
behavior. Anonymous, carefully worded surveys could be designed to seek teacher,
parent, and student input into school strengths and weaknesses. In guaranteeing
anonymity, leaders would signal an earnest desire to understand and confront challenges
in a positive manner, gathering support for change. As results emerge, leaders may wish
to convene existing committees around generating solutions that lead to action. This kind
of modeling could be a powerful catalyst for bringing about real changes at all levels of
school functioning.
2. Leaders and teachers should work together to build bilingual teams. This will build a
working culture more conducive to change.
Fostering effective multicultural teams starts with articulating the team’s values and
vision for how they work together and define success. This may be accomplished via a

series of informal off site meetings that are inspirational in tone where the values and
vision of the school are clarified. Doing this in a constructivist fashion where teachers are
grouped across departments and given a range of tasks, would serve several purposes
aside from articulating the values and vision. First, it would encourage communication
and break down some of the feelings of isolation EMTs experience. It could engender
support for new teaching practices by showing school leaders indeed use these methods
themselves, beginning to align words and action around support for constructivist
teaching. If the tone is appropriately informal, leaders could also focus on building social
relations with all staff, which may positively enhance the school environment.
3. Leaders at all levels should develop a regular communication system updating teachers
on news and policies while offering specific recognition for teachers and students.
Regular bilingual communication would illuminate school policies, changes, and

successful practice. This could be a newsletter or other means of transmitting
information. In addition to news, if praise for teacher achievement was included, it could
act as a motivator and a signal to teachers that their work is noticed. This could
potentially help to break down the isolation of EMTs because everyone would have the
same information at the same time and the same chance for recognition.
4. Leaders should make monitoring student and teacher progress a transparent process by
being in classes regularly and offering timely feedback that focuses on praise and
improvement.
In implementing a transparent monitoring program, leaders will also align their words
and action around support for constructivism if their feedback shows preference for these
teaching strategies.
5. Leaders should engage teachers in the appreciative inquiry process via short follow
conferences after regular classroom visits.

In addition to offering feedback to teachers as in the above recommendation, it could be
useful for leaders to engage teachers in a discussion about their choices for observed
lessons. This could be envisioned as a learning conversation (Stone et al., 1999) where
the purpose is for teachers to explain their intentions and self reflect on strengths and
limitations in their own lessons. In doing so, leaders could begin to show greater
engagement with the instructional process, taking a further step toward being a leader of
learning and have insight into teachers thought processes, allowing them to tailor support
to each one.
6. The school should develop and implement a consistently enforced school wide student
behavior management plan.
Doing so with teacher input in a bilingual environment, could build teacher motivation. A
possible way to accomplish this would be to engage teachers during a quiet time of year
in an onsite workshop that is announced well in advance so that all shareholders could be
well prepared with ideas to contribute. Together, the school can clarify what teachers will
be expected to do for behavior management and what the school will do if these measures
are ineffective. To generate school wide support, students and parents could be involved
in the process.
7. Leaders and teachers should manage parental communications to promote greater

community support.
Leaders could signal trust in teachers if parental communications for both positive and
negative news was more regular. ABAB parents may feel distant from the school given
that most often they interact with the school in relationship to marks and in the case of a
problem. Promoting positive communication of student successes directly from teachers
could be one way to build this bridge. If parents begin to build relationships with
teachers, if could help to generate support for changes to learning and help in the case of

a problem. To begin, leaders could invite parents to the school for classroom tours or
informal after-hours opportunities to socialize with teachers and students.
The recommendations above represent the outcomes of a study of relevant literature

viewed through the prism of the UAE experience and original research conducted in one
specific school, ABAB. As such, they are not directly transferable to other institutions,
although they might be relatable to those facing similar challenges. Indeed, in the future,
if a similar study were repeated throughout ADEC secondary schools, not only would the
reliability of the study be strengthened, but also findings from other schools could help
ADEC to understand how to strengthen reform implementation and expedite
improvement.
This study has been engaging, informative and revealing. Yet there were several
challenges that would be handled differently were it to be repeated or a new one begun.
First, a more narrow scope of inquiry would need to be adhered to from the onset. This
research began by attempting to include views on professional development to
complement the needs of the reform. However, throughout the process, that section
proved to be one thing too many to manage, and as a result, some participant time was
wasted in conducting interviews about professional development aspects that were not
reported. Additionally, there were too many interview questions for the respondents,
particularly for Arabic speakers who would have done better with one or two key areas
for them to comment on from their perspective.
Trust did prove to be a catalyst for this research. Participants, particularly in the interview
process, did give honest responses, which were critical in balancing survey findings but
tended to be inflated in their support for constructivist practices. The absence of such
relationships could be a barrier if this study were repeated in a new school. However, this
could be overcome with support from powerful individuals within ADEC. In moving
forward to possible future studies, careful consideration of the scope of research, greater
protection of participant time and the development of trusting relationships within the
subject of the study would all constitute tangible improvements.

Dimmock (2007, 56) has argued that ‘Since culture permeates all levels of society, it
provides rich opportunities for researchers to explore the interrelationships between
schools and their …culture.’ In the case of ABAB school, several such interrelationships
exist it. History, national priorities, and religious values have added to the impact of
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, creating quite a different landscape for Western ideas
about leadership for learning and constructivism. So much so that nearly any conception
originating in the Western world may have questionable value in a Middle Eastern
context. This has implications for the way research is conducted, analyzed and presented,
the kinds of leadership that exist in schools, how teachers feel students learn best, student
preferences and parental support, all of which come together in this study.
The research has explored the perceptions of key members of the wider ABAB school
community to develop a rich understanding of how these Western ideas have been
received in a UAE government school. In drawing together conclusions and
recommendations several potential areas for further research emerge.
Considering the lack of recent guidance for researchers working in non-Western contexts,
current insights about the way research is perceived in diverse cultures may shed some
light on the process from a new perspective. Such information may help researchers
include their participants in a more ethical way, allowing them more of a voice in the way
research is structured and interpreted. To arrive at such recommendations, researchers
may wish to apply cultural, historical, national and religious values to the research
process in different countries to develop models that could be recommended for working
in each unique context.
Policy indigenization is relatively new in international education and provides a rich area
for ADEC schools to investigate. Studying how leaders have adjusted Western policies to
suit their school realities would further this new area of enquiry in educational research.
It would further shed light on how culture, history, and national priorities more precisely
inform principal choices. There are important implications here for the ways in which
researchers engage with and critique literature which draws on the Western experience.

Leadership education is another rich area for investigation within the ADEC reform. It
would be of great interest to understand how leaders experience and respond to training.
This could build on the experience of advisors like Marie, Charolette and Emily focusing
on the way principals experience professional development and how they put it into
practice. An evaluative process might be the best approach to this research, and access to
several different principals would help to triangulate results.
These are just a few areas of inquiry that may help to illuminate and enhance aspects of a
multifaceted reform that is still in its formative stages. Ambitious in scope, it brings many
opportunities for learning. Perhaps the most important lesson is that care must always be
taken when implementing Western concepts in Middle Eastern schools. Such
international practices may well run counter to traditional beliefs. Therefore, to help
schools cope with this, it could be beneficial for school shareholders to understand the
benefits and limitations of policy changes so they can be implemented in a contextually
sensitive way at the school site.
The UAE and ADEC have set themselves and schools important and challenging goals.
For these goals to be realised and enable the UAE to take a place at the forefront of
educational achievement, the experience of ABAB school would suggest that this will
require stronger cross cultural teams working in a values driven, inspiring environment.
School leaders can model aspects of double loop learning so that the whole school is
oriented around authentic improvement. Alongside this, teachers should continue to blend
the best aspects of traditional Islamic learning with constructivist teaching strategies to
gather the best possible support from students and parents for reform, so that the whole
community will benefit. These goals are achievable.

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Appendix A: Teacher Survey
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Strongly
Neutral
Agree
Agree
The Ethos of the School
My school is a positive working environment.
My school shows appreciation for the work of all staff.
My school celebrates successes.
My school values innovation.
My school supports teachers to improve their practice.
My school focuses on building connections with the community.
My department works together like a team.
My school trusts teachers.
My school has effective communication systems.
I have a good relationship with the SLT in my school.
I have the chance to work with teachers in other departments.

Please comment on changes to the Ethos of the School as a result of the ADEC reform.

Strongly Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Neutral
Agree
The Quality of Teaching and Learning
My focus is delivering a specific body of knowledge to students.
I mostly use my textbook to teach my classes.
My focus is ensuring students attain high marks on exams.
I use mostly summative exams to assess student progress.
I encourage students to memorize lessons.
My students do open ended projects with diverse products.
I welcome students to ask questions that I can't answer.
My students often work in groups.
I display student work.
I give students feedback designed to help them improve skills.
I know my student’s strengths and weaknesses.
I encourage students to develop their talents beyond the curriculum.

Please comment on changes you have observed at school as a result of the reform in teaching and learning.

Strongly Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Neutral
Agree
The Quality of Leadership
School activities support the mission and vision of the school.
I participate in activities related to the mission and vision.
My SLT communicates high performance standards.
My SLT communicates feedback for improvement to teachers.
My SLT seeks student input about their educational experience.
My SLT monitors student achievement.
I feel motivated to do my best in my lessons.
I feel I have the support of the SLT in the case of a problem.
My SLT focuses teaching around student improvement.
SLT values constructivist approaches to education.
I have the resources I need to do my best.

Please comment on changes to leadership as a result of the ADEC reform.

Disagree
Disagree
Strongly
Strongly
Neutral
Agree
Agree
The Quality of Professional Development
Professional Development helps to improve my teaching practice.
PD holistically addresses problems that I face in class or in school.
PD offers new ways to engage my students in learning.
I have had the chance to request PD that I value.
I have given a PD session in my school.
I have used information offered in a PD in my day-to-day work.
I discuss my teaching practice with my colleagues regularly.
I would benefit from observing other teachers in my school teach.
I would trust my departmental colleagues to observe my lessons and

offer constructive feedback.
I research new instructional strategies and try them in my class.
I collaborate regularly with my grade level team to ensure

consistency of instruction and evaluation.
I feel inspired to try new ideas after PD sessions.

Please Comment on Changes you have experienced to PD as a result of the reform

Appendix B: Leader Interview Schedule
Note: These questions were used for school-based leaders. In the interview process,
many questions were not asked due to the difficulty leaders had in responding to English
language questions for a sustained time. External advisors were asked similar questions
which were more targeted to their experiences and positions.
Leadership Interviews:
Please prepare your thoughts for our interview about the following questions. I look
forward to speaking with you and hearing your comments. Remember I will keep your
answers confidential and anonymous but your comments will be used in a report for my
studies and will be available to ADEC upon completion of the project in August. After
our interview, I will give you a typed copy of your responses in case you would like to
edit or change your answers later.
Ethos of the School
1. Do you feel the school culture has changed as a result of the ADEC reforms? If so, can
you explain what is different?
2. How do you encourage everyone (students, teachers and staff) in your school to be
successful and do their best?
3. What does success look like in your school? (For teachers, students, staff?)
4. How do you set high academic standards in your school?
5. How do you encourage everyone to build strong relationships together?
6. What leadership lessons would you like to pass along to the students of your school?
Quality of Teaching and Learning
7. How has teaching changed as a result of the reform process?
8. How do you support teachers shifting their practice to a more constructivist approach
to teaching in their classroom?
9. Do teachers work in teams more often as a result of the reform? Are there challenges
with this? How do you help teams to perform at their best?
10. What do you think is the most important thing teachers can do to improve their
practice?

11. What do students value about changes to teaching and learning?
12. What do parents value about changes in teaching and learning in your school?
Quality of Leadership
13. What does it take to be a successful leader in your school? Has this changed as a
result of the ADEC reform?
14. ADEC encourages distributed leadership, how do you share leadership in your
school?
15. I notice you often delegate tasks to members of staff, is that something new in your
school? How do teachers respond when you delegate tasks to them?
16. How do you ensure teachers are motivated to do their best? Has the reform changed
the way you do this?
17. How do you build collaboration among your multi lingual, multi cultural staff?
18. How do you ensure all teachers are improving their work?
Quality of Professional Development
19. What kind of PD is available at your school? Do you see a difference between the
PLC PD and other PD sessions?
20. What kind of teacher engagement have you observed with the current PD program?
21. How do you choose the PD sessions offered at your school?
22. How do you ensure teachers benefit from Professional Development?
23. What kind of PD do you feel teachers value?
24. How do you make sure teachers have time to engage in PD?
25. Have you seen evidence that teachers are using information from PD sessions in
their lessons?
26. Why do you think PD is important in this school, both the PLC and other types of
PD?
27. For the teachers involved in the PLC project, how can you encourage them to share
their knowledge with the rest of the school?

Appendix C: Teacher Interview Schedule
School Ethos
How would you describe out school?
What does this school value? How do you know?
Do you feel you have good relationships with the Leadership in this school? Do you feel
your ideas are valued within the school?
How do you work together with other teachers in this school?
Are you aware of school policies for student behavior and other areas of school life?
Teaching and Learning:
Do you have a textbook based curriculum that you must cover?
Do you have a project that is like ECART in Arabic?
Do your students have a chance to explore their interests in your class?
How has the way you teach changed in the last 5 years?
Do you care more about the school now than you did before? Why is that?
What does an ideal lesson look like for you?
What is the role of the teacher in your classroom?
How often do you use student centered teaching strategies like group work, games,
analyzing texts-doing presentations and projects?
How do your students respond when you do more active student centered methods?
Have you had any challenges to doing this kind of teaching and learning?
How does the school support these teaching methods?

Do you have a sense of parental support for your teaching?
Leadership
What does the leadership team expect of you in terms of your performance?
What motivates you to do your best at this school?
What kind of feedback do you get about your performance at school?
What kind of relationship do you have with the leadership team at this school?
PD
How does our current professional development help you in your work?
What benefits do you experience of collaboration within grade level groups?
What do you learn from your colleagues that you use in your classroom?
How do you find new ideas for teaching and learning?
What kind of professional development would you value?

Appendix D: Informed Consent
Informed Consent Form
Provisional Title of Project: A Case Study in School Reform: Exploring how the work
of a leadership team has changed with the ADEC school reform.
Name of Researcher: Susan Thomas
1. I have read and understood the attached information sheet giving details of the project.
2. I have had the opportunity to ask the researcher questions that I had about the project and
my involvement in it, and understand my role in the project.
3. My decision to consent is entirely voluntary and I understand that I am free to withdraw

at any time without giving a reason.
4. I understand that data gathered in this project may form the basis of a report.
5. I understand that my name will not be used in any report and that every effort will be
made to protect my confidentiality.
Participant’s Signature: Date:
Participants Name in CAPITALS:
Researcher’s Signature: Date:

Information Sheet
Introduction: I am a student at the University of London’s Institute of Education following a postgraduate course in
Educational Leadership. As part of my studies, I am completing a dissertation, which will take the form of a case
study focused on leadership practices in ADEC schools. I am inviting you to participate in this project because you
have a leadership role in this school or are a teacher.
Purpose of the Research: Successful leadership practices have been the subject of many studies. Many scholars
have set out a series of transferable skills or key competencies that leaders should cultivate in order to lead, however,
these lists have consistently fallen short when taken out of context. This is why I wish to examine the practice of a
leadership team in the unique context of an Emirati school. To accomplish this, I will interview the leadership team
at this school to discover how they use of current concepts of leadership to suit their contextual needs. Further, I will
survey selected teachers to understand how leadership affects the work of teachers in the school.
Research Methods: During the month of April, I will circulate an anonymous survey to select teachers to comment
on their experience of leadership in the school. At the same time I will survey leaders about their work. In April, I
will sit and talk with leaders about key areas of their practice and discuss the themes that have emerged from the
survey in a semi structured interviews allowing each leader to share their own ideas about how leadership affects the
school. So that leaders may prepare for the interview, some questions will be given to leaders in English and Arabic
in advance.
Participant Selection: Leaders have been selected because they are either key leaders or advisors in ABAB School
and therefore have an impact on the school. Teachers will be selected on a voluntary basis.
Duration: This research project will come to a conclusion in August of 2014 at which time a final draft can be made
available to school leaders as well as ADEC officials, per the requirements of the ADEC department of research.
Risks: There is a risk that you may share some personal information or feel uncomfortable speaking about some
topics. However, I do not want this to happen, so if there is a question you do not want to answer, you can chose not
to respond.
Benefits: This research may benefit the ADEC school community by sharing good practice with other schools that
are facing challenges implementing reform policy.
Confidentiality: Only the researcher will have access to data gathered during the research process. Survey responses
will be anonymous. Neither the researcher nor readers of the report will know the identity of any respondents.
Individual results will not be shared; only aggregate results will be reported. Interviews will be confidential, and each
participant will be given a transcript of the conversation so that they may edit their words. In the report, fictitious
names (pseudonyms) will be used and some personal details may be altered to protect the identities of those who
participate in the interviews,
Sharing the results: Results will be shared according to the ADEC requirements for research. The final report will
be available to all research participants in English.
Right to refuse or withdraw: Your participation in this research is voluntary; you may withdraw at any time
without offering any reason.
If you have questions or concerns, please contact Susan Thomas at susan-e.thomas@adec.ac.ae


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MA in Applied Educational Leadership and Management

Institute of Education, University of London

Changing Lea dershi p and Learning in th e

Submitted to the Institute of Education, International Programmes, University of London in partial

Changing Leadership & Learning in the UAE: Page 1 of 68

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To the dedicated, knowledgeable and helpful professors at the Institute of Education,

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Chapter 1: Introduction ______________________________________________ 5

1.1 The Context of the UAE __________________________________________ 5

Chapter 2: Literature Review__________________________________________ 11

2.1 Cultural Analysis of the UAE ______________________________________ 11

2.2 Leading Change in International Settings _____________________________ 13

2.3 Leadership for Learning___________________________________________ 17

2.4 Implementing Constructivism in Classrooms __________________________ 21

Chapter 3: Methodological Discussion __________________________________ 25

Chapter 4: Findings & Discussion ______________________________________ 33

4.1 Leadership for Learning in ABAB School ____________________________ 33

4.2 Constructivism in ABAB Classrooms ________________________________ 39

4.3 Leading Change in ABAB School___________________________________ 44

Chapter 5: Conclusion & Recommendations______________________________ 45

Appendix A: Teacher Survey Schedule__________________________________ 59

Appendix B: Leader Interview Schedule_________________________________ 63

Appendix C: Teacher Interview Schedule ________________________________ 65

Appendix D: Informed Consent Form ___________________________________ 67

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Transitioning from reception learning to constructivism is not easy in any context,

1.1 The Cultural Context of the United Arab Emirates

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One barrier to implementation is the segregation of Western guests from nationals,

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• How do leaders use transformational behaviors in their schools?

While this research should not be considered as directly transferable it may be

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2.1 Cultural Analysis of the UAE

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Lastly, The UAE is characterized as a masculine country, suggesting a cultural bias

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2.2 Leading Change in International Settings

Changing schools is a challenging dynamic process with many interdependent complex

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2.3 Leadership for Learning

Transformational leadership is linked with double loop learning (Argyris, 2004 in

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Open systems of communication are key to facilitating effective transformational

Instructional leadership has a focus on producing tangible improvement to student

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Although mitigated by many factors including individual staff motivation, commitment,

2.4 Introducing Constructivism in Classrooms

Constructivist learning is a popular in the West, and is used internationally in very

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In comparison with transmission teaching where teachers give subject knowledge to

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In summary, moving from transmission to construction of knowledge is challenging

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