MUSCULAR SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

1. MOVEMENT OF THE BODY – contraction of skeletal muscle is
responsible for the overall movements of the body
2. MAINTENANCE OF POSTURE – skeletal muscle constantly
maintains tone
3. RESPIRATION – thoracic muscles are responsible
4. PRODUCTION OF BODY HEAT – muscle contraction’s by-
product is heat
5. COMMUNICATION – skeletal muscles are involved in all aspects
of communication
6. CONSTRICTION OF ORGANS AND VESSELS – helps in some
physiologic processes in the body
7. CONTRACTION OF THE HEART – causes the heart to beat
CHARACTERISTICS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Skeletal muscle constitutes approximately 40% of body weight
 Skeletal muscles are so named because most of it are attached to the
skeletal muscle system
 Four major functional characteristics:
a. Contractility – ability to shorten with force
b. Excitability – capacity to respond to a stimulus
c. Extensibility – means stretchability
d. Elasticity – ability to recoil to their original resting length
after they have been stretched
 a. Lag or latent phase – time between the application of a
stimulus and the beginning of a contraction
b. Contraction phase – time during which the muscle contracts
c. Relaxation phase – time during which the muscle relaxes
 In summation, the force of contraction of individual muscle fibers is
increased by rapidly stimulating them
 Tetanus is a sustained contraction that occurs when the frequency of
stimulation is so rapid that no relaxation occurs
 In recruitment, the number of muscle fibers contracting is increased
by increasing the number of motor units stimulated, and the muscle
contracts with more force

Muscle Contraction

Energy Requirements for Muscle Contraction

 Muscle fibers are very energy-demanding cells whether at rest or
during any form of exercise
 Muscle twitch is the contraction of a muscle fiber in response to a  This energy comes from either aerobic (with O2) or anaerobic
stimulus (without O2) ATP
 3 phases:
  Generally, ATP is derived from 4 processes in skeletal muscle:
a. Aerobic production of ATP during most exercise and normal
conditions
b. Anaerobic production of ATP during intensive short-term
work
c. Conversion of a molecule called creatine phosphate to ATP
d. Conversion of two ADP to one ATP and one AMP
(adenosine monophosphate) during heavy exercise
 Aerobic respiration, which occurs mostly in mitochondria, requires
O@ and breaks down glucose to produce ATP, CO2, and H2O; can
also process lipids or amino acids to make ATP
 Anaerobic respiration, which does not require O2, breaks down
glucose to produce ATP and lactate
 Slow-twitch fibers work aerobically, whereas fast-twitch fibers are
more suited for working anaerobically
Fatigue
– It is a temporary state of reduced work capacity
– Without fatigue, muscle fibers would be worked to the point of
structural damage to them and their supporting tissues
– Mechanisms underlying muscular fatigue:
 Acidosis and ATP depletion due to either an increased ATP
consumption or a decreased ATP production
 Oxidative stress, which is characterized by the buidup of
excess reactive oxygen species
 Local inflammatory reactions
– Under conditions of extreme muscular fatigue, muscle may become
incapable of contracting or relaxing, this condition is called
physiological contracture – occurs when there is too little ATP to
bind to the myosin myofilaments
– The most common type of fatigue, psychological fatigue, involves
the CNS rather than the muscle themselves
Types of Muscle Contraction
 Muscle contractions are classified as either isometric or isotonic
 Isometric contractions, the length of the muscle does not change,
but the amount of tension increases during the contraction process –
responsible for the constant length of the body’s postural muscles
(muscles of the back)
 Isotonic contractions, the amount of tension produced by the
muscle is constant during contraction, but the length of muscles
decreases (movement of the arms or fingers
 Most muscle contractions are a combination of isometric and
isotonic contractions
 Concentric contractions are isotonic contractions in which muscle
tension increases as the muscle shortens
 Eccentric contractions are isotonic contractions in which tension is
maintained in a muscle, but the opposing resistance causes the
muscle lengthens
Muscle Tone
– Is the constant tension produced by body muscles over long periods
of time
– Responsible for keeping the back and legs straight, the head in an
upright position, and the abdomen from bulging
– Depends on a small percentage of all the motor units in a muscle
being stimulated at any point in time
  The antagonist is a muscle acting in opposition to an agonist
 Muscles also tend to function in groups to accomplish specific
movements

SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY

 Tendons connect each muscle head to the bone
 Aponeuroses are broad, sheet-like tendons
 Retinaculum is a band of connective tissue that holds down the
tendons at each wrist and ankle
 Muscle contraction causes most body movements
 Note: some muscles are not attached to bone at both ends (e.g.
some facial muscles attach to the skin)
 The 2 points of attachment of each muscle are its:
a. origin (head; most stationary)
b. insertion (attached to bone; undergoes the greatest
movement)
 Belly is the part of the muscle between the origin and the insertion
 Note: some muscles have multiple origins (e.g. biceps brachii (2),
triceps brachii (3))
 Muscles are typically grouped so that the action of one muscle or
group of muscles is opposed by that of another muscle or group of
muscles (e.g. biceps brachii flexes the elbow, triceps brachii extends
the elbow)
 An agonist is a muscle that accomplishes a certain movement
 3. Number of origins – biceps (bi = 2, ceps = head)
4. Function – flexor digitorum (flexes the digits)
5. Size – vastus (large)
6. Shape – deltoid, triangular
7. Fasciculi orientation – rectus, straight

 Many muscles are members of more than one group, depending on

the type of movement being produced (e.g. deltoid + biceps brachii
+ pectoralis major = shoulder flexion)
 Synergists are members of a group of muscles working together to
produce a movement
 Prime mover is the one muscle among a group of synergists that
plays a major role in accomplishing a desired movement (e.g.
brachialis is the prime mover in elbow flexion)
 Fixators are muscles that hold one bone in place relative to the body
while a usually more distal is moved (e.g. muscles of the scapula)

Nomenclature
 Most muscles have descriptive names
 Muscles are usually named according to their:
1. Location – pectoralis (chest)
2. Origin & insertion – brachioradialis (spans from the arm to the
radius)
 FACIAL EXPRESSION
 Occipitofrontalis raises the eyebrows (occipital and frontal portions
are connected by the epicranial aponeuroses
 Orbicularis oculi encircle the eyes, tightly close the eyelids, and
cause “crow’s feet” wrinkles in the skin at the lateral corners of the
eyes
 Orbicularis oris (encircles the mouth) and the buccinator are
sometimes called the kissing muscles (pucker the mouth)
 Buccinator flattens the cheeks as in whistling or blowing a trumpet
and is sometimes called the trumpeter’s muscle
 Smiling is accomplished primarily by the zygomaticus muscles
 Sneering is accomplished by the levator labii superioris
 Frowning and pouting are largely performed by the depressor
anguli oris
MASTICATION (CHEWING)
 The 4 pairs of muscles for chewing are some of the strongest
muscles in the body: temporalis, masseter, pterygoids (2)

Muscles of the Head and Neck

 Include those involved in forming facial expressions, chewing,
moving the tongue, swallowing, producing sounds, moving the eyes,
and moving the head and neck

TONGUE & SWALLOWING MUSCLES
 Tongue is very important in mastication and speech
 Moves food around in the mouth and (with the buccinators muscle)
holds the food in place while the teeth grind the food  pushes food
up to the palate and back toward the pharynx to initiate swallowing
 Intrinsic muscles of the tongue, located entirely within the tongue
and changes its shape
 Extrinsic muscles, located outside of the tongue but are attached to
and move the tongue
 Swallowing involves a number of structures: hyoid muscles, soft
palate, pharynx (throat), and larynx (voicebox)
 Hyoid muscles are divided into a suprahyoid group and infrahyoid
group
 Muscles of the soft palate close the posterior opening to the nasal
cavity during swallowing, preventing food and liquid from entering
the nasal cavity
 Pharyngeal elevators elevate the pharynx
 Pharyngeal constrictors constrict the pharynx
 Pharyngeal muscles also open the auditory tube, which connects the
middle ear to the pharynx
NECK MUSCLES
 The deep neck muscles include neck flexors, located along the
anterior surfaces of the vertebral bodies, and neck extensors, located
posteriorly
 Rotation and lateral flexion of the head are accomplished by lateral
and posterior neck muscles
 Sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle, prime mover of the lateral
muscle group, is easily seen on the anterior and lateral sides of the
neck
 Contraction of one SCM = rotates the head
 Contraction of two SCM = flexes the neck or extends the
head
 Torticollis (wry neck), results from injury to one of the SCM
muscles
Trunk Muscles
 Include those that move the vertebral column, the thorax and
abdominal wall, and the pelvic floor THORACIC MUSCLES

MUSCLES MOVING THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN  Involved entirely in the process of breathing
 External intercostals elevate the ribs during inspiration
 Back muscles are very strong to maintain erect posture
 Internal intercostals contract during forced expiration, depressing
 Erector spinae group of muscles on each side of the back are the ribs
primarily responsible for keeping the back straight and the body
 Major movement produced in the thorax during quiet breathing is
erect
accomplished by the dome-shaped diaphragm
 Deep back muscles, located between the spinous and transverse
processes of the adjacent vertebrae, are responsible for several
movements of the vertebral column
ABDOMINAL WALL MUSCLES
 Muscles of the anterior abdominal wall flex and rotate the vertebral
PELVIC FLOOR AND PERINEAL MUSCLES
column, compress the abdominal cavity, and hold in and protect the
abdominal organs
 Linea alba, a tendinous vertical indentation, extending from the
sternum through the navel to the pubis; white connective tissue
rather than muscle
 Rectus abdominis muscle, located laterally to the linea alba
 Tendinous intersections cross the rectus abdominis at 3 or more
locations
 Lateral to the rectus abdominis are 3 layers of muscles: (superficial
to deep) (1) External abdominal oblique, (2) Internal abdominal
oblique, and the (3) Transverse abdominis
 Pelvis is a ring of bone with an inferior opening that is close by a
muscular floor through which the anus and the openings of the
urinary tract and reproductive tract penetrate
 Pelvic floor, also referred to as the pelvic diaphragm – formed by
the levator ani muscle
 Perineum is the area inferior to the pelvic floor – contains a number
of muscles associated with the male or female reproductive
structures
 Help regulate urination and defecation
Upper Limb Muscles
 Include those that attach the limb and pectoral girdle to the body and
those in the arm, forearm, and hand ARM MOVEMENTS
SCAPULAR MOVEMENTS  Arm is attached to the thorax by the pectoralis major and latissimus
 Muscles that attach the scapula to the thorax and move the scapula: dorsi muscles
(1) trapezius, (2) rhomboids, (3) serratus anterior, and (4)  The rotator cuff muscles attaches the humerus to the scapula and
pectoralis forms a cuff of cap over the proximal humerus – stabilize the joint
 Said muscles act as fixators – hold the scapula firmly in position by holding the humeral head in the glenoid cavity during arm
when the muscles of the arm contract movements
 Moves the scapula in different positions – increasing the range of  Deltoid muscle attaches the humerus to the scapula and clavicle –
movement of the upper limbs major abductor of the upper limb
 Pectoralis major forms the upper chest, and the deltoid forms the
rounded mass of the shoulder
 Deltoid is a common site for administering injections

FOREARM MOVEMENTS
 Arm can be divided into anterior and posterior compartments
 Triceps brachii, the primary extensor of the elbow, occupies the
posterior compartment
 The anterior compartment is occupied by the biceps brachii and
brachialis, the primary flexors of the elbow
 Brachioradialis, which is actually a posterior forearm muscle, helps
flex the elbow
  Tendon of the flexor carpi radialis serves as a landmark for locating
the radial pulse
 Flexion of the fingers is the function of the flexor digitorum
 Extension of the fingers is accomplished by the extensor digitorum
 19 muscles, called intrinsic hand muscles, are located within the
hand
 Interossei muscles, located between the metacarpal bones, are
responsible for abduction and adduction of the fingers

SUPINATION AND PRONATION

 Supination of the forearm, or turning the flexed forearm so that the
palm is up is accomplished by the supinator and biceps brachii
 Pronation, turning the forearm so that the palm is down, is a
function of two pronator muscles
WRIST AND FINGER MOVEMENTS
 20 muscles of the forearm can also be divided into anterior and
posterior groups
 Anterior forearm muscles – responsible for flexion of the wrist and Lower Limb Muscles
fingers
 Include those located in the hip, the thigh, the leg, and the foot
 Posterior forearm muscles – cause extension
 Retinaculum THIGH MOVEMENTS
– Strong band of fibrous connective tissue
 Several hip muscles originate on the coxal bone and insert onto the
– Covers the flexor and extensor tendons and holds them in
femur
place around the wrist so that they do not “bowstring” during
muscle contraction  Iliopsoas (anterior muscle), flexes the hip
 Flexor carpi muscles flex the wrist, and the extensor carpi muscles
extend the wrist
  The posterior and lateral hip muscles consist of the gluteal muscles  A “pulled hamstring” results from tearing one or more of these
and the tensor fasciae latae (tenses a thick band of fascia on the muscles or their tendons
lateral side of the thigh called the iliotibial tract)  Medial thigh muscles, the adductor muscles, are primarily involved,
 Gluteus maximus, extends the hip and abducts and laterally rotates in adducting the thigh
the thigh
 Gluteus medius, abducts and medially rotates the thigh
 Gluteus maximus functions optimally to extend the hip when the
thigh is flexed at a 45-degree angle
 The gluteus medius is a common site for injections in the buttocks
because the sciatic nerve lies deep to the gluteus maximus and could
be damaged during an injection
 In addition to the hip muscles, some of the thigh muscles also attach
to the coxal bone and can move the thigh
 3 groups of thigh muscles:
1. Anterior thigh muscles – flex the hip
2. Posterior thigh muscles – extend the hip
3. Medial thigh muscles – adduct the thigh
LEG MOVEMENTS
 Anterior thigh muscles are the quadriceps femoris and the Sartorius ANKLE AND TOE MOVEMENTS
 Quadriceps femoris muscles are the primary extensors of the knee
 13 muscles in the leg, with tendons extending into the foot, can be
and they have a common insertion, the patellar tendon, on and
divided into 3 groups: (1) anterior, (2) posterior, and (3) lateral
around the patella
 Anterior muscles – extensor muscles involved in dorsiflexion of the
 Rectus femoris
foot and extension of the toes
 Vastus lateralis – intermuscular injection site
 The superficial muscles of the posterior compartment of the leg, the
 Vastus medialis
gastrocnemius and the soleus, form the bulge of the calf (posterior
 Vastus intermedius
leg) – they form the common calcaneal (heel) tendon or Achilles
 Patellar ligament is an extension of the patellar tendon onto the
tendon
tibial tuberosity
 These muscles are flexors and involved in plantar flexion of the foot
 Sartorius, the longest muscle in the body, is called the “tailor’s
 Deep muscles of the posterior compartment plantar flex and invert
muscle” because it flexes the hip and knee and rotates the thigh
the foot and flex the toes
laterally
 Lateral muscles of the leg, called the fibularis muscles, are
 Posterior thigh muscles are called hamstring muscles, and are
primarily everters of the foot, but they also aid in plantar flexion
responsible for flexing the knee
  The 20 muscles located within the foot, called the intrinsic foot – Decrease in muscle size due to a decreased number of
muscles, flex, extend, abduct, and adduct the toes myofilaments
– Occur due to disuse of a muscle, as in paralysis
 MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
– Group of genetic disorders in which all types of muscle
degenerate and atrophy
1. Duchenne muscular dystrophy
 Results from an abnormal gene on the X
chromosome and is therefore a sex-linked (X-
linked) condition
 Progressive muscular weakness and muscle
contractures
2. Myotonic muscular dystrophy
 Muscles are weak and fail to relax following forceful
contractions
 Affects the hands most severely; dominant trait in
1/20,000 births
DISEASES AND DISORDERS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
 CRAMPS  Autoimmune disorder in which antibodies are formed against
– Painful, spastic contractions of a muscle acetylcholine receptors
– Usually due to a build-up of lactic acid  Muscle weakness and fatigue
 FIBROMYALGIA  TENDINITIS
– Non-life-threatening, chronic, widespread pain in muscles  Inflammation of a tendon or its attachment point due to
with no known cure overuse of the muscle
– Also known as chronic muscle pain syndrome
 HYPERTROPHY
– Enlargement of a muscle due to increased number of
myofibrils
– Occurs with increased muscle use

 ATROPHY
EFFECTS OF AGING ON SKELETAL MUSCLE
 Aging skeletal muscle undergoes several changes that reduce muscle
mass, increase the time a muscle takes to contract in response to
nervous stimuli, reduce stamina, and increase recovery time
 Loss of muscle fibers begins as early as 25 years of age, and by age
80 the muscle mass has been reduced by approximately 50%
 Most of the loss of strength and speed is due to the loss of muscle
fibers particularly fast-twitch ones
 Neuromuscular junction surface area decreases  slow neuronal
action potential  slower muscle cell action potential  fewer
action potentials in muscle fibers
 Motor neurons decreases  remaining neurons innervate more
muscle fibers  decreased number of motor units in the skeletal
muscle  less precise muscle control
 Many of the age-related changes in skeletal muscle can be slowed
dramatically if people remain physically active