UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF

HISTORY
Antone van Leeuwenhoek
 1632–1723 First to develop concept of food chains
Carl Linnaeus
 1707–1778 Influential naturalist, inventor of science on the economy of nature a Swedish naturalist,
is well known for his work with taxonomy but his ideas helped to lay the groundwork for modern
ecology.
 He developed a two part naming system for classifying plants and animals.
 Binomial Nomenclature was used to classify, describe, and name different genera and species
 The compiled editions of Systema Naturae developed and popularized the naming system for plants
and animals in modern biology.
Alexander Humboldt
 1769–1859 First to describe ecological gradient of latitudinal biodiversity increase toward the tropics
in 1807
Charles Darwin
 1809–1882 Founder of the hypothesis of evolution by means of natural selection, founder of
ecological
studies of soils
Elizabeth Catherine Thomas Carne
 1817-1873 Geologist, mineralogist and philosopher who observed rural vs urban living, spatially and
culturally, finding in country living the best attack on suffocating class divides, healthier living, and best
access to natural education.
Herbert Spencer
 1820–1903 Early founder of social ecology, coined the phrase 'survival of the fittest'
Karl Möbius
 1825–1908 First to develop concept of ecological community, biocenosis, or living community
Ernst Haeckel
 1834–1919 Invented the term ecology, popularized research links between ecology and evolution
Victor Hensen
 1835–1924 Invented term plankton, developed quantitative and statistical measures of productivity
in the seas
Eugenius Warming
 1841–1924 Early founder of Ecological Plant Geography[6]
Ellen Swallow Richards
 1842–1911 Pioneer and educator who linked urban ecology to human health[37]
Stephen Forbes
 1844–1930 Early founder of entomology and ecological concepts in 1887
Vito Volterra
 1860–1940 Independently pioneered mathematical populations models around the same time as
Alfred J. Lotka.
Vladimir Vernadsky
 1869–1939 Founded the biosphere concept development in studies of ecological succession
Stephen Forbes
 1844–1930 Early founder of entomology and ecological concepts in 1887
Vito Volterra
 1860–1940 Independently pioneered mathematical populations models around the same time as
Alfred J. Lotka.
Vladimir Vernadsky
 1869–1939 Founded the biosphere concept development in studies of ecological succession
Henry C. Cowles
 1869–1939 Pioneering studies and conceptual
Jan Christiaan Smuts
 1870–1950 Coined the term holism in a 1926 book Holism and Evolution.
Arthur G. Tansley
 1871–1955 First to coin the term ecosystem in 1936 and notable researcher
Charles Christopher Adams
 1873–1955 Animal ecologist, biogeographer, author of first American book on animal ecology in
1913, founded ecological energetics.
Friedrich Ratzel
 1844–1904 German geographer who first coined the term biogeography in 1891.
Frederic Clements
 1874–1945 Authored the first influential American ecology book in 1905.
Victor Ernest Shelford
 1877–1968 Founded physiological ecology, pioneered food-web and biome concepts, founded The
Nature Conservancy
Alfred J. Lotka
 1880–1949 First to pioneer mathematical populations models explaining trophic (predator-prey)
interactions using logistic equation
Henry Gleason
 1882–1975 Early ecology pioneer, quantitative theorist, author, and founder of the individualistic
concept of ecology.
Charles S. Elton
 1900–1991 'Father' of animal ecology, pioneered food-web & niche concepts and authored
influential Animal Ecology text.
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
 1903–1991 Limnologist and conceptually advanced the niche concept.
Eugene P. Odum
 1913–2002 Co-founder of ecosystem ecology and ecological thermodynamic concepts.
Howard T. Odum
 1924–2002 Co-founder of ecosystem ecology and ecological thermodynamic concepts.
Robert MacArthur
 1930–1972 Co-founder on Theory of Island Biogeography and innovator of ecological statistical
methods.
Darwinism and the Science of Ecology
It is often held that the roots of scientific ecology may be traced back to Darwin.
 This contention may look convincing at first glance inasmuch as On the Origin of Species is full of
observations and proposed mechanisms that clearly fit within the boundaries of modern ecology
(e.g. the catto-clover chain – an ecological cascade) and because the term ecology was coined in
1866 by a strong proponent of Darwinism, Ernst Haeckel
 However, Darwin never used the word in his writings after this year, not even in his most
"ecological" writings such as the foreword to the English edition of Hermann Müller’s The
Fertilization of Flowers (1883) or in his own treatise of earthworms and mull formation in
forest soils (The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms, 1881).
 Moreover, the pioneers founding ecology as a scientific discipline, such as Eugen Warming, A.F. W.
Schimper, Gaston Bonnier, F.A. Forel, S.A. Forbes and Karl Möbius, made almost noreference to
Darwin’s ideas in their works.
 This was clearly not out of ignorance or because the works of Darwin were not widespread.
 Some such as S.A.Forbes studying intricate food webs asked questions as yet unanswered abou
the instability of food chains that might persist if dominant competitors were not adapted to have self-
constraint.
 Others focused on the dominant themes at the beginning, concern with the relationship between organism
morphology and physiology on one side and environment on the other, mainly abiotic environment, hence
environmental selection.
 Darwin’s concept of natural selection on the other hand focused primarily on competition.
 The mechanisms other than competition that he described, primarily the divergence of character
which can reduce competition and his statement that "struggle" as he used it was metaphorical and
thus included environmental selection, were given less emphasis in the Origin than competition.
 Despite most portrayals of Darwin conveying him as a non-aggressive recluse who let others fight
his battles,
 Darwin remained all his life a man nearly obsessed with the ideas of competition, struggle and
conquest – with all forms of human contact as confrontation
Early 20th century, Expansion of ecological thought
By the 19th century, ecology blossomed due to new discoveries in chemistry by Lavoisier and de Saussure, notably
the nitrogen cycle.
 After observing the fact that life developed only within strict limits of each compartment that makes
up the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere, the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess proposed the
term biosphere in 1875.
 uess proposed the name biosphere for the conditions promoting life, such as those found on Earth, which
includes flora, fauna, minerals, matter cycles, etcetera.
 In the 1920s Vladimir I. Vernadsky, a Russian geologist who had defected to France, detailed the
idea of the biosphere in his work "The biosphere" (1926), and described the fundamental principles
of the biogeochemical cycles.
 He thus redefined the biosphere as the sum of all ecosystems.
 First ecological damages were reported in the 18th century, as the multiplication of colonies caused
deforestation.
 Since the 19th century, with the industrial revolution, more and more pressing concerns have
grown about the impact of human activity on the environment..
 The term ecologist has been in use since the end of the 19th century
The Ecosystem : Arthur Tansley
Over the 19th century, botanical geography and zoogeography combined to form the basis of
biogeography.
 This science, which deals with habitats of species, seeks to explain the reasons for the
presence of certain species in a given location.
 It was in 1935 that Arthur Tansley, the British ecologist, coined the term ecosystem, the
interactive system established between the biocoenosis (the group of living creatures), and
their biotope, the environment in which they live.
 Ecology thus became the science of ecosystems.
 Tansley's concept of the ecosystem was adopted by the energetic and influential biology
educator Eugene Odum
 Along with his brother, Howard T. Odum, Eugene P. Odum wrote a textbook which (starting
in 1953) educated more than one generation of biologists and ecologists in North America.
Animal Ecology: Charles Elton
20th century English zoologist and ecologist, Charles Elton, is commonly credited as “the father of animal
ecology
 Elton influenced by Victor Shelford’s Animal Communities in Temperate America began his
research on animal ecology as an assistant to his colleague, Julian Huxley, on an ecological survey
of the fauna in Spitsbergen in 1921.
 Elton’s most famous studies were conducted during his time as a biological consultant to the
Hudson Bay Company to help understand the fluctuations in the company’s fur harvests.
 Elton studied the population fluctuations and dynamics of snowshoe hare, Canadian lynx,
and other mammals of the region.
 Elton is also considered the first to coin the terms, food chain and food cycle in his famous
book Animal Ecology
 Elton is also attributed with contributing to disciplines of: invasion ecology, community
ecology, and wildlife disease ecology.
Father of Modern Ecology: G. Evelyn Hutchinson
George “G” Evelyn Hutchinson was a 20th-century ecologist who is commonly recognized as the “Father of Modern
Ecology”.
 Hutchinson is of English descent but spent most of professional career studying in New Haven,
Connecticut at Yale University.
 Throughout his career, over six decades, Hutchinson contributed to the sciences of
limnology, entomology, genetics, biogeochemistry, mathematical theory of population
dynamics and many more.
 Hutchinson is also attributed as being the first to infuse science with theory within the
 discipline of ecology.
 Hutchinson was also one of the first credited with combining ecology with mathematics.
 Another major contribution of Hutchinson was his development of the current definition
 of an organism’s “niche” – as he recognized the role of an organism within its community

Ecology
The study of living organisms in the natural environment on how they interact with one another and how the
interact with their non living environment The Ecology comes from the Greek words Oîkos which means House.
Λογία or logia is the study of Life in other words study of the “house/environment” in which we liveSample: light,
water, wind, nutrients in soil, heat, solar radiation, atmosphere, etc
Living organisms… sample: Plants, Animals, microorganisms in soil, etc

Levels of Organization
To add to our list of the levels of organization:
Cells – Tissues - Organs - Organ Systems - Organisms - Population – Community - Ecosystem –BioME
• Species- a group of organisms which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
• Population- Groups of individuals of a certain species living in a certain area
• Community- Different populations that live in the same area.
• Ecosystem- Collection of both the community and the abiotic factors in a certain area
• Biome- Group of ecosystems that have the same climatic conditions

Environment vs Habitat
• Many species can survive in more than one environment.
• But each species has its “home” or habitat. – Fish may be able to live in fish tanks, but would rather live in
the wild
Basic Concept of Ecology
• The fundamental idea behind the study of ecology is that all organisms are interdependent.
• They interact with one another and the physical environment.
What do organisms need to survive?
• Basic requirements for survival include:
– Food
– Water
– Shelter
Competition
An important aspect of the struggle for survival involves competition for limited resources
– Food
– Water
– Shelter
– Sunlight
Limiting Factors
Limiting factors are factors that affect the population size of a species in a specific environment.
• They can be abiotic or biotic
Factors of Ecology
There is two factors that Ecology study:
A. Abiotic (physical) factors are the influences of the non-living parts of the ecosystem.
Examples include pH, salinity, temperature, turbidity, wind speed and direction, humidity, precipitation,
water pressure, and light intensity and quality.
The biotic factors include the following: – Producers or autotrophs – Consumers or heterotrophs – Decomposers
 Producers, such as plants, make food through a process called photosynthesis.
This food is used by the plants for its own energy or may be eaten by consumers
A. Sunlight is the main energy source for life on earth
B. Also called autotrophs
C. Use light or chemical energy to make food
 1. Plants
2. plant-like protists (algae)
3. Bacteria
D. Photosynthesis—use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and
carbohydrates (Remember: 6CO2 + 6H2O 6O2 + C6H12O6)

E. Chemosynthesis—performed by bacteria, use chemical energy to produce carbohydrates

 Consumers
• There are different types of consumers: – Herbivores eat plants – Carnivores eat animals – Omnivores
eat both plants and animals
• Organisms that rely on other organisms for their energy and food supply
• Also called heterotrophs
 Decomposers are heterotrophs that break down dead tissue and waste products.
• They play a very important role in the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients
B. Biotic factors are the influences of the living parts of the ecosystem.
 Producers and consumers interact as competitors, parasites, pathogens, symbionts, and predators
 Abiotic factors such as solar radiation, the atmosphere, the ocean, climate and fire also affect ecosystems.
 For a given abiotic factor, each organism living in an ecosystem has an optimal range in which it survives
and reproduces.
 Solar Radiation
• It is the electromagnetic radiation, including X-rays, ultraviolet and infrared radiation, and radio
emissions, as well as visible light, emanating from the Sun.
• The Sun provides almost all the heat and light Earth receives and therefore sustains every living
being.
• Solar Collecting Panels Panels on a rooftop collect energy from sunlight and convert it directly into
electricity. The solar panels contain semiconducting materials. When light strikes the material,
electrons move from one layer of the material to another, forming an electric current.
• Solar energy travels to Earth through space in discrete packets of energy called photons.
• On the side of Earth facing the Sun, a square kilometer at the outer edge of our atmosphere receives
1, 400 megawatts of solar power every minute.
• Only half of that amount reaches the Earth’s surface.
• The atmosphere and clouds absorb or scatter the other half of the incoming sunlight.
• The amount of light that reaches any particular point on the ground depends on the time of day, the
day of the year, the amount of cloud cover, and the latitude at that point.
• The most significant local variations in Earth’s temperature are produced because the sun’s energy
does not uniformly reach all places.
 The Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is an invisible layer of gases that envelops Earth.
• It is composed of oxygen (21%) and nitrogen (78%) or 99% of dry air
• Other gases including argon, carbon dioxide, neon, and helium make up the remaining 1%
• In addition, water vapor and various air pollutants, such as methane, ozone, dust particles, pollen,
microorganisms and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are present.
• The atmosphere protects the Earth’s surface from sun’s ultraviolet radiation and x-rays and from
lethal amounts of cosmic rays from space
 The Ocean
• The ocean surrounds the continents and covers almost three fourths of the Earth’s surface.
• The pacific ocean is largest covering one third of the Earth’s surface and contains more than half of
 the Earth’s water.
• The prevailing winds blowing over the ocean produce mass movements of surface ocean water
known as ocean currents.
•The prevailing winds generate circular ocean currents called gyres.
• The Coriolis forces cause ocean currents to move clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
 Climate
• Climate is the average conditions, and the extremes that occur in a given place over a period of years.
• The two most important factors that determine an area’s climate are:
– Temperature – Precipitation
• Other climate factors include wind, humidity, for, cloud cover, and fire.
• Unlike weather, climate generally changes slowly, over hundreds or thousands of years.
• Latitude, elevation, topography, vegetation, distance from the ocean and other large bodies of water,
all influence temperature, precipitation, and other aspects of climate.
• Precipitation varies from one location to another and has a profound effect on the distribution and
kinds of organism present.
• One of the driest place on Earth is in the Atacama Desert in Chile, where the average annual rainfall is
0.05 cm and the wettest portion on Earth is in Mount Waialeale in Hawaii with an average annual
precipitation of 1200cm.
 Microclimates
• The differences in elevation, in the steepness and direction of slopes and their exposure to sunlight
and prevailing winds may produce local variations in climate known as microclimates
• Microclimates are sometimes quite different from the overall surroundings.
• The patches of sun and shade on a forest floor, produce a variety of microclimates for plants,
animals, and micro-organisms living there.
• The microclimate of an organism’s habitat is of primary importance because that is the climate an
organism actually experience and most cope with.
 Fire
• Fires have several effects on organism.
• First, combustion frees the nutrient minerals that were locked in dry organic matters.
• The ashes remaining after the fire are rich in potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and other nutrient
minerals essential for plant growth
• Secondly, fire removes plant cover and exposes the soil.
• This change stimulates the germination and establishment of seeds requiring bare soil, as well as
encourages the growth of shadetolerant plants.
• Thirdly, fire causes increased in soil erosion because it removes plant cover, leaving the soil more
vulnerable to wind and water.
Factors that influence the distribution of plants and animals
 Temperature- the ability to withstand extremes in temperature widely vary among animals.
• Animals respond to variation in temperature both physiologically and behaviorally.
• Birds and mammals are endotherms and maintain relatively high blood temperatures using the heat
by their own metabolism
•Ectotherms use sources of heat such as solar radiation and conduction to help adjust their body
temperature.
• Endotherms maintain body temperature by: – Changing the position of fur or feathers sweating and
panting – Shivering – By behavioral means such as seeking shade or water, burrowing, or varying
periods of activity.
 Endotherms may avoid extended periods of low or high temperature by hibernating or
estivating.
o Hibernation is winter dormancy.
o Estivation is summer dormancy.
• Plants cannot move to escape high and low temperatures.
• Photosynthesis slows down or stops when temperature get too high or too low.
• Plants that are adapted to withstand low temperatures may have hairs on leaves or stems.
• These plants tend to be short and grow closely together to resist the cold temperature and wind.
• They tend to be dark colored to absorb as much of the sun’s heat as possible.
 Water
 • Precipitation along with mean temperature determines the distribution of biomes.
• The primary problem of plants in areas like desert is lack of water.
• Plants adapted for arid conditions include: – xerophytes such as cacti usually have special means of
storing and conserving water – Phreatophytes, plants that grow extremely long roots, allowing them
to acquire moisture at or near the water table.
 Light
• Light is necessary for photosynthesis which in turn is the source of energy in almost all ecosystems
• Light affects animals directly since they are able to detect their prey or enemies through the sense of
sight.
• Body organs that are sensitive to light, like the eyes are present in almost all animals from the
simplest forms to the highest forms.
• The penetration of light into the ocean determines the depth at which plants can grow.
• Algae and phyto planktons are most abundant at the water surface where light is available.
• Only animals that depend on animals can live at the bottom of the ocean
Classification of Ecology
Ecology is a broad discipline comprising many sub-disciplines. Under this system the subject’s studies:
Ecophysiology examines how the physiological functions of organisms influence the way they interact with the
environment, both biotic and abiotic.
Behavioral ecology examines the roles of behavior in enabling an animal to adapt to its environment.
Population ecology studies the dynamics of populations of a single species.
Community ecology (or synecology) focuses on the interactions between species within an ecological community.
Ecosystem ecology studies the flows of energy and matter through the biotic and abiotic components of
ecosystems.
Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field focusing on the study, development, and organization of ecological
systems from a holistic perspective
Landscape ecology examines processes and relationship in a spatially explicit manner, often across multiple
ecosystems or very large geographic areas
Evolutionary ecology studies ecology in a way that explicitly considers the evolutionary histories of species and their
interactions.
Political ecology connects politics and economy to problems of environmental control and ecological change.
“Levels” of Ecology
A. Biosphere
 Surface of the earth
 It is the whole portion of Earth colonized by living beings
 It is the narrow belt around the Earth extending from the bottom of the oceans to the upper atmosphere
B. Region = Biome
 Group of ecosystems with the same climate and dominant communities
 Vertical stratification with trees in canopy blocking light to bottom strata. Many trees covered by epiphytes
(plants that grow on other plants)
 Tropical Forest: Vertical stratification with trees in canopy blocking light to bottom strata. Many trees
covered by epiphytes (plants that grow on other plants) or tropical evergreen forests are found in equatorial
regions where total annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm and the dry season lasts for no more than 2-3 months.
These forests are species-rich.
The climate is warm and rainy all year round
Physical Factors in Tropical Rainforests

 Desert: Sparse rainfall (< 30 cm per year), plants and animals adapted for water storage and conservation.
Can be either very, very hot, or very cold (e.g. Antarctica)
 Coniferous forest: Largest terrestrial biome on earth, old growth forests rapidly disappearing, usually receives
lots of moisture as rain or snow.
 Tundra: Permafrost (Permanent frozen ground), bitter cold, high winds and thus no trees. Has 20% of land
surface on earth
C. Landscape
 a group of ecosystems that may or may not interact in a given region
D. Ecosystem
 A group of communities and the populations within them embedded in a common physical environment and
tied together by physical processes.
  It refers to all the abiotic factors (physical and chemical constituents) and all the communities that
established in a specific area.
 It is a collection of organisms that live in a place with the nonliving environment
D. Community
 a group of populations of different species occurring in one place; individuals of different species may
interact with each other
 and all the living beings distributed into a specific geographical area. A community includes organisms of
different species
 is a naturally occurring group of organisms living together as an ecological entity; the biological part of the
ecosystem
E. Population interactions
F. Population
 A group of individuals of a given species that live in a specific geographic area.
 A group of organisms, all of the same species, which interbreed and live in the same area.
 A group of individuals that collectively interact to give birth to new individuals and eventually die
G. Individual
 Group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile offspring

Scientific Method
• We can’t do experiments on whole, natural ecosystems
• Instead we use several tools to explore ecosystems:
– Observations- We watch and take detailed notes about an ecosystem
– Experimenting-Taking an artificial environment and using the scientific method on it.
– Modeling- Using computers to show what has happened and what will happen in an ecosystem.
Energy and Matter
• Both Energy and Matter flow through an ecosystem
• Energy flows into and out of the ecosystem
• Matter is usually recycled
Energy
• the sun, originally
• Plants convert sunlight into chemical energy
• Other organisms eat plants and each other for that stored sunlight energy

Ecosystem
is a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment,
interacting as a functional unit.
Every element of the environment have their own ecosystem. A dynamic ecosystem makes the balance of
nature
Status of Ecology
Past Status
 Calm and Quite
 Human don’t disturb the nature
 Ecosystem had been going on its natural cycle
Present Status
 Population increasing
 Negative Effect
 Ecological Crisis
Ecological Crisis
The main causes of Ecological Crisis are:
 Over Population
 Over population is a depletion of resources that occurs when too many of at least one kind of living thing
inhabits an ecosystem
 Environment Pollution
 Deforestation
 is the logging or burning of trees in forested areas
Major Ecological Crisis which are facing the World:
Greenhouse Effect
 Greenhouse effect means the change in the thermal equilibrium temperature of a planet by the
presence of an atmosphere containing gas that absorbs infrared radiation
Global Warming
 Global warming is an increase in the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere
Climate Changes
 Climate change means a long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region
experiences. Average weather may include average temperature, precipitation and wind patterns.
 It causes natural disaster

Environment
• Environmental Science: “The systematic & scientific study of our environment and our role in it. This branch
include the knowledge of Pure science & to some extent Social Sciences” .
• Environmental Studies: “The branch of Study concerned with environmental issues. It has a broader coverage than
environment science and includes the social aspects of the environment”
The physical environment refers to the physical surroundings of any organism, including:
 the medium, e.g. water
 substrate, e.g. soil
 climatic (atmospheric) conditions
 light …
 and other physical properties.
Environment is Define as “The Complex of Physical, Chemical & Biotic factors affecting an organism and ultimately
determining its form and survival” is known as Environment

Components of Environment

Environment

ATMOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE LITHOSPHERE BIOSPHERE

Environmen Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere
Biosphere Lithosphere A
Biosphere tmosphere
Environment Hydro Biosphere
Hydrosphere Environment • Environment
Biosphere Lithosphere A can also be Environment
Lithosphere A
tmosphere classified into
Environment Lithosphere A
tmosphere various Physical
• Environment tmosphere
Lithosphere A • Environment ComponentsENVI
can also be • Environment
tmosphere canclassified
also be into RONMENT
can also be
• Environment classified
variousinto
Physical classified into
can also be various Physical
ComponentsENVI various Physical
classified into ComponentsENVI
RONMENT ComponentsENVI
various Physical RONMENT
RONMENT
Components of Environment
ComponentsENVI
• Atmosphere:
RONMENTThe region surrounding the earth is known as atmosphere. Atmosphere is generally a mixture of
gases surrounding the earth.
• Hydrosphere: All the water bodies on the earth surface are included in hydrosphere. It includes Oceans, rivers,
glaciers, lakes, ponds, etc.
• Lithosphere: The uppermost part of the earth crust is known as Lithosphere. Lithosphere includes, soil and its
particles, rocks, metal. etc.
• Biosphere: The life supporting mantle of the earth extending from few kilometer into the atmosphere to the deep
ocean is known as Biosphere The region of the earth where life exist is known as Biosphere.
Importance Of Environmental Education
• Environmental education is a integral process which deals with man’s interrelationship with his nature and man
 made surroundings including the relation of population growth, pollution, resource allocation and depletion,
conservation, technology, and urban and rural planning to the total human environment.
• Environmental education is a study of the factors influencing ecosystem, mental & physical health, living and
working conditions, decaying cities and population pressure. Environmental education is intended to promote
among citizens the awareness and understanding of the environment, our relationship to it, and the concern and
responsible action necessary to assure our survival and to improve the quality of life
Objectives of Environmental Education
• Awareness: To help individuals and social groups to acquire basic awareness of and sensitivity towards the
environment & its related problem.
• Knowledge: To help individuals and social groups to acquire basic understanding of the environment, its associated
problems and their responsible role towards the betterment of the environment.
• Attitude: To help individuals and social groups to acquire social values, strong feeling of concern for the
environment and the motivation for actively participating in its protection and improvement
•Skills: To help individuals and social groups to acquire the skills for solving environmental problems.
• Evaluation ability: To help individuals and social groups to evaluate environmental measures and education
program in terms of ecological, political, economical, social, aesthetic and education factors.
• Participation: To help individuals and social groups to develop a sense of responsibility and urgency regarding
environmental problems to ensure appropriate action to solve those problems.
Man –Environment Relationship
1) Topography of Land
The populations in the high mountainous areas, such as the Himalayas in India, Andes in South America, Rocky in
North America, etc., have very low settlement level. This is because the relief is rugged here which represents
obstacles in the construction of roads, railways and communication. Due to steep slopes, agriculture is done with a
great difficulty and industries also could not be established. These places having very less economic activity have less
population and hence have small isolated settlements. Whereas the plain areas of the world are most suitable for
human settlement. Fertile plains of Ganga in India, Indus in Pakistan, Hwang-Ho in China and plains of Europe have
huge population concentration having compact or huge semi-compact type of settlement.
2) Climate
Most of the areas of the earth having density less than two persons/sq. km are not favorable for settlement because
of their unfavorable climate. Areas of cold climate-North Siberia, North Canada, Alaska etc. have low density of
population. Hot and arid regions of -Sahara, Kalahari Desert in Africa, Great Australian Desert etc. are not suitable for
human settlement. In tropical regions due to heavy rain and temperature, the density of population is very low,
example in Amazon basin population density is less than two persons/sq. km. But places with favorable climate and
favorable terrain, have dense population and hence have compact settlement.
3) Soils Fertile
alluvial soils encourage dense population which in turn gives rise to compact type of settlement. This is so because
alluvial soils give rise to agricultural activities. Java Islands of Indonesia has fertile soil of young volcanic material and
agriculture is an important activity, hence dense and compact settlements are found here. Whereas in Sumatra, due
to infertile soil, the population density is very low
4) Mineral Deposits
Mineral wealth is yet another factor responsible for population distribution and density. The presence of coal and
iron-ore in different parts of the world has attracted huge population. Coal mining regions have become regions of
dense population for example, Jharkhand in India and gold mines in Australian desert.
5) Water supply
Population distribution is very much affected by water supply. The earliest settlements or civilizations developed on
the banks of major rivers, example-Nile, Indus, etc. Adequate water supply provides irrigation facilities to farmers
and hence population increases due to increase in primary activities. In dry regions, population is concentrated in
those areas where there is water, hence nucleated- circular settlements are found.
Man –Environment Relationship
• Thus it can be said that the environment plays an important role in deciding population distribution, density,
settlement type and pattern.
• The Industrial Revolution which provided mechanical power, invention of steam engine and other machinery,
greater use of metals etc. gave them opportunities to modify the environment. At the same time agriculture
provided abundant food so that they could settle down permanently. The family grew in size and people migrated to
different parts, via rail, road and sea, because of improvement in transport system, example the new lands in
America and Australia were settled by people from Europe.
• Another development which enabled humans to survive was the use of preventive and cumulative steps taken to
protect them from epidemics and diseases-it increased the span of human life and reduced death rate.

Man –Environment Relationship

 Air pollution-burning of fossil fuels in large quantities from jet aircraft, CFCs used in aerosol spray cans,
refrigerators and farm blowing are responsible for depletion of ozone to 3-4% in last 100 years. ( see
CONCEPT OF ACID RAIN)
 Water pollution- leakage of petroleum from huge ships and oil tankers into the sea, causes oil slicks which
spread rapidly over water and spell disaster to marine life and to human depending on marine resources..
The most widespread source of water pollution is disposal of sewage of urban centers into rivers. The Ganga
and Yamuna are polluted in this way and the same rivers provide domestic water supply as well. Ocean
waters are polluted by discharge of sewage from cities located along the coast. (see CONCEPT OF
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE)
 Land degradation-dumping of solid waste from urban centers and waste materials from mining centers
renders the land unsuitable for any use. Surface run-off from such areas pollutes streams and ground water
seepage. Saline encrustation of irrigated lands is another example of land degradation. In the semi-arid
region, wind action causes deposition of sand on a large scale over cultivated land rendering them unfit for
cultivation. This marks the beginning of the process of desertification.
 Depletion of resources-population growth in the recent past has resulted in rapid depletion of all kinds of
resources. The most striking example of such resource depletion is the food deficit faced by about 100
countries of the world.
 Forest and soil resources are getting depleted at a fast rate owing to population pressure. Tropical forests
are depleting at a rate of 2% per annum. It is estimated that the world is losing 7% of top soil per decade.
 Depletion of resources is most significant in respect of non-renewable mineral and power resources. The
world is facing energy crisis as existing oil resources may last for a few decades. Though coal reserves are
adequate for a few centuries but it cannot replace oil, especially for transport.
 Humans have come to realize that their economic activities are threatening their survival on earth. Their
survival depends on their realization that they have to live in harmony with the various elements of
environment which are interconnected. An understanding of the components and processes which take
place in environment, the relationship between biotic and abiotic components, and the assessment of
resources with reference to need of people in a region is essential for their survival.

Impact of Technologies on Environment

• New and better technology is being introduced, by each passing day. In every field, new technology is introduced
very frequently. This advancement of technology is beneficial, but has also created adverse effects on the
environment.
• Advancement of technology & machines, has increased industrialization and increased pollution as a result of
which environment has deteriorated.
• Advancement in weapon technology had also considerably affected the environment.
• New technology means more production and more consumption like vehicles, which creates pollution.
• Thus technology, on one hand can be beneficial, but can create a bad impact on the environment.
• If we discuss the effect of machines on environment. More and better machines mean that there will be rapid
industrialization. No doubt industrialization is beneficial for the economy, and as well as for the people living in the
country. But,
• Industrialization would create pollution including; noise pollution, air pollution and water pollution
• With development in technology and industrialization , many areas with natural beauty will be destroyed, in order
to establish industries, thus creating bad impact on environment.
• Improvement in technology will improve the production of weapons, and when these weapons will be tested and
used; then also the environment will get polluted. Increased use of cars will increase the pollution and destroy the
environment.
• Improvement in technology has also led to pollute children's mind. Media and the computers are the source of
technology, but they have led in polluting the mind, and destroying their health and environment of studies.
• Children spend more time watching television or using computers, so less time for studies & recreation; which has
affected their physical & mental growth.
•Technology has also created problem for peoples. As environment is polluted, different and fatal diseases are being
given 'birth'. These diseases are very dangerous for humans. Due to the cost of health products, pollution and the
different diseases, which attack people, health costs have increased. On the other hand, the government are also
facing problems, as they would have to give health subsides, and try to overcome the fatal diseases, their costs
would rise too; Because of people illnesses they would be unable to work, thus again problems for government as
per head GDP, would decrease (and production would also fall.)

Classification of Impacts
• Direct Impact: The impacts which directly affect the environment due to deforestation, urban development, rapid
industrial growth.
• Indirect Impacts: These impacts will indirectly affect the environment ,which may be called as chain impact. For
e.g. the indirect impact of deforestation may result in extinction of some species in forest and other consumers at
later stage.
• Cumulative Impacts: These impacts will be the result of direct & indirect impacts. The ultimate effect on the
environment will be very dangerous as it progresses at slow rate

The environmental impact can also be categorized as:

• Positive & negative Impacts: Development of road will give employment to the people at the same time it will
result in deforestation.
• Local & widespread Impact: For e.g. construction of road will affect the local region while industrial development
due to air pollution may enhance the phenomenon like global warming, acid rain, or ozone depletion.
• Temporary & Permanent impacts: Some projects may affect the environment for temporary duration and some
project may have permanent impact on the environment.
• Short term & long term impacts:
• Random Impacts:
• Predictable impacts & non-predictable impacts:
Environmental Degradation
• Definition: Deterioration of the Environment is known as Environmental Degradation.
• Environmental degradation is caused due to following factors:
• Population
• Pollution
• Exploitation of Natural resources
• Disturbance in Ecosystem
• Waste Generation and Disposal

Population
• Increase in Population will require more food which result in increase in more food production and more
cultivation which require more nutrients from land which will degrade the land. Use of fertilizers will further degrade
the land.
• Increase in population will require more houses or land to reside which result in cutting of forest to build houses,
as a result of which forest ecosystem are destroyed, which results in problem like Soil erosion, change in rainfall
patterns
• Increase in population will result in increase of infrastructures i.e. Roads, Industries, railways, houses, flyovers, etc.
which will lead to pollution of different environmental components.

Pollution
• Air pollution is causing tremendous damage to the environment in terms of global warming, ozone depletion, acid
rains.
• Water Pollution is also contributing heavily in degradation of Environment. Waste water from municipal and
Industries degrades the quality of fresh water.
• Land pollution occurs, due to over irrigation, soil erosion, deforestation, waste disposal on land.
• Noise Pollution occurs due to increase in no of vehicles and industries. It causes decrease in efficiency of Person,
and causes some serious health problems

Exploitation of Natural Resources

Man has been using air, water, land, forest, and all the things which are available to him naturally, which has
resulted in disturbance of ecological balance, depletion of ground water, deforestation, endangered species, all this
factor caused degradation of Environment
Disturbance in Ecosystem
Each organism has unique role to play in the environment, change in the environment has proven to be harmful for
these organisms and has lead to extinction of certain species

Waste Generation
Waste generated from household industries and municipal sources are the major cause of air, water, noise, and land
pollution.

Activity
Explain what can we do to save the planet.

Make a note of Important days of Environmental Significance.

Assignment
Explain interrelationship between various components of the environment.
Why is Environmental Protection discussed recently?
Explain the term Clean Technology and its usefulness

Energy Levels

• Producers-Autotrophs (plants) who make their food from the sunlight

• Consumers-Organisms that eat other organisms for their energy
– Primary consumers eat only plants
– Secondary consumers eat primary consumers (some also eat plants)
– Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers
Feeding Interactions
• A. Energy flows through an ecosystem in one direction—from the sun or inorganic compounds to
autotrophs (producers) and then to heterotrophs (consumers)
• B. Food Chain—series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten
– Arrows go in the direction of how energy is transferred
– Start with producer and end with top consumer or carnivore
 C. Food Web—network of food chains within an ecosystem

Energy Pyramid
• Less energy is transferred to the next trophic level.
• This is due to some energy lost due to metabolic activities
• Only about 10% of energy is available (in the form of body structure) to the next trophic level
Food Chain/Web

D. Trophic Levels—each step in a food chain or food web

1. Level 1—Producers (autotrophs)
2. Level 2—Primary Consumers (herbivores)
3. Level 3—Secondary Consumers
(carnivores or omnivores)
4. Level 4—Tertiary Consumers
(carnivore—usually top carnivore
Ecological Pyramids
A. Diagram that shows the relative amount of energy or ganisms contained within each trophic level of a
food chain or web

B. Energy Pyramid shows relative amount of energy available at each trophic level
1. Organisms in a trophic level use the available energy for life processes (such as
growth, photosynthesis, cellular respiration, metabolism,
etc.)and release some energy as heat
Remember: Every chemical process that happens in your body releases heat as a
byproduct (ex: burning calories).
2. Rule of 10—only about 10% of the available energy within a trophic level is transferred to the next
higher trophic level
C. Biomass Pyramid—represents the amount of living organic matter at each trophic level