CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 1/Prof. E.O.

Longe/2018-2019/Academic
Year

THE EARTH: ITS ORIGIN, COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

1. The Earth and the Universe

The origin of the Earth is based on two (2) theories:
a) The superdense or big bang theory advanced by Ryle, it was stated that “the universe was
created by a vast explosion of superdense matter, then produced the galaxies of stars which are
scattered throughout space; flying at a speed of 670km/h

b) The steady state or continuous creation theory: elaborated by Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. Rejects (i)
above and that matter is being continuously created.

2. The Earth’s Shape & Size

Regarded as flat, has a plane surface only in 1903 that Sir James Jeans calculated that the earth
was more nearly pear-shaped than orange shaped.

3 The size of the Earth

i. Equatorial Diameter 12,755km
ii. Polar Diameter 12,713km
iii. Equatorial Circumference 40,075km
iv. Meridional Circumference 40,008km
4 Surface Irregularity
Though, spherical in form the surface of the earth is marked by pronounced irregularity of relief
produced by high mountains and ocean deeps in Mount Everest at 8,848m high.

Hypsographic curve showing areas of the earth’s crust between successive levels from
the highest mountain peak to the greatest known ocean deep

The ocean floor descends to its greatest known depth in the Mariana Trench, off the island of
Guam in the Pacific, which lies at 11,521m below sea level.
Fig. 1.1: Surface Irregularity of the Earth

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CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 1/Prof. E.O. Longe/2018-2019/Academic
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EARTH’S INTERIOR

1. THE CRUST – the outer layer (SIAL & SIMA)

- Composed of crystalline rocks with sedimentary rock capping
- About 32.2 to 48.3km deep, rocks have specific gravity of between 2.0 and 3.0
- The outer zone (crust) is separated by the Mohorovicic Discontinuity from the inner zone.
- The crustal zone is made up of two layers: (a) the outer layer (Sial –Si, silica and Al, alumina); is
made up of sedimentary and granite rocks known as SIAL.
- (b) the under layer (SIMA) – this is made up of dense basaltic rocks known as Sima ( from Si,
silica and Ma, Magnesia)

Fig. 1.2: The Structure of the Earth

2. THE MANTLE – or the middle layer

The mantle consists of ultra basic rocks and also of mineral olivine, which is a heavy silicate of
iron and magnesium
- rocks of the mantle have specific gravity of about 3.0 and 5.0
- it extends (mantle) to a depth of 2,898km
- it is separated from the center or core of the earth by Guttenberg Discontinuity and itself could
be sub-divided.

i. Asthenosphere or low velocity layer at the outer margin exists at a depth of between 50
and 250km. It is thought to contain partially molten material.

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CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 1/Prof. E.O. Longe/2018-2019/Academic
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Table1: Earth’s Interior

TYPE THICKNESS (Km) DENSITY (g/cc)
ROCK TYPES
Top Bottom
Crust 2.2 - Solid Rocks
32.2 to 48.3 2.4 Andesite, basalt at ban
Upper 720 3.4 - Peridotite, Eclogite, olivine, garnet,
Mantle pyroxene, oxides.
Lower 2,171 4.4 Magnesium, silicon oxides
Mantle 5.6
Outer 2,259 9.9 Iron oxides, sulfur, nickel alloy
Core 12.2
Inner 1,221 12.8 Iron oxides, sulfur, nickel alloy
Core 13.1
Total thickness=6,401km.

Fig. 1.3: Schematic Section of the Lithosphere

3. THE CORE OF THE EARTH

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CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 1/Prof. E.O. Longe/2018-2019/Academic
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Occurs at depths below 2,900km

Sub-divided into:-

 An outer core, which is in liquid or plastic state

 An inner core which is most likely solid.
The composition of the core is uncertain, but assumptions have it that it could be a nickel-iron mixture
known as NIFE.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Draw an annotated diagram to show the internal structure of the earth.

2. Give an account of the composition, structure and nature of the earth.

GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES, GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE AND GEOLOGY OF NIGERIA

Discovery of Radioactivity helps in the dating of rocks i.e. Radioactive dating Techniques = age of rocks.
(Relatively)
=fossils contained in rocks also helps in relative discovery of age of rocks
= sedimentary rocks [lower rocks are deposited first]
Law of Stratigraphic superposition – by Smith]

GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLES

1. Principle of Uniformity. The present is key to the past. The external and internal processes observed
today have always prevailed in all geological history, constant in their characteristics. Flow of water
down hill erosion and deposition can relate present environment of geological processes to the paleo-
environment in which the older rocks are formed.

2. Stratigraphic Superposition In a sedimentary sequence, not yet subjected to tectonic forces,

youngest layer is always on top, oldest at the bottom. 1>2>3 in age.

3. Principle of Original Horizontality Water deposited sediments, are almost deposited parallel to the
surface, thing are deposited hence, horizontal.

4. Original Continuity: Continuity of sediments (water laid down) is assumed to continue laterally in
all directions but gradually thins out with diminishing sediment supply until it stops at the end of the
basin of deposition.

5. Principle of Faunal Succession Each sedimentary formation contains fossil assemblages (fauna &
flora) peculiar to it. Fossils succeed each other distinctly in recognized order. Form other basis of
Stratigraphic correlations and also of the standard geologic column.

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CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 1/Prof. E.O. Longe/2018-2019/Academic
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6. Standard Geologic Column A composite diagram that combines in a single column, the succession
of all known strata fitted together on the basis of their fossil assemblage of evidence of relative age. It
does not give information on elapsed time, which is only obtained from the Geologic Time Scale. The
Geologic Time Scale is based on radioactive dating.

THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

 A calendar of events of earth’s history
 A branch of geology known as stratigraphy- studies succession of rocks.
Geologic Time Scale is a chronological table that shows sequence in which the different strata found in
the crust are formed.

Classification could either be based on:

i. relative or chronostratigraphic-fossil records based
ii. Absolute or chronometric - (based on radiometry)
The GTS is divided into three (3) Geologic Cycles – represent 3 geologic events:-

i. Deposition of rocks- thick sediments and lavas in restricted belts.

ii. Deformation of the deposits by orogenesis – mountain building and process marked by
regional metamorphism, granitisation and intrusion of granites.
iii. Elevation of the folded belt into ranges, hence, erosion and deposition of coarse detrital
sediments.

STRATIGRAPHHICAL CHART OR COLUMN

There are four major Era:-

Cenozoic: -Development and dominant of man, vegetation. Occurred about 10,000 to 64m years ago
Mesozoic: - Occurred about 144-208million years ago, large reptiles, major structural events i.e. general
worldwide elevation.

Paleozoic: Occurred between 286-505million years ago – fish, characterized with main Hercynian and
Caledonian Episodes

Azoic or Pre-Cambrian:
 Characterized with oldest rocks, 3787-85 million years ago
 Consists of poorly presented life
 Only primitive plant life i.e. algal and soft bodied animal such as worms
 Characterized with/by several mountain builds episodes

The Basement Complex

Rocks of the Precambrian Basement Complex that have been extremely altered by heat and pressure
underlie the oldest sedimentary rocks in Nigeria. They include the following rock groups:
1. Migmatites, Gneisses and Quartzites.
2. Metasediments and Metageneous rocks.

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3. Granites and Granite-Gneisses.

4. Charnockites, Diorites and Gabbros.
5. Volcanics and Hypabyssals.

The evolution of the Nigerian Basement complex covered four (4) orogenic cycles:

Geologic Cycle Age (Million Years)

Liberian 2,800 ± 200
Eburnian 2,000 ± 200
Kiberian 1,100 ± 200
Pan-African 600± 150, Most important rocks are older granites

Rocks of the basement complex cover about 50% of the country and they are of great economic source
and as well serving as engineering material. Hence, they are primary sources of construction materials.
Examples: - i.e. granites, gneisses, marble. Solid minerals include:-gold, talc, graphite, columbite etc

Fig. 2.1: Occurrence of Major Classes of Rocks in Nigeria

The Pan-African event is the most significant in Nigerian and the most important rocks are the Older
Granites found in many parts of the country. Rocks of the Basement Complex cover about 50% of the
country and constitute a very considerable economic resource. They are the primary source for
construction materials such as granites and gneisses, for ornamental rocks like marble and also for a
variety of solid minerals like gold, talc, graphite, etc.

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There are two groups of granites in Nigeria:

Older Granites of Precambrian age, found in various parts of the country.
Younger Granites of Jurassic age, found in Kaduna, Kano, Bauchi, Plateau and Benue States

The Cretaceous Sediments

The oldest fossil-bearing rocks in Nigeria belong to the Cretaceous period. These rocks rest directly on
the Basement Complex. There is no evidence of deposition in the long period between the Precambrian
and the Precambrian and the Cretaceous in Nigeria.

An extensive sedimentary basin was formed at the start of the Cretaceous due to the subsidence of a part
of the Basement Complex to form a rift valley that is today known as the Benue Trough. The Bida basin
developed as a result of further two basins or depressions led to an incursion of the sea into these basins.
A gradual sinking of the seabed in Southeast Nigeria gave rise to the accumulation or sediments totaling
about 700m in thickness.

The oldest Cretaceous rocks in Nigeria are the sandstones and shales of Albian age around Ogoja.
Evidence of strong deformation of these older Cretaceous rocks exists in many parts of Southeast
Nigerian and in the Benue Trough. The younger Cretaceous rocks only exhibit some gentle folding.

The Tertiary Sediments:

The end of the Cretaceous witnessed another subsidence of the landmass with an accompanying marine
ingression that resulted in the deposition of a thick sequence of shales and sandstones of Tertiary age,
which are found in the Southwest and Southeast Nigeria. These contain thick beds of sands, clays and
some lignite. In the North the Tertiary is characterized by clays, marls and limestones.

The latter part of the Tertiary saw a prolonged weathering that gave rise to formation of peneplains
(smooth land surfaces) on which thick layers of laterite were developed. In the Northeast part of the
country there was an extensive downwarping of the land surface, which resulted in the formation of the
Chad Basin into which a thick series of sands and clays were deposited. The Gwandu formation was
deposited into the Sokoto Basin in the Northwest while the Coastal Plain Sands were deposited in the
Niger Delta Region.

During the Tertiary there was widespread volcanism in Nigeria, evidence of which may still be observed
on the Biu and Longuda Plateaus that are covered with thick lava flows. There also many volcanic cones
on the Biu Plateau and eroded remnants of Tertiary volcanoes may be seen in the Benue trough. The Jos
Plateau also features extensive basalt flows.
Table 2: Stratigraphic Chart
Era Period epoch Starting Fauna, Flora Major
Age (106 structural
years) episodes
Recent c. 0.01 The development and dominance of Homo

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CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 1/Prof. E.O. Longe/2018-2019/Academic
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sapiens takes place. Great climatic

Quaternary Pleistocen c.2 fluctuations are reflected in vegetational
Cenozoic e fluctuations as a series of glaciations affects
many Northern Hemisphere countries.

Tertiary Pliocene c.7 Mammals become dominant among Main

Miocene 26 vertebrates. Primate evolution leads to the Alpine
Oligocene 38 first primitive men at the close of this modern Episode
Eocene 54 appearance. Forests, very replaced by
Paleocene 64 grasslands towards the end. Lamellibranches
and gastropods proliferate. Laramide
Phase

Mesozoic Cretaceous 144-66.4 General

Jurassic 208-144 Large reptiles dominate World- wide
Triassic 245-208 the vertebrates although elevation
the early mammalian and bird evolution occurs here.
Conifers and ferns common
and flow ring plants in Cretaceous.
Ammonites, brachiopods and echinoderms important
among invertebrates

Paleozoic Permian 286-245 Fish become abundant and amphibians evolve from them at Main
Carbonifero 360-286 end of Devonian. Reptiles develop during Carboniferous as Hercynian
us 408-360 spore – bearing plants colonize the land. Mollusks, Episode
Devonian 438-408 brachiopods and corals are common invertebrates.
Silurian 505-438 Main
Ordovician 540-505 Caledonian
Cambrian Episode
Azoic or Oldest Life poorly preserved. It is thought that primitive plant life Several
Pre- rocks of an algal type was followed by the development of soft- Mountain
Cambrian 3787-85 bodied animals (e.g. worms, etc.). Building
eras Episodes
1100-850
2000-1600
3300-2500

LECTURE SERIES 3: MINERALS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

What is a mineral?
A mineral is any naturally occurring homogeneous solid that:

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CEG 225: Engineering Geology Lecture Note Series 1/Prof. E.O. Longe/2018-2019/Academic
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1. Has a definite chemical composition, expressed by a specific chemical formula.

2. Has a distinctly ordered internal atomic structure with a regular geometric form.
3. Is usually formed by inorganic processes.
4. Is composed of a single solid substance of uniform composition that cannot be physically
separated into simpler compounds.
Some minerals like sulfur (S), copper (Cu) and gold (Au) are elements, while some organics like
coal, graphite, crude oil and natural gas are also classified as minerals.

Mineral Composition and Mineral Groups

Chemical formula defines a mineral’s composition and anionic group, its class. Thus halite
consists of the elements, sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl), in a 1:1 ratio; its anionic group is
chloride (Cl), making it a halide, thus halite is classified as a halide.

THE ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

SILICATES

Ring Silicates: Chain Silicates:

Olivine, Tourmaline Pyroxenes, Amphiboles

Framework Silicates: Sheet Silicates:

Feldspars, Silica Micas, Chlorite, Clay Minerals

NON-SILICATES

Oxides: Hydroxides: Sulfates: Barite (BaSO4) Gypsum

Hematite, Magnetite Limonite, Goethite (CaSO4.2H20), Anhydrite (CaSO4)

Sulfides: Pyrite (FeS2), Chalcopyrite Carbonates: Calcite (CaCO3), Dolomite

(CuFeS2), Galena (PbS), Sphalerite (ZnS) (CaMg (CO3), Siderite (FeCO3)

Halides: Fluorite (CaF2), Halite (NaCI) Phosphates: Apatite

Figure 3.1: Rock forming minerals

Minerals are classified into these major groups: native elements, sulfides, sulfur salts, oxides and
hydroxides, halides, carbonates, nitrates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, and silicates. Silicates are
the most common because they contain silica, which constitutes about 59% of the Earth’s crust.

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CLASSES OF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

Minerals combine with each other to form rocks, which on weathering form soils. A rock, unlike
a mineral, is of heterogeneous composition. For example, granite rock consists of the minerals
feldspar, quartz, mica, and amphibole in varying chemical ratios.

Minerals are further classified into two categories as Rock-Forming and Non-Rock-Forming.
The engineering geologist is only interested in the rock-forming minerals that are classified as
silicates or non-silicates as shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.1.

1. Feldspars: Orthoclase Feldspars (K(Al)Si3O8; Plagioclase Feldspars Ca, Na, (Al) Si3O8
2. Quartz (Silica) SiO2
3. Clay Minerals (e.g. Kaolinite, Illite, Montmorillonite) and Micas (e.g. Muscovite, Biotite).
4. Calcite (CaCO3) OR Dolomite ( Ca Mg (CO3)2)
5. Iron Oxides: Hematite (Fe2O3) reddish brown; Limonite (2Fe2O3.3H20) yellowish brown
6. Pyroxenes (Ca, Mg, Fe, Al Silicate) and Amphiboles Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Al Silicate)
7. Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4 greenish as in Olivine Basalt.

Identification of minerals in hand specimens

A single mineral of hand specimen size may be identified by its physical properties: Colour,
streak, luster, crystal structure, hardness (relative resistance to being scratched), cleavage,
fracture and specific gravity. But some minerals have distinctive properties that help to identify
them. For example, carbonate minerals effervesce when dilute acid is added; halite is soluble in
water and has a salty taste; fluorite fluoresces in ultraviolet light; and uranium-bearing minerals
are radioactive.

THE MOHS’ HARDNESS SCALE

The Mohs’ hardness is the most practical and faster way to identify a mineral.
Mineral Mohs’ Hardness Remark
Talc 1.0 Softest mineral
Gypsum/Rock-Salt 2.0
Calcite 3.0
Fluorite 4.0
Apatite 5.0
Feldspar 6.0
Quartz 7.0
Topaz 8.0
Corundum 9.0
Diamond 10.0 Hardest mineral

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Standard Hardness kits are obtainable from vendors, but where this is not available the mineral
hardness may still be tested with the following:

Fingernail 2.5 Harder than Gypsum and

Talc
Copper coin 3.0
Window Glass 5- 5.5 Harder than Apatite
Knife Blade 5.5- 6.0
Steel Knife 6.5 - 7.0 Harder than feldspar
Flint 7.0 May be substituted for Quartz

How is the hardness test carried out?

1. Scratch the test mineral with the test tool, beginning from the softest upwards.
2. Inspect the mineral for any permanent groove made by the test tool on its surface (if the
test tool is harder).
3. Repeat with other test tools until on e is found that leaves a permanent scratch on the
mineral surface. This implies that the mineral is softer than that test tool threat makes a
permanent scratch on its surface.

OTHER USES OF MINERALS:

INDUSTRIAL MINERALS: This term to the usage of the mineral rather than its chemistry. The
mineral is not refined for any specific use, rather the entire mineral or rock mass is used on “as
is” basis.

FERTILIZERS: Mineral fertilizers play a major role in agricultural production as main

ingredients in soil improvement and crop yield. Calcium, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
sulphur are obtain from a number of naturally occurring minerals and are widely used in
production of fertilizers.

CHEMICAL MINERALS: These include the wide variety of non-silicates and they have a
very wide spectrum of usage in the world of industry and commerce.

EXOTIC MINERAL USES: Minerals that are very hard, such as quartz, garnet, corundum and
diamond are used as abrasives and for cutting purposes in industry, while others are such as the
precious and rare minerals may find usage as gemstones for jewelry and other decorative
purpose.

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