CELL CYCLE

 It is the series of growth and development steps a cell undergoes between its
“birth”—formation by the division of a mother cell—and reproduction—division to
make two new daughter cells.

STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE

1. Interphase
2. Mitosis
3. Cytokinesis

INTERPHASE
 The phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its life,
interphase is of 23 hours, the longest stage in the eukaryote cell cycle.
 The cell acquires nutrients, creates and uses proteins and other molecules, and
starts the process of cell division by replicating the DNA.
 The purpose of interphase in all cell types is to prepare for cell division
 Interphase is divided into three distinct stages:

G1 Phase (First Gap Phase)

 The cell performs its normal functions, and grows in size; all resources are
dedicated to replicating the DNA.
 The cell grows physically larger, copies organelles, and makes the
molecular building blocks it will need in later steps.
 The cell replicates organelles as necessary.
 Cells can sometimes leave G1 and enter G0 - resting phase
S Phase (Synthesis Phase)
 The cell pauses its normal functioning, all resources are dedicated to
replicating the DNA:
 The first step in DNA replication is to separate or unzip the two
strands of the double helix by the enzyme helicase
 The point where the double helix is opened up and the DNA is
copied is called a replication fork

 Polymerase enzymes, start creating new strands to pair with each

half of the DNA.
 This is done on each chromosome, which creates an identical copy
of each, bound together as sister chromatids
 If the cell is a somatic cell, it will enter mitosis after interphase and
the sister chromatids will be separated, creating two identical
copies of the genome in each cell.
 If the cell will give rise to a gamete it will enter meiosis after
interphase.

 The cell synthesizes a complete copy of the DNA in its nucleus. It also
duplicates a microtubule-organizing structure called the centrosome (the
centrosomes help separate DNA during M phase.

G2 Phase (gap 2 phase)

 The cell the cell adds volume to the cytoplasm, and replicates many
important organelles.
 In animals, the mitochondria are replicated to provide enough energy for
the dividing cell.
  In plants, both the mitochondria and the chloroplasts must be replicated to
provide the daughter cells with organelles capable of producing energy.

MITOSIS
 The nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible chromosomes and is pulled
apart by the mitotic spindle, a specialized structure made out of microtubules.

 Mitosis takes place in four stages: prophase (sometimes divided into early
prophase and prometaphase), metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

PHASES OF MITOSIS

1. PROPHASE.
 DNA condenses by wrapping around cores of histone proteins forming
nucleosomes.
 Histones - they are the chief protein components of
chromatin, acting as spools around which DNA winds, and
playing a role in gene regulation.
 The beads-on-a-string structure are called chromatin
 Chromatin in the nucleus coils up further, shortening, condensing resulting
in the formation of visible chromosomes (chromosomes are made of a
single piece of DNA that is highly organized)
 The replicated chromosomes have an X shape and are called sister
chromatids
 the sister chromatids are pairs of identical copies of DNA
joined at a point called the centromere
 A structure called the mitotic spindle begins to form.
 The mitotic spindle is made of long proteins called
microtubules that begin forming at opposite ends of the cell.
 The spindle will be responsible for separating the sister
chromatids into two cells.

 Prophase is followed by the second phase of mitosis, known as

Prometaphase
 The physical barrier that encloses the nucleus, called the
nuclear envelope, breaks down.
2. METAPHASE
 The cell's chromosomes align themselves in the middle of the cell through
a type of cellular "tug of war."
 The chromosomes, which have been replicated and remain joined at a
central point called the centromere, are called sister chromatids.
 Prior to metaphase, protein formations called kinetochores formed around
the centromere.
 Long protein filaments called kinetochore microtubules extended from
poles on either end of the cell and attached to the kinetochores.
 During metaphase, the kinetochore microtubules pull the sister chromatids
back and forth until they align along the equator of the cell, called the
equatorial plane/metaphase plate
 There is an important checkpoint in the middle of mitosis, called the
metaphase checkpoint, during which the cell ensures that it is ready to
divide.
 Once the cell has established that all of the chromosomes are properly
aligned and that the kinetochores are correctly attached, the cell enters
the fourth phase of mitosis, known as anaphase.
3. ANAPHASE
 When replicated chromosomes are split and the newly-copied
CHROMOSOMES are moved to opposite poles of the cell.
 The chromosomes are separated by a structure called the mitotic spindle.
 The mitotic spindle is made of many long proteins called microtubules,
which are attached to a chromosome at one end and to the pole of a cell
at the other end.
 The sister chromatids are separated simultaneously at their centromeres.
The separated chromosomes are then pulled by the spindle to opposite
poles of the cell.
 Anaphase ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical set of
chromosomes, and it is followed by the fifth and final phase of mitosis,
known as telophase.

4. TELOPHASE
 Telophase begins once the replicated, paired chromosomes have been
separated and pulled to opposite sides, or poles, of the cell.
 During telophase, a nuclear membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes to separate the nuclear DNA from the cytoplasm.
 The chromosomes begin to uncoil, which makes them diffuse and less
compact.
 Along with telophase, the cell undergoes a process called cytokinesis that
divides the cytoplasm of the parental cell into two daughter cells.
  A cleavage furrow is an indentation that appears in a cell's surface when the cell
is preparing to divide. It marks the beginning of the cell's “pinching” its cell
membrane and cytoplasm down the middle. Eventually, the cell will pinch itself
completely in two, forming two daughter cells.

CYTOKINESIS
 In cells such as animal cells that lack cell walls, cytokinesis follows the onset of
anaphase.
 A contractile ring composed of actin filaments forms just inside the plasma
membrane at the former metaphase plate.
 The actin filaments pull the equator of the cell inward, forming a fissure.
 This fissure, or “crack,” is called the cleavage furrow. The furrow deepens as the
actin ring contracts, and eventually the membrane is cleaved in two.
 A cleavage furrow is an indentation that appears in a cell's surface when the cell
is preparing to divide. It marks the beginning of the cell's “pinching” its cell
membrane and cytoplasm down the middle. Eventually, the cell will pinch itself
completely in two, forming two daughter cells.
  In plant cells, a new cell wall must form between the daughter cells.
 During interphase, the Golgi apparatus accumulates enzymes, structural
proteins, and glucose molecules prior to breaking into vesicles and dispersing
throughout the dividing cell.
 During telophase, these Golgi vesicles are transported on microtubules to form a
phragmoplast (a vesicular structure) at the metaphase plate.
 There, the vesicles fuse and coalesce from the center toward the cell walls; this
structure is called a cell plate.
 As more vesicles fuse, the cell plate enlarges until it merges with the cell walls at
the periphery of the cell.
 Enzymes use the glucose that has accumulated between the membrane layers
to build a new cell wall. The Golgi membranes become parts of the plasma
membrane on either side of the new cell wall.

What Is the Difference Between a Centriole & a Centrosome?

 Each animal cell has two centrioles located within a centrosome.

CENTROSOME
 Before a cell divides, the
centrosome is made up of two
centrioles inside a mass of cell
material containing about 100
different proteins.
 It is an amorphous structure
containing two centrioles, have a
complex physical structure that
fulfills a specific need.
 It is an organelle that is the main
place where cell microtubules are
organized.
 It directs the movements of the
CENTRIOLES
 It is an organelle with an intricate
microstructure, has a simple
physical structure but carries out a
variety of complex functions.
 Tiny organelles made up of nine
symmetrically arranged
microtubules, each of which has
two partial tubules attached to it,
and the two centrioles are located in
the middle of the centrosome,
arranged at right angles to each
other.
 It helps create the spindle of
 chromosomes when a cell divides threads along which the duplicated
chromosomes separate into the two
new cells.

 It contains and provides the

proteins required for the creation of
microtubule threads.

 Directs the movement of  The tubules of the centrioles help

chromosomes during cell division
 The centrosome now has four
centrioles and is ready to divide.
 As two centrosomes form, each
with two centrioles, the new
centrosomes start moving apart, to
opposite ends of the nucleus.
 The spindle of microtubules along
which the duplicated chromosomes
will travel form between the two
new centrosomes, with centrosome
proteins arranging themselves into
microtubules with the help of the
centrioles.
 When the chromosomes have
traveled along the spindle tubules to
opposite ends of the nucleus, the
cell can split and cell division will be
complete.
create the spindle of threads along
which the duplicated chromosomes
separate into the two new cells.
 When a cell divides, the centrioles
start duplicating first; they are
normally close together and joined
by a few fibers.
 At the beginning of cell division,
they move apart, remaining within
the centrosome.
 Each original tubule grows a new
tubule and the new tubules arrange
themselves into a new centriole
situated at right angles to the
original.
 The centrosome now has four
centrioles and is ready to divide.

BINARY FISSION ("division in half")

 It is a kind of asexual reproduction.
 It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria.
 It occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the
Paramoecium.
 In binary fission DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.
 It is the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of
those parts to separate entities resembling the original.