Task:​ ​As a class fill in this reviewer.

This is what will be used to make the MCQs and FRQs in your May 18th final exam. You should put
definitions, examples, explanations and hyperlinks to info in the ‘evidence’ column for each piece of ‘essential knowledge’.

I. Geography: Its Nature and Perspectives

AP Human Geography emphasizes the importance of geography as a field of inquiry and introduces students to the concept of spatial
organization. Knowing the location of places, people, and events is a gateway to understanding complex environmental relationships and
interconnections among places and across landscapes.

Geographic concepts emphasized throughout the course are location, space, place, scale of analysis, pattern, regionalization, and
globalization. These concepts are basic to understanding spatial interaction and spatial behavior, the dynamics of human population growth
and migration, patterns of culture, political control of territory, areas of agriculture production, the changing location of industry and economic
development strategies, and evolving human settlement patterns, particularly urbanization. Students learn how to use and interpret maps and
spatial data, apply mathematical formulas, and interpret models in order to better understand the world from a spatial perspective.

The course enables students to consider the regional organization of various phenomena and encourages geographic analysis in order to
understand processes in a changing world. For example, geographic perspectives on the impact of human activities on the environment, from
local to global scales, include effects on land, water, atmosphere, population, biodiversity, and climate. These human ecological examples are
inherent throughout the course, especially in topics dealing with population growth, agricultural and industrial practices, and rapid urbanization.
A significant outcome of the course is developing students’ awareness of geographic methods and the relevance of geospatial technologies to
a variety of situations (e.g., everyday life, planning and public policy, professional decision making, problem solving at scales from local to
global).

Students Essential Knowledge Evidence/ Explanation/ Links

Responsi
ble

Zeki / Kody 1)​Geographic At its core, geography is the study of where things are located on Earth, and the reasons for that. There are two main
information provides questions that human geographers ask themselves: Where are people and activities found on Earth? Why are they there?
context for The first, and most important tool for geographers, is a ​map. ​Two-dimensional representations of either the entire Earth’s
understanding spatial surface or a portion of it, maps are scale models of the world. Through cartography (the art of mapmaking), maps are both
 relationships and reference and communication tools. In fact, it was Eratosthenes, a Greek cartographer who first coined the term geography
human– environment as he made one of his maps.
interaction. https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B3vsn0sebcBEdzJUMXgwY1h0S0E&authuser=0
https://study.com/academy/lesson/human-cultural-geography-definition-characteristics-studies.html
-----
● Folk culture - indigenous tribes adapt to the natural environment and geographical conditions present
● Distribution of languages - how geography impacts how languages spread
○ Ex. The isolation of Iceland from the rest of Europe has resulted in its language remaining fairly constant over
the centuries.
● Site and situation factors: where companies position factories and where manufacturing hubs form
● Von Thünen’s land-use model
● Distance Decay Model: how space and distance separate people and cultures

Razel / 2)​Geographical concepts Geographical concepts include the following:

Kimberly include location, place,
scale, space, pattern,
nature and society,
networks, flows,
regionalization, and
globalization.
➔ Location - The position of something on the Earth’s surface
➔ Place - ​A specific point on Earth with human and physical characteristics that distinguish it from other points.
➔ Scale - The ​relationship between the size of an object or distance between objects on a map and the actual object or
distance on Earth's surface.
➔ Space - The physical gap or distance between objects.
➔ Networks - Things that link people and objects together.
➔ Regionalization - ​The organization of earth's surface into distinct areas that are viewed different from other ares
➔ Globalization - The expansion of economic, political, and cultural processes to the point that they become global in
scale and impact. The processes of globalization transcend state boundaries and have out comes that vary across
places and scales.

More notes ​here​ (Razel)

Keitaro 3)​Landscape analysis -Von Thunen’s land use model provides a context for why various types of agriculture are where they are in relation to the
(e.g., field observations, city.
photographic -Globalization making something worldwide and results in similarities around the globe.
interpretations) provides -Space time compression - the reduction in time it takes something to reach another place the interactions with
a context for places/people farther are becoming easier and more frequent because of advanced transportation and communications.
 understanding the -Distance decay, the interaction between father regions/places will decrease the closer a place is the more interconnected
location of people, they are
places, regions, and -Environmental determinism a view that the natural environment has a controlling influence on human culture.
events;
human–environment
relationships; and
interconnections
between and among
places and regions.

- (also known as the gravity model)

Robyn/ 4)​People apply ​spatial

Happy concepts​ to interpret and a. Distance Decay Model: ​ ​as the distance between two places increases, their
understand​ population interaction decreases.
and ​migration; cultural
patterns​ and processes;
political organization​ of This model relative to the “space” between places helps explain ​migration patterns​,
space​;agriculture​, food such as the huge wave of migrants from Northern Africa to Europe, which are in
production, and rural close proximity to each other.
land use;
industrialization ​and
economic development;
and cities and urban land
use.
 b. Von Thunen’s Land-Use Model

- Helps explain ​agricultural land-use:​ land closest to the city practice market gardening and dairying, to prevent spoilage
of these highly perishable goods; while land farther from the city practice extensive farming, since these cereal grains
can travel long distances to markets without spoiling.

Definition of space:​ The physical gap or interval between two objects

● Spatial concepts can be used to figure out what percent of people in a population are immigrants that have migrated
to that place.
● The physical characteristics of a culture could be changed and transformed because of the beliefs, values, and
taboos of the culture.
● Spatial concepts can be used to gain understanding on the political organization of space, by showing the
relationship between how the government set up boundaries and us. (ex. gerrymandering)
● The climate of the region can affect the amount of food produced. The type of food produced can depend on its
relative location to the market (von thunen)
Gregory/ 5)​Maps are used to Map:​ A map is a diagrammatic representation of an area of land or sea, which shows physical features, roads, cities etc.
Priyasha represent and identify There are different types of projections - Mercator and Robinson. There are also different types of maps, which allow people
spatial patterns and to learn and extract different types of knowledge. Maps can be used as a :
processes at different ● Reference tool: Helps us find the shortest route between two places, or find new places in relation to known
scales. places. Maps in an atlas or road maps are quite effective.
● As a communication tool: Portrays the distribution of human activities or physical features.
Spatial patterns: ​The placement or arrangements of objects on earth are useful information for geographers. They analyze
the density and concentration of those objects to understand why things are where they are. Some of these spatial patterns
could include migratory patterns. Maps can be used to analyze and represent the common migratory patterns from one place
to another. It can also be used to map out the processes of diffusion at small or large scales.

https://www.una.edu/geography/lights_night/step_1.htm

Maps consist of many different parts, but one of the most important elements of a map is the scale. The scale of a map is the
ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground. Scale allows for maps to be made of smaller areas
as well as huge distances while still being accurate and concise. Some examples of differently scaled maps can be seen below.

Small Scale Map:

Medium Scale Map:

 Large Scale Map:

Sofia 6)​Types of maps include

reference maps (e.g.,
Types of Maps
physical and political
maps) and thematic
maps (e.g., choropleth,
Reference Maps
dot, graduated symbol,
isoline, cartogram). Physical
All map projections (e.g., ● Physical maps are used to
Mercator, polar) locate and identify the
inevitably distort spatial physical features (physical
relationships (e.g., geography) of the earth’s
shape, area, distance, surface, such as mountains
direction). and rivers. Physical maps
are often labelled with
colors such as green, brown
and blue to distinguish wet
land, dry land, and bodies
of water, respectively.
Political
● Political maps are used to
distinguish the boundaries
between states/territories,
as well as to locate other
key man-made
infrastructure, such as
bridges, and highways.
These types of maps
typically have brighter
colors to distinguish states.
Shape
● When the shape of an area is distorted, it appears
more elongated or squat than in reality.
Thematic Maps
Choropleth
● Choropleth maps use varying ​shading, coloring, or the placing of symbols
to distinguish average values within a certain region. Different colors may
be used, but, the darker the shading/coloring in a given region, the greater
the average/density of a certain thing.
Dot
● Dot maps use dot symbols to show the presence of a feature or
phenomenon in a given region. These type of maps can better show the
spatial distribution of features as well as where they are ​clustered ​and
dispersed​.
Graduated Symbol
● Graduated Symbol maps are a class of maps that use the visual variable of
size to represent differences in the magnitude of a phenomenon or feature.
For example, a map may use the symbol of a person and vary it’s sie to
represent counts of people in an area.
Isoline
● Isoline maps use ​line​s to link different places that share a common value.
For example, lines may be used to encircle an area with a similar elevation,
which is called a contour.
Cartogram
● A cartogram is a map in which some thematic mapping variable is
substituted for land area and distance. In cartograms, the size, shape and
distance of areas are distorted in order to convey the information.
Map Distortions
Distance
 ● When the distance of an area is distorted, the
distance between two points may increase or
decrease.

Relative Size (Area) Direction

● When the relative size/area is distorted, one area ● When the direction of an area from one place to
may appear larger than another ona map but is in another is distorted.
reality smaller.

Map Projections

Mercator Goode Homolosine

● A rectangular map wherein the shape and direction
are distorted very little. On the other hand, the
relative size (area) of the poles is severely distorted.
● An equal-area, composite map projection with
equal-area property, making it useful for presenting
spatial distribution of phenomena. Despite this, the
several interruptions serve as a disadvantage
towards the Goode Homolosine projection.

Polar
● A projection primarily created to show the Arctic and
Antarctic circles. Although it does a great job of
showing the two circles in detail, it is limited to 10 to
15 degrees from both poles.
Robinson
● Is best used when displaying information across
oceans. However, by allocating space to the
oceans, the land areas are much smaller than on
interrupted maps of the same size.

Jenny/Jae 7)​Mathematical formulas Natural increase rate can be calculated by: Crude birth rate - Crude death rate. It is negative when the number of deaths is
Won and graphs are used to greater than the number of births. Doubling time can be calculated by using the rule of 70. In order to do this, you divide 70
analyze rates of natural by the growth rate. For example, if a country’s net population growth was 1%, it would take the country 70/1 = 70 years to
increase in population, double its population. The rank size rule for cities states that settlements in an area are ranked based on their population
population doubling time, size. Distance decay is when the interaction between two people declines as the distance between them increases.
rank-size rule for cities, https://study.com/academy/lesson/rate-of-natural-increase-in-population-definition-lesson-quiz.html
 and distance-decay https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-qZRo4opmjg
functions.

Natural Increase Rate

- The percentage by which a population grows in a year
- CBR - CDR

Doubling time
- Amount of time expected to take for the population to be doubled

Rank-size rule
- n th largest city will have 1/n of the population of the largest city in the country

Distance decay
- A function that represents the way that some entity or its influence decays with distance from its geographical
location.
- The farther the regions are, the lower the interaction is

James 8)​Geographers use Models:

models as - Land use: Von Thunen’s model explains land use in relation to a major city, including where things are grown, sold
generalizations to think and how the land is distributed between crops
systematically about
topics such as land use
(e.g., vonThünen model,
Latin American city
model), industrial
location (e.g., Weber
model), and the
distribution of
settlements (e.g.,
Christaller’s central place
theory).
- Industrialization: The Weber model shows the correct place to place and industry with minimized costs and maximize
profits by balancing the locations of extraction the raw materials and location of the market

- Distribution of Settlements: Christaller’s central place theory explains why settlements are the locations, size and
number there are, and that settlements primary function is to service what is around them
 -

Trisha/ 9)​Geographical issues Environmental Interactions - sustainable agriculture

Natalie include problems related Sustainable agriculture include agricultural practices that preserve and enhance environmental quality. Some of these
to human– practices include sensitive land management, limited use of chums, and better integration of crops and livestock.
environmental
interactions (e.g., Conflict and cooperation among countries
sustainable agriculture); conflicts within countries can depend on the type of state. Elongated states tend to have a harder time communicating from
conflict and cooperation both ends which can result in conflict. However, some conflicts can result in countries coming together to resolve the conflict.
among countries (e.g., An example of this can be the European Union, which came to be after the second world war whose objective is to hold
European Union); and peace and unity to the countries of Europe.
planning and
public-policy decision Pronatalist/anti natalist Policies
making (e.g., pronatalist Planning and policies are helpful because they prevent an area from getting too overpopulated, when a country gets too
policies). overpopulated, the country might not be able to provide enough resources for the whole population. By implementing these
policies, the country can save money for the long term.
Define ​sustainable agriculture​:
- Agricultural practices that preserve and enhance environmental quality
What are the principal practices that distinguish farmers practicing ​sustainable agriculture​ from those operating conventionally?
- Sensitive land management
- Limited use of chums
- Better integration of crops and livestock
In what ways are animals treated differently in sustainable agriculture? And, how is this a benefit?
- Correct number of livestock
- Distribution of livestock based on landscape and forage sources
- Farmers move animals to reduce overusing areas and overgrazing
- Animal confinement
- Not confining live stock
- Expensive waste management facilities are not needed
- Management of extreme weather
- Herd size can be reduced during periods of drought
- Buffer negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crops
- Flexible feeding and marketing
- Cushions farmers against trade and price fluctuations
- Feed costs can be minimized by monitoring animal conditions and performance

When was the ​European Union (EU)​ formed?

- The EU was formed in 1958, after WW2

By what states?
- There were six original members: France, Belgium, Italy, Netherlands, Luxembourg, and the Federal Republic of Germany (West
Germany).

For what purpose?

- This was created to “heal” Europe after World War II.
 Briefly explain the ​Eurozone Crisis​.
- The eurozone crisis arose due to the the fact that 23 European countries gave up their powerful currencies and switched to a
uniformed currencies, the Euro. A global recession began in 2008. Economically weak countries were forced to implement
policies that would increase tax and decrease services.

Pronatalist vs. Anti-Natalist Policies

- Pronatalism is the encouragement of child birth (usually in a certain country). It promotes motherhood and childbirth in a
positive manner for social reasons and also for the nation as a whole. ​Anti​-​natalism​ assigns a negative view to birth.

Lauren/ 10)​Patterns and Patterns and process reveal many interpretations of data, as you can see with the age-sex pyramid it could determine
Silvana processes at different various amounts of information. It can tell us about how population changes over time or tell us about the birth rate, death
scales reveal variations rate, and life expectancy of a country. For example you could tell the country’s characteristics based on the age-sex pyramid.
in and different As for the population density it can help us understand a country’s population in relation to the space or something of the
interpretations of data country.
(e.g., age–sex pyramids, https://www.slideshare.net/geoslades/interpreting-age-sex-pyramids
population density).
Types of maps include reference maps (Physical and political maps) and thematic maps
(choropleth, dot, isoline, cartogram)

Each of these maps are interpreted differently, Examples:

Choropleth map- color progression to represent information on each region of the map
Dot map- uses dots to represent the prevalence of a feature

All map projections (like mercator and polar) distort spatial relationships (space, area, distance, direction), so different ones
will be chosen depending on the information given, to guarantee the least significant effect on data.

Example: If maintaining size is vital to a specific map, then a Mercator map should not be chosen, as it distorts shape
Adi/ Saiya 11)​Regions are defined
on the basis of one or
more unifying
characteristics (e.g., corn
belt) or on patterns of
activity (e.g., hinterlands
of ports).
Martina 12)​Types of regions
include formal,
functional, and
perceptual.
Regions are characterized by a unifying characteristic in order to be able to distinguish one region from another so they can
be betterly grouped. An example would be the corn belt in the United States, a region that since the 19th century has
specialized in the production of the corn crop. It is a formal region because people within the corn belt often share many
similar characteristics such as language, religion, nationality and the other physical properties of the land.
https://www.albert.io/blog/regions-ap-human-geography-crash-course/
-
- Regions are defined by both physical and human characteristics
Example: Corn Belt
- Region in the Midwest of the United States
- Dominated the corn production since the 1850’s
- Thus giving it the name “Corn Belt”
Giving regions these names can help in distinguishing them from other parts of a state and helps in telling us what they are
known for (Corn Belt is in the Midwest and produces a lot of corn)
Formal Region
Also called:​ Uniform Region
Definition:​ An area where everyone shares one or more distinctive characteristics (common language, economic activity, or
environmental property)
Examples: ​The Philippines, Alaska, etc.
Functional Region
Also called:​ Nodal Region
Definition: ​An area organized around a node or focal point (node is determined by transportation/communication systems)
Examples: ​Department store, newspaper circulation, etc.
Perceptual Region
Also called:​ Vernacular Region
Definition: ​An informal area that people believe exists as part of their cultural identity
Examples: ​The South (North America), the Middle East, etc.
Asia/Sonali 13)​World regions are
defined for this course by
the maps in the course
curriculum section of the
AP Human Geography
Course Description.

The BIG Picture

Zoomed In
 As geography is to do with the ways in which patterns on Earth’s surface reflect and influence physical and human
processes, our earth’s surface is key to understanding this course. As maps and geographic information systems are
fundamental to understand, and learning to use and think about them is critical to geographical literacy. This outcome is
achieved when students learn to use maps to pose and solve problems, and when they learn to think critically about what is
revealed and what is hidden in different maps and GIS applications. These maps define regions by a factor that is either
shared or not shared in varying patterns.

https://apstudent.collegeboard.org/apcourse/ap-human-geography/course-details

Lila 14)​World regions may There are many different regions that separate different areas:
overlap (e.g., Southeast ❖ Functional region (nodal region)
Asia and Asia) and often ❖ Formal region (uniform region)
have transitional ❖ Vernacular region
boundaries (e.g., North
Africa and Sub-Saharan A functional region, also known as a nodal region, is an area organized around a node or focal point All functional regions
Africa). dominate at a central focus or node and diminishes in importance outward.

A formal region, which can also be called a uniform region, is defined as an area within which everyone shares in common
one or more distinctive characteristic.

Druce 15)​Regional thinking is
applied at local, national,
and global scales.
Regionalism refers to a
group’s perceived
identification with
a particular region at any
scale (e.g., Quebec).
Kody 16)​Interconnections
among places include
exchanges of natural
resources, agricultural
commodities, finished
products, services,
A vernacular region, or a perceptual region, is an area that people believe exists as part of their cultural identity. A useful way
to identify a vernacular region is through a mental map, which is an internal representation of a portion of Earth’s surface.
Region ​= in human geography, it is an area of land encompassing human settlements with particular physical, social,
cultural, economic, political, and functional characteristics.
Regionalism​ = the expression of a common sense of identity and purpose combined with the creation and implementation
of institutions that express a particular identity and shape collective action within a geographical region.
- It can also be a linguistic feature which is peculiar to a particular region and not part of the standard language of a
country.
Internationally, the scale of our world has become increasingly smaller, in a process called ​globalization​. It has become
much easier to interact with people, places, or things not close to our vicinity, and due to this, the financial fortunes of nations
have become increasingly intertwined. This economic globalization has been primarily pushed by so-called ​transnational
corporation​, which are companies which sell products and operate factories in many countries, not just where their
headquarters are located. Through the import and export of products, as well as the movement of people, ​relocation
diffusion​ has also become more common, with ideas moving with people from their birth nations to their adopted
homelands.
 people, information, https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-regionalization-process-definition-examples.html
money, and pollutants.

Gabriella/ 17)​Geospatial Remote Sensing​: The acquisition of data about Earth’s surface from a satellite orbiting Earth or from other long-distance
Kimberly technologies include methods.
geographic information
systems (GIS), satellite Uses:
navigation systems (e.g., - Record pixel images
global positioning - Record radiation in a specific area
system), remote sensing, - To observe the changing distribution of features (agriculture, drought, sprawl, etc.)
and online mapping and
visualization. Global Positioning System (GPS)​: ​Satellite-based system for determining the absolute location of places or geographic features.

Uses:
- Used primarily for navigation
- Detects positioning of vehicles on land
- Provides instructions on how to reach a specific destination
- Can be used to track vehicles in case of an emergency

Geographic Information System (GIS)​: ​A collection of computer hardware and software that permits spatial data to be
collected, recorded, stored, retrieved, manipulated, analyzed, and displayed to the user.
Examples of types of data in single layer:
- Boundaries of countries
- Bodies of water
- Roads
- Name of places

Mashup​: In relation to geography and the GIS, mashup is used to overlay information from one source on top of one mapping
service. For example, it can show certain shops or restaurants within a certain distance. This allows users to easily find precise
information about places like restaurants or find information about airplanes flying in the sky.
Zeki/ Pahal 18)​Geospatial data (e.g., Maps are used as a reference tool and as a communications tool.
census data, satellite
imagery) is used at all Geospatial Data: Personal
scales for personal (e.g., ● GPS devices direct people from their current to their desired locations
navigation), business ● GPS devices enable individuals to contribute to the production of accurate digital maps
(e.g., marketing), and ○ Travellers can enter information about streets, buildings and bodies of water so that the digital maps can be
governmental (e.g., created and improved
environmental planning) Geospatial Data: Business
purposes. ● GPS systems allow the client/service delivery industry to become much more effective and organizes
○ Companies can track their employees and public transportation/transportation of raw materials and
manufactured goods (whether it be via air, land, water) can become much more efficient
Geospatial Data: Governmental
● Governments can use layerings of data (such as mashups) to create maps connecting their population with any
characteristic or common feature they desire
○ For example, the US government can determine what places their African American, Asian American or Latin
American citizens cluster
○ Governments can use GIS for environmental planning
○ GIS can provide governments visuals on things such as natural disasters or viruses such as Zika in reference
to their country/population
● Geographic Information System - allows geographers to capture, store, and present spatial data
● Census - multiple layers of data on age, race, ethnicity, income, etc.
● Clustering - 1858 map of distribution of cholera in London
● Choropleth Maps
 Map of cholera spread in London

Pew Research Center: Choropleth Map of distribution of Hispanics

Razel/ 19)​Data may be Data Collection through:

Happy gathered in the field by Organizations -
organizations (e.g.,
 census data) or by Census- a survey of a whole population. For example, the US census happens every 10 years, and the information
individuals (e.g., gathered from it is used in activities such as city planning. Censuses can be very expensive and time-consuming, if the
interviews, surveys, population is large.
photography, informal
observations). Individual -
Observation- Making direct observations of simplistic phenomena can be a very quick and effective way of collecting data
with minimal intrusion. Establishing the right mechanism for making the observation is all you need.
Questionnaires- Questionnaires are stand-alone instruments of data collection that will be administered to the sample
subjects either through mail, phone or online. They have long been one of the most popular data collection techniques.
Interviews- Conducting interviews can help one overcome most of the shortfalls of the previous two data collection
techniques that we have discussed here by allowing you to build a deeper understanding of the thinking behind the
respondents’ answers.
Focus Group Sessions-Focus Group Sessions take the interactive benefits of an interview to the next level by bringing a
carefully chosen group together for a moderated discussion on the subject of the survey.
Document review- Review of historical documents to obtain usually unknown facts

Keitaro/ 20)​Quantitative and -Population the number of people in a certain place can affect numerous decision in various fields
Priyasha qualitative geographic -eg population pyramid, number of people in the workforce
data are used in -Census can affect marketing and a multitude of other decisions
economic, - The quality of Soil/Weather determines what crops/livestock to raise/grow
environmental, political, -Climate/Latitude, What can grow and what can’t. Can affect business decisions.
and social decision ------
making. ● Quantitative data involves statistics and hard data. It usually tells you a number or a quantity. Qualitative data
involves description, characteristics and often times opinion.
● Quantitative data:
○ The population of a country is a statistical piece of information. It can determine many things relating to
various factors. It can determine the strength of a country’s workforce (economic), the amount of pressure
being put on resources (environmental), and the amount of people who can run for office (political), and how
many people can vote in every state/have a voice in who gets elected into office.
○ Demographic statistics such as life expectancy, life and death rate, and natural increase rate can help
determine what state a country is at in the development spectrum - it can indicate if a country is financially and
politically stable, have a sound governmental system etc. These pieces of information can help countries
 decide where they are at in the spectrum of development. If they are relatively low ( low light expectancy and
high birth and death rate), this will lead to certain types of decision making which has to do with ways to
improve their rate of development. This could include promoting education, empowering women, negotiating
strategic political decisions, and reforming systems of food and aid distribution etc.
○ Immigration and emigration data and net migration is also helpful in decision making. If more people are
leaving the country than coming, governments must try and reformulate decisions they take on various fields.
This could mean improving social security, access to food/education/healthcare etc.
○ The literacy rate, teacher to pupil ratio and the number of high school graduates, are some other examples of
quantitative information, that can indicate factors in many different fields. With these pieces of information, the
government can decide if school systems need to be enhanced, more teachers need to be trained, and
facilities need to be improved.
● Qualitative data:
○ The quality or type of soil found in a certain location can affect what is grown there, and ultimately if the
hungry population can be fed sustainably. In lands that are too dry, cold, wet or mountainous, will probably
have poor soil quality. This regions will not be able to necessarily grow their own crops and feed their
population. In order to feed their population, farmers need to locate to fertile lands. Fertile lands are where the
quality of the soil is adequate to grow crops. This way, they can feed their population.
○ The quality of weather (Climate) is also crucial for agriculture and a comfortable life in general. If a country is
super prone to natural disasters, or faces extreme temperatures, one’s quality of life may be affected.
○ Overall quality of life in a country - healthcare, education, food, water - is one of the main factors that goes
into making social, political and economic decisions.

II.Population and Migration

Understanding the ways in which human population is organized geographically helps students make sense of cultural patterns, political
organization of space, food production issues, economic development concerns, natural resource use and decisions, and urban systems.
Therefore, many of the concepts and theories encountered in this part of the course connect with other course units. Additionally, course
themes of location, space, place, scale of analysis, and pattern can be emphasized when studying basic population issues such as crude birth
rate, crude death rate, total fertility rate, infant mortality rate, doubling time, and natural increase.
 Explanations of why the population is growing or declining in some places are based on patterns and trends in fertility, mortality, and migration.
For example, when learning about the relevance of place context and government policies, students may analyze fertility rates and age–sex
structures (shown in population pyramids) in various countries. Analyses of refugee flows, immigration, and internal migration help students
understand the connections between population phenomena and other topics. For example, environmental degradation and natural hazards
may prompt population redistribution at various scales, which in turn creates new pressures on the environment, culture, and political
institutions. This part of the course also enhances students’ critical understanding of population trends across space and over time as they
consider models of population growth and decline, including Malthusian theory, the demographic transition, and the epidemiological (mortality)
transition model. Students can then evaluate the role, strengths, and weaknesses of major population policies, which attempt to either promote
or restrict population growth.

Student Essential Knowledge Evidence/ Explanation/ Links

Responsible

Zeki 1)​Factors that explain
patterns of population
distribution vary according
to the scale of analysis
(i.e., local to global).
Such factors vary depending on scale because different places have different conditions and circumstances, and
thus differences can be magnified even between neighbouring counties.
● Concentration of wealth and jobs
○ Population distribution varies within countries: urban areas have very dense concentrations of
people, along with much wealth and employment.
○ It also varies within counties in the same city: some neighbourhoods may have more office space
and less housing, while others may be more suburban and have huge swaths of middle- and
upper-class housing.
● Retirement communities
○ In the United States, many of the elderly reside in southern states (Florida) because of the warmer
climate and the lower cost of living.
○ Often, the best places for retirement are shifting to developing countries, especially those in the
tropics, because of the warmer climate and the lower cost of living. Thailand and Malaysia are two of
the best locations because of their low cost of living and some of the best healthcare systems in
Asia.
● Environmental factors
○ On a global scale, populations are distributed disproportionately towards subtropical and tropical
climates; fewer people are found the farther away one travels from the equator.

Razel/ Jae Won 2)​Physical factors (e.g.,
climate, land forms, water
bodies) and human factors
(e.g., cultural, economic,
historical, political)
influence the distribution of
population.
○ It differs between countries: in the Middle East huge countries are mostly desert and few live there,
but the vast majority are concentrated near bodies of water. In Egypt, 80% of the population live on
the banks of the Nile, and the place is fast becoming congested.
○ The Siberian territories of Russia are vast and expansive, but 80% of the population choose to live
west of the Ural Mountains, where temperatures are warmer and water sources are more plentiful.
Physical factors influence population distribution because people tend to live in climates that are suitable for life.
People are mostly living in temperate climates, near water bodies to easily gain access to water and fertile land that
is suitable for agriculture. Population distribution is also affected by human factors. A group of people that share a
cultural belief about something are most likely living together and away from groups of people that share different
cultural beliefs.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/population-distribution-rural-vs-urban-areas.html
➔ Physical factors that affect population distribution include:
◆ altitude and latitude
● High altitude​ in general imposes an ultimate physiological limit upon human existence due
to reduced atmospheric pressure and low oxygen content
● However, in ​low latitude​ areas, which are otherwise hot and less favourable, high altitude
provides suitable conditions for human habitation.
◆ Relief
● Among the other aspects of relief features which affect human habitation are general
topography, slope and aspect​.
◆ Climate
● Climate affects population distribution both directly as well as indirectly through its effects on
soil, vegetation and agriculture​ that have direct bearings on the pattern of population
distribution.
◆ Soils
● The quality of soils exerts an undeniable influence on the distribution of world population. The
fertile alluvial and deltaic soils can support dense populations.
◆ Vegetation
● In association with climatic conditions, varying soil types give rise to variety of vegetation
cover on the earth surface.

Keitaro / Daniel 3)​Population distribution
and density influence
political, economic, and
social processes (e.g.,
redistricting, provision of
services such as medical
care).
Robyn 4)​Population​ distribution
and density impact the
environment and natural
resources​ (e.g., carrying
capacity)
◆ Water and location of mineral and energy resources.
-Gerry Mandering takes place in the US. It is the redistricting of boundaries so that one party has an unfair
advantage against the other. Though this practice is now illegal due to the violations to the rules of of compactness
and equality of size of constituents. ​For more information
-Brain drain when skilled people move to places around the globe in search for higher pay jobs. The country loses
skilled workers to help their own economy.
-
-More aging people in one location means more medical care would be given to that Population.
Population distribution and density influence political, economic and social processes because this affects the labor
sides of a country. Which whether the population distribution is well for a developed country, then the political,
economic and social processes will develop better because there are more people focused on working compared to
the ratio of people not. Having more people working for the country improves all processes and is key to developing
as a country. Redistricting is one example of how population distribution and density influences the political process
of selecting a leader. Redistricting is the process by which new congressional and state legislative district
boundaries are drawn. A major area of government activity in most countries is the provision of medical care. The
population distribution will also have a major effect on whether the country allow medical care to be free or not,
because the population number would vary on country.
-Redistricting can have numerous impacts, it essentially cherry picks voters. To sway elections redistricting allows
the political party in control to win elections in that region. In addition it has the opportunity to dilute minority voters
among a multitude of regions, spreading out the opposing voters. It creates an unfair advantage to opposing voters
and thus has been illegal since
Population:​ number of people inhabiting a region, country, or place
Larger Populations = Higher Strain on Resources
a. Bangladesh: Water Scarcity
- 8th most populous country - ​166,368,149​ (2018)
- Very high population density - ​1,278 ​persons per sq km

Gregory / 5)​Population distribution
Silvana and density affect the need
for infrastructure (e.g.,
housing) and urban
services (e.g., sanitation)
Sofia / Saiya 6)​Age, sex, and ethnicity
are elements of population
composition that may be
mapped and graphed at
various scales.
Jenny 7)​Population pyramids are
used to project population
- The rapid rural-to-urban migration to the capital, Dhaka, has caused high population densities.
Consequently, groundwater is being extracted faster than it is replenished, which has resulted in water
scarcity.
The population distribution and density affect the need for infrastructure as well as urban services. With more of the
population in a certain area the need for infrastructure is greater for example, more houses will be needed in a
certain area rather than someone else. This is due to the fact that there is just more people. With regards to
sanitation, if the population was more dense it would be much worse. This would be because more people carry
diseases and it could possibly spread amongst the population making the health even worse.
With regards to age and sex, the population pyramid is often used to evaluate the elements of population
composition. With ​this​ ​population pyramid, we can infer that there may be a military training center or an all-male
college in the area as there is a high population of men in the age range of 20 - 24 years of age.
When looking at ethnicity of population composition, maps (especially choropleth) are most effective in displaying
the data. ​This​ ​choropleth map displays the distribution and concentration of African-Americans throughout the US.
The variation in color and outline of each district within states makes it more accurate in displaying the full picture of
the population composition. However, if a ​larger scale ​graph was used, it would give greater insight into the
population composition of cities and the distribution of the population of ethnicities within them.
----
There can be multiple ethnicities within the confines of one country - this being called a multiethnic state. An
example this would be the United States as there are several ethnicities. This could be both a centrifugal and
centripetal force as the diversity may be appealing to some and to others, some ethnicities may feel the need to
appear stronger than the others, causing conflict within the country. As for sex (gender), there are several issues
that come along such as the GII (gender inequality index) which is a measure of the gender inequality in a country.
Countries that have higher GII’s are usually LDC’s and this means that the reproductive health, empowerment and
labor market participation is very low. Finally, for age, in Stage 4 countries older people are often retired, the
income coming from people middle aged. The life expectancy in LDCs are significantly lower that those of MDC’s,
the difference being 15-20 years in some cases.
Population pyramid
 growth and decline and to
predict markets for goods
and services.
James / Sonali 8)​Demographic factors that
determine population
growth and decline are
fertility, mortality, and
migration.
Natalie 9)​Rates of natural increase
and population-doubling
times are used to explain
population growth and
decline.
Lauren 10)​Social, cultural, political,
and economic factors
- A model used in population geography that describes the ages and number of males and females within a
given population
- Also called age sex distribution
Shapes of population pyramids
- Expanding
- Usually found in developing countries
- Growth of population expected
- Stationary
- Usually found in developed countries
- ZPG expected
- Contracting
- Usually found in developed countries
- Decline in population expected
- When looking at the demographics of a country, there are a multitude of things that go into creating it, as
well as affecting the growth and decline of the population
- Fertility: How many people are born per 1000 people
- Mortality: How many people die per 1000 people
- Migration: This includes how many people immigrate into the country, as well as accounting for all
the people that emigrate out of the country.
- All of these things factor into the growth and decline of the population, as well as push and pull factors
-In the rate of natural increase we can distinguish patterns of growth by looking at the increases or decreases of
birth and death rates. High death rates and low birth rates will result to the natural increase rate decreasing. While
the opposite would lead to the natural increase rate increasing.
-The rate of natural increase can be related to the time it takes for a population to double if the current growth rate
remains constant- that is, the doubling time. For example, it would take 70 years for a population with a rate of
increase of 1% to double.
Fertility:
influence fertility, mortality,
and migration rates.
Social: Many social factors affect fertility rates in a region. Notable ones include ​religion, education, and
the status of women:
Status of women:
The status of women differs in each country. Often in less developed countries where there is a significant
inequality between men and women, women have more children, as they are less likely to pursue jobs, and are
often viewed as child-bearers/caretakers.
Education:
inferior reproductive health knowledge=higher fertility rate
Cultural:
in many Asian countries, marriage and reproduction are a religious duty
In addition, many Christians do not support family planning (birth-control, condoms, abortion etc.) and are therefore
more likely to have children
Political:
Certain countries have anti-natalist or pro-natalist policies or population control laws (China’s One-Child Policy)
Egs: India is anti-natalist; campaigns encouraging smaller families, financial incentive (5000 rupees policy)
Egs: Japan is pro-natalist; free daycare, family counseling
Economic:
Countries:
HICs have better reproductive health education and better distribution of birth control opposed to LICs
Mortality:
Economic:
Less finances directed towards healthcare=higher mortality rate and lower lifespan
Political:
Political conflicts not only cause economic instability (less finances for healthcare), but often the violence
associated with them also leads to many deaths.
Migration Rates:
Political:​ Immigration laws/quotas can prevent migrants from entering a country/make it more difficult
Social:
More ethnic diversity can make a specific country more welcoming for immigrants (pull factor)
While a nation-state (Japan) can prevent migrants, due to possible discrimination
Cultural:
 Religion can decrease the number of migrants, due to cultural prejudices against other people of religious
minorities.
Economic:
If a country is seeking a larger workforce, migration rates will be higher, as they will ultimately benefit the economy.

Adi / Kody 11)​The demographic - The DTM shows the change in birth rate and death rate as a country develops which will then show the
transition model may be natural increase and population change of country over time.
used to explain population - Example: A country such as Nigeria is in Stage 2 of the DTM because of it’s high birth rate and fast growing
change over time and population.
space. - ----
The Demographic Transition Model is divided into four main stages, as well as a potential fifth one, as displayed
here:

In ​Stage 1​, both birth and death rates are high - leading to a relatively neutral natural increase rate, as the high
number of births is balanced out by the high number of deaths. While common in the eras before large-scale
 industrialization became common, societies in the stage 1 DTM are now near-exclusively isolated communities
which still lead the lives of hunter-gatherers.

Stage 2​, however, is where many newly developing countries lie, such as Cape Verde. This was spurred by the
diffusion of medical technology from MDCs to perhaps their former colonies or simply less prosperous nations, and
so it is a time in which the ​high birth rate​ remains a constant, but the ​death rate falls quite a bit​ as well. Due to
this, the ​natural increase rate is highest​ for countries in stage 2 of the DTM. As such, major population booms
are not uncommon.

It can be said that ​Stage 3 ​is akin to the midpoint of many countries’ development - nations like Chile, perhaps, are
not as well-established as industrial economies like Germany or Japan, but have had a more established economy
than states such as Liberia or Mongolia. SImply put, ​both the birth and death rate decline​ during stage 3,
although it is a gradual process. Due to this, the ​natural increase rate​ also slows noticeably, although some
growth in the population is still usually seen. It is at this stage in which women usually begin to enter the workforce
in greater droves, lowering overall fertility rates but usually leading to a decrease in the disparity between men and
women in both career and educational attainment.

Stage 4 ​is where you will find states like Japan and Germany - countries that have aging populations, and tend to
incentivize migration to their countries, in order to counteract the still-decreasing fertility and overall natural increase
rate. Healthcare tends to be quite good in these states, which results in a larger proportion of elderly people in the
population than is usually seen in an “average” nation. By this point, ​the natural increase rate​ may signal zero to
little growth, almost becoming a near-straight line.

In the potential ​stage 5​, though, the natural increase rate may actually become ​negative​, with chronic diseases
afflicting many of the elderly, resulting in a potential population decrease.

Martina 12)​Malthusian theory is Malthusian Theory:​ The world's rate of population increase (exponential/geometric) is far outrunning the
used to analyze population development of food supplies (linear).
change and its
consequences.
Thomas Malthus also believed that preventative and positive checks help control the population.
Preventative checks:​ Voluntary actions to prevent population growth such as moral restraint, which is waiting until
you are older to have a family so you’re sure you can support them.
Positive checks:​ Things that shorten the average lifespan, such as disease, warfare, famine, and poor living and
working environments.

-----
The Malthusian theory, formulated by Thomas Malthus, states that population growth will eventually exceed food
production due to the fact that human population growth is exponential while food production growth is arithmetic.
The theory insinuates that the population will eventually starve.
Asia / Pahal 13)​The epidemiologic
transition explains causes
of changing death rates.

1. Where mortality is high and fluctuating, allowing for a sustained population growth. Shown to have
famine, infectious diseases, etc.
2. Where mortality progressively declines. Population growth is sustained and begins to be exponential.
3. Mortality continues to decline and eventually approaches stability at a relatively low level. Progressive
Degenerative diseases/man made diseases
4. Declining Mortality Reemergence of disease
------
Each stage of the Demographic Transition Model has a corresponding stage of the Epidemiological Transition
Model which explains causes of the changing death rates that the DTM highlights.
Stage 1: Pestilence and Famine
a) Low life expectancy; between 20-40 years
b) Black Plague was prominent
c) High death rates
Stage 2: Receding Pandemics
a) Population beings to rise exponentially
b) Increase of average life expectancy
c) Diseases center in Industrial places where people crowd together
Stage 3: Degenerative Diseases
a) Decline in infectious diseases and widespread use of vaccinations
b) Major health issues such as Cancer and Heart Attacks
Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases
a) Death rates are affected by man-made diseases, individual behaviours and destructive lifestyles
b) Most of the population is elderly with few children
c) Most developed countries are in this stage of the DTM and ETM
Lila/ Happy 14)​Types of population
policies include those that
promote or restrict
population growth (e.g.,
pronatalist, antinatalist).
A natalist policy is a scheme or law that a government may adopt in order to control their population. This is usually
carried out by incentives - money or material goods that are given to families if they have below or above a certain
number of children. Countries with pronatalist laws encourage higher birth rates, while countries with anti natalist
policies encourages families to have fewer children. Some famous examples of pronatalist or anti natalist policies
include of:
❖ Singapore (Pronatalist) - Money is given to new mothers, career leave introduced for fathers, financial
benefits were given to encourage female graduates.
❖ Japan (Pronatalist) - 8 weeks paid leave from work, shorter working hours, economic incentives, child
allowances, larger families can get discounts from certain shops More time off to have a child
❖ India (Anti natalist) - Family planning program which focuses on contraceptives, abortion was legalized,
camps for surgeries that prevented reproduction, sterilized citizens provided the money equivalent to the
average monthly income.
❖ China (Anti natalist) - Laws to limit the number of birth improved housing and free education/medical care,
free birth control and family planning advice, apply for marriage certificates
----
Pronatalist
● Promotes human reproduction
● For example, France- In 1939, the French passed the "Code de la famille", a complex piece of pro natalist
legislation.
● Offering cash incentives to mothers who stayed at home to care for children.
● Subsidising holidays.
● Banning the sale of contraceptives (repealed in 1967).
Antinatalist
● Disapproves of population growth
● For example, China has a famous one-child policy rule, this policy allows families to only have one child
Druce 15)​Changing social values
and access to education,
employment, health care,
and contraception have
reduced fertility rates in
most parts of the world.
How the following aspects have reduced fertility rates globally:
● Social Values
○ People nowadays (especially in developed countries) opt to have a small family. Family planning is
now ubiquitous also, especially in developing countries.
○ Gender roles: The world nowadays is beginning to detach from the from the notion that women are
supposed to take care of the family and raise children while men are the ones who work.
● Access to Education
○ Women empowerment increases along with better access to education and they begin to focus on
acquiring jobs and standing up for their reproductive rights.
● Employment
○ As the majority of the work force of a number of countries around the world leave the primary sector
(which involves physical work) and enter the secondary (manufacturing and processing) and tertiary
sector (information), women, along with this, are increasingly being seen to be equally qualified as
men to work and to be able to improve their social and professional standing.
● Contraception
○ The use of contraception is now more widespread and is currently being introduced even to people
at their early age so as to reduce their risks of unwanted and unintended child birth.

Nicole / 16)​Changing social, - The UN includes reproductive health as a contributor to GII because in countries where effective control of
Dipasha economic, and reproduction is universal, women have fewer children, and maternal and child health are improved. Women
political roles for women in developing regions are more likely than women in developed regions to die in childbirth and to give birth
have as teenagers.
influenced the patterns of - As women receive better jobs, they are less likely to give birth to a lot of children in comparison to those
fertility, mortality, and who have low-paying jobs.
migration.

Gabriella/ Jae 17)​Population aging is A country’s aging population is highly dependent on the country’s life expectancy. If a country’s life expectancy is
Won influenced by birth and low, that indicates the average person in the country will die at an early age. Death rates also affect the aging
death rates and life population of a country because it is not possible for a country to have a high life expectancy with high death rates.
expectancy. Birth rates on the other hand influence the aging population in a positive way, because it contributes more people to
the country, which may then improve the economic status and make the life expectancy longer.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/population-change-from-aging-death-and-migration.html
Life expectancy: ​measures the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live at current mortality levels.

Crude birth rate (CBR)​: the total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society.
- Infant mortality rate: ​the annual number of deaths of infants under one year of age, compared with total live births.

Crude death rate (CDR)​:​ ​the total number of deaths in a year for every 1,00 people alive in the society.

Different countries are have different aging populations due to their development and position on the demographic
transition model.

- As the crude birth rate and the crude death rate decreases, the population will increase, therefore, resulting
in a higher life expectancy. This increase age of life expectancy is due to reasons including accessibility to
resources, access to medicines when sick, physical environment, etc.

The aging population can also be looked at using a population pyramid. The base can provide information about the
crude birth rate, while the data towards the top of the pyramid will can tell us about the life expectancy and crude
death rate.
 - For example, in Ethiopia, there is a high crude birth rate and a high crude death rate. By analyzing this
model, it can also be seen that the life expectancy is to the age of 80-84. With this model, we can also infer
about the future of the country and make predictions about it’s population development.

Zeki / Daniel 18)​An aging population has An aging population has social, economic and political implications such as retirement, dependency ratio and voting
social patterns. Retirement is the action or fact of leaving one's job and ceasing to work. An aging population is more
(e.g., retirement), economic popular and has people living to older ages which requires them to ‘retire’ from their job after a while, which relates
(e.g., to the dependency ratio. But, retirement causes the country to lose workers which input development into the
dependency ratio), and country. The dependency ratio is a measure showing the number of dependents, aged zero to 14 and over the age
political of 65, to the total population, aged 15 to 64. The dependency ratio takes the same effect as the retirement as this is
(e.g., voting patterns) more relevant as countries develop. The political implication that takes place is voting patterns for the elderly.
implications.
-----
● An aging population and the welfare state
○ Retiring workers place immense pressures on pensions and health systems.
○ They place huge strain on the shrinking base of taxpayers and younger people who have to pay for
these services.

Razel 19)​Push and pull factors
can be cultural (e.g.,
religious freedom),
demographic (e.g.,
unbalanced sex ratios,
overpopulation), economic
(e.g., jobs), environmental
(e.g., natural disasters), or
political (e.g., persecution).
○ Governments have difficulty trying to pay for these services due to more dependents, and deficits in
social security and healthcare may spiral out of control.
● An aging population and the economy
○ More elderly dependents increases the dependency ratio and reduces the number of productive
people, curtailing GDP growth.
○ Taxes may go up in order to sustain the ever-increasing number of elderly dependents.
○ Demand for certain items may change: in Japan sales of adult diapers have exceeded that of baby
diapers.
● An aging population and the electorate
○ Elderly dependents have a much higher voice than the workforce paying for their services because
of their higher number.
○ Elderly dependents generally have more traditional and more conservative values, shifting the
country’s political standing to the right.
○ An aging population is more resistant to change than a more dynamic and fluid young population.
This may prevent necessary reforms from taking place.
➔ Lack of Jobs/Poverty: Economic factors provide the main motivation behind migration. In fact, according to
the International Labour Organization, approximately half of the total population of current international
migrants, or about 100 million migrant workers, have left home to find better job and lifestyle opportunities
for their families abroad
➔ Civil Strife/War/Political and Religious Persecution: Some migrants are impelled to cross national borders
by war or persecution at home. These immigrants may be considered refugees or asylum seekers in
receiving countries. The 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees defined the
qualifications for such migrants and bound signatory countries not to return these newcomers to places
where they could be persecuted.According to the text put forth by the Convention, a refugee is “someone
who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of origin owing to a well-founded fear of being
persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political
opinion”
➔ Environmental Problems: Environmental problems and natural disasters often cause the loss of money,
homes, and jobs. In the middle of the 19th century, for example, Ireland experienced a famine never before
seen in the country’s history.
➔ economic migration - moving to find work or follow a particular career path
 ➔ social migration - moving somewhere for a better quality of life or to be closer to family or friends
➔ political migration - moving to escape political persecution or war
➔ environmental causes of migration include natural disasters such as flooding

Ravenstein's Laws of Migration:

1. Most migrants move only a short distance.
2. There is a process of absorption, whereby people immediately surrounding a rapidly growing town move
into it and the gaps they leave are filled by migrants from more distant areas, and so on until the attractive
force [pull factors] is spent.

Keitaro 20)​Push factors are often
negative (e.g., poor
economic conditions,
warfare), while pull factors
are often perceived as
positive (e.g., a better
quality of life, economic
opportunities).
3. There is a process of dispersion, which is the inverse of absorption.
4. Each migration flow produces a compensating counter-flow.
5. Long-distance migrants go to one of the great centers of commerce and industry.
6. Natives of towns are less migratory than those from rural areas.
7. Females are more migratory than males.
8. Economic factors are the main cause of migration.
-<<Push Factors are generally negative, forcing people to move away from their country.
-Examples would be Poor economic conditions(negative lack of money), Warfare(negative lack of safety)
The people want to get out of their situation for a variety of reasons and leave to another place hoping for a better
life and these are sometimes forced to move because of the these factors.
<<<Pull factors are most likely that not positive resulting to a better quality of life.
- Examples would be economic opportunities(More jobs and more pay), safety and peace (no sense of danger)
The person is not forced to move, however, it is their decision hoping for a better life.
 Most of these major migration flows are pull
factors, people who want more economic opportunities
The essential question is why people want to leave their country, and why people want to go to another country.

Robyn 21)​Forced migrations Refugees:​ ​People who are forced to migrate from their home country and cannot return for fear of persecution
include those involving because of their race, religion, nationality, membership in a social group, or political opinion
refugees, internally
displaced persons, and Asylum Seekers: ​Someone who has migrated to another country in the hope of being recognized as a refugee.
asylum seekers​.
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs): ​ ​someone who is forced to flee his or her home but who remains within his or
her country's borders

Refugees, asylum seekers, and IDPs all fled their homes because of push factors such as war, bloodshed, and
persecution. They migrate to other countries in order to reach safety, where there are also better economic
opportunities.

Gregory / 22)​Voluntary migrations Voluntary migration:​ where the migrant has a choice whether or not to migrate.
Maanya may be transnational,
 internal, chain, step, and
rural to urban.
Sofia 23)​Patterns of voluntary
and forced migration may
be affected by distance and
physical features.
Jenny 24)​Major historical
migrations include forced
migration of Africans to the
Americas, immigration
waves to the U.S., and
emigration from Europe
and Asia to colonies
abroad.
Migration:​ ​Permanent or relatively permanent relocation of an individual or group or group to a new,usually distant,
place of residence and employment
Transnational Migration: ​Migrants who set up homes and/or work in more than one nation-state.
Internal Migration: ​Permanent movement within a particular country.
Chain Migration: ​Migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality
previously migrated there.
Step migration:​ Migration to a distant destination that occurs in stages, for example, from farm to nearby village and
later to a town and city.
Rural --> Urban Migration: ​Permanent movement from suburbs and rural area to the urban city area.
Any of these migration patterns can be linked to voluntary migration because even if each choice has its on push and
pull factors, they are not being FORCED to migrate and still have the choice not to.
Voluntary Migration​ - A migration undertaken by choice in response to perceived opportunity
Forced Migration​ - A migration that is forced, in which the migrant has no choice but to move
One example of a way in which physical features and distance can affect patterns of voluntary migration would be if
a migrant in India hears about great opportunities in China and attempts to migrate there. The Himalayas would be
a physical feature which would affect the patterns of migration, as the Himalayas would be life threatening to cross.
Therefore, not many people would migrate between India and China as the physical features cause migration to be
too dangerous.
Forced migration of Africans to the Americas
- Slavery (forced labor)
- Political push factor
- 12M African forced to move to Americas
- Settled in southern US
Immigration waves to the U.S.
● Ireland and Germany
○ During ​1840s and 1850s
 ○ Annual immigration jumped from ​20,000 to 200,000.
○ 75%​ of US immigrants came from Ireland and Germany
● Civil War (Ireland and Germany)
○ During ​1870s
○ Emigration from Ireland and Germany resumed due to ​US Civil War
● Scandinavia
○ During ​1880s
○ Immigration increased to ​500,000 per year
○ Swedes, Norwegians, Germans, and Irish ​migrate to US
● Southern and Eastern Europe
○ From ​1905 to 1914
○ Immigration reached ​1 million
○ ⅔​ of immigrants came from ​Southern and Eastern Europe
■ Italy, Russia, and Austria-Hungary
● World War II and Great Depression
○ During​ 1930s and 1940s
● Asia and Latin America
○ Since ​1950s
○ ¾​ of recent US immigrants came from ​Asia and Latin America
 Emigration from Europe and Asia to colonies abroad.
- Europe was the source of most of the world’s emigrants, particularly during the nineteenth century. First, the
emigration of Europeans contributed to the diffusion of technologies, spawned by Industrial Revolution. This
allowed most of the European countries into stage 2 of demographic transition due to the fact the application
of advanced technology caused rapid decline of Crude Birth Rate. Also, as they migrated to countries in
other continents, their culture was diffused throughout the world. They spread Christianity, which is now one
of the biggest religion in the world. Also, European art, music, literature, philosophy, and ethics were spread
during this time.

James / Sunny 25)​Governments institute Encourage: In 1986, the U.S. government passed an act that gave visas to many latin american workers that had
policies to encourage or previously entered the country illegally.
restrict migration.
Restrict: Passing quotas as to how many people can immigrate and emigrate from each country per year.
Kody 26)​Migration has
consequences (e.g.,
remittances; spread of
languages, religions,
innovations, diseases) for
areas that generate or
receive migrants.
There are many effects migration can have on countries that either receive many migrates, or create ones.
One prominent consequence is the rise in ​remittances​, money that overseas migrant workers send back to their
families back in their home countries in order to help provide for them. One example of a state that has a large
amount of remittances is ​the Philippines,​ with many Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) working as perhaps
domestic helpers, nurses, or a variety of other jobs abroad, as they often get better wages than they would working
in their home country.

Another consequence or effect is a general ​uptick in relocation diffusion​, as migrants bring from their home
country a whole bevy of dishes, languages, religious practices, and other traditions to their new nation, which often
get diffused over there. This effect tends to also increase exponentially over time, as chain migration means that
many of their own relatives will probably at least attempt to migrate to that new place. Examples of this diffusion are
things like Little Italies or Chinatowns, ethnic communities in which migrants set up shop, offering their own local
cuisine.

Additionally, relocation diffusion has played a great part in the growth of Spanish speakers in the U.S., which has
seen increasing numbers of Mexican and other Central and South American immigrants.

However, this relocation diffusion also includes diseases as well. When British colonists migrated to America, they
ended up causing a Smallpox epidemic in the Native American population, as smallpox was not a common disease
on the North American peninsula, and so their bodies had not evolved to become resistant to it.

III.Cultural Patterns and Processes

Understanding the components and regional variations of cultural patterns and processes is critical to human geography. Students begin with
the concepts of culture and cultural traits and learn how geographers assess the spatial and place dimensions of cultural groups as defined by
language, religion, ethnicity, and gender, in the present as well as the past. The course explores cultural interaction at various scales, along
with the adaptations, changes, and conflicts that may result. The geographies of language, religion, ethnicity, and gender are studied to identify
 and analyze patterns and processes of cultural differences. Students learn to distinguish between languages and dialects, ethnic religions and
universalizing religions, and folk and popular cultures, as well as between ethnic political movements. These distinctions help students
understand the forces that affect the geographic patterns of each cultural characteristic.

Another important emphasis of the course is the way culture shapes relationships between humans and the environment. Students learn how
culture is expressed in landscapes and how land use, in turn, represents cultural identity. Built environments enable the geographer to interpret
cultural values, tastes, symbolism, and beliefs. For instance, when analyzing Amish communities in the Western Hemisphere, it is important to
understand how their unique values and practices (e.g., lack of power lines to buildings and the use of pre industrial forms of transportation)
influence the cultural landscape.

Student Essential Evidence/ Explanation/ Links

Responsible Knowledge

Kimberly 1) ​Culture is Culture is the act of caring about or for something. It is comprised of the unique shared practices, technologies, attitudes,
comprised of the and behaviors transmitted by a group of people. Every society has their own unique culture, though certain practices,
shared practices, attitudes, technologies, and behaviors may overlap with that of another society due to diffusion.
technologies,
attitudes, and
behaviors
transmitted by a
society.

Adi/ Pahal 2)​Cultural traits - Different cultures have different food preferences (meat vs no meat, certain products not being consumed)
are individual - Architecture can differ from culture to culture depending on their history behind each piece of infrastructure
elements of - Land is used differently in different cultures in order to preserve a certain aspect of it and protect it.
culture and -----
include such Folk Food Customs
things as food ● Soil, Climate, terrain, vegetation and other characteristics of environment must be considered when making food decisions
● Terroir: The effects on a food item from the environment of origin
preferences, ● Istanbul, Turkey, is home to the Bostans Gardens; a natural, major producing food industry that the entire country is dependent on
architecture, and ● People are also dependent on the environment to dictate their food choice
land use. ○ Rice is mass-produced in Asia due to the mild, moist vegetation
● Food Taboos are prominent in every culture, and are foods that people do not eat for a variety of reasons
 Popular Food Customs
● Popular food customs differ between countries
○ Coke is typically preferred in the Western Hemisphere, however Quebec, Canada prefers Pepsi because it’s advertising relates it to
unique Canadian-French culture
● Popular food customs also differ between states (especially in USA)
○ Certain portions of the country have different fast food, beverage and snack opinions in comparison to others

Folk Housing/Architecture
● Folk housing originates through isolation from other cultures
○ Folk housing vary significantly, even with places that are close
○ Pitched roofs are important in wet and snowy climates while windows take advantage of the sun’s light and heat
○ Types of materials depend of the availability in the environment
○ Even the slightest environmental change can greatly affect the folk housing, as shown in most of China
● Most folk housing derives from religious customs and therefore has allocated sacred spacing and direction
○ Housing in Java, Indonesia always have south facing front doors (South Sea)
● US Folk Housing in the 17-1800s used wood to build houses, barns, fences
● Geographer Fred Kniffen identifies three major hearths of folk housing in the US
○ Middle Atlantic: Two full stories in height; carries westward and southwestward
○ Lower Chesapeake: one story, steep roof; spread along the Southeast Coasts
○ New England: Box shaped; found throughout Great Lakes

Martina 3)​Geographers Language and Religion:

use maps and the
spatial perspective
to analyze and
assess language,
religion, ethnicity,
and gender.
 Ethnicity:

Gender:

Asia 4)​Communication Improvements in modern technology have helped the spread of both popular and folk culture. Better communication allows
technologies (e.g., for more rapid diffusion of ideas. The internet has allowed for ideas to be very accessible, they can share and receive them.
 the Internet) are People in other countries are able to communicate via communication technology. This makes distance relative. Because
reshaping and of this spread of tech English has become a more common language to communicate. However, this has caused some
accelerating damage to indigenous languages as younger generation have an inclination to English so they can fit in and/or go to
interactions school.
among people and
places and
changing cultural
practices (e.g.,
use of English,
loss of indigenous
languages).

Lila 5)​Regional What do ​regional patterns​ of​ ​language​, ​religion​, and ​ethnicity​ contribute to?
patterns of ❖ Sense of place
language, religion, ❖ Enhance place making
and ethnicity ❖ Shape the global cultural landscape
contribute to a
sense of place, Two locations have similar cultural beliefs, objects, and institutions because people bring along their culture, such as their
enhance place language, religion, and ethnicity, when they migrate. Differences emerge when two groups have limited interaction.
making, and
shape the global Language is a system of communication through speech, a collection of sounds that a group of people understands to have
cultural the same meaning. A dialect is a regional variation of a language distinguished by distinctive vocabulary, spelling, and
landscape. pronunciation.

The distribution of a language is a measure of the fate of a cultural group. Language also displays the two competing
geographic trends of globalization and local diversity.
❖ English has diffused around the the world and has become the principal language of communication as well as
interaction globally.
❖ At the same time, local languages and endangered by the global dominance of English are being protected and
preserved.
One of the most fundamental needs in a global society is a common language for communication. Increasingly in the
modern world, the language of international communication is English. The dominance of English as an international
language has facilitated the diffusion of popular culture and science and the growth of international trade. Expansion
diffusion has occurred in two ways with English:
❖ English is changing though diffusion of new vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation.
❖ English words are fusing with other languages.

In some countries, multiple languages coexist, with varying degrees of success. Difficulties can arise at the boundary
between two languages. Some examples include of
❖ Belgium (Flemings & Walloons)
❖ Switzerland (German, French, Italian)
❖ Nigeria (527 distinct languages)

Thousands of languages are extinct languages that were once in use - even in the recent past - but are no longer spoken
or read in daily activities by anyone in the world. Some of these endangered languages are being preserved. Nonetheless,
linguists expect that hundreds of languages will become extinct during the twenty-first century and that only about 300
languages are clearly safe from extinction.

Only a few religions can claim the adherence of large numbers of people. Each of these faiths has a distinctive distribution
across Earth's Surface. Geographers distinguish two types of religions:
❖ Universalizing religions - Attempt to be global, to appeal to all people, wherever thay may live in the world, nuot just
to those of one culture or location.
❖ Ethnic religions - Appeal primarily to one group of people living in one place.

The three universalizing religions with the largest numbers of adherents are Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism.
❖ Christianity
➢ Has more than 2 billion adherents, more than any other world religion.
➢ Predominant religion in North America, South America, Europe,and Australia, and countries with Christian
majority exist in Africa and Asia as well.
➢ Many different branches of christianity, such as Roman Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox, Baptist, etc.
❖ Islam
➢ Has around 1.5 billion adherents.
 ➢ Predominant religion of the Middle East from North Africa to Central Asia. Half of the world’s muslims live in
four countries outside the Middle East - Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India.
➢ Only 2 main branches of Islam, the Sunni and Shiite.
❖ Buddhism
➢ Third of the world’s major universalizing religions.
➢ Predominant religion of East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia.
➢ Three main branches of buddhism are Mahayana, Theravada, and Vajrayana.
❖ Other Universalizing Religions
➢ Sikhism and Baha’i (23 million Sikhs and 7 million Baha’is)

In contrast to universalizing religions, which often spread from one culture to another, ethnic religions tend to remain within
the culture where they originated.
❖ Hinduism
➢ Third-largest religion, with 900 million adherents
➢ 90 percent of Hindus are concentrated in India, and the remainder can be found in India’s neighbors,
Bangladesh and Nepal.
❖ Chinese Traditional (Combination of Buddhism with other traditional Chinese practices - syncretic)
➢ Confucianism
➢ Taoism
❖ Primal-Indigenous
➢ Several hundred million people are categorized into primal-indigenous religions.
➢ Majority reside in Southeast Asia or South Pacific islands.
➢ Little are known about them, as religious rituals are passed through word of mouth.
❖ Juchte
➢ Most North koreans are classified in the Juchte category.
➢ Widely regarded as a government ideology of philosophy rather than religion.
❖ African Tradition
➢ Approximately 100 million Africans follow traditional ethnic religions.
➢ African animist religions are based on monotheistic concepts.
❖ Judaism
➢ Roughly ⅖ of the world’s 14 million jews live in the US
➢ Other ⅖ of the world’s 14 million jews live in the Israel
 Ethnicity is identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth. The
clustering of ethnicities within countries can be explained by migration. Migration can be divided into international (voluntary
or forced) and internal migration (interregional and intraregional).

Some primary examples of international migration of ethnicities:

❖ Forced migration from Africa
❖ Voluntary migration from Latin America and Asia

Confusion between ethnicity and nationality can lead to conflicts which can be very violent. It can even lead to ethnic
cleansing and genocides.

Druce 6)​Language Language Chart

patterns and ● The chart below shows the percentage of people who speak a language from each major family
distributions can
be represented on
maps, charts, and
language trees.
Language Tree

● Language families form the trunk of the trees

● Individual families are displayed as leaves
● Some trunks divide into several branches, which represent language branches
● The branches representing Germanic, Balto Slavic, and Indo-Iranian divide a second time to language groups

Language Maps
- A linguistic map is a thematic map which shows the geographic distribution of the speakers of a language, or
isoglosses of a dialect continuum of the same language.
Example:
Nicole 7)​Religious
patterns and
distributions can
be represented on
maps and charts.
Gabriella 8)​Ethnicity and Ethnic neighborhoods:
gender reflect - different ethnicities are clustered in their areas (mentioned below), due to push and pull factors. One of these push
cultural attitudes factors could be racism, while a pull factor could be due to resources (like the sugarcane plantation in California)
 that shape the use
of space (e.g., Hispanics​: S​ outhwest, African Americans in the Southeast, and Asian Americans in the West.
women in the African Americans​: ​African Americans are highly clustered in urban areas, especially in inner-city neighborhoods. Mostly in
workforce, ethnic Southeast of the US
neighborhoods). Asian Americans​: A ​ sian Americans are mostly clustered in the west of US, specifically California and Hawaii

The GII (Gender Inequality Index) takes 3 main areas into account, ​empowerment​, reproductive health and labor.
- In terms of empowerment, the number of women holding seats in the national legislature would definitely have an
effect on the general attitude that would shape the use of the space. Different genders in legislature would
challenge ideas, therefore causing these different attitudes in the space.

Zeki 9)​Language, On ​language​:

religion, ethnicity ● In 1928, ​President Kemal Ataturk of Turkey​ changed Turkish script ​from Arabic letters to Roman letters​ in the
and gender are hope that the ​culture of Turkey would be updated and modernised to conform to its European neighbours​,
essential to with whom trade and communications would dominate Turkey’s economy even up to this day.
understanding ● Slavic languages are very similar​ to the point of speakers of one of the languages understanding the other. Czech
landscapes and Slovak were attempted to be used together when Czechoslovakia existed during the Cold War, but after the
symbolic of collapse of the Soviet Union, ​differences opened up between the two languages​ with the aim of each individual
cultural identity
country creating its own cultural identity.
(e.g., signs,
○ Serbo-Croatian​ is also a language that has been ​divided into Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian​ in their
architecture,
sacred sites).
respective countries, even though the language remains the same.
● English, the lingua franca of the world​, rose to that position because many former colonies, particularly those in
the expansive ​Commonwealth, retained and expanded the use of English so that they could develop
economically​ by trading with their former colonizer the United Kingdom. While the United States did not directly
govern countries, ​their immense political and economic influence meant that even non-English speaking
countries taught English so that they could develop relations with the
United States.

Singapore​, a Commonwealth country, is a multiracial country too and

recognizes four official languages: English, Mandarin, Malay, and Tamil.
On ​religion​:
● The pervasive reach of ​Christianity has greatly influenced the cultural landscape all over the world​. In
predominantly Catholic countries, small towns, or parishes, each have their own church with similar designs: arches,
crosses, images of Jesus and Mary, etc. Medieval Europe also had its share: ​grand churches everywhere from
Spain to England were heavily invested into​, and in those days were by far the grandest and most expensive
buildings in the country, demonstrating the importance of Christianity to people then.
○ In addition, ​law and order were heavily influenced by Christian beliefs​ then, and some principles and
moral values still stick today, demonstrating how, in spite of the “separation of church and state,” such
separation is not total and complete even today. For instance, ​gay relationships are still criminalised in 72
countries​, and only two dozen countries allow it.
○ Schools then were 100% religious schools: ​the few schools that were available then were set up by
various orders of priests​, and while they were tightly controlled to a tiny elite, were instrumental in paving
the way for universal secular education.
● Islam​ has also been a religion that has influenced and shaped the cultural fabric of many countries all over the world.
Islamic art has become commonplace​ not just in Muslim-majority countries, but also in many other Western
countries. ​Depictions of abstract and inanimate objects, along with geometric patterns and Islamic calligraphy​,
have become staple. For instance, Islamic chess sets depict abstract and non-representational pieces that more
accurately represent their use in the chess game rather than their depictions in real life because it is forbidden in
Islam to create objects/statues/idols.
○ Islamic architecture​ has also been characterised by ​wide central courtyards, minarets and towers,
domes, geometric patterns and decorative art, and also a wide emphasis on the interior rather than the
exterior​. Famous places like the ​Dome of the Rock and Hagia Sophia​ have become ingrained into the
cultural landscapes of their cities.
○ Islamic education​, while having gained a bad reputation today because of terrorism and its exclusivity to
men, went through a golden age in the Middle Ages, while
the rest of Europe was struggling. Advances were made in
medicine, science, technology and society. There was even
the ​Baghdad House of Wisdom​ to cater to intellectuals
and scholars from all over the Muslim world.
 On ​ethnicity​:
● Many ​conflicts arise because of ethnic differences that have been accentuated by separatist and/or nationalist
movements​. For instance, one of the most famous but also shocking genocides committed in recent history was that
in ​Rwanda in 1994 between the opposing Hutus and Tutsis​, despite each group having fairly small ethnic
differences between them. Another lesser-known genocide, one of the first recorded in modern history, is the
Armenian Genocide during the First World War​, in which the Ottoman Turks slaughtered 1.5 million Armenians
living within the bounds of the declining Ottoman Empire, but part of the struggle also took place along religious
lines, the Turks being Muslim and the Armenians being Christian.
● Many ​nation-states today retain their distinct cultural identity because of one ethnicity dominating the
country​ and becoming part of its cultural identity. ​Iceland​ for example, is an example of a nation-state whose
culture has been shaped almost exclusively by its people, who have remained fairly homogeneous because of
Iceland’s isolation from Europe.

On ​gender​:
● In many ancient societies, ​women were given significant power​. The ancient societies of Egypt, Greece and Rome
each had their own manifestations of ​female goddesses​, and statues of them were placed in their honour, e.g.
Aphrodite and Artemis. They also had their share of powerful female leaders, the most famous of which was
Cleopatra, whose famous relationship with Marc Antony has been dramatised in popular culture
(Shakespeare).
● Patriarchy​, where men hold dominant power over women, has been commonplace in multiple religions and
cultures, such as Islam and Christianity. The lack of female leaders over history has shaped the landscape to a point
where women were denied voting until recently.
● Today, many feminist movements seek to liberate women from institutions they see as oppressive, such as the
church, patriarchy, etc. and it is yet to be seen as to how the landscape will further change in the future.

Razel 10)​Types of Hierarchical diffusion

diffusion include Occurs when the diffusion innovation or concept spreads from a place or person of power or high susceptibility to another
expansion in a leveled pattern
(contagious,
hierarchical, Stimulus diffusion
 stimulus) and Occurs when the innovative idea diffuses from its hearth outward, but the original idea is changed by the new adopters
relocation.
Contagious diffusion
Occurs when numerous places or people near the point of origin become adopters (or infected, in the case of a disease)

Relocation diffusion
Involves the actual movement of the original adopters from their point of origin, or hearth, to a new place

Keitaro 11)​Language -English as the Lingua Franca (The diffusion of English) English is the universal language
families, Due to the America’s dominance in the world in addition to the British Empire’s dominance in the past
languages, Now it is the common language,needed to join the global economy.
dialects, world
religions, ethnic
cultures, and
gender roles
diffuse from
cultural hearths,
resulting in
interactions
between local and
global forces that
lead to new forms
of cultural
expression (e.g., -There are numerous dialects of English IE . RP in britain and several places in US have their own dialects as the english
lingua franca). language diffused to the US. In addition to spelling and pronunciation.

-Also creolized languages

Which are
Language that results from the mixing of the colonizer’s language with the indigenous language of the people being
dominated.
Robyn 12)​Colonialism, Colonialism:​ ​effort by one country to establish settlements and to impose its political, economic and cultural principles on
imperialism, and such territory
trade​ helped to
shape patterns Imperialism​: ​control of a territory already occupied
and practices of - The ​Roman Empire,​ which lasted between 27 BC to 5th century AD, has made significant influences upon countries
culture​ (e.g., spanning the Mediterranean, particularly in their language Roman soldiers taught locals how to speak “​Vulgar Latin,​”
language, which became the basis of many Indo-European languages such as English, Spanish, and French.
religion). - The​ British Empire​ is known for being the largest, most extensive empire between the 17th and 20th centuries. Among
its colonies was the U.S., whose inhabitants inherited the English language. As a result of America’s worldwide
dominance, English has become the most acknowledged lingua franca used to communicate between different
nations.

Trade Patterns
- Arab traders to Indonesia in the 13th century is an example of relocation diffusion, as the Islamic religion reached
Southeast Asia, including 225 million Muslim Indonesians currently.

Amy 13)​Acculturation, - Acculturation is to adopt traits from the more dominant culture into your own.
assimilation, and - It usually occurs when one society is controlled, either politically, economically, socially, or all of these, by
multiculturalism another society. And the people are forced to adapt their cultural experiences in order to survive in this new
are shaped social climate.
by the diffusion of - Assimilation is to adopt from the more dominant culture into your own and completely lose your former culture traits.
culture. - Multiculturalism is to be able to more freely within different culture groups.

Sofia 14)​Ethnic religions Hinduism​ is most concentrated in India and Nepal (it’s hearth), with smaller groups in the UK, US and Southeast Asia.
(e.g., Hinduism, Hinduism was spread through relocation diffusion, especially during the period in which India was a colony of the British,
Judaism) are which provided the opportunity for many Indians to receive education and settle in the UK.
generally found
near the hearth or Judaism​ ​is most concentrated in Israel (it’s hearth), however, still has large populations in the US and some parts of
spread through Europe. Judaism was spread through relocation diffusion most prevalently leading up to and during the Second World War
relocation due to anti semitic laws and restrictions in some countries, most notably Germany.
diffusion.
Jenny 15)​Universalizing Ethnic religions
religions (e.g., - A religion with a relatively concentrated spatial distribution whose principles are likely to be based on the physical
Christianity, Islam, characteristics of the particular location in which its adherents are concentrated
Buddhism) are - Generally found near the hearth
spread through - Spread through relocation diffusion
expansion and - Closely related to culture and ethnic heritage, and physical geography
relocation - E.g.) Hinduism, Judaism
diffusion.
Universalizing religions
- A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just those living in a particular location
- Found throughout the world
- Spread through expansion and relocation diffusion
- Missionaries
- E.g.) Christianity, Islam, Buddhism

James / 16)​Cultural The cultural landscape is the product of human and environmental interactions. It differs among places around the world,
Kimberly landscapes are where agricultural, religious, industrial, and linguistic preferences are different, resulting in different interactions with the
amalgamations of physical features of a place.
physical features,
agricultural and
industrial
practices, religious
and linguistic
characteristics,
and other
expressions of
culture (e.g.,
architecture).

Natalie / Pahal 17)​Folk culture ● Culture originates at a hearth, or a center of innovation

origins are usually ● Folk Culture has anonymous hearths, originating from anonymous sources at unknown dates through unidentified
anonymous and originators; may also have multiple hearths, originating independently in isolated locations
 rooted in tradition ○ Chinese legend says that folk music was created in 2697 BC and the first song was transmitted orally (same
and are often method as now)
found in rural or ■ Songs and meaning changed from generation to generation
isolated ■ Songs were typically based on events in daily life (nature)
indigenous
communities.

Lauren / Happy 18)​Popular culture ● The culture traits found in large, urban populations are heterogeneous (different from each other)- popular culture
origins are often varies little from place to place but changes quickly.
urban,
changeable, and ● In urban areas there is a larger access to media/technology
influenced by
media. ● Popular culture usually spreads through hierarchical diffusion
● In the US the nodes would be Hollywood, and Madison Avenue in NYC
○ Diffuses rapidly because of modern communication and transportation

IV.Political Organization of Space

Students learn about the nature and significance of the political organization of territory at different scales. Political patterns reflect ideas of
territoriality —how Earth’s surface should be organized — which in turn affect a wide range of exercises of power over space and boundaries.
Two major themes are the political geography of the modern state and relationships between countries. Students are introduced to the different
forces that shaped the evolution of the contemporary world map. These forces include the rise of nation-states, especially in Europe; the
influence of colonialism and imperialism; the rise of supranational organizations; and the devolution of states.

Students learn about the basic structure of the political map, including the inconsistencies between maps of political boundaries and maps of
ethnic, cultural, economic, and environmental patterns. Additionally, students analyze forces that are changing the roles of individual countries
in the modern world, such as ethnic separatism, terrorism, economic globalization, and social and environmental problems that cross
international boundaries (e.g., climate change and acid rain). This part of the course also focuses on subnational and supranational political
units. For example, at the scale above the state level, attention is directed to regional alliances, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO), the European Union, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
 At the scale below the state level, students learn about the ways in which electoral districts, municipalities, indigenous areas, provinces, and
autonomous lands affect political, social, and economic processes.
Student Essential Knowledge
Responsible
Kody 1)​Independent states are the
primary building blocks of the
world political map.
Kimberly 2)​Types of political entities
include nations, states,
nation-states, stateless
nations, multinational states,
multistate nations, and
autonomous regions.
Pahal 3)​The concept of the modern
nation-state began in Europe.
Evidence/ Explanation/ Links
A ​state​ is an area organized into a political unit and ruled by an established government that has control over its
internal and foreign affairs. A state with ​sovereignty​ is one in which it’s rights to independence are recognized and
are able to keep one’s internal control to oneself.
Independent states may ally or cooperate with other states in any manner of ways, including economically,
militarily, and politically. The UN, one of the largest examples of an international organization which tries to aid
cooperation in all three ways, is primarily comprised of all independent states.
● Nations: A group of people who share the same ethnic background
● States: A land that is organized into an organized political unit recognized by all other countries that has a
government in control of its foreign and internal affairs.
● A nation-state: A state in which all of the inhabitants share a common trait such as language, ethnicity, etc.
● Stateless nations: A nation without a state. (ex. The Kurds)
● Multinational states: A state composed of multiple nations.
● Multistate nations: Nations that encompass more than one state (ex. Korea)
● Autonomous regions: A region that has control over its internal affairs, but another state controls its external
affairs (ex. Hong Kong)
● A nation state is a state whose territory corresponds to that occupied by a certain ethnicity (practicing the
same/similar religion, language, culture, etc)
● By early 1900s, Europe was mostly nation-states
○ After WW1, the Versailles Peace Conference redrew the European map according to language
● No live example of a perfect nation state in today’s world
○ Some multinational states have peacefully coexisting cultures while others have one, typically more
numerous culture try to dominate

Priyasha 4)​Colonialism and
imperialism led to the spread
of nationalism and influenced
contemporary political
boundaries.
Dipasha 5)​Independence movements
and democratization have
shaped the political map
since the end of World War
II.
● Denmark maybe considered a nation state because nearly all Danes live in Denmark and speak Danish, but
they control both Greenland and the Faeroe Islands where there are few native Danish people, not allowing
them to be considered a nation-state
● Slovenia is the most stable of all former Yugoslav members because it is closest to being a nation state
○ Boundary changes after WW2 has caused slight interchange of Italian and Slovenian populations
● A prominent example of this is the Scramble for Africa. The European colonists arbitrarily arranged the
African borders during the colonial era, and that is how it has been up till now. They aren’t the most
effective boundaries as different religions, ethnicities and linguistic groups are put together, causing there to
be more conflict.
● The Belgians considered the Tutsis in Rwanda to be more European looking, and therefore more superior
to the Hutus. The Tutsis looked down upon and illtreated the Hutus during that time. The Hutus lived in
constant fear of them. However, when the Belgians left, the Hutus become more united together. Their
fierce nationalism and ethnocentrism enabled them to lash out against the Tutsis. They even caused the
massive Rwandan genocide. This fierce nationalism and separation did not enforce political boundaries
however. The boundaries were drawn by the colonizers, and they did not separate the two ethnic groups.
● Colonialism also pushes the country being colonized to rise up and showcase their nationalism. For
example, when Britain was ruling over India, they eventually rose up with their own independence
movements. When a country is constantly being oppressed, they are often driven to come together and
express their nationalism and unity. This can often be done with the help of a freedom fighter or leader.
Mahatma Gandhi for example lead the independence and freedom fight movement in India.
● The turmoil between Hindus and Muslims, which was aggravated under British rule, forced both religious
groups to showcase their nationalism. In efforts to showcase their pride and importance, they constantly got
into battles with one another. The British therefore decided to split India and Pakistan into two countries -
one majority Hindus and one majority Muslims. This has influenced contemporary boundaries.
At the end of World War 2, Yugoslavia was broken up into 6 republics such as Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Macedonia, Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, and Montenegro depending on their ethnic and historical factors. After the
war, imperial powers such as Britain did not have the capacity to sustain its power and hold over countries. For
example, when the British left India, that led the state to independence and the separation of India and Pakistan.
The separation was also done by the British because the two nations were distinguished by their religion. Countries

Trisha 6)​Political power is
expressed geographically as
control over people, land,
and resources (e.g.,
heartland, rimland, and
organic theories).
Saiya 7)​Territoriality is the
connection of people, their
culture, and their economic
systems to the land.
Maanya 8)​Boundaries are defined,
delimited, demarcated, and
administered.
like Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar also gained their independence. Other imperial powers like the Dutch and
French were unable to control their Asian and African colonies.
Definition
A country's or more local community's sense of property and attachment toward its territory (determination to keep
it strongly defended) and their connection to the culture, and economic systems to the land
Examples
Personal space
- Areas that are claimed as our own physiological territory
Owned Space
- Territory that has been purchased as your own
Political Territoriality
- States have sovereignty in state where they have the right to govern their own state without outside
interference
- The United Nations have made laws to not interfere with a state’s sovereignty (something that the League
of Nations failed to outline - one of the reasons for its failure)
Boundary: ​A vertical plane that cuts through the rocks below and the airspace above, dividing one state
territory from another
Defined:​ ​Treaties establish the specific limits of a state's territorial extent
Delimited: ​The borders are drawn onto a map
 Demarcated: ​The states may choose to place physical reminders along a border such as towers,
checkpoints, and walls
Administered: ​Ensure that the boundary is maintained and determine how people and goods will cross it

Sonali 9)​International boundaries I​BRU - International Boundaries Research Unit are linked to this. International boundaries, both on land and at sea, are often a
establish the limits of major source of stress between states, and discussion relating to the peaceful resolution of boundary and territorial disputes is
sovereignty and can be the particularly encouraged.These International Boundaries split countries by one specific factor whether it be ethnicity, race,
source of disputes. culture, language and other factors.

The IBRU works with:

● technical aspects of boundary delimitation (​the drawing of ​boundaries​, particularly of electoral precincts, states,
counties or other municipalities. In the context of elections, it can be called redistribution and is used to prevent
unbalance of population across districts.)
● the management of transboundary resources (Distribution of resources from unclaimed land)
● aspects of individual boundary disputes
● the law of the sea and claims to maritime jurisdiction
● 'soft borders'
● alternative strategies for territorial management
● dispute resolution techniques
● peacekeeping in troubled borderlands
● refugees and borders
● the territorial aspirations of non-state nations

https://www.dur.ac.uk/ibru/resources/int-boundaries/

Amy / Sunny 10)​Boundaries can influence

identity and promote or
prevent international or
 internal interactions and
exchanges.
Zeki 11)​The Law of the Sea has
enabled states to extend their
boundaries offshore, which
sometimes results in conflicts
UNCLOS -- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
● Signed in 1982 by 157 countries including China and the Philippines (more on that later)
● Intended to guarantee fair usage of the resources that lie in waters
● Sovereignty is only guaranteed 12 nautical miles beyond the coastline​; countries have exclusive
access to an ​Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 200 nautical miles from the coastline​ where they may
not claim ownership but have ​sole rights to exploit all natural resources that lie there​.
Disputes:
● Foremost is the ​South China Sea dispute​ between China and much of Southeast Asia (ASEAN member
states)
https://www.cfr.org/interactives/global-conflict-tracker#!/conflict/territorial-disputes-in-the-south-china-sea
○ China has been building artificial islands on reefs in the Spratly Islands, well within the EEZs of
Malaysia, Brunei and the Philippines and well beyond its own EEZ. It has also long been embroiled
in disputes with Vietnam on island-building in the Paracel Islands, another island chain in the same
body of water being hotly contested.
○ The Philippines in 2012 brought China to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague to state its
case. The PCA in July 2016 ruled in favour of the Philippines.
○ China maintains that it is well within its right to build in the South China Sea because historically, it
has claimed ownership of the South China Sea (through the so-called “nine-dash line”), thus making
the sea an internal water of China and thus under
Chinese law.
● Video of Artificial Islands in the South China Sea:
Razel 12)​Voting districts,
redistricting, and
gerrymandering influence the
results of elections at various
scales.
Voting district (VTD) is a generic term adopted by the Bureau of the Census
to include the wide variety of small polling areas, such as election districts,
precincts, or wards, that State and local governments create for the purpose
of administering elections. Some States also use groupings of these entities
to define their State and local legislative districts, as well as the districts they
define for election of members to the U.S. House of Representatives.
Redistricting is the process of drawing electoral district boundaries in the United States.
Gerrymandering is a practice intended to establish a political advantage for a particular party or group by
manipulating district boundaries. In addition to its use achieving desired electoral results for a particular party,
gerrymandering may be used to help or hinder a particular demographic, such as a political, ethnic, racial,
linguistic, religious, or class group, such as in U.S. federal voting district boundaries that produce a majority of
constituents representative of African-American or other racial minorities, known as "majority-minority districts".
Gerrymandering can also be used to protect incumbents.
Keitaro 13)​Political boundaries do
not always coincide with
patterns of language,
religion, ethnicity, nationality,
and economy.
Robyn 14)​Forms of governance
include unitary states
(centralized government) and
federal states.
- Multiethnic states are, in definition, not coinciding with patterns of ethnicity. It is a state that has multiple
ethnicities, however this can cause problems as multi ethnicity is a centrifugal
force that pulls people apart. Examples of these are almost all of the countries on earth.
-The main example of this is the Berlin Conference in which it exemplifies the political boundaries not always
coinciding with language, ethnicity, nationality. Over 130 years ago, the European Powers met at the Berlin
Conference and drew the borders of Africa we see today. Generally during this conference, traditional boundaries
were not considered when carving the continent, resulting in numerous conflicts in the future. The European
Powers(with their colonial borders) did not for the people in Africa, and their cultures and history.
Definitions
a. Unitary government​: ​places most power in the hands of central government officials
b. Federal government:​ ​allocates strong power to units of local government within the country
 Examples
Gregory 15)​Powers of the
subdivisions of states vary
according to the form of
governance (e.g., the United
States and Switzerland as
federal states, France as a
unitary state).
Sofia 16)​State morphology (e.g.,
compact, elongated,
perforated, fragmented,
prorupted states) has
economic, political, and
social implications.
Elongated
Perforated
a. Unitary government:​ Philippines, France, U.K.
b. Federal government:​ U.S., Russia, Germany
Shapes of States
Definition Example Implications
Compact A compact state is a Poland A compact state is at a general advantage, as
state wherein the communications within the state as well as defence is
distance from the easily manageable, especially when the capital is in the
center to any boundary center. Despite this, compact states are just as likely to
does not vary experience ethnic rivalries and civil wars.
significantly.
An elongated state has Chile An elongated state may face difficulty with communication,
a long and narrow which could cause tension and conflict. Additionally, parts
shape. of the country may face isolation as the capital may be far
away, causing some areas to be less developed or
disconnected.
A perforated state is a South If relations are good with the state within, a perforated state can reap benefits
such as ease of defence or trade. However, despite good relations, the
state that completely Africa surrounded state may form a dependence on the surrounding state, due to the
 surrounds another fact that all trade must first go through the other country, such as in the case of
Lesotho. This cannot only have economic and political implication but, when the
one. relationship with the surrounding country is particularly bad, it could cause major
conflict or war.

Fragmented A fragmented state is Water: Fragmented states face challenges when it comes to
a state which includes Philippines communications and national unity. Whether the state is
several discontinuous Other separated by water, such as in the case of the Philippines’ 7,107
State: islands, or by an intervening state, such as in the case of
pieces of territory.
Russia Russian Kaliningrad, communications between the separated
They can either be areas is difficult to retain. Additionally, the difficulty of
separated by water or (Kaliningrad)
communications can lead to a lack of national unity, especially
by an intervening due to isolation and the differences in culture and sometimes
state. language that may come with that.

Prorupted A prorupted state is an Thailand A prorupted state is often created due to political advantages that may come with
a proruption, such as in the case of Namibia. Under colonial rule, the Germans
otherwise compact created a proruption to the east of Namibia called the Caprivi Strip. This not only
state with a large provided the state with access to one of the most important rivers in Africa, the
Zambezi, but also disrupted British communications between their southern
projecting extension. African colonies. Despite the political advantages, a prorupted state could lead to
conflict when borders are not draw with ethnic and cultural boundaries in mind.
Additionally, access to/communication with the prorupted area could be difficult
as it is so removed from the otherwise compact state, causing implications.

Jenny 17)​Local and metropolitan

forms of governance (e.g.,
municipalities, school
districts, regional planning
commissions) are
subnational political units that
have varying degrees of local
control.
James 18)​Some forces that may
lead to supranationalism
include economies of scale,
trade agreements, military
alliances, and transnational
environmental challenges.

Natalie 19)​Supranationalism is
expressed in the creation of
multinational organizations
(e.g., UN, NATO, EU,
ASEAN, NAFTA).

Lauren 20)​Some forces that may Example of Devolution:

lead to devolution of states
include physical geography,
ethnic separatism, terrorism,
economic and social
problems, and irredentism.
I​n the United Kingdom, where Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland exercise authority over their own lands, but
remain part of the U.K.
Physical geography:

Adi 22)​Devolution is expressed in
the fragmentation of states
into autonomous regions
(e.g., Nunavut, Native
American reservations),
subnational
political–territorial units (e.g.,
Spain, Belgium, Canada), or
Balkanization (e.g., former
Yugoslavia, the Caucasus).
Devolution - ​The transition of power from the central government to regional governments in a state.
What Causes it - ​Altering of a constitution, Experiments on new government body, Internal Division
Devolution usually takes place in fragmented states as these states are farther away from the capital center and as
a result, can develop different systems to the main government. They then can branch off into their own state as
the main country grants them the authority to.
Devolution can happen through Balkanization as states begin to seek independence and break off as their own, it
is going to lead to the main country needing to grant power to them in order for them to run their government.

Martina 23)​Advances in
communication technology
have facilitated devolution,
supranationalism, and
democratization.
Asia 24)​Centrifugal forces can
originate in political
dimensions (e.g., majority/
minority relationships, armed
conflicts), economic
dimensions (e.g., uneven
development), or cultural
dimensions (e.g., stateless
nations, ethnic movements).
Lila 25)​Centripetal forces can
originate in political
dimensions (e.g., national
identity), economic
dimensions (e.g., equitable
Devolution is expressed in the fragmentation of states as when a country grants or transitions power to a small
state, that state is then able to govern itself and be “free” from the state that just granted it the power to. For
example, when the USSR split, the smaller countries in Eastern Europe were able to govern themselves and
sustain themselves when the USSR granted them the authority to.
Devolution is when a government transfers its power away from the center, and to other smaller regions.
Supranational organizations are ones that consist of several states working together to achieve a common goal.
Globalization has played a large role in helping these organizations spread their ideas. Democratization allows
freedom of expression as the government allows citizens to vote.
With the internet, smaller governments are able to communicate much more easily with each other, helping
facilitate devolution. The internet has also played a major role in globalization, spreading ideas, and the
communication of different states in different continents, which all positively impact supranational organizations.
Finally, the internet as well as social media has given citizens more access to information and allowed them to be
more connected to the government. For example, with petitions, several people from different regions can work
together to create change in a country. All of this has definitely helped democratization, as everybody has a voice.
A centrifugal force is a force that pulls people from the same area apart. If the centrifugal force becomes strong
enough it can lead to the balkanization of a state. In which, conflict becomes so bad that the state separates. This
has happened with Sudan. Many times this originates from differences among the people this includes: ethnicity,
religion, language, etc. ​Political forces can divide a country when its citizens do not trust the central government,
disagree with its political ideology, or when minority groups are mistreated or underrepresented. This centrifugal
force can lead to poor relationships between the majority and minority groups and even to armed conflict or civil
war.​ Cultural factors, such as cultural diversity, can cause miscommunication and conflict. ​Religious differences
can be an overriding centrifugal force in a country. These divisions can lead to separatist movements. Economic
centrifugal forces can create feelings of inequality in a state. Poor regions of a country can feel disadvantaged by
wealthier ones.
Centripetal forces unite a country where centrifugal forces tend to divide. When the centripetal forces dominate a
country, it will stand firm in the face of global challenges and struggles, as well as conflicts within their borders.
Nationalism, or the strong love of and loyalty to one’s country, is also a powerful centripetal force and can create
solidarity among the populace.
 infrastructure development),
or cultural dimensions (e.g.,
National identity is a strong centripetal force in the political dimension. A popular way of showing national identity
linguistic, religious, and
is through the use of icons and expressions, depicted in flags, national anthems, and sports teams. These
ethnic similarities).
symbols reinforce a national awareness and instill in the population a sense of pride and loyalty.

Centripetal forces in the economic dimension unite a country by ensuring the population that there are sufficient
resources to support the long-term stability of the state. A first-class infrastructure would be a centripetal force in
a state. When there is a good transportation system that is available to all citizens, all the resources of the
country are accessible, making life easier for the everyone.

Centripetal forces in the cultural realm can be the most powerful unifying force all. Religion and language are tied
closely with culture and emote strong, sometimes overpowering feelings of unity and are examples centripetal
forces within in a state.

V.Agriculture, Food Production, and Rural Land Use

Students examine geographic hearths where domestication of plants and animals first occurred and study the processes by which
domesticated crops and animals spread. This diffusion process helps explain why distinct regional patterns emerge in terms of diet, energy use,
and the adaptation of biotechnology.

This part of the course also examines the major agricultural production regions of the world, which are categorized as commercial or
subsistence operations and are characterized as extensive (e.g., shifting cultivation) or intensive (e.g., mixed crop/ livestock). Agricultural
production regions are examined, as are settlement patterns and landscapes typical of each major agriculture type. Students learn about land
survey systems, environmental conditions, sustainability, global food supply issues, and the cultural values that shape agricultural patterns. In
addition, this unit addresses the roles of women in agriculture production, particularly in subsistence farming and market economies in the
developing world.
 Students learn theories and models about patterns of rural land use and associated settlements (e.g., von Thunen’s land use model). They also
study the impacts of large-scale agribusiness on food production and consumption. The effects of economic and cultural globalization on
agriculture and the need to increase food supplies and production capacity are also addressed.

Student Essential Knowledge Evidence/ Explanation/ Links

Responsible

Kody 1)​Early hearths of domestication

of plants and animals include
Southwest Asia (e.g., the Fertile
Crescent), Southeast Asia, and
the Americas.

Kimberly 2)​Patterns of diffusion (e.g., Diffusion is the process

Columbian Exchange) resulted in
the globalization of various plants
and animals.

Pahal 3)​Agricultural regions are
influenced by the natural
environment (e.g., climate, soils,
landforms).
● Pastoral Nomadism:​ drylands of Southwest/Central/East Asia & North Africa
○ Live primarily in the large belt of arid and semiarid land in Central/Southwest Asia and
North Africa
● Shifting cultivation:​ Tropical regions of Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia
○ Agriculture varies between the drylands and tropics within developing countries
○ Agriculture varies between the drylands of developing and developed countries
● Intensive Subsistence (wet rice dominant):​ East and South Asia
○ Wet rice is typically grown on flatland (river valleys and deltas), but also on hillsides
● Intensive Subsistence (other than rice): ​Where growing rice is difficult in East and South Asia
● Plantation:​ Tropical regions of Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and South/Southeast Asia

Priyasha 4)​Populations alter the ● When people move from one place to another, they need food. Not only that, they also need to
landscape (e.g., terraces, figure out long term and possibly sustainable methods that will enable them to grow and sustain an
 irrigation, deforestation, draining abundance of food. When mankind lived in nomadic groups and practiced pastoral nomadism,
wetlands) to increase food there was no need to alter landscapes to increase food production. This is because people had
production. little means of doing so, and they were migration seasonally.
● Following the agricultural revolution, when subsistence farming became common, people started to
settle down near fertile lands and rivers to grow their own food.
● When settlements started becoming more common and the Industrial revolution started coming
about, new methods and pieces of technology helped mankind modify the environment as per their
needs.
● Terraces for example are a very efficient source of agriculture. They can support crops that require
irrigation such as rice. Rice is a staple crop, and is required pretty much everywhere where people
live. A​ terrace is a piece of sloped plane that has been cut into a series of receding flat surfaces or
platforms. They look like steps, and are very effective for farming. Terraces are also a clear
example of how the landscape is changed to increase food production.
● Farming is the most common way of obtaining food, but requires land to be cleared. When there
are more people, more farming needs to be done. Deforestation has been the result of excessive
means of farming. Trees are constantly being cut down, ruining the natural beauty and essence of
nature.

Dipasha 5)​New technology and increased

food production led to better diet,
longer life, and more people
available for work in factories.

Trisha 6)​The Green Revolution began

with the development of
high-yield seeds (e.g., rice,
wheat, maize), resulting in the
increased use of chemical and
mechanized farming.

Saiya 7)​Positive consequences of the Green Revolution Pros:

Green Revolution include
increased food production and a
 relative reduction in hunger at
the global scale.
Maanya 8)​Negative consequences of the
Green Revolution include
environmental damage resulting
from irrigation and chemical use
(e.g., pesticides, herbicides,
fertilizers) and the cost of
technology and seeds.
Sonali 9)​Plant and animal production is
dependent on climatic conditions,
including spatial variations in
temperature and rainfall.
- development of ​higher-yield​ and​ fast-growing crops​ through increased technology, pesticides,
and fertilizers transferred from the developed to developing world to alleviate the problem of food
supply
- use of pesticides and fertilizers decreased the spoilage of crops while they were growing and
additionally made growing the crops faster
- includes GMO products (genetically modified organisms) that led to faster growing crops and more
harvest
- faster growing crops aided in the large population growth after the low yield crops did not suffice for
the production of crops in a lot of areas
- farmers were able to grow and export crops for profit
- job opportunities in running machinery were made available and the amount of human labor
decreased due to the technology that was introduced
Green Revolution Cons:
- Increased use of fertilizers​ (diminishes soil quality due to increased reliance on synthetic
fertilizers rather than natural, wich allow replenishment of nutrients)
- Increase in​ ​monocropping​, which has decreased soil quality
- Pesticides​ travel through the food chain and are accumulated in higher organisms (some of them
persist in soil, air surface water and groundwater and continue to poison them for a long time) long
term exposure to pesticides causes cancer
- Decrease in the “biodiversity” of crops​ in the world today (before the GR there were 30,000
different variants of rice; today there are only 10 modified rice variants)
- Indebted ​farmers​ are now being found to ​commit suicid​e because of the ​lower food grain
prices
- Greater ​abnormalities​ such as cancer, mental disadvantages, and infertility; children with extreme
neurological and congenital abnormalities
-
Animal production problems associated with weather and climate go beyond an understanding of the
processes and variations in the atmospheric boundary layer and the role of local ground cover and
topography in those variations. Knowledge of how potential environmental stressors (ambient
temperature, humidity, thermal radiation, air speed) can directly and adversely affect animal performance,
 health and well-being of the animals. ​ ​Spatial variability​ occurs when a quantity that is measured at
different ​spatial​ locations exhibits values that differ across the locations. Spatial Variation is demonstrated
with animal production in terms of climatic conditions, different animals dwell areas of different
temperature and levels of rainfall, in order to cater to their needs. Plant production offers a similar concept,
as they must not be forced to adapt to unfamiliar conditions.

- The weather dependency of disease and parasitism, especially the timing and scale of the problem
is a key factor of consideration; whether exposure to a new infection results in disease depends,
among other factors, on the number of infectious organisms taken in and the occurrence of
environmental distress (particularly thermal stress) around the time of infection.

http://www.wamis.org/agm/gamp/GAMP_Chap12.pdf

Amy / Sunny 10)​Some agricultural regions are

associated with particular
bioclimatic zones (e.g.,
Mediterranean, shifting
agriculture, pastoral nomadism).
Agricultural production regions
are defined by the extent to
which they reflect subsistence or
commercial practices, or
intensive
or extensive use of land.

Zeki 11)​Intensive farming practices Intensive Farming Practices:

include market gardening,
plantation agriculture, mixed 1. Market Gardening
crop/livestock systems, etc. 2. Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
3. Plantation Agriculture
4. Mixed Crop/Livestock
Razel 12)​Extensive farming practices
include shifting cultivation,
nomadic herding, ranching, etc.
Keitaro 13)​Large-scale commercial
agricultural operations are
replacing small family farms.
Extensive Subsistence Agriculture
Large amounts of land and minimal labour input. The difference between this and commercial is there is a
low product per land unit, because only necessary commodities produced/used. (ex Nomadic Herding +
Shifting Cultivation/Slash and Burn)
Extensive Commercial Agriculture
Large scale farming used for the primary purpose of profit, on less expensive land that needs to be used
less intensively. There are larger farm units due to low cost. (ex large scale wheat farming and livestock
ranching)
Nomadic Herding
Wandering but controlled movement of livestock solely dependant on natural forage. The most extensive
land use, this falls under extensive subsistence agriculture. Asian desert areas, sahara etc with camels,
yaks, sheeps, goats, etc. A variety of commodities are supplied by the animals.
Shifting Cultivation/Slash and Burn Agriculture
(extensive subsistence) the ROTATION of FIELDS rather than crops. Much land is required to support a
few people therefore it is subsistence, this can be found in the warm, moist, low latitudes (vietnam,
thailand, new guinea)
Ranching
the practice of raising grazing livestock such as cattle or sheep for meat or wool. The word most often
applies to livestock-raising operations in the western United States and Canada (extensive commercial)
-The general trend over the years is that Large Scale Commercial Agricultural Operations are replacing
small family farms this can especially be seen in America as it has vast amount of land and a few farmers.
Therefore decreasing the number of farmers in comparison to the amount of land. Leading to gradual
decrease in agricultural density.
-This mainly happens because Large Scale Commercial farms can produce a large amount of food. In this
world, efficiency is key not necessarily clean, however there are some signs that this trend might change.
-Several Large Corporations own these farms to cover the payment of the vast amount of land needed,
because of this a large amount of food can be produced at a fairly cheap price.

Robyn 14)​The transformation of
agriculture
into ​large-scale agribusiness​ has
resulted in ​complex commodity
chains​ linking ​production and
consumption​ of ​agricultural
products.
Gregory 15) ​Technological improvements
have changed the economies of
scale in the agricultural sector.
Sofia 16)​Food is part of a global supply
chain; products from less
developed low-latitude regions
(e.g., coffee, bananas) are
-Through innovations in agricultural technology less farmers are needed in the cultivation of agricultural
products therefore increasing productivity.
Definitions
a. Agriculture:​ ​The deliberate effort to modify a portion of Earth's surface through the cultivation of
crops and the raising of livestock for sustenance or economic gain.
b. Agribusiness​: ​Commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the
food-processing industry, usually through ownership by large corporations.
Examples of Agribusiness
a. Manufacturers of agrochemicals: fertilizers, pesticides
b. Farmers: crop production
c. Manufacturers of farm machinery: tractors, combines, reapers
d. Food-Processing and production companies: canned goods, snacks, cup noodles
e. Seed Suppliers
f. Retailing: wet markets, groceries
*Farmers only account for 2% of the U.S. labor force, however, around 20% of U.S. workers work in food
production and services related to agribusiness (Rubenstein, 366).
Over the past two decades, technology for agricultural production has developed rapidly, and the world
economy has become more globalised. This has boosted private investment in agricultural research and
technology, exposing agriculture in developing countries to international markets and the influence of
multinational corporations. International research centres, owned by either these multinational
corporations or countries themselves developed technologies for major global food crops such as rice,
wheat, corn, cassava, potatoes, millets and beans. The creation of technologies that make it easier and
more profitable to grow crops allows lower income countries to grow more crops for export. Development
in transportation technology also allows for LDCs to be more competitive in the market.
Plantation farming​ ​is farming that occurs in the subtropics, especially in Asia, Africa and Latin America,
but is operated by Europeans and North Americans. This type of farming often specializes in one or two
specific crops that are native to/that easily grow in the region. The crop is then grown in mass to be
exported around the world, especially in regions wherein the crop is more rare. For example, as shown in
 often consumed globally. the linked image, banana is often grown in the Caribbean, while coffee is often grown in Africa, but also
South America. Other key plantation crops, such as rubber and palm oil are grown in Southeast Asia,
while coconuts are often grown in the Philippines. When sold globally, especially when exported to more
developed, higher-latitude regions, these crops can be sold at a higher price (making them highly
profitable) due to their rarity in the region as well as transportation costs as the crops have to travel long
distances.

Jenny 17)​Patterns of global food

distribution are affected by
political systems, infrastructure,
and patterns of world trade.

James 18)​Rural settlement patterns are

classified as clustered,
dispersed, or linear.

Natalie 19)​Von Thünen’s model helps

to explain rural land use by
emphasizing the importance of
transportation costs associated
with distance from the market.

Lauren 20)​Regions of specialty farming

(e.g., South Florida, California’s
Central Valley) do not always
conform to von Thünen’s
concentric rings.

Adi 22)​Environmental systems are Irrigation​ - Is the process of controlling the amount of water given to crops as well as controlling when
affected by land use/land cover and what intervals to give them.
change (e.g., irrigation,
desertification, deforestation,
 wetland destruction,
conservation efforts).
Martina 23)​Agricultural innovations (e.g.,
biotechnology, genetically
modified organisms, organic
farming, aquaculture) have
resulted in ongoing debates over
environmental, cultural, and
health impacts.
Asia 24)​Environmental issues related
to agriculture include
sustainability, soil degradation,
reduction in biodiversity,
overgrazing, river and aquifer
depletion, animal wastes, and
extensive fertilizer and pesticide
use.
Desertification - ​It is the degradation of land which usually happens in semiarid and arid areas. This is
usually the result of excessive crop planting, animal grazing and deforestation.
Deforestation - ​The act of cutting down trees to make space for crops and agriculture
Wetland Destruction - ​When wetlands are disturbed, harmed drained or filled with pollution. Usually done
in trying to clear out land for agriculture.
Environmental systems are affected by land use because the way people manipulate land can be
determined by what needs to be done to it. (through the methods listed above)
Biotechnology, including genetically modified organisms, have sparked lots of controversy. Many people
support biotechnology due to several reasons. First of all, with GMOs, higher yields are produced, the
food is better tasting, and more resistance to pests. On the other hand, GMOs have major health
implications, face export problems (because several European countries are strongly against GM
products), and would result in an increased dependence on the United States, as they produce several
GM crops (soybeans, cotton, and maize).
Benefits of aquaculture include providing jobs, being more sustainable, providing an affordable protein
source (fish), protecting coastal waters and the wild marine environment, and finally, allowing the scientific
community to learn more about these methods and possibly apply them to solve other issues. However,
aquaculture causes diseases and parasites to the wild fish populations, harm small-scale fishermen, and
decrease the healthiness of the fish due to interbreeding.
Despite the Industrial revolution paving way for the world as we know it, it also brought many issues that
of which negatively affect the environment. The increased emissions of pollutants such as carbon dioxide
and methane has caused pollution to enter the atmosphere and infiltrate water sources. In addition, an
increase in population has caused a higher demand for resources thus leading to deforestation,
overgrazing, use of pesticides. Since industrial agriculture relies heavily on fossil fuels this also contributes
to air pollution. Monoculture has simplified complex ecosystems thus making them unbalanced.
Lila 25)​Patterns of food production
and consumption are influenced
by food-choice issues (e.g.,
organic farming, value-added
specialty crops, fair trade,
local-food movements).
The agricultural revolution was the time when human beings first domesticated plants and animals and
no longer relied entirely on hunting and gathering. Scientists do not agree on whether the agricultural
revolution originated primarily because of environmental or cultural factors.
Food productiona and consumption
NOT DONE YET. NEED TO ADD ON.

Druce 26)​Factors affecting the location The location of food-processing facilities can be related to the Von Thunen Model.
of food-processing facilities
include markets, economies of
scale, transportation,
government policies, etc.
 Additionally, proximity to market is also considered, which includes the distance and the cost of
transportation and the proximity to the source (farms).

Nicole 27)​The role of women in food

production has changed (e.g.,
food gathering, farming,
managing agribusiness).

Gabriella 28)​The role of women has
changed the types of food a
family consumes and the way
food is prepared.
Before the agricultural revolution, while people were still hunter-gatherers, women were always in charge
of gathering nuts, fruits and berries, while the men would hunt for meat. Even during pastoral nomadism,
women would be in charge of taking care of their children and would have to monitor the crop fields, as
the men would wander the heard. Because women are normally associated with manning crops and
vegetation, it can be inferred that the type of food the family would consume would focus more crops
grown on a farm, rather than meat.

VI.Industrialization and Economic Development

Students learn about the geographic elements of industrialization and economic development, including past and present patterns of
industrialization, types of economic sectors, and the acquisition of comparative advantage and complementarity. Students also learn how
models of economic development (e.g., Rostow’s stages of economic growth and Wallerstein’s world-systems theory) help to explain why the
world is divided into a more developed economic core and a less developed periphery with (in some cases) a semiperiphery between them.

The analysis of contemporary patterns of industrialization and their impact on development is another important focus. Students use measures
of development (e.g., gross domestic product per capita and the Human Development Index [HDI]) as tools to understand patterns of economic
differences. Additional topics to be studied include Weber’s industrial location theory and accounts of economic globalization, which accent
time–space compression and the new international division of labor. For example, students analyze the reasons why some Asian economies
achieved rapid rates of growth in the mid- to late 20th century, whereas the economies of most countries south of the Sahara did not.
Students also examine the ways in which countries, regions, and communities must confront new patterns of economic inequality that are
linked to geographies of interdependence in the world economy. Relevant topics include the global financial crisis, the shift in manufacturing to
 newly industrialized countries (NICs), imbalances in consumption patterns, the roles of women in the labor force, energy use, the conservation
of resources, and the impact of pollution on the environment and quality of life.

Student Essential Knowledge Evidence/ Explanation/ Links

Responsible

Kody 1)​Industrialization began in response to

new technologies and was facilitated by
the availability of natural resources
(e.g., water power, coal, iron ore).

Kimberly 2)​The diffusion of industrialization led

to growing populations and increased
food supplies, which freed workers to
seek industrial jobs in cities.

Pahal 3)​Increased industrialization led to
demands for raw materials and the
search for new markets and was a
factor in the rise of colonialism and
imperialism.
● The industrial revolution occured in the 1800s in Great Britain
● Because of the industrial revolution, England was exporting coal and the development
followed the distribution of coal throughout Europe
○ Manufacturing plants had to be located close to ports where raw materials could
arrive and finished products could depart
● There were several causes of industrialization
○ Raw materials: money came from colonies and trade and new inventions such as the
steam engine lead to water pumps and railroads
○ Surplus of food from the Agricultural Revolution allowed for more labor
● There were several effects of industrialization
○ Demand for raw materials: periphery countries were exported
○ Imperialism: expansion into colonialism was the key to growth
○ Search for new Markets: the US especially had a surplus of goods
○ Colonialism: Increased production = need for raw materials from colonies
Priyasha 3)​The economy consists of primary,
secondary, tertiary, quaternary, and
quinary sectors.

Dipasha 4)​Alfred Weber’s model of industrial

location emphasized the owner’s desire
to minimize transportation and labor
costs and maximize agglomeration
economies.

Trisha 5)​Measures of social and economic

development include Gross National
Income (GNI) per capita, sectoral
structure of an economy, income
distribution, fertility rates, infant
mortality rates, access to health care,
and literacy rates.

Saiya 6)​Measures of gender inequality Gender Inequality Index (GII)

include reproductive health, indices of
empowerment, and labor-market
participation.
- definition: ​a measure of the extent of each country’s gender inequality
- the higher the GII, the less equality there is evident in a country
- measured by 3 things: reproductive health, indices of empowerment and labor market
participation
- least developed countries often have a higher GII due to the lack of education about equality
between both men and women
- the country with the lowest GII is Switzerland and the country with the highest GII is Qatar
- reproductive health is measured by the amount of infant mortality rate
- labor market participation is the amount of women that are in the workforce or have a job in
legislature

Maanya 7)​The Human Development Index What the HDI measures:

(HDI) is a composite measure used to -
 show spatial variation in levels of
development.
Sonali 8)​Models like Rostow’s Stages of
Economic Growth and Wallerstein’s
World System Theory (Core/ Periphery)
help explain spatial variations in
development
What the HDI uses to measure this:
- Life expectancy
- Education
- Income per capita
-
WW. Rostow’s Model of Economic Growth:
- Traditional Society
- Preconditions for takeoff
- Take off
- Drive to Maturity
- Age of Mass Consumption
WW. Rostows Model explains spatial variations in development as it will reveal in places with
clustering of people in the Age of Mass Consumption Stage.
Wallerstein’s World System Theory reveals that most of these places will be in periphery and
semi-periphery countries.
Amy / Sunny 9)​The U.N. Millennium Development
Goals help measure progress in
development.

Zeki 10)​In contrast to the periphery and

semiperiphery, the core countries
achieved dominance through industrial
production of goods.

The ​British Empire​ at its peak just before World War I. The colonial empires of Europe and the
United States in the 19th Century served not just to extract ​natural resources and labour​, they
also served as immense ​markets for goods finished in core countries​.
The ​Spanish Empire​ at its peak in the 18th Century. In contrast to the many other European
colonial empires that developed during the Industrial Revolution, the Spanish Empire matured
before that, and thus it served mainly to ​trade​ New World products with Old World products, and
sell them for a profit in continental Europe.

The Industrial Revolution in the late 18th Century resulted in an enormous economic boom for
Europe (and later the United States) never before seen. Technology developed very rapidly, with
industrial and agricultural production simultaneously increasing exponentially as a result.
Populations also boomed, and all of a sudden European countries had become very densely
populated, especially compared to periphery countries at the time. This crowding, coupled with
excess industrial capacity (i.e. core countries were producing more than their people needed) and
nationalist movements stemming from this new-found economic and military strength
Razel 11)​Although there are more women in
the workforce, they do not have equity
in wages or employment opportunities.
It noted that its pay index, which analyses more than 12.3 million employees in 14,284 companies in
53 countries, showed that men are paid on average 16.1% more than women on a global level.

Keitaro 12)​Microloans have provided
opportunities for women to create small
local businesses, which have improved
standards of living.
Robyn 13)​Complementarity and comparative
advantage establish the basis for trade.
But the gap fell to 5.3% globally when evaluating the same job levels alone, such as people holding
a director’s position. The gap was further narrowed to 1.5% when considering the same level at the
same firm. If men and women at the same job level and in the same company were also in the
same function, the gap shrank to 0.5%.
The magnitude of the gender wage gap may therefore be more reflective of the fact that women are
less represented in better-paying jobs, and not firms paying women less for the same kind of work.
Microloans are the extension of very small loans to people. These people are generally
impoverished individuals who typically lack collateral, steady employment and a verifiable credit
history. Essentially it is micro finance. Microfinance provides very basic financial services, to people
who banks usually don’t loan too(High risk). Because MicroLoans supports women’s economic
participation , microfinance helps empower women in the workforce giving them the small nudge
they need. It promotes gender- equity and improving overall household well being impoverished
women. Micro Finance is essentially a long term investment in the human potential to succeed.
Although most are economically active , most of the poor are not entrepreneurial, by giving loans to
both hardworking Women and Men to help start their business. Although Microloans have only
occured on a very small scale the results point to it being very successful improving a wide variety
of people’s standard of living world wide. The ultimate goal of Microfinance is to help the poor
evolve from previously “unbankable” assets to attractive customers for commercial institutions to
continue their business and join the World’s Economy.
Definitions
a. Complementarity:​ ​the degree to which the export pattern of one country matches the import
pattern of another
b. Comparative advantage​: when one can produce something at a lower cost than anyone else
c. Trade​: ​the action of buying and selling goods and services (between entities)
 In order for trade to take place, one country must be able to put forth a product that is not readily
available in other regions. This concept is applied in ​complementarity​, wherein supplies and
demands are evaluated to determine markets of specific merchandises. Saudi Arabia, for example, has
abundant oil reserves, which may be scarce in other countries such as the Philippines. It​ ​can extract
oil at lower transportation costs and therefore has the ​comparative advantage ​over others. Oil,
being an important fossil fuel used in many industries, is hence still being bought even at higher
prices in the international market. This then generates substantial revenue for Saudi Arabia’s
economy.

Gregory 14)​International trade and trading blocs

(e.g., EU and NAFTA) have become
more important as a result of
globalization.

Sofia 15)​Geographies of interdependence in Global financial crises

the world economy include global The shift in manufacturing to newly industrialized countries
financial crises, the shift in Imbalances in consumption patterns
manufacturing to newly The roles of women in the labor force
industrialized countries, imbalances in
consumption patterns, and the roles of
women in the labor force.

Jenny 16)​Outsourcing and economic

restructuring have led to a decline in
jobs in manufacturing regions and to
the relocation of a significant segment
of the workforce to other areas.

James 17)​In countries outside the core, the

diffusion of industry has resulted in the
emergence of the international division
of labor and manufacturing zones (e.g.,
 maquiladoras, special economic zones,
free trade zones).

Natalie 18)​The contemporary economic

landscape has been transformed by the
emergence of service sectors, high
technology industries, and growth poles
(e.g., Silicon Valley and the Research
Triangle in the U.S.).

Lauren 19)​Government initiatives at all scales

may help promote economic
development.

Adi 20)​Sustainable development addresses
issues of natural resource depletion,
mass consumption, the costs and
effects of pollution, and the impact of
climate change, as well as issues of
human health, well-being, and social
and economic equity.
The Sustainable Development Goals (or SDG’s) are 17 goals made by the UN and act as a call to
action plan for the world to achieve by 2030. They are a type of add on to the Millennium
Development Goals. All 17 of these goals work in unicon with each other to aim to create a better
world for the generations to come. Each goal is unique in what it’s trying to accomplish and not only
helps a certain area, but comes together with the rest of the goals to better the world in the future.
The 17 goals range from sustainable energy to conserving life around the world. The goals are
listed below:
Martina 21)​Ecotourism is a strategy used by
some countries to help protect the
environment and generate jobs.

VII.Cities and Urban Land Use

The course divides urban geography into two subfields. The first is the study of systems of cities, focusing on the location of cities and why
cities are where they are. This study involves an examination of such topics as the current and historical distribution of cities; the political,
economic, and cultural functions of cities; reasons for differential growth among cities; and types of transportation and communication linkages
among cities. Theories of settlement geography, such as Christaller’s central place theory, the rank-size rule, and the gravity model, are
introduced. Quantitative information on such topics as population growth, migration, zones of influence, and employment is used to analyze
changes in the urban hierarchy.
 The second subfield of urban geography focuses on the form, internal structure, and landscapes of cities and emphasizes what cities are like
as places to live and work. Students are introduced to topics such as the analysis of patterns of urban land use, ethnic segregation, types of
intracity transportation, architectural traditions (e.g., neoclassical, modern, and postmodern), cycles of uneven development, and environmental
justice (e.g., the disproportionate location of polluting industries and brown fields in low-income or minority residential areas). Students’
understanding of cities as places is enhanced by both quantitative data from censuses and qualitative information from narrative accounts and
field studies. Students also learn about and apply models of internal city structure and development in the United States and Canada (e.g.,
Burgess concentric zone model, Hoyt sector model, Harris–Ullman multiple nuclei model, and galactic city model), examine the strengths and
weaknesses of these models, and compare and contrast the models with the internal structure of cities outside North America.

Topics such as economic systems, housing finance, culture, architectural history, government policies, and innovations in transportation can be
useful in the analysis of spatial patterns of urban landscapes. Although much of the literature in urban geography focuses on the cities of North
America, comparative urbanization is an increasingly important topic. The study of cities worldwide illustrates how differing economic systems
and cultural values can lead to variations in the spatial structures of urban landscapes.

Students also examine current trends in urban development, such as the emergence of edge cities, new urbanism, transit-oriented
development, smart growth, and the gentrification of neighborhoods. In addition, students evaluate sustainable urban- planning design
initiatives and community actions, such as bikeways and walkable mixed-use commercial and residential developments, that reduce energy use
and protect the environments of cities in the future.

Student Essential Knowledge Evidence/ Explanation/ Links

Responsible

Amy / Sunny 1)​Site and situation influence the

origin, function, and growth of cities.

Zeki 2)​Transportation and communication Urbanization patterns in American cities:

have facilitated urbanization
(e.g., Borchert’s epochs of urban ● Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790-1830): cities were built near ports and waterways, where the vast
growth) and suburbanization. majority of trade and commerce occurred. Examples of such cities that initially developed
were New York City and Boston.

Razel 3)​Improvements in agriculture and
transportation, population growth,
migration, economic development,
and government policies influence
urbanization.
● Iron-Horse Epoch (1830-1870): the invention of the steam engine enabled rail networks to
spring up in various cities and regions, but not yet across continents. In addition to steam
trains, steamboats and early submarines also came into use. Some examples of cities that
growed because of this were Pittsburgh and Philadelphia.
● Steel Rail Epoch (1870-1920): the further development of steel rail allowed for
transcontinental, long-distance rail networks. Examples of cities that grew in this epoch
were Denver and Seattle.
● Auto/Air Amenity Epoch (1920-1970): the popularisation of the automobile as a means of
transportation, allowing for the growth of vast, sprawling suburbs. An example of a city that
grew in this time is Los Angeles.
● High-Technology Epoch (1970-present): the development of highly advanced technology in
the services and information sectors to facilitate easy communication between once-distant
cities and countries. The World Wide Web and the Internet contributed significantly to this
development.
Agriculture
Improved technology = less farmers
Former agricultural workers move to cities. Farmers who didn't need to work moved to
cities. (Economic opportunity)
Transportation
Improved transportation infrastructure leads to movement in suburbs. Hurt urbanization.
People can live outside of the city but use affordable transportation to work inside the city
Communication
Digital infrastructure allows many people to work anywhere they can get on the net.
Decrease urbanization. People can work from home, they don't have to live close to the
businesses
Population growth
Can be urbanization pull or push factor. The more babies born in a city will increase
urbanization. If a city is too crowded people might leave. As more babies are born, greater
need for services.
Migration
Rural to urban migration is a major cause of urbanization. There are more jobs in cities.
Economic opportunity. The more economic growth, the less people are needed for
agriculture.
Economic development
Shift to a post industrial economy leads to urbanization. Less people can produce more
produce. Fewer people need to live in farming areas.
Government policies
Government programs and influences are most prominent in cities. More accessible in
urban areas. Cities are also keen to attract business with friendly policies. May be offered
tax breaks, cheap land, etc.
Keitaro 4)​World cities function at the top of - ​In the age of globalization production and trends are scattered throughout the globe. These complex,
the world’s urban hierarchy and drive globalized production networks require new forms of financial and producer services to manage them..
globalization. Thus they are subject to agglomeration economics, and tend to cluster in a limited number of cities,
which are subsequently named World or Global Cities.

-Hierarchical Diffusion generally begins in large World Cities and diffuse around the globe to smaller
settlements. World Cities have a agglomeration of different industries and businesses in addition to a
wide variety of people in these cities. In addition, big name transnational corporations have their
headquarters located in World Cities, as they want to be located near stock exchanges, as well as an
abundance of Lawyers and professional services needed for large corporations. An example of
Globalization from World Cities are trends in fashion in which styles might originate in Big World Cities
such as New York and diffuse towards smaller cities such Miami

-Some specific World Cities are Tokyo,London and NYC.

Robyn 5)​Megacities ​are ​rapidly increasing​ in Definitions
countries of the ​periphery and
semiperiphery.
Gregory 6)​Megacities and world cities
experience economic, social,
political, and environmental
challenges.
Sofia 7)​Models that are useful for
explaining the distribution and size of
cities include the rank-size rule, the
law of the primate city, and
Christaller’s central place theory.
a. Megacity: ​A very large city with a population of more than 10 million people
b. Periphery: ​regions that are are less developed, in contrast to core countries, which are
centers of trade, commerce and technology
According to Rubenstein, 8 out of the World’s 10 largest cities (by population) are located in
developing countries, which include Cairo (Egypt), New Delhi (India), and Manila (Philippines),
among others. Their large and continuously increasing populations are mainly due to interregional
immigration from rural areas. Impoverished citizens who have low incomes migrate to the city,
hoping for better employment opportunities. Many, however, find themselves unsuccessful in this
motive.
In addition, more and more megacities sprung in periphery and semiperiphery regions as a result of
development. Investors are attracted to LEDCs that have of low labor costs, and strategic locations
for trade. Consequently, once primitive villages are being converted to cities to produce more
revenue for the economy.
Christaller’s central place theory explains how the most profitable location for a service can be
identified. Christaller argued that businesses in central places compete against each other to
serve as markets for goods and services for the surrounding region. In his model, he explains that
a ​central place ​is essentially a market center for the exchange of goods and services by people
attracted from the surrounding area. The central place theory involves different sizes of ​market
areas​ or ​hinterlands, ​nodal regions (represented by the hexagons) which attract customers from
the node of a service. These nodes can be cities, towns, villages or hamlets. Within each market
area, one can determine the profitability of a service based on it’s ​range​ and ​threshold​. The
range of a service is the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service. Because
people prefer to travel the shortest distance, a convenience store would have a short range, as
 compared to a stadium or concert area which have large
ranges. The threshold of a service is determined by the
minimum number of people needed to support the service.
Different service attract a different demography of
customers, so service providers need to ensure that there
are enough people within the range to support the service.

When a country’s ​nt​ h-largest settlement is 1/​n​ the

population of the largest settlement, it follows the
rank-size rule​, meaning that when ranking the
settlements from largest to smallest, they produce a
regular pattern. When one plots this on logarithmic paper,
the rank-size distribution follows a fairly straight line. Most
countries which follow the rank-size rule are developed,
like the US, however, a few developing countries, such as Nigeria, also follow the it.

However, instead of the rank-size rule, some countries may follow the ​law of the primate city​,
wherein the largest city in the country is more than double the size of the second largest city. The
majority of countries which follow the primate city rule are developing, such as in the case of
Mexico, wherein Mexico City is the ​primate city​. However, some developed countries in Europe
also follow this rule such as Paris, London and Copenhagen.

Jenny 8)​The gravity model is useful in

explaining interactions among
networks of cities.

James 9)​Classic models that are useful for

explaining the internal structures of
cities and urban development are the
Burgess concentric-zone model, the
Hoyt sector model, and the Harris–
Ullman multiple-nuclei model.
Natalie 10)​The galactic city model is useful
for explaining internal structures and
urban development within
metropolitan areas.
Lauren 11)​World-regional models (e.g., Latin
America, Africa) are useful (with
limitations) for explaining land use
and urban development.
Adi 12)​Residential buildings and patterns
of land use reflect a city’s culture,
technological capabilities, and cycles
of development.
European Major Cities
- Richer population tend to live in the CBD
- Less skyscrapers and taller buildings in general
- European cities tend to be more densely populated (New York being only half as dense as
Paris)
- European cities pack most of the population in an urban core
- More narrow streets
American Cities:
- More skyscrapers and taller buildings
- Richer people live in the suburbs surrounding the CBD
- Tend to be sparsely populated compared to European cities (6th most densely populated
European city, Lyon, has the same population density as New York)
- Lots of suburban areas surrounding the CBD, European cities don’t have much of a
suburban landscape.
- Longer streets
Why they are Different:
- Most European cities are hundreds and thousands of years old while American cities have
only been dubbed cities for around 100-200 years
- European cities were built in a time where people had to commute by foot and could not
travel far distances to work, thus meaning they resided in the CBD
 - American cities developed and grew larger in a time period where other forms of transport
allowed for people to travel long distances without needing to walk
- As a result of that, they could afford to live farther from the CBD, where it was less densely
populated and could just commute to work on the more developed modes of transportation

Martina 13)​Economic development and

interconnection within a metropolitan
area are dependent upon the
location and quality of infrastructure
(e.g., public transportation, airports,
roads, communication systems,
water and sewer systems).

Kody 14)​Sustainable design initiatives

include walkable mixed-use
commercial and residential areas
and smart-growth policies (e.g., new
urbanism, greenbelts, slow-growth
cities).

Kimberly 15)​Functional and geographic

fragmentation of governments
presents challenges in addressing
urban issues.

Pahal 16)​Quantitative information about a
city’s population is provided by
census and survey data.
● Geography relies on statistical data to conduct spatial analysis
● The single most important data source for human geographers is the census
○ In the United States, a census population and a census of housing take place once
a decade
○ Census of various types of business are undertaken every five years
● The census is controversial in many countries for the following reasons
○ Nonparticipation
 ■ Homeless people, ethnic minorities, and citizens of other countries without
proper documentation are less likely to complete the census form out of fear
that recognition may mean exile
○ Sampling
■ Statistical sampling techniques can be utilized to get a more accurate count,
as well as to identify detailed characteristics of people, housing and
business
■ Politicians sometimes take advantage of the census data to redraw districts
in a way that will be favorable for them

Priyasha 17)​Qualitative data from field studies

and narratives provide information
about individual attitudes toward
urban change.

Dipasha 18)​Economic and social problems

associated with the growth and
decline of urban communities include
housing and insurance
discrimination, housing affordability,
access to food stores and public
services, disamenity zones, zones of
abandonment, and gentrification.

Trisha 19)​Land use and environmental

problems associated with the growth
and decline of urban communities
include suburban sprawl, sanitation,
air and water quality, remediation
and redevelopment of brown fields,
farmland protection, and energy use.