Chemistry

WRITTEN BY: Melvyn C. Usselman Alan J. Rocke

LAST UPDATED: Jul 30, 2019 See Article History
ARTICLE CONTENTS
Chemistry, the science that deals with the properties, composition, and structure of substances
(defined as elements and compounds), the transformations they undergo, and the energy that is
released or absorbed during these processes. Every substance, whether naturally occurring or
artificially produced, consists of one or more of the hundred-odd species of atoms that have been
identified as elements. Although these atoms, in turn, are composed of more elementary particles,
they are the basic building blocks of chemical substances; there is no quantity of oxygen, mercury,
or gold, for example, smaller than an atom of that substance. Chemistry, therefore, is concerned
not with the subatomic domain but with the properties of atoms and the laws governing their
combinations and how the knowledge of these properties can be used to achieve specific purposes.

Chemistry
molecular structure
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KEY PEOPLE
Gregory P. Winter
Jacques Dubochet
Joachim Frank
George P. Smith
Michael Faraday
Louis Pasteur
Antoine Lavoisier
Jöns Jacob Berzelius
Justus, baron von Liebig
Joseph Black
RELATED TOPICS
Chemical bonding
Chemical element
Atom
Physical science
Chemical compound
Alchemy
Biochemistry
Chemical reaction
Phase
Chemical engineering
The great challenge in chemistry is the development of a coherent explanation of the complex
behaviour of materials, why they appear as they do, what gives them their enduring properties, and
how interactions among different substances can bring about the formation of new substances and
the destruction of old ones. From the earliest attempts to understand the material world in rational
terms, chemists have struggled to develop theories of matter that satisfactorily explain both
permanence and change. The ordered assembly of indestructible atoms into small and large
molecules, or extended networks of intermingled atoms, is generally accepted as the basis of
permanence, while the reorganization of atoms or molecules into different arrangements lies
behind theories of change. Thus chemistry involves the study of the atomic composition and
structural architecture of substances, as well as the varied interactions among substances that can
lead to sudden, often violent reactions.

Chemistry also is concerned with the utilization of natural substances and the creation of artificial
ones. Cooking, fermentation, glass making, and metallurgy are all chemical processes that date
from the beginnings of civilization. Today, vinyl, Teflon, liquid crystals, semiconductors, and
superconductors represent the fruits of chemical technology. The 20th century saw dramatic
advances in the comprehension of the marvelous and complex chemistry of living organisms, and
a molecular interpretation of health and disease holds great promise. Modern chemistry, aided by
increasingly sophisticated instruments, studies materials as small as single atoms and as large and
complex as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), which contains millions of atoms. New substances can
even be designed to bear desired characteristics and then synthesized. The rate at which chemical
knowledge continues to accumulate is remarkable. Over time more than 8,000,000 different
chemical substances, both natural and artificial, have been characterized and produced. The
number was less than 500,000 as recently as 1965.

Intimately interconnected with the intellectual challenges of chemistry are those associated with
industry. In the mid-19th century the German chemist Justus von Liebig commented that the
wealth of a nation could be gauged by the amount of sulfuric acid it produced. This acid, essential
to many manufacturing processes, remains today the leading chemical product of industrialized
countries. As Liebig recognized, a country that produces large amounts of sulfuric acid is one with
a strong chemical industry and a strong economy as a whole. The production, distribution, and
utilization of a wide range of chemical products is common to all highly developed nations. In
fact, one can say that the “iron age” of civilization is being replaced by a “polymer age,” for in
some countries the total volume of polymers now produced exceeds that of iron.

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The Scope Of Chemistry
The days are long past when one person could hope to have a detailed knowledge of all areas of
chemistry. Those pursuing their interests into specific areas of chemistry communicate with others
who share the same interests. Over time a group of chemists with specialized research interests
become the founding members of an area of specialization. The areas of specialization that
emerged early in the history of chemistry, such as organic, inorganic, physical, analytical, and
industrial chemistry, along with biochemistry, remain of greatest general interest. There has been,
however, much growth in the areas of polymer, environmental, and medicinal chemistry during
the 20th century. Moreover, new specialities continue to appear, as, for example, pesticide,
forensic, and computer chemistry.

crime-scene investigation: forensic chemistry

crime-scene investigation: forensic chemistry
A simulated crime scene is a teaching tool in a university forensic chemistry program.
University College Cork, Ireland (
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hemistry is the scientific discipline involved with elements and compounds composed of atoms,
molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they
undergo during a reaction with other substances.[1][2]

In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and
biology.[3] It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for
understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level.[4] For example,
chemistry explains aspects of plant chemistry (botany), the formation of igneous rocks (geology),
how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (ecology), the
properties of the soil on the moon (astrophysics), how medications work (pharmacology), and how
to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene (forensics).

Chemistry addresses topics such as how atoms and molecules interact via chemical bonds to form
new chemical compounds. There are four types of chemical bonds: covalent bonds, in which
compounds share one or more electron(s); ionic bonds, in which a compound donates one or more
electrons to another compound to produce ions (cations and anions); hydrogen bonds; and Van der
Waals force bonds.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry involves the study of the structure, properties, and preparation of chemical
compounds that consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen.

Organic chemistry overlaps with many areas including

Medicinal chemistry —the design, development, and synthesis of medicinal drugs. It overlaps
with pharmacology (the study of drug action).
Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon
and a metal.
Polymer chemistry — the study of the chemistry of polymers.
Physical organic chemistry — the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity
in organic molecules.
Stereochemistry — the study of the spatial arrangements of atoms in molecules and their effects
on the chemical and physical properties of substances.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and behaviour of inorganic compounds.

It covers all chemical compounds except organic compounds.

Inorganic chemists study things such as crystal structures, minerals, metals, catalysts, and most
elements in the Periodic Table.

Branches of inorganic chemistry include:

Bioinorganic chemistry — the study of the interaction of metal ions with living tissue, mainly
through their direct effect on enzyme activity.

Geochemistry — the study of the chemical composition and changes in rocks, minerals, and
atmosphere of the earth or a celestial body.

Nuclear chemistry — the study of radioactive substances.

Organometallic chemistry — the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon
and a metal.

Solid-state chemistry — the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid materials.

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Analytical chemistry involves the qualitative and quantitative determination of the chemical
components of substances.

Examples of areas using analytical chemistry include:

Forensic chemistry — the application of chemical principles, techniques, and methods to the
investigation of crime.

Environmental chemistry —the study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in
the environment.It relies heavily on analytical chemistry and includes atmospheric, aquatic, and
soil chemistry.

Bioanalytical Chemistry — the examination of biological materials such as blood, urine, hair,
saliva, and sweat to detect the presence of specific drugs.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Physical Chemistry —the study of the effect of chemical structure on the physical properties of a
substance.

Physical chemists typically study the rate of a chemical reaction, the interaction of molecules with
radiation, and the calculation of structures and properties.

Sub-branches of physical chemistry include:

Photochemistry — the study of the chemical changes caused by light.

Surface chemistry — the study of chemical reactions at surfaces of substances. It includes topics
like adsorption, heterogeneous catalysis, formation of colloids, corrosion, electrode processes, and
chromatography.

Chemical kinetics — the study of the rates of chemical reactions, the factors affecting those rates,
and the mechanism by which the reactions proceed.

Quantum chemistry — the mathematical description of the motion and interaction of subatomic
particles. It incorporates quantization of energy, wave-particle duality, the uncertainty principle,
and their relationship to chemical processes.

Spectroscopy — the use of the absorption, emission, or scattering of electromagnetic radiation by

matter to study the matter or the chemical processes it undergoes.

BIOCHEMISTRY

Biochemistry is the study of chemical reactions that take place in living things. It tries to explain
them in chemical terms.

Biochemical research includes cancer and stem cell biology, infectious disease, and cell membrane
and structural biology.

It spans molecular biology, genetics, biochemical pharmacology, clinical biochemistry, and

agricultural biochemistry.

Molecular biology — the study of the interactions between the various systems of a cell, such as
the different types of DNA, RNA, and protein biosynthesis.

Genetics — the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.

Pharmacology — the study of mechanisms of drug action and the influence of drugs on an
organism.
o Toxicology —a sub-branch of pharmacology that studies the effects of poisons on living
organisms.

Clinical biochemistry — the study of the changes that disease causes in the chemical composition
and biochemical processes of the body.

Agricultural biochemistry — the study of the chemistry that occurs in plants, animals, and
microorganisms.

Thus, although there are FIVE main branches of chemistry, there are many sub-branches.

There is a huge overlap between Chemistry and Biology, Medicine, Physics, Geology, and many
other disciplines.

Chemistry really is THE CENTRAL SCIENCE.

Open vs. Closed Systems

Systems can be either open or closed. A closed system is one where a quantity or series of
quantities cannot enter or leave the system. For example, a system might be closed to energy,
meaning energy might not be able to enter or leave the system. A vacuum thermos flask does a
really good job of stopping energy from leaving the system to keep your drink warm. So it might
make sense to treat it as a closed system - but no system in the real world is ever perfectly closed,
so it will only be an approximation.

The opposite of a closed system is an open system. An open system is one where a quantity or
series of quantities can enter or leave the system to a significant degree. If you pour your hot drink
into a mug instead of a vacuum thermos flask, the heat will escape relatively quickly into its
surroundings. So a mug is most certainly an open system! Open systems are a lot more
complicated to understand than closed systems, and so scientists prefer to work with closed
systems when possible. It makes things much simpler to explain and can be a good starting point
before trying to explain open systems, too.

Example
One of the places where you see scientists analyze closed systems the most is when working on
thermodynamics, or the study of the movement of heat energy. One of the laws of
thermodynamics says that heat can only travel from hot places to cold places unless you do some
kind of 'work' to stop it. So, if you put a hot object in contact with a cold one, heat will transfer
from the hot one to the cold one.

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thermodynamics, it is imperative to define a system and its surroundings because that concept
becomes the basis for many types of descriptions and calculations.

Introduction
A primary goal of the study of thermochemistry is to determine the quantity of heat exchanged
between a system and its surroundings. The system is the part of the universe being studied, while
the surroundings are the rest of the universe that interacts with the system. A system and its
surroundings can be as large as the rain forests in South America or as small as the contents of a
beaker in a chemistry laboratory. The type of system one is dealing with can have very important
implications in chemistry because the type of system dictates certain conditions and laws of
thermodynamics associated with that system.

Open System
An open system is a system that freely exchanges energy and matter with its surroundings. For
instance, when you are boiling soup in an open saucepan on a stove, energy and matter are being
transferred to the surroundings through steam. The saucepan is an open system because it allows
for the transfer of matter (for example adding spices in the saucepan) and for the transfer of energy
(for example heating the saucepan and allowing steam to leave the saucepan).

Let us examine how matter and energy are exchanged in an open system. Matter can be exchanged
rather easily: by adding matter (i.e spices) or removing matter (i.e tasting what is being cooked).
Energy exchange is a little bit more complicated than matter exchange. There are a couple of ways
energy can be exchanged: through heat and through work (a more in-depth discussion of heat and
work has been included below). Energy induced through heat can be demonstrated by bringing the
system close to an object that dissipates heat (i.e. Bunsen burner, stove, etc.). By doing so, one is
able to change the temperature of the system and therefore, induce energy through heat. Another
way to increase the energy is through work. An example of inducing work is by taking a stirrer
and then mixing the coffee in the cup with the stirrer. By mixing coffee, work is done as the coffee
is being moved against a force.

Note: the blue diagram depicting the transfer of energy and matter is showing how energy and
matter can enter the system AND leave the system. Do not be fooled by the one way arrows.

open.pngopen1.png

Closed System
Putting a lid on the saucepan makes the saucepan a closed system. A closed system is a system
that exchanges only energy with its surroundings, not matter. By putting a lid on the saucepan,
matter can no longer transfer because the lid prevents matter from entering the saucepan and
leaving the saucepan. Still, the saucepan allows energy transfer. Imagine putting the saucepan on a
stove and heating it. The saucepan allows energy transfer as the saucepan heats up and heats the
contents inside it. For example, when a lid is put a beaker, it becomes a closed system. Next, when
the contents in the beaker are boiled, the sides of the beaker will start getting foggy and misty.
This fog and mist is the steam which covers the sides of the container because it cannot escape the
beaker due to the lid. The fact that the beaker is able to produce this steam means that the beaker
allows for energy transfer. Thus, even though a closed system cannot allow matter transfer, it can
still allow energy transfer.
The methods of energy transfer in a closed system are the same as those described for an open
system above.

Note, the blue diagram is showing how energy can enter the system AND leave the system. Do not
be fooled by the one-way arrows.

closed.pngclosed1.png

Isolated System
Now let's examine the type of system you have if you substituted a thermos for the saucepan. A
thermos is used to keep things either cold or hot. Thus, a thermos does not allow for energy
transfer. Additionally, the thermos, like any other closed container, does not allow matter transfer
because it has a lid that does not allow anything to enter or leave the container. As a result, the
thermos is what we call an isolated system. An isolated system does not exchange energy or matter
with its surroundings. For example, if soup is poured into an insulated container (as seen below)
and closed, there is no exchange of heat or matter. The fact that, in reality, a thermos is not perfect
in keeping things warm/cold illustrates the difficulty in creating an truly isolated system. In fact,
there are a few, if any, systems that exist in this world that are completely isolated systems.

isolated.pngisolated1.png

Energy, Heat, and Work

In defining a system and its surroundings, words like energy and matter are used very often. As a
result, one's understanding of a system and its surroundings can increase by understanding energy
and matter. Energy is the ability to do work. Work is when an object moves against a force and is
defined by the following equation:

W=FD(1)
with

W representing work,
F representing force, and
D representing distance.
It can be as simple as picking up a tennis ball or as complicated as pushing a car. When you are
moving an object against a force (i.e. gravity), you are doing work on that object.

There are many different types of energy, but the two that will be discussed in this section are
potential energy and kinetic energy. Potential energy is "stored energy," energy that contains the
potential to do work when released. Any object that is stationary contains potential energy. For
example, if someone is standing in a baseball field holding a ball in their hand, the ball has
potential energy. Note that the ball is stationary. Kinetic energy on the other hand, is known as the
energy created by movement. Now imagine that someone is still holding that same baseball in
their hand. By throwing the baseball, potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy, because the
ball is now moving and is not stationary anymore. Below is a visual of kinetic and potential
energy:

Initially, when the ball is stationary and not moving, it has potential energy. When it moves
towards the baseball bat and when the bat hits the baseball, the baseball it has kinetic energy
because the ball is moving the entire time.

Besides potential energy and kinetic energy, energy is also characterized by heat (q). Heat is an
extensive property and results from a temperature difference due to the transfer of thermal energy.
In our day-to-day language, we use heat and temperature interchangeably. When the word "heat"
is used, what comes to mind is usually the following:

Normally, people associate heat with temperature but in chemistry, both those terms have very
specific definitions. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of an object. Heat, on
the other hand, describes the transfer of temperature and not temperature itself. They are two
different terms. To reinforce, temperature refers to the average kinetic energy of an object whereas
heat refers to the transfer of energy.

Applications
Systems and surroundings have many practical applications in chemistry as well as in our own
day-to-day lives. Without even knowing, we interact with thousands of closed and open systems
everyday. For example, when packing lunch, food is normally placed in some sort of closed
container (so that things don't enter or leave the container). Anything can be defined as a system,
and and everything else would then be the surroundings.

In reality,{C}the type of system one is dealing with has many implications regarding the
assumptions and calculations one is allowed in chemistry. Furthermore, based on systems and
surroundings, scientists have come up with a couple of laws known as laws of thermodynamics.
The first and second law of thermodynamics, briefly stated, are:

The internal energy of an isolated system stays constant.

The entropy of an isolated system tends to increase.
The first law is based upon the definition of an isolated system. Internal energy is a sum of a
system's heat and work. As discussed earlier, heat and work are forms of energy. An isolated
system is by definition a system that does not allow energy transfer. Thus, it makes sense to say
that the internal energy of an isolated system stays constant because it does not change at all.

The second law of thermodynamics, increasing entropy of an isolated system, asks for basic
understanding of entropy. Entropy is the disorder within a system. For example, a solid has no
disorder (atoms are packed into a cube and cannot move) whereas a gas has more disorder (atoms
bouncing all over the place). Thus, this law states that the entropy of an isolated system tends to
increase (i.e. a chemical reaction taking place in an isolated system will never have a liquid
becoming a solid because that is a decrease in entropy).

Analogies & Examples

The topic of a system and surroundings, just like other topics in chemistry, is one that can be well
understood through reading and visualizing examples. An open system is one that allows energy
and matter exchange. When deciding whether or not something is an open system, one must
determine whether or not the system allows matter and energy transfer. If it does, then it is an open
system. If it does not, then it is either a closed system or an isolated system. If the system allows
neither energy or matter transfer, then it is an isolated system. However, if it allows only energy
transfer, it is a closed system. The videos below provide additional examples of closed, open, and
isolated systems. (These videos are available for download at the bottom of the page where it says
"Files.")

Open System Video