Chapter 4: Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry

Lecture 1 of 3
• Balancing Chemical Equations
• Solutions and Solubility
• Ionic Solutions
• Solubility of Ionic Compounds
• Net Ionic Equations
• Types of Chemical Reactions
– Precipitation
– Acid-base
–- Oxidation reduction
 Balancing Chemical Equations
The only useful chemical equation is a “balanced equation”, i.e. one which
has the__________ coefficients for all reactants and products.

One important concept in balancing equations is the conservation of mass:

Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

General notes:
• Reactants are on the ______, products are on the _______
• Avoid fractions. Equations are generally written with __________ set of
whole-number coefficients.
• States are often indicated by (_), (_), (_), (__) for solid, liquid, gas, and
aqueous respectively.
• When balancing only the __________ may be adjusted. The __________
are NEVER changed.
• Reaction __________ are indicated above the arrow.
One usually balances by inspection.

Consider e.g. the combustion of propane,C3H8 (g) in oxygen to yield CO2

(g) and H2O (l).

C3H8(g) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) → 3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(l)

Example. When the following equation is balanced the

coefficients are respectively:

__Ca3(PO4)2 + __H3PO4 → __Ca(H2PO4)2

Answers:
A. 3, 4, 1
B. 1, 4, 3
C. 1, 3, 4
D. 4, 3, 1
 Solutions and Solubility

• A solution can be described as a homogeneous mixture of two

or more substances. These substances can be classified as the
_________ or _____________.

• The solvent is the substance that is present in the greatest

quantity and in the same state as the solution. If the substance
happens to be water then the solution is said to be _________.

• The solute(s) is/are the substance or substances __________ in

the solvent.

Question: When a solute dissolves in a solvent what is occurring?

What forces are at play? Why do some things dissolve and
others don’t?
 Ionic Solutions

All aqueous solutions can be classified in terms of whether or not

they conduct electricity.

If a substance forms ions in solution, then it is an ___________

and ________________________. Most ionic compounds are
electrolytes. Example?

If a substance does not form ions in solution then it is called a

___________________ and does not conduct electricity. Most
molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes. Example?
A ________ electrolyte is a substance that
almost completely breaks into ions
upon dissolving (e.g. strong acids and
bases, and many salts).
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

A _________ electrolyte is a substance that only

partially breaks into ions upon dissolving (e.g.
weak acids and bases).

NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇄ NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

NOTE: Do not confuse the solubility of a substance with it
being classified a strong, weak, or nonelectrolyte.

Solubility of Ionic Compounds

A substance’s ability to dissolve is called its solubility. Substances

that readily dissolve are called ________ while those that have
limited or no solubility are sometimes called ____________ or
_________________.

Question: Can we predict what substances are soluble?

Example. Which of the following compounds is soluble in water?
a. Ni(OH)2
b. K3PO4
c. BaSO4
d. PbCl2
 Net Ionic Equations

Chemical equations can come in several forms with each type

providing a varying degree of information.

The ____________ (or ________) equation lists all species in their

molecular forms even though they may exist as ions in solution.

e.g. HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)

The ____________________is one in which all strong electrolytes

are written as separate ions in the solution.

e.g. H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- → H2O(l) + Na+ + Cl-

The _________________(N.I.E.) lists only those ions which are not
common to both sides of the reaction. The common ions are
called _____________ ions and are not included in the N.I.E.

e.g. H+ + Cl- + Na+ + OH- → H2O (l) + Na+ + Cl-

N.I.E.

Notes
1. A compound is written as ions only if it is soluble AND a strong
electrolyte.

2. Polyatomic ions do not get split into smaller forms.

Example:
K2S (aq) + 2HBr (aq) → H2S (g) + 2 KBr (aq)

Ionic :

N.I.E:
 Types of Chemical Reactions
There are many million different possible reactions and it is not
possible to know them all. Instead, we group reactions into
different categories and classes.

We will look at three main types of reactions:

• Precipitation
• Acid-base
• Oxidation-reduction
 Precipitation Reactions

A precipitation reaction is one in which an insoluble solid compound

forms during the chemical reaction. The solid is called the _________.

A precipitation reaction is an example of a _______________________:

an exchange of ions in solution.

The general form is: AX + BY → AY + BX

E.g. 2 AgNO3 (aq) + MgCl2 (aq) → 2 AgCl (s) + Mg(NO3 )2 (aq)

How many of the following reactions will have a precipitate form?
NiCl2 (aq) + (NH4)2S (aq) → ??
Na2CrO4 (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → ??
AgClO4 (aq) + CaBr2 (aq) → ??
ZnCl2 (aq) + K2CO3 (aq) → ??

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
 Acids - Base Reactions

Arrhenius definitions:

Acid: any substance that dissociates (or ionizes) in water to generate

the _________________(or _______)

e.g. HNO3 (aq) → H+(aq) + NO3- (aq)

Base: any substance that _______ with H+ ions formed by acids OR any
substance that dissociates in water to generate _______________.
(Exception NH3)

e.g. NaOH (aq) → Na+(aq) + OH- (aq)

H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Features of Acids and Bases

1. Strong acids and bases __________________ in solution and

thus are strong electrolytes.

2. Weak acids and bases _______________in solution and thus

are weak electrolytes.
Beaker A: HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Beaker B: HF (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + F- (aq)

 Common Strong Acids and Bases

acids bases
Chloric, HClO3 (?) Group IA metal hydroxides, e.g. LiOH
Hydrobromic, HBr Heavy group IIA metal hydroxides,
Hydrochloric, HCl e.g. Ca(OH)2 , Sr(OH)2 , Ba(OH)2
Hydroiodic, HI
Nitric, HNO3
Perchloric, HClO4
Sulfuric, H2SO4

Exam alert!! You must know and be able to

identify these!
Acid-base neutralization reactions

Definition: The reaction of an acid and a base to yield an ____________

(or ______) and possibly water.

A typical acid-base neutralization reaction:

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)

acid base water salt

Another example:
KOH (aq) + HCN (aq) → KCN (aq) +H2O (l)

The salt product consists of the cation from the _______ reactant and the
anion from the __________ reactant.
Question: what is the net ionic equation for the above reaction?
Practice:

1. Write the net ionic equation for the following reaction

NaOH (aq) + NH4Br(aq) → NaBr(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l)

2. Complete and balance the following reaction:

HCl (aq) + Ba(OH)2 →
Acid – Base reactions involving gas formation

Practice:
1. (NH4) 2SO4 (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) →

2. HCl (aq) + KHCO3 (aq) →

 Oxidation and Reduction

In observing various types of reactions and learning to write net

ionic equations we have seen that atoms and molecules may
possess various degrees of charge, e.g. Iron can be Fe , Fe2+,
Fe3+

The ______________or _______________ is a formal way to keep

track of electrons in redox reactions. It assumes that the more
electronegative atom in a covalent bond will ‘take’ all the
electrons rather than share them.
Some definitions:
Oxidation: ______ of electrons by an atom, molecule, ion, etc.
e.g. Ca → Ca2+ + 2e- (The Ca was oxidized)

Reduction: ______ of electrons by an atom, molecule, ion, etc.

e.g. Cl2 + 2 e- → 2 Cl- (The Cl2 was reduced)
LEO THE LION GOES GER !
Loss of Gain of
Electrons Electrons
Oxidized Reduced

Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain

Examples of Redox Reactions

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

What is net ionic equation for above reaction?

Rules for assigning Oxidation Numbers (O.N.)
1. The oxidation state of each atom in an element is 0.
2. The oxidation state of the atom in a monoatomic ion is equal to the ion’s
charge.
3. The sum of the oxidation states of all atoms in:
a. A Neutral molecule is always zero
b. A polyatomic ion is always equal to the charge of the ion
4. In their compounds, metals have positive oxidation states:
a. Group 1 metals always have an oxidation state of +1.
b. Group 2 metals always have an oxidation state of +2
5. The oxidation state of hydrogen in a compound is usually +1. In metal
hydrides it is -1.
6. In their compounds, the nonmetals typically have negative oxidation states:
a. Fluorine always has an oxidation state of -1.
b. The other group 17 elements usually have an oxidation state of -1.
c. Oxygen usually has an oxidation state of -2.
d. The other groups 16 elements usually have an oxidation state of -2.
e. Group 15 elements usually have an oxidation number of -3.
Example: Assign Oxidation Numbers to all the atoms in the
following:-
CO2 PbCl2
Tough one: Fe3O4

NH3 CH4

SF6 Another tough one: Cr2O72-

What is oxidation number of P
in NH4H2PO4 ?
a. - 3
MnO4- b. + 1 NO3-
c. + 5
d. + 3
C 2H 6O H3PO4
 Redox Reactions

A redox reaction involves both a gain and loss of electrons, i.e. both
an oxidation and a reduction occurs.

It is convenient to think of the overall REDOX reaction as two

individual HALF-reactions, namely an Oxidation Half-reaction and
a Reduction Half-reaction

2 Na(s) → 2 Na+ + 2 e- (______________ half-reaction)

Cl2(g) + 2 e- → 2 Cl- (______________ half-reaction)

Overall reaction:
More definitions!
Oxidizing Agent : Causes another species to be __________ by
accepting/taking electrons from it.

Reducing Agent : Causes another species to be __________ by

donating electrons to it.

“The oxidizing agent is reduced and the reducing agent is oxidized”

Oxidation results in an _____________ in the oxidation state by loss of

electrons.

Reduction results in an ____________ in the oxidation state by gain of

electrons.
Example. Identify the species being oxidized and reduced in the
following balanced net-ionic equation:

8H+ + MnO4- + 5Fe2+ → Mn2+ + 4H2O + 5Fe3+

Here is another one to try:

N2H4 (aq) + 3O2 (aq) → 2NO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)