Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Soil & Tillage Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/still

Soil restoration using composted plant residues: Effects on soil properties

M. Tejada a,*, M.T. Hernandez b, C. Garcia b
a
Departamento de Cristalografı´a, Mineralogı´a y Quı´mica Agrı́cola, E.U.I.T.A. Universidad de Sevilla, Crta de Utrera km. 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
b
Departamento de Conservación de Suelos y Agua y Manejo de Residuos Orgánicos, Centro de Edafologı´a y Biologı´a Aplicada del Segura, CEBAS-CSIC, P.O. Box 4195,
30080 Murcia, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Organic soil amendments are increasingly being examined for their potential for soil restoration. In this
Received 10 December 2007 paper, different composted plant residues consisting of leguminous (red clover, Trifolium pratense L.) (TP)
Received in revised form 12 June 2008 and non-leguminous (rapeseed, Brassica napus L.) (BN) plants and the combination of both plant residues
Accepted 10 August 2008
(red clover + rapeseed, Trifolium pratense L. + Brassica napus L. at a ratio 1:1) (TP + BN) were applied
during a period of 4 years for restoring a Xelloric Calciorthid soil located near Seville (Guadalquivir Valley,
Keywords: Andalusia, Spain). The effect of the organic soil amendments on plant cover, soil physical (structural
Composted plant residues
stability, bulk density), chemical (C/N ratio), and biological properties (microbial biomass, soil respiration
Soil enzymatic activities
and enzymatic activities (dehydrogenase, urease, b-glucosidase, phosphatase and arylsulfatase
Soil restoration
activities)) were determined. Organic amendments were applied at rate of 7.2 and 14.4 t organic
matter ha1. All composted plant residues had a positive effect on soil physical properties. At the end of
the experimental period and at the high rate, soil structural stability was highest in the BN (28.3%)
treatment, followed by the TP + BN (22.4%) and the TP (14.5%) treatments and then the control. Soil bulk
density was higher in the BN (30.9%), followed by TP + BN (26.2%) and TP (16.1%) treatments with respect
to the control. However, soil biological properties (biomass C and the enzymatic activities) were
particularly improved by the TP + BN treatment, followed by TP, BN and the control. After 4 years, the
percentage of plant cover increased 87.2% in the TP + BN amended soil with respect to the control,
followed by TP (84.1%) and BN (83.8%). These differences were attributed to the different chemical
composition of the composts applied to the soils and their mineralization, controlled by the soil C/N ratio.
The application of TP + BN compost with a C/N ratio of 18, resulted a more favourable soil biological
properties and plant cover than the application of TP (C/N ratio = 8.8) and BN (C/N ratio = 47.7) composts.
ß 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction and activity, with the subsequent mineralization of plant nutrients

Soil degradation is a major environmental concern. For this
reason, the application of materials with a high organic matter
content, such as fresh and composted urban wastes (Ros et al., 2003),
shredded and composted plant materials derived from municipal
landscape (Walker, 2003), cotton gin compost and poultry manure
(Tejada et al., 2006a), and beet vinasse composted with a crushed
cotton gin compost (Tejada et al., 2007) to semiarid soils has become
a common environmental practice for soil restoration, maintaining
soil organic matter, reclaiming degraded soils, and supplying plant
nutrients.
The application of plant residues to soil is considered a good
management practice because it stimulates soil microbial growth
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mtmoral@us.es (M. Tejada).
(Eriksen, 2005; Randhawa et al., 2005), and increases soil fertility
and quality (Doran et al., 1988). For this reason, their use in the
restoration of degraded zones is promising. However, the influence
of organic matter on soil properties depends on the amount, type
and size of the added organic materials. The effect of a particular
plant residue on soil properties depends on its dominant
component (Clément et al., 1998; Chaves et al., 2004).
Since many enzymes respond to changes in soil fertility status,
they can be used as potential indicators of soil quality (Garcia et al.,
2000). Enzymes may also react to changes in soil management
more quickly than other physical or chemical variables and there-
fore be useful as early indicators of biological changes (Bandick and
Dick, 1999).
In view of the above, the objective of this study was to evaluate
the effects of plant residues on soil restoration, comparing their
effect on some physical (structural stability and soil bulk density),
chemical (C/N ratio) and biological soil properties such as soil

0167-1987/$ – see front matter ß 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.still.2008.08.004
110 M. Tejada et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117

microbial biomass, soil respiration and soil enzymatic activities Table 2

Characteristics of the plant residue composts (mean of 7 samples with standard
(dehydrogenase, urease, b-glucosidase, phosphate and arylsulfa-
error in parentheses)
tase) in a semiarid Mediterranean agro-ecosystem.
TP BN TP + BN

2. Materials and methods Dry weight (%) 16.8 (0.6) 30.4 (1.4) 21.7 (1.0)
Organic matter (g kg1 DM) 358.9 (1.7) 405.8 (3.6) 680.4 (2.1)
2.1. Study area Total N (g kg1 DM) 40.8 (1.7) 8.5 (0.9) 37.4 (0.8)
C/N ratio 8.8 (1.1) 47.7 (4) 18.2 (2.6)
Humic acid-C (g kg1) 1.3 (0.1) 63.6 (1.4) 59.5 (2.8)
The study was conducted from October 2000 to October 2005 Fulvic acid-C (g kg1) 51.4 (1.2) 2.5 (0.2) 53.8 (2.1)
near Sevilla (Guadalquivir Valley, Andalusia, Spain) on a Xerollic Lignin (g kg1 DM) 5.3 (0.6) 27.8 (1.1) 29.8 (0.9)
Calciorthid (Soil Survey Staff, 1987). The main soil characteristics Cellulose (g kg1 DM) 4.7 (0.5) 20.4 (1.6) 18.3 (0.5)
Hemicellulose (g kg1 DM) 9.8 (0.6) 34.6 (1.4) 30.5 (1.0)
(0–25 cm) are shown in Table 1. Soil pH was determined in
distilled water with a glass electrode (soil:H2O ratio 1:2.5). Soil DM: dry matter.
electrical conductivity was determined in distilled water with a
glass electrode (soil:H2O ratio 1:5). Soil texture was determined by
the Robinson’s pipette method (SSEW, 1982) and dominant clay Composting was considered complete when the C/N ratio and
types were determined by X-ray diffraction. Soil total N was temperature became constant. The general properties of the
determined by the Kjeldahl method (MAPA, 1986). Total CaCO3 composted plant residues at the end of the composting process are
was measured by estimating the quantity of the CO2 produced by shown in Table 2.
HCl addition to the soil (MAPA, 1986). Soil organic carbon was Organic matter (OM) was determined by dry combustion
determined by oxidizing organic matter in soil samples with (MAPA, 1986). To determine humic and fulvic acids-C, composted
K2Cr2O7 in sulphuric acid (96%) for 30 min, and measuring the plant residues were extracted with a mixture of 0.1 M sodium
concentration of Cr3+ formed (Yeomans and Bremner, 1988). pyrophosphate and 0.1 M sodium hydroxide at pH 13 (Kononova,
The climate is semiarid with an average annual precipitation of 1966). The supernatant was acidified to pH 2 with HCl and allowed
400 mm for the 3 experimental years, concentrated in the spring to stand for 24 h at room temperature. To separate humic acids
and autumn months. The mean annual temperature of the 3 from fulvic acids, the solution was centrifuged and the precipitate
experimental years was 17.3 8C and mean potential evapotran- containing humic acids was removed. This precipitate was later
spiration was 700 mm year1. Thus the long-term water deficit, redissolved with sodium hydroxide (Yeomans and Bremner, 1988).
calculated by the Thorntwaite method, is 436 mm. July and August After the removal of humic acids, the acidic filtrate containing the
are the driest months. dissolved fulvic acid fraction was passed through a column of XAD-
The area is a fragile environment strongly marked by erosion. 8 resin. The adsorbed fulvic was then recovered by elution with
Harsh physical conditions and inadequate soil uses by man have 0.1 M NaOH, desalted using Amberlyst 15-cation-exchange resin,
resulted in a dissected landscape where furrows, rills and gullies and finally freeze-dried. The carbon content of humic acid and
scour both the hill slopes and the weak deposits which fill the low- fulvic acids was determined by the method of Yeomans and
lying regions. Bremner (1988). Structural carbohydrates were determined
sequentially as neutral detergent and acid detergent fibres and
2.2. Properties of plant residues lignin was determined by permanganate oxidation (Goering and
van Soest, 1970). The neutral detergent procedure gives the total
Plant residues consisting of leguminous (red clover, Trifolium fibre content of cell walls. The acid detergent fibre is mainly
pratense L.) and non-leguminous (rapeseed, Brassica napus L.) composed of lignin, cellulose and insoluble minerals (Goering and
plants and the combination of both residues (red clover + rapeseed, van Soest, 1970). The hemicellulose fraction was calculated by
Trifolium pratense L. + Brassica napus L. at a ratio 1:1) were subtracting the acid detergent fibre from the neutral detergent
composted. For composting, the residues (Trifolium pratense L., values. The acid detergent fibre and neutral detergent values were
Brassica napus L. and Trifolium pratense L. + Brassica napus L.) were corrected for residual ash.
shredded and composted in trapezoidal piles (2 m high by 2 m
width by 3 m length). During the thermophilic phase, the piles 2.3. Experimental layout and treatments
were watered regularly to maintain moisture contents at around
55%, in accordance with McKinley et al. (1985). The piles were The experimental layout was a randomized complete block
turned every 10 days in order to improve the O2 level inside the with a total amount of 35 plots, with each plot measuring
pile. The composting process lasted 179 days for Trifolium pratense 9 m  9 m. Seven treatments were used (five replicates per
L. residues, 210 days for Brassica napus L. residues and 201 days for treatment):
the mix of Trifolium pratense L. + Brassica napus L. residues.
(1) C, control soil (no organic amendment).
Table 1
(2) TP1, fertilized with 10 t ha1 of red clover (Trifolium pratense L.)
Initial soil characteristics (mean of 4 samples with standard error in parentheses) compost (TP) (dry weight) (7.2 t OM ha1).
pH 7.6 (0.14)
(3) BN1, fertilized with 8.8 t ha1 of rapeseed (Brassica napus L.)
Electrical conductivity (dS m1) 0.23 (0.04) compost (BN) (dry weight) (7.2 t OM ha1).
Clay (g kg1) 313 (15) (4) (TP + BN)1, fertilized with 5.3 t ha1 of a compost from a red
Silt (g kg1) 259 (22) clover + rapeseed (Trifolium pratense L. + Brassica napus L.) (1:1)
Sand (g kg1) 428 (31)
mixture (TP + BN) (dry weight) (7.2 t OM ha1).
Texture Clay loam
Dominant clay types Illite, illite-montmorillonite (interstratified) (5) TP2, fertilized with 20 t ha1 of TP (dry weight) (14.4 t OM ha1).
CaCO3 (g kg1) 351 (25) (6) BN2, fertilized with 17.7 t ha1 of BN (dry weight)
Total N (g kg1) 0.91 (0.03) (14.4 t OM ha1).
Total C (g kg1) 5.4 (0.09) (7) (TP + BN)2, fertilized with 10.5 t ha1 of the mixing TP + BN
C/N ratio 5.9 (0.3)
(dry weight) (14.4 t OM ha1).
 M. Tejada et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117
The composted plant residues were spread on the soil surface
on 10 October 2001, 2 October 2002, 7 October 2003 and 6 October
2004, and incorporated to a 25-cm depth by chisel plowing and
disking the day after application. Control plots received the same
tillage treatments as the plots subjected to residue addition. The
chemical composition of the used composts was the same for the
entire experimental time. To accomplish this, the composted plant
residues were stored at 0 8C after their application the first year to
avoid mineralization.
2.4. Soil sampling and analytical determinations
Plant cover, or percentage of soil covered by the octagonal
projection of the aerial part of each plant, was determined by
the lineal intercept method (Canfield, 1941). Plant cover was
determined on 15 May 2002, 19 May 2003, 17 May 2004 and 20
May 2005.
Soil samples (0–25 cm) were collected from each plot with a
gauge auger (30-mm diameter) on 1 October 2002, 6 October 2003,
5 October 2004, and 8 October 2005. Three subsamples were
collected from each plot. After air drying, the soil samples were
grounded to pass a 2-mm sieve and stored for 10 days in sealed
polyethylene bags at 4 8C before analysis.
Soil structural stability was determined by the Hénin and
Monnier method (1956) and classified according to Baize criteria
(1988). The aggregate size fraction <2 mm was used. The
proportions (%, w/w) of stable Ag1, Ag2 and Ag3 aggregates
(corresponding to untreated, alcohol-treated and benzene-treated
aggregates, respectively) were calculated, and the instability index,
Is, was obtained using the equation:
ð% < 20 mmÞmax
Is ¼
ðAg1 þ Ag2 þ Ag3 =3Þ  0:9ð%CSÞ
where ‘‘(%<20 mm)max’’ indicates the largest proportion of
suspended particles <20 mm determined for the three samples
treatments, and %CS is the largest proportion of coarse sand (the
0.2–2 mm fraction) forming part of the stable aggregates.
Soil bulk density was determined using the core method. The
soil was weighed and dried at 105 8C for 48 h before determining
bulk density as the ratio between soil dry weight and the ring
volume, according to the official methods of the Spanish Ministry
of Agriculture (MAPA, 1986).
Soil C/N ratio evolution was determined for all treatments
and for each experimental season with the intention of observing
the organic matter mineralization of plant residues added to the
soil.
Soil microbial biomass was determined using the CHCl3
fumigation–extraction method (Vance et al., 1987). The activity
of six soil enzymes was measured: dehydrogenase activity was
measured by reduction of 2-p-iodo-3-nitrophenyl 5-phenyl
tetrazolium chloride to iodonitrophenyl formazan (Garcia et al.,
1993). Urease activity was determined using urea as substrate
(Kandeler and Gerber, 1988). b-Glucosidase activity was deter-
mined using p-nitrophenyl-b-D-glucopyranoside as substrate
(Masciandaro et al., 1994). Alkaline phosphatase activity was
measured using p-nitrophenyl phosphate as substrate (Tabatabai
and Bremner, 1969). Arylsulfatase activity was determined using
p-nitrophenylsulphate as substrate (Tabatabai and Bremner,
1970).
In the laboratory, and in the samples collected at the end of the
experiment (8 October 2005), soil respiration was measured by
incubation for 3, 7, 15, 30, 60 and 90 days. Total CO2–C collected in
the NaOH flasks was determined by the addition of an excess of
1.5 M BaCl2 followed by titration with standardized HCl using a
phenolphthalein indicator (Zibilske, 1994).
111
2.5. Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using the
Statgraphics v. 5.0 software package (Statistical Graphics Corpora-
tion, 1991). ANOVA was based on the HSD (honestly significant
difference) criterion, considering a significance level of p < 0.05
throughout the study. For the ANOVA analysis, the five replicate
data were used for each fertilizer treatment and every experi-
mental season, although in the tables the values that appear are the
average of the five replicates.
In order to finding homogeneous and independent groups of
variables starting from all the analyzed variables, data were
subjected to factor analysis using varimax rotated factor matrix
to obtain a matrix, the rotation of which using the varimax
criterion revealed the elements most markedly influencing soil
remediation. For this factor analysis, first the correlation matrix
between all the variables was calculated. Next, a optimal
number of factors necessary to represent the data was extracted
and lastly, the factors were rotated with object of facilitating its
interpretation.
Lastly, linear regression analysis was performed with the most
significant parameters in factor analysis.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Soil physical and chemical properties
At the end of the experimental period, structural stability
increased in the organically amended soils (Fig. 1). The unamended
soil showed the lowest structural stability. These results are in
accordance with Puget et al. (2000), Spaccini et al. (2004), and
Tejada et al. (2006a) who found that organic matter acts as a
cementing factor, necessary for flocculating soil particles to form
stable aggregates. However, this increase depended on the
chemical composition of the organic matter applied to the soil,
higher increases being observed at both rates in the soils amended
with the composts providing greater amounts of humic acids to the
soil (BN and TP + BN composts). In this respect, Piccolo et al. (1997)
and Whalen et al. (2003) suggested that the aggregate stability is
significantly correlated with the humic but not with the fulvic acid
concentration, because the humic acids are directly involved in the
clay–organic complex formation.
On the other hand, the contribution of microbial activity to
aggregate formation and stabilization has been reviewed by
Oades (1993), Degens (1997) and Six et al. (2004). The production
of mucilages by bacteria and fungi enhances the formation of soil
microaggregates (Oades, 1993; Six et al., 2004). In our experi-
ment, the addition of composted plant residues also generated an
increase in soil microbial activity. Therefore, this increase in soil
microbial activity could be responsible for the increase in the soil
structural stability. However, the mucilages produced by
bacteria and fungi represent a source of labile soil organic
carbon (Oades, 1993). Martens (2000) indicated that the
aggregate binding effect of labile soil organic carbon is rapid
but transient while slower decomposing soil organic carbon has
subtler effects on aggregation, but the effects may be longer
lived. For this reason, the aggregate stability increased more
strongly in the soils amended with composted plant residues
with higher humic acid concentration.
Soil bulk density decreased during the experimental period
(Fig. 1) as a result of dilution of the denser soil mineral fraction and
soil aeration increases because of the increase in soil porosity
accompanying structural stability. This decrease was especially
evident at the higher rate of compost addition at the end of the
experimental period. Also, this decrease was more significant in
112 M. Tejada et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117

Fig. 1. Instability index (log10 Is), bulk density (Mg m3) and C/N ratio in soils to which composted plant residues were applied. Error bars represent the standard error of
means. Structural stability (log10 Is) (Baize, 1988), very stable  1.0; stable = 1.0–1.3; slightly stable = 1.3–1.7; unstable = 1.7–2.0; very unstable  2.0. Different letters
following the figures indicate a significant difference at p < 0.05.

the soils amended with composted plant residues with higher
humic acid concentration. These results are in agreement with Kay
and VandenBygaart (2002) and Tejada et al. (2006a).
At the end of the experimental period, the lowest soil C/N
ratio values were observed for control soil, followed by TP,
(TP + BN) and BN amended soils (Fig. 1). Optimum C/N ratio (10–
12) was observed for TP + BN (at both rates) and TP2 amended
soils. TP1 amended soils had slightly lower C/N values, whereas
BN amended soils (at both rates) showed higher C/N ratios. In
our opinion, this is why mineralization prevails over immobi-
lization in the TP + BN and TP treatments. Soil microbial biomass
and soil enzymatic activities were also higher in these soils than
in BN (at both rates) treatments (C/N ratio not optimal). Thus
immobilization prevails over mineralization and soil microbial
biomass and soil enzymatic activities are lower. These results
reflect those of Tejada and Gonzalez (2006), who observed a
high degree of mineralization of a crushed cotton gin compost
after its application to soil, the soil C/N ratio presenting values
around 10–12.
3.2. Soil biological properties
Soil respiration and soil microbial biomass-C increased pro-
gressively during the experimental period with compost addition
(Fig. 2). The general increase in biomass-C and soil respiration
can be attributed to the incorporation of easily degradable
materials, which stimulate the zymogeneous microbial activity
of the soil, and to the incorporation of exogenous microorgan-
isms (Blagodatsky et al., 2000; Schaffers, 2000). These results are
in agreement with Tejada et al. (2006a,b), who found an increase
in soil microbial biomass carbon and soil respiration after the
application to the soil of diverse organic wastes such as cotton
gin compost, beet vinasse composted with a crushed cotton
gin compost and poultry manure. Also, soil microbial biomass-C
of the fourth experimental season was higher than those of the
third, second and first experimental seasons, respectively, due
to the residual effect of the organic matter of each compost
after their application in the third, second and first experimental
seasons.
 M. Tejada et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117
Fig. 2. Cumulative CO2–C and microbial biomass-C in soils to which composted plant residues were applied. Error bars represent the standard error of means. NS, *, **, ***, non-
significant or significant at p < 0.05, 0.01 or 0.001, respectively. Different letters following the figures indicate a significant difference at p < 0.05.
It has been suggested that the improvement in the physical
properties of soil, particularly structural stability and porosity,
may affect its biological and biochemical activities (Giusquiani
et al., 1995; Tejada et al., 2006a). Our results showed that the
treated soils, in which an increase in soil microbial biomass was
observed, showed a low soil instability index (log10 Is), due
perhaps to the large amounts of organic matter added. Several
studies have indicated that soil microbial processes are directly
and indirectly influenced by soil structure. The presence of small
pores reduces accessibility of organic materials to decomposers,
leading to physical protection of C and a reduction in N
mineralization (Van Veen and Kuikman, 1990; Tejada et al., 2006a).
However, soil respiration and soil microbial biomass-C depends
on the quality of organic inputs as well as on the quantity. The fact
that soil microbial biomass and soil respiration were higher in the
soils amended with composted plant residues with a higher fulvic
acid concentration may be due to a greater labile fraction of organic
matter in these residues. The labile fraction of organic matter is the
most degradable and therefore the most susceptible to miner-
alization (Cook and Allan, 1992), acting as an immediate energy
source for microorganisms.
Curves representing cumulative CO2–C with time (Fig. 2) show
that the slope at the outset was higher in the soils amended with
composted plant residues with a higher fulvic acid concentration
(TP and TP + BN composts), which suggests that in these
treatments carbon substrates are mineralised more rapidly; and
that the greater microbial biomass derived from these treatments
is able to degrade a greater quantity of substrates.
113
The increase in soil microbial biomass and soil respiration
affects positively soil enzymatic activity. In this respect and at the
end of the experimental period, soil enzymatic activities generally
increased in the treated soils in the following order:
(TP + BN)2 > TP2 > (TP + BN)1 > TP1 > BN2 > BN1 (Figs. 3 and
4). Several authors have reported that the addition of organic
amendments activates microorganisms to produce enzymes
related to the cycle of the most important nutrients. In this
respect, Tejada et al. (2006a,b) found an increase of urease, b-
glucosidase, alkaline phosphatase and arylsulfatase activities after
the application to the soil of diverse organic wastes such as cotton
gin compost, beet vinasse composted with a crushed cotton gin
compost and poultry manure.
Dehydrogenase activity typically occurs in all intact, viable
microbial cells. Thus, its measurement is usually related to the
presence of viable microorganisms and their oxidative capability
(Trevors, 1984). According to Garcia et al. (1994) dehydrogenase
activity can be used as an indicator of microbial activity in semiarid
soils. All treated soils showed higher dehydrogenase activity than
the control (Fig. 3). The greater dehydrogenase activity detected at
the high doses suggests that the added organic matter did not
include compounds toxic for this activity (Pascual et al., 1998). The
high dehydrogenase activity exhibited by the treated soils suggests
the existence of a high quantity of biodegradable substrates in
these soils, which is in agreement with their high content of labile
C, which will stimulate microbial activity.
Measurement of soil hydrolases provides an early indication of
changes in soil fertility since they are related to the mineralization
114 M. Tejada et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117

Fig. 3. Dehydrogenase, urease and b-glucosidase activities in soils to which composted plant residues were applied. Error bars represent the standard error of means. INTF: 2-
p-iodo-3-nitrophenyl formazan; PNP: p-nitrophenol. Different letters following the figures indicate a significant difference at p < 0.05.

of such important nutrient elements as C, N, P and S (Ceccanti et al.,
1994). Urease catalyses the hydrolysis of urea to carbon dioxide
and ammonium, and it is widely distributed in microorganisms,
plants and animals (Nannipieri et al., 2002). The observed
stimulation of urease activity was higher in the soils amended
with composted plant residues with higher fulvic acid concentra-
tion (TP + BN and TP) (Fig. 3), probably due to the higher microbial
biomass produced in response.
b-Glucosidase activity reflects the state of the organic matter
and the processes occurring therein (Garcia et al., 1994). The higher
b-glucosidase activity in organically amended soils (Fig. 3) can be
explained by the positive effect of the organic amendment on the
activity of this enzyme, probably due to the higher microbial
biomass produced in response (Tejada et al., 2006a).
Soil phosphatase and arylsulfatase activities were also higher in
the soils amended with composted plant residues with higher
fulvic acid concentration (Fig. 4). The high activity detected in
amended soils suggests either the existence in organic wastes of
phosphorus and sulphate compounds that can act as substrate for
the enzyme, or the existence of microbial populations which need
inorganic phosphorus for their own development, stimulating the
enzyme synthesis.
The stimulation of these hydrolase activities in the treated soils
suggests either that the amendments used did not contain
compounds toxic for these activities or they increased soil
microbial growth, or additional microbial cells and/or enzymes
counteracts any inhibitory effect of the toxic compounds. Soil
enzymatic activities at the end of the experimental period were
highest than those of the third, second and first experimental
seasons, respectively, due to the residual effect of the organic
matter added to the soil.
3.3. Plant cover
One year after the application of the composted plant residues
to soil, the spontaneous vegetation growth increased in the
treated soils with respect to the control. The most abundant
species were Borago officinalis, Chrysanthemum coronarium,
Diplotaxis muralis, Moricandia arvensis, Paronychia argentea and
Silene colorata. Fig. 5 shows the evolution of percentage of plant
 M. Tejada et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117 115

Fig. 4. Phosphatase and arylsulfatase activities in soils to which composted plant residues were applied. Error bars represent the standard error of means. PNP: p-nitrophenol;
PNF: p-nitrophenyl. Different letters following the figures indicate a significant difference at p < 0.05.

cover after the application of composted plant residues during the
experimental period. After 4 years, the percentage of plant cover
increased with respect to the control soil in the following order:
plot treated with (TP + BN)2 (87.2% plant cover) > plot treated
with TP2 (86.8% plant cover) > plot treated with (TP + BN)1 (86.7%
plant cover) > plot treated with TP1 (85.9% plant cover) > plot
treated with BN2 (85.2% plant cover) > plot treated with BN1
(83.8% plant cover).
Like soil microbial biomass-C and soil enzymatic activities, the
plant cover of the fourth experimental season was higher than
those of the third, second and first experimental seasons,
respectively, due to the residual effect of the organic matter of
each compost applied to the soil.
Since soil enzymatic activities are responsible for important
cycles such as C, N, P and S, plant cover increased significantly
when a higher dose of composted plant residues was applied to the

Fig. 5. Plant cover (%) in soils to which composted plant residues were applied. Error bars represent the standard error of means. Different letters following the figures indicate
a significant difference at p < 0.05.
116 M. Tejada et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117

Table 3
Factor analysis for all parameters analyzed and for all treatments studied

Variable Eigenvalue % Variance % Cumulative variancea Factor matrix Varimax rotated factor
matrix

Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 1 Factor 2

Instability index 7.297 72.973 72.973 0.599 0.714 0.249 0.920

Bulk density 1.621 16.208 89.181 0.528 0.761 0.177 0.909
C/N ratio 0.661 6.613 95.793 0.445 0.542 0.188 0.676
Biomass-C 0.145 1.450 97.243 0.908 0.240 0.928 0.146
Dehydrogenase 0.094 0.945 98.188 0.969 0.174 0.960 0.231
Urease 0.068 0.680 98.867 0.962 0.189 0.956 0.215
b-Glucosidase 0.040 0.404 99.271 0.974 0.156 0.955 0.250
Phosphatase 0.032 0.318 99.589 0.977 0.155 0.957 0.252
Arylsulfatase 0.024 0.238 99.827 0.958 0.140 0.933 0.258
Plant cover 0.017 0.173 100 0.976 0.083 0.926 0.318
a
Is calculated by adding the % variance of each parameter and the % variances of the parameters above.

soil. It must be emphasized that the highest density of plant cover
was found in those soils showing the highest values of the
biochemical parameters studied. A suitable soil C/N ratio after the
application of composted plant residues, as is the case of TP + BN
and TP treated soils, favours the mineralization of organic matter
and therefore, favours a higher plant cover. Plant cover density at
the fourth year was higher than that at the third, second and first
year, respectively, due to the residual effect of the organic matter
added with the composts after their application in the first, second
and third experimental seasons. These results are very important,
principally in the arid zones where the risk of desertification and
loss of soil is a great problem (Garcia et al., 1994).
In order to predict the parameters most decisively influencing soil
restoration, the variables were subjected to factor analyses (Table 3).
The factors selected (i.e., instability index and bulk density) were
those having a greater-than-unity eigenvalue according to Kaiser
(1960). In this respect, the cumulation of these two factors were
found to account for 89.181% of the overall variance. Upon rotate
factor varimax, the factor 1 was found to encompass the variables
biomass-C, dehydrogenase, urease b-glucosidase, phosphatase
and arylsulfatase activities and plant cover.
The factor 2 encompasses the variables instability index
(log10 Is) and bulk density (both with negative sign), and C/N ratio.
As regards the results of the varimax rotated factor matrix, the
studied properties were grouped into two factors; one of them
containing all the biological properties (factor 1), which respond
rapidly and sensitively, and the other containing all the physical
and chemical properties (factor 2), which need a long time to affect
the soil properties. According to Garcia et al. (2000) biological and
biochemical properties indicators of a soil’s microbial activity will
be the most sensitive to the changes which occur in a soil.
Since the factor analysis indicated that plant cover is related to
the soil biological properties studied, a linear regression analysis
was performed, considering the plant cover as the dependent
variable. The result was:
Plant cover ¼ 11:57 þ 0:022 biomass-C þ 0:29 dehydrogenase
þ 0:13 urease þ 0:341 b-glucosidase
þ 0:85 phosphatase  0:349 arylsulfatase
¼ 95:78
The high correlation coefficient found indicates a strong
correlation between the plant cover and soil biological properties.
4. Conclusions
The application of composted plant residues had a positive
effect on soil physical, chemical and biological properties, and also
favours the appearance of spontaneous vegetation, which will
protect the soil against erosion and will contribute to its
restoration. Therefore the addition of this type of organic waste
may be considered a good strategy for recovering semiarid areas.
However, the extent of these improvements depend on the
chemical composition of the composts applied to the soil, humic
acid content favouring soil structural stability and porosity, and
fulvic acid content favouring soil microbial size and activity. It can
also be concluded that the C/N ratio of the composted organic
materials, exercises an important effect on the soil C/N strongly
influencing soil biological properties and organic matter miner-
alization, and consequently soil restoration. The application of
TP + BN composts, with a C/N ratio around of 18, originated a more
favourable soil C/N evolution and therefore more favourable soil
biological properties, which had a more positive effect on plant
cover than the application of TP (C/N = 8.8) and BN (C/N = 47.7)
composts. Since plant cover is directly related to the soil biological
properties evolution, the study of soil enzymatic activities might
be a good indicator of the plant cover evolution.
References
Baize, D., 1988. Guide des Analyses Courantes en Pédologie. INRA, Parı́s.
Bandick, A.K., Dick, R.P., 1999. Field management effects on soil enzyme activities.
Soil Biol. Biochem. 31, 1471–1479.
Blagodatsky, S., Heinemeyer, O., Richter, J., 2000. Estimating the active and total soil
microbial biomass by kinetic respiration analysis. Biol. Fertil. Soils 32, 73–81.
Canfield, R.H., 1941. Application of the line intercept methods in sampling range
vegetation. J. Forest. 39, 384–388.
Ceccanti, B., Pezzarosa, B., Gallardo-Lancho, F.J., Masciandaro, G., 1994. Bio-tests as
markers of soil utilization and fertility. Geomicrobiol. J. 11, 309–316.
Cook, B.D., Allan, D.L., 1992. Dissolved organic matter in old field soils: total
amounts as a measure of available resources for soil mineralization. Soil Biol.
Biochem. 24, 585–594.
Clément, A., Ladha, J.K., Chalifour, F.P., 1998. Nitrogen dynamics of various green
manure species and the relationship to low land rice production. Agron. J. 90,
149–154.
Chaves, B., De Neve, S., Hofman, G., Boeckx, P., Van Cleemput, O., 2004. Nitrogen
mineralization of vegetable root residues and green manures as related to their
(bio)chemical composition. Eur. J. Agron. 21, 161–170.
Degens, B.P., 1997. Macro-aggregation of soils by biological bonding and binding
mechanisms and the factors affecting these: a review. Aust. J. Soil Res. 35, 431–
459.
Doran, J.W., Fraser, D.G., Culik, M.N., Liebhardt, W.C., 1988. Influence of alternative
R2 ð%Þ
and conventional agricultural management on soil microbial process and
nitrogen availability. Am. J. Altern. Agric. 2, 99–106.
Eriksen, J., 2005. Gross sulphur mineralisation–immobilisation turnover in soil
amended with plant residues. Soil Biol. Biochem. 37, 2216–2224.
Garcia, C., Hernandez, T., Costa, F., Ceccanti, B., Masciandaro, G., 1993. The dehy-
drogenase activity of soils and ecological marker in processes of perturbed
system regeneration. In: Proceedings of the XI International Symposium
Environmental Biogeochemistry, Salamanca, Spain, pp. 89–100.
Garcia, C., Hernandez, T., Costa, F., Ceccanti, B., 1994. Biochemical parameters in
soils regenerated by the addition of organic wastes. Waste Manage. Res. 12,
457–466.
Garcia, C., Hernandez, T., Pascual, J.A., Moreno, J.L., Ros, M., 2000. Microbial activity
in soils of SE Spain exposed to degradation and desertification processes.
Strategies for their rehabilitation. In: Garcia, C., Hernandez, M.T. (Eds.), Re-
 M. Tejada et al. / Soil & Tillage Research 102 (2009) 109–117
search and Perspectives of Soil Enzymology in Spain. CEBAS-CSIC, Spain, pp.
93–143.
Giusquiani, P.L., Pagliai, M., Gigliotti, G., Businelli, D., Benetti, A., 1995. Urban waste
compost: effects on physical, chemical and biochemical soil properties. J.
Environ. Qual. 24, 175–182.
Goering, H.K., van Soest, P.J., 1970. Forage fiber analyses (apparatus, reagents,
procedures and some applications). Agric. Handb., vol. 379. USDA-ARS,
Washington, DC.
Hénin, S., Monnier, G. 1956. Evaluation de la stabilité de la structure du sol. In: VI
Congr. Sci. Du Sol. Parı́s, pp. 49–52.
Kaiser, H.F., 1960. The application of electronic computers to factor analysis. Educ.
Phychol. Meas. 20, 141–151.
Kandeler, E., Gerber, H., 1988. Short-term assay of soil urease activity using
colorimetric determination of ammonium. Biol. Fertil. Soils 6, 68–72.
Kay, B.D., VandenBygaart, A.J., 2002. Conservation tillage and depth stratification of
porosity and soil organic matter. Soil Till. Res. 66, 107–118.
Kononova, M.M., 1966. Soil Organic Matter, 2nd ed. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
MAPA. 1986. Métodos oficiales de análisis. Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y
Alimentación 1, 221–285.
Martens, D.A., 2000. Plant residue biochemistry regulates soil carbon cycling and
carbon sequestration. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32, 361–369.
Masciandaro, G., Ceccanti, B., Garcia, C., 1994. Anaerobic digestion of straw and
piggery waste waters. II. Optimization of the process. Agrochimica 38, 195–203.
McKinley, V.L., Vestal, J.R., Eralp, A.E., 1985. Microbial activity in composting (I).
Biocycle 26, 39–43.
Nannipieri, P., Kandeler, E., Ruggiero, P., 2002. Enzyme activities and microbiolo-
gical and biochemical processes in soil. In: Burns, R.G., Dick, R.P. (Eds.), En-
zymes in the Environment. Activity, Ecology and Applications. Marcel Dekker,
New York, pp. 1–33.
Oades, J.M., 1993. The role of biology in the formation, stabilization and degradation
of soil structure. Geoderma 56, 377–400.
Pascual, J.A., Hernandez, T., Garcia, C., Ayuso, M., 1998. Enzymatic activities in an
arid soil amended with urban organic wastes: laboratory experiment. Biores.
Technol. 64, 131–138.
Piccolo, A., Pietramellara, G., Mbagwu, J.S.C., 1997. Use of humic substances as soil
conditioners to increase aggregate stability. Geoderma 75, 267–277.
Puget, P., Chenu, C., Balasdent, J., 2000. Dynamics of soil organic matter associated
with particle-size fractions of water-stable aggregates. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 51, 595–
605.
Randhawa, P.S., Condron, L.M., Di, H.J., Sinaj, S., McLenaghen, R.D., 2005. Effect of
green manure addition on soil organic phosphorus mineralisation. Nutr. Cycl.
Agroecosyst. 73, 181–189.
Ros, M., Hernandez, M.T., Garcia, C., 2003. Soil microbial activity after restoration of
a semiarid soil by organic amendments. Soil Biol. Biochem. 35, 463–469.
117
Schaffers, A.P., 2000. In situ annual nitrogen mineralization predicted by simple soil
properties and short-period field incubation. Plant Soil 221, 205–219.
Six, J., Bossuyt, H., Degryze, S., Denef, K., 2004. A history of research on the link
between (micro)aggregates, soil biota, and soil organic matter dynamics. Soil
Till. Res. 79, 7–31.
Soil Survey Staff. 1987. Keys to soil taxonomy. SMSS Technical Monograph No. 6, 3rd
ed., New York.
Spaccini, R., Mbagwu, J.S.C., Igwe, C.A., Conte, P., Piccolo, A., 2004. Carbohydrates
and aggregation in lowland soils of Nigeria as influenced by organic inputs. Soil
Till. Res. 75, 161–172.
[SSEW] Soil Survey of England and Wales, 1982. Soil Survey Laboratory methods.
Technical Monograph 6, SSEW, Harpenden, UK.
Statiscal Graphics Corporation, 1991. Statgraphics 5.0. Statistical Graphics System.
Educational Institution Edition, USA. p. 105.
Tabatabai, M.A., Bremner, J.M., 1969. Use of p-nitrophenol phosphate in assay of soil
phosphatase activity. Soil Biol. Biochem. 1, 301–307.
Tabatabai, M.A., Bremner, J.M., 1970. Arylsulfatase activity of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
Proc. 34, 225–229.
Tejada, M., Gonzalez, J.L., 2006. Crushed cotton gin compost on soil biological
properties and rice yield. Eur. J. Agron. 25, 22–29.
Tejada, M., Garcia, C., Gonzalez, J.L., Hernandez, M.T., 2006a. Organic amendment
based on fresh and composted beet vinasse: influence on physical, chemical and
biological properties and wheat yield. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70, 900–908.
Tejada, M., Garcia, C., Gonzalez, J.L., Hernandez, M.T., 2006b. Use of organic
amendment as a strategy for saline soil remediation: influence on the physical,
chemical and biological properties of soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 38, 1413–1421.
Tejada, M., Moreno, J.L., Hernandez, M.T., Garcia, C., 2007. Application of two beet
vinasse forms on soil restoration: effects on soil properties in an arid environ-
ment in southern Spain. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 119, 289–298.
Trevors, J.T., 1984. Dehydrogenase activity in soil. A comparison between the INT
and TTC assay. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16, 673–674.
Vance, E.D., Brookes, P.C., Jenkinson, D.S., 1987. An extraction method for measuring
soil microbial biomass C. Soil Biol. Biochem. 19, 703–707.
Van Veen, J.A., Kuikman, P.J., 1990. Soil structural aspects of decomposition of
organic matter by micro-organisms. Biogeochemistry 11, 213–233.
Walker, R.F., 2003. Comparison of organic and chemical soil amendments used in
the reforestation of a harsh Sierra Nevada site. Rest. Ecol. 11, 446–474.
Whalen, J.K., Hu, Q., Liu, A., 2003. Compost application increase water-stable aggre-
gates in conventional and no-tillage systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 67, 1842–1847.
Yeomans, J.C., Bremner, J.M., 1988. A rapid and precise method for routine deter-
mination of organic carbon in soil. Comm. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 19, 1467–1476.
Zibilske, L.M. 1994. Carbon mineralization. In: R.W. Weaver (Ed.). Methods of soil
analysis. Part 2. Microbiological and Biochemical Properties. SSSA Book Ser. 5.
SSSA, Madison, WI, pp. 835–863.