HOT Science Labs - Chemistry 2012-2013 PDF

Chemistry HSL Page 1
Curriculum and Instruction

THE SCHOOL BOARD OF MIAMI-DADE COUNTY, FLORIDA
Perla Tabares Hantman, Chair

Dr. Lawrence S. Feldman, Vice Chair
Dr. Dorothy Bendross-Mindingall
Carlos L. Curbelo
Renier Diaz de la Portilla
Dr. Wilbert “Tee” Holloway
Dr. Martin Karp
Dr. Marta Pérez
Raquel A. Regalado
Hope Wilcox
Student Advisor
Alberto M. Carvalho
Superintendent of Schools
Milagros R. Fornell
Associate Superintendent
Dr. Maria P. de Armas

Assistant Superintendent
Curriculum and Instruction, K-12 Core
Beatriz Zarraluqui
Administrative Director
Division of Mathematics, Science, and Advanced Academic Program
Table of Contents
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................4
Next Generation Sunshine State Standards ..................................................................5
Resources
Materials ......................................................................................................................10
Laboratory Safety and Contract...................................................................................14
Lab Roles and Descriptions ........................................................................................15
Writing in Science........................................................................................................16
Hands-on Activities
First Nine Weeks

1. Laboratory Techniques and Safety (Topic 1) ............................................................19
2. Cleaning Up an Oil Spill (Topic 1).............................................................................28
3. Density (Topic 2) ......................................................................................................32
4. Conservation of Mass during Change (Topic 2 and 6) .............................................38
5. Isotopes (Topic 3) .....................................................................................................44
6. Flame Tests (Topic 3) ...............................................................................................49
7. Periodic Trends (Topic 3) .........................................................................................54
8. Models of Atomic Structure and Electrostatic Forces (Topic 4) ................................60
Second Nine Weeks

9. A Bagged Chemical Reaction (Topic 6) ....................................................................66
10. A Mole Ratio (Topic 7) ..............................................................................................72
11. Hydrated Crystals (Topic 7) ......................................................................................78
Third Nine Weeks

12. Changes of State (Topic 9) .......................................................................................83
13. Bonding: Conductivity and Solubility (Topic 10) ........................................................90
14. Solubility Curve of KCl (Topic 10) .............................................................................97
15. Determining the Percentage of Acetic Acid in a Vinegar Solution (Topic 11) .........103
16. Energy Content of Foods and Fuels (Topic 12) ......................................................108
Fourth Nine Weeks

17. Rates of Evaporation (Topic 13) .............................................................................118
18. Determining Reaction Rates (Topic 13) ..................................................................125
19. Boyle‘s Law (Topic 14) ...........................................................................................136
20. Half Life (Topic 15). ................................................................................................142
Additional Hands-on Activities

21. Precipitation Reactions Activity (Topic 5,6, or 10) .................................................147

Introduction
The purpose of this document is to provide Chemistry teachers with a list of basic laboratories
and hands-on activities that students in a Chemistry class should experience. Each activity is
aligned with the Chemistry Curriculum Pacing Guide and the Next Generation Sunshine State
Standards.
All the information within this document provides the teacher an essential method of integrating
the Science Next Generation Sunshine State Standards with the instructional requirements
delineated by the Course Description published by the Florida Department of Education
(FLDOE). The information is distributed in three parts:
(1) A list of the course specific benchmarks as described by the FLDOE. The Nature of
Science Body of Knowledge and related standards are infused throughout the
activities. Specific Nature of Science benchmarks may have been explicitly cited in
each activity; however, it is expected that teachers infuse them frequently in every
laboratory activity.
(2) The Interim Assessment Schedule to assist teachers with content assessed leading to
the science FCAT 1.0.
(3) Basic resources to assist with laboratory safety, organization of groups during lab
activities, and scientific writing of reports.
(4) Hands-on activities that include a teacher-friendly introduction and a student handout.
The teacher introduction in each activity is designed to provide guidelines to facilitate
the overall connection of the activity with course specific benchmarks through the
integration of the scientific process and/or inquiry with appropriate questioning
strategies addressing Norman Webb‘s Depth of Knowledge Levels in Science.
All the hands-on activities included in this packet were designed to cover the most important
concepts found in the Chemistry course and to provide the teacher with sufficient resources to
help the student develop critical thinking skills in order to reach a comprehensive understanding
of the course objectives. In some cases, more than one lab was included to cover a specific
standard, benchmark, or concept. In most cases, the activities were designed to be simple and
without the use of advanced technological equipment to make it possible for all teachers to use.
However, it is highly recommended that technology, such as Explorelearning Gizmos and hand-
held data collection equipment from Vernier, Texas Instruments, and Pasco, is implemented in
the science classrooms.
This document is intended to bring uniformity among the science teachers that are teaching this
course so that all can work together, plan together, and rotate lab materials among classrooms.
Through this practice, all students and teachers will have the same opportunities to participate in
these experiences and promote discourse among learners, which are the building blocks of
authentic learning communities.
Acknowledgement
M-DCPS Curriculum and Instruction Division of Mathematics, Science, and Advanced Academic
Programs would like to acknowledge the efforts of the teachers who worked arduously and
diligently on the preparation of this document.

Next Generation Sunshine State Standards (NGSSS)
1. LACC.1112.RST.1.1: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and

technical texts, attending to important distinctions the author makes and to any gaps or
inconsistencies in the account.
2. LACC.1112.RST.1.3: Follow precisely a complex multistep procedure when carrying out
experiments, taking measurements, or performing technical tasks; analyze the specific
results based on explanations in the text.
3. LACC.1112.RST.2.4: Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-
specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context
relevant to grades 11–12 texts and topics.
4. LACC.1112.RST.3.7: Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in
diverse formats and media (e.g., quantitative data, video, multimedia) in order to address a
question or solve a problem.
5. LACC.1112.RST.4.10: By the end of grade 12, read and comprehend science/technical
texts in the grades 11–12 text complexity band independently and proficiently.
6. LACC.1112.WHST.1.2: Write informative/explanatory texts, including the narration of
historical events, scientific procedures/ experiments, or technical processes. (1)Introduce a
topic and organize complex ideas, concepts, and information so that each new element
builds on that which precedes it to create a unified whole; include formatting (e.g., headings),
graphics (e.g., figures, tables), and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. (2)
Develop the topic thoroughly by selecting the most significant and relevant facts, extended
definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples appropriate to the
audience‘s knowledge of the topic. (3) Use varied transitions and sentence structures to link
the major sections of the text, create cohesion, and clarify the relationships among complex
ideas and concepts. (4) Use precise language, domain-specific vocabulary, and techniques
such as metaphor, simile, and analogy to manage the complexity of the topic; convey a
knowledgeable stance in a style that responds to the discipline and context as well as to the
expertise of likely readers. (5) Provide a concluding statement or section that follows from
and supports the information or explanation provided (e.g., articulating implications or the
significance of the topic).
7. LACC.1112.WHST.3.9: Draw evidence from informational texts to support analysis,
reflection, and research.
8. MACC.912.F-IF.3.7: Graph functions expressed symbolically and show key features of the
graph, by hand in simple cases and using technology for more complicated cases. (1) Graph
linear and quadratic functions and show intercepts, maxima, and minima. (2) Graph square
root, cube root, and piecewise-defined functions, including step functions and absolute value
functions. (3) Graph polynomial functions, identifying zeros when suitable factorizations are
available, and showing end behavior. (4) Graph rational functions, identifying zeros and
asymptotes when suitable factorizations are available, and showing end behavior. (5) Graph
exponential and logarithmic functions, showing intercepts and end behavior, and
trigonometric functions, showing period, midline, and amplitude.
9. MACC.912.N-Q.1.1: Use units as a way to understand problems and to guide the solution of
multi-step problems; choose and interpret units consistently in formulas; choose and
interpret the scale and the origin in graphs and data displays.

10. MACC.912.N-Q.1.3: Choose a level of accuracy appropriate to limitations on measurement
when reporting quantities.
11. SC.912.L.18.12: Discuss the special properties of water that contribute to Earth's suitability
as an environment for life: cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion
upon freezing, and versatility as a solvent.
12. SC.912.N.1.1: Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example:
biology, chemistry, physics, and earth/space science, and do the following: (1) pose
questions about the natural world, (2) conduct systematic observations, (3) examine books
and other sources of information to see what is already known, (4) review what is known in
light of empirical evidence, (5) plan investigations, (6) use tools to gather, analyze, and
interpret data (this includes the use of measurement in metric and other systems, and also
the generation and interpretation of graphical representations of data, including data tables
and graphs), (7) pose answers, explanations, or descriptions of events, (8) generate
explanations that explicate or describe natural phenomena (inferences), (9) use appropriate
evidence and reasoning to justify these explanations to others, (10) communicate results of
scientific investigations, and (11) evaluate the merits of the explanations produced by others.
13. SC.912.N.1.2: Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods.
14. SC.912.N.1.4: Identify sources of information and assess their reliability according to the
strict standards of scientific investigation.
15. SC.912.N.1.5: Describe and provide examples of how similar investigations conducted in
many parts of the world result in the same outcome.
16. SC.912.N.1.6: Describe how scientific inferences are drawn from scientific observations and
provide examples from the content being studied.
17. SC.912.N.1.7: Recognize the role of creativity in constructing scientific questions, methods
and explanations.
18. SC.912.N.2.2: Identify which questions can be answered through science and which
questions are outside the boundaries of scientific investigation, such as questions addressed
by other ways of knowing, such as art, philosophy, and religion.
19. SC.912.N.2.4: Explain that scientific knowledge is both durable and robust and open to
change. Scientific knowledge can change because it is often examined and re-examined by
new investigations and scientific argumentation. Because of these frequent examinations,
scientific knowledge becomes stronger, leading to its durability.
20. SC.912.N.2.5: Describe instances in which scientists' varied backgrounds, talents, interests,
and goals influence the inferences and thus the explanations that they make about
observations of natural phenomena and describe that competing interpretations
(explanations) of scientists are a strength of science as they are a source of new, testable
ideas that have the potential to add new evidence to support one or another of the
explanations.
21. SC.912.N.3.2: Describe the role consensus plays in the historical development of a theory in
any one of the disciplines of science.
22. SC.912.N.3.3: Explain that scientific laws are descriptions of specific relationships under
given conditions in nature, but do not offer explanations for those relationships.

23. SC.912.N.3.5: Describe the function of models in science, and identify the wide range of
models used in science.
24. SC.912.N.4.1: Explain how scientific knowledge and reasoning provide an empirically-based
perspective to inform society's decision making.
25. SC.912.P.8.1: Differentiate among the four states of matter.
26. SC.912.P.8.2: Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and physical and
chemical changes of matter.
27. SC.912.P.8.3: Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by
describing changes in the atomic model over time and why those changes were necessitated
by experimental evidence.
28. SC.912.P.8.4: Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by
describing the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and
differentiate among these particles in terms of their mass, electrical charges and locations
within the atom.
29. SC.912.P.8.5: Relate properties of atoms and their position in the periodic table to the
arrangement of their electrons.
30. SC.912.P.8.6: Distinguish between bonding forces holding compounds together and other
attractive forces, including hydrogen bonding and van der Waals forces.
31. SC.912.P.8.7: Interpret formula representations of molecules and compounds in terms of
composition and structure.
32. SC.912.P.8.8: Characterize types of chemical reactions, for example: redox, acid-base,
synthesis, and single and double replacement reactions.
33. SC.912.P.8.9: Apply the mole concept and the law of conservation of mass to calculate
quantities of chemicals participating in reactions.
34. SC.912.P.8.11: Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and
pH.
35. SC.912.P.10.1: Differentiate among the various forms of energy and recognize that they can
be transformed from one form to others.
36. SC.912.P.10.5: Relate temperature to the average molecular kinetic energy.
37. SC.912.P.10.6: Create and interpret potential energy diagrams, for example: chemical
reactions, orbits around a central body, motion of a pendulum.
38. SC.912.P.10.7: Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic chemical processes.
39. SC.912.P.10.9: Describe the quantization of energy at the atomic level.
40. SC.912.P.10.12: Differentiate between chemical and nuclear reactions.
41. SC.912.P.10.18: Explore the theory of electromagnetism by comparing and contrasting the
different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency, and
energy, and relate them to phenomena and applications.
42. SC.912.P.12.10: Interpret the behavior of ideal gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
43. SC.912.P.12.11: Describe phase transitions in terms of kinetic molecular theory.

44. SC.912.P.12.12: Explain how various factors, such as concentration, temperature, and
presence of a catalyst affect the rate of a chemical reaction.
45. SC.912.P.12.13: Explain the concept of dynamic equilibrium in terms of reversible processes
occurring at the same rates.

Resources
Materials
1. Laboratory Techniques and Safety

Material Safety Data Sheets (online). 2 strips of yarn or string
1Petri dish 1 can of hairspray
1 Egg Paper towels
10 ml 1M Hydrochloric acid Strips of silk, wool and rayon
Bunsen burner or alcohol burner Droppers
matches Chart paper and markers
Tongs or tweezers
2. Cleaning Up an Oil Spill

goggles and lab aprons Cooking oil * other types of oil may be
Several translucent containers substituted for this experiment;
Water however, other oils may not be
Kosher salt (Use of kosher salt to environmentally safe to use or to
prepare salt water will eliminate the dispose of.
"clouding" that results from using (Optional) cocoa powder
regular table salt. Add 38 g of NaCI to Cleaning supplies: paper towels,
1 L water fabric, coffee filters, string, sponges,
Blue food coloring scrap construction paper, various
Graduated cylinder brands of detergent
3. Density
100-ml graduated cylinder can of non-diet soft drink
2-L graduated cylinder (plastic) can of diet soft drink
balance (50g capacity) dropper
distilled water 2000 ml graduated cylinder (or large
rubber stopper (#2 solid) container)
4. Conservation of Mass during Change

Part 1: o Crucible tongs
o Small wad of steel wool o Evaporating dish
Part 2: o Bunsen burner (a lighter will also
o Small vial and chip of ice work)
Part 3: Part 5:
o Small vials o Vial with cap
o Solutions of calcium nitrate o Sugar
Ca(NO3)2 and sodium carbonate Part 6:
Na2CO3 o Vial with cap
Part 4: o ¼ tablet of Alka-Seltzer
o Small tuft of steel wool
5. Isotopes
100 pennies (include a mixture of pre Zip loc bag
and post 1982 pennies) Balance
6. Flame Tests
lab goggles solutions of metallic salts:
lab apron o calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2 )
Bunsen burner o copper nitrate (Cu(NO3)2)
nichrome wire loop o lithium nitrate (LiNO3)
wash bottle with distilled water o potassium nitrate (KNO3)
well plate o strontium nitrate (Sr(NO3)2)
hydrochloric acid (HCl) 6.0 M in a o sodium chloride (NaCl)
dropper bottle o unknown solution
7. Periodic Trends
96 –well microplate or Playdough Ruler (cm)
36 plastic straws or coffee stirrers Graph paper
Scissors Table of atomic radii and ionization
Calculator energies
8. Models of Atomic Structure and Electrostatic Forces

Roll of scotch tape Rubber balloon
Piece of PVC pipe (about a foot in Small pieces of paper or confetti
length) large box top
2 plastic cups
Piece of natural fur, or wool, or a
cotton tube sock
9. A Bagged Chemical Reaction

Safety goggles & Lab apron 2 plastic teaspoons
Calcium chloride pellets (CaCl2) Plastic cup
Baking soda, sodium bicarbonate 1-gallon Ziploc-type bag
(NaHCO3) 2 twist ties or rubber bands
Phenol red solution (acid/base Water
indicator solution)
Measuring cup or graduated cylinder
10. A Mole Ratio

Iron metal filings: 20 mesh weighing paper (filter paper can be
Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate used)
(CuSO4.5H2O) balance, hot plates
400-ml and 150-ml beakers Beaker tongs, distilled water
100-ml graduated cylinder Stirring rod
11. Hydrated Crystals

Hotplates crucible
Balance (preferably 2 decimal places) crucible tongs
Hydrated MgSO4.nH2O (Epsom salts) 400-ml beaker

12. Changes of State
Ice Optional-Graphing
Beaker (400 ml) calculator/CBL/temperature probes or
Thermometer any other digital hand-held
Stirring rod device(increases accuracy and
Timer (s.) instant feedback of the changes
Hot plate or Bunsen burner occurring)
13. Bonding: Conductivity and Solubility

small beakers or cups (100 ml or Conductivity Apparatus
less) o tape
distilled water (~100 ml) o 9-V battery
wash bottle filled with distilled water o battery clip
stirring rod o bare wire leads
1 cm2 of Aluminum foil o resistor
a penny o LED or buzzer
rubbing alcohol (isopropyl alcohol – o wood backing.(tongue depressor)
10 ml) o CaCl2 (calcium chloride)
Approximately 1 g of the following: o CuSO4 (copper II sulfate)
o sucrose (table sugar) o Candle wax
o NaCl (table salt) o SiO2 (sand)
14. Solubility Curve of KCl

potassium chloride (KCl) test tube (18X150 mm)
distilled water utility clamp
balance glass stirring rod
evaporating dish (or 100-ml beaker) thermometer or temperature probes
25-ml graduated cylinder funnel
watch glass cotton wadding
250 or 400 ml beaker tongs &/or hot mitts
hot plate or burner with ring stand, 2 graph paper
rings & wire gauze
15. Determining the Percentage of Acetic Acid in a Vinegar Solution

apron phenolphthalein indicator
goggles 2.0 ml standardized 0.6 M NaOH
10 ml graduated cylinder 2.0 ml white vinegar
24-well plate or 3 small beakers stirrer
2 thin-stemmed pipets or droppers
16. Energy Content of Foods and Fuels

Lab Pro or CBL 2 system* candle (large diameter)
TI graphing calculator* aluminum foil squares
Temperature probe* *thermometer (instead of
DataMate program probe/CBL/TI calculator)
2 Food samples
food holder (paper clip + foil) *graph paper (instead of
wooden splint probe/CBL/TI calculator)
utility clamp and slit stopper
2 Stirring rods matches
ring stand and 4-inch ring goggles
100-ml Graduated cylinder *thermometer and graph paper
soda can (instead of probe/CBL/TI calculator)
cold water
17. Rates of Evaporation

distilled water small plastic cups (5)
ethanol grease pencil or marking pen
isopropyl alcohol masking tape
acetone paper towel
household ammonia square of waxed paper
droppers (5) stopwatch
18. Determining Reaction Rates

Distilled water Stopwatch (seconds)
Graduated cylinder Hot water/ice cubes
7 Clear plastic cups Safety goggles
7 original formula effervescent Alka- Test tube 16 X 150mm
Seltzer tablets Cork stopper, #4
Thermometer (extension)
Mortar and Pestle
19. Boyle’s Law

safety goggles 5 chemistry textbooks
Boyle‘s law apparatus 2 pens or pencils of different colors
ring stand clamp
20. Half-Life
100 pennies (include a mixture of pre large box top
and post 1982 pennies) 2 plastic cups
Zip loc bag
balance
21. Precipitation Reactions

0.1M solutions of the following in Beral pipettes or bottles with droppers
o NiCl2 o NaOH o AgNO3
o Na2S o Na2CO3 o Pb(NO3)2
o Co(NO3)2 o CaCl2 o Glass spot plate
o Ba(NO3)2 o KI or well plate
o CuSO4 o K2CrO4

Laboratory Safety
Rules:
Know the primary and secondary exit routes from the classroom.
Know the location of and how to use the safety equipment in the classroom.
Work at your assigned seat unless obtaining equipment and chemicals.
Do not handle equipment or chemicals without the teacher‘s permission.
Follow laboratory procedures as explained and do not perform unauthorized experiments.
Work as quietly as possible and cooperate with your lab partner.
Wear appropriate clothing, proper footwear, and eye protection.
Report to the teachers all accidents and possible hazards.
Remove all unnecessary materials from the work area and completely clean up the work
area after the experiment.
Always make safety your first consideration in the laboratory.
Safety Contract:
I will:
Follow all instructions given by the teacher.
Protect eyes, face and hands, and body while conducting class activities.
Carry out good housekeeping practices.
Know where to get help fast.
Know the location of the first aid and firefighting equipment.
Conduct myself in a responsible manner at all times in a laboratory situation.
I, _______________________, have read and agree to abide by the safety regulations as set
forth above and also any additional printed instructions provided by the teacher. I further agree
to follow all other written and verbal instructions given in class.
Signature: ____________________________ Date: ___________________

Lab Roles and Descriptions
Cooperative learning activities are made up of four parts: group accountability, positive
interdependence, individual responsibility, and face-to-face interaction. The key to making
cooperative learning activities work successfully in the classroom is to have clearly defined
tasks for all members of the group. An individual science experiment can be transformed into a
cooperative learning activity by using these lab roles and responsibilities:
Materials Manager (MM)

Project Director (PD) The materials manager is responsible for
The project director is responsible for the obtaining all necessary materials and/or
group. equipment for the lab.
Reads directions to the group Picks up needed materials
Keeps group on task Organizes materials and/or
Is the only group member allowed equipment in the work space
to talk to the teacher Facilitates the use of materials
Assists with conducting lab during the investigation
procedures Shares summary of Assists with conducting lab
group work and results with the procedures
class Returns all materials at the end of
the lab to the designated area
Safety Director (SD)

Technical Manager (TM)
The safety director is responsible for
The technical manager is in charge of
enforcing all safety rules and conducting
recording all data.
the lab.
Records data in tables and/or
Assists the PD with keeping the
graphs
group on-task
Completes conclusions and final
Conducts lab procedures
summaries
Reports any accident to the
Assists with conducting the lab
teacher
procedures
Keeps track of time
Assists with the cleanup
Assists the MM as needed.
When assigning lab groups, various factors need to be taken in consideration:

Always assign the group members, preferably trying to combine in each group a variety of
skills. For example, you can place an ―A‖ student with a ―B‖, ―C‖, and a ―D‖ and or ―F‖
student.
Evaluate the groups constantly and observe if they are on task and if the members of the
group support each other in a positive way. Once you realize that a group is dysfunctional,
re-assign the members to another group.

Writing in Science
A report is a recap of what a scientist investigated and may contain various sections and
information specific to the investigation. Below is a comprehensive guideline that students can
follow as they prepare their lab/activity reports. Additional writing templates can be found in the
District Science website.
Parts of a Lab Report: A Step-by-Step Checklist
Title (underlined and on the top center of the page)
Benchmarks Covered:
 A summary of the main concepts that you will learn by carrying out the experiment.
Problem Statement:
 Identify the research question/problem and state it clearly.
Hypothesis(es):
 State the hypothesis carefully, logically, and, if appropriate, with a calculation.
1. Write your prediction as to how the independent variable will affect the dependent
variable using an IF-THEN-BECAUSE statement:
i. If (state the independent variable) is (choose an action), then (state the dependent
variable) will (choose an action), because (describe reason for event).
Materials and activity set up:

 List and describe the equipment and the materials used. (e.g., A balance that measures with
an accuracy of +/- 0.001 g)
 Provide a diagram of the activity set up describing its components (as appropriate).
Procedures:
 Do not copy the procedures from the lab manual or handout.
 Summarize the procedures that you implemented. Be sure to include critical steps.
 Give accurate and concise details about the apparatus (diagram) and materials used.
Variables and Control Test:

 Identify the variables in the experiment. There are three types of variables:
1. Independent variable (manipulated variable): The factor that can be changed by the
investigator (the cause).
2. Dependent variable (responding variable): The observable factor of an investigation
resulting from the change in the independent variable.
3. Constant variable: The other identified independent variables in the investigation that are
kept or remain the same during the investigation.
 Identify the control test. A control test is the separate experiment that serves as the standard
for comparison and helps identify effects of the dependent variable
Data:
 Ensure that all observations and/or data are recorded.
1. Use a table and write your observations clearly. (e.g., color, solubility changes, etc.)
2. Pay particular attention to significant figures and make sure that all units are stated.
Data Analysis:
 Analyze data and specify method used.
 If graphing data to look for a common trend, be sure to properly format and label all aspects
of the graph (i.e., name of axes, numerical scales, etc.)
Results:
 Ensure that you have used your data correctly to produce the required result.
 Include any errors or uncertainties that may affect the validity of your result.
Conclusion and Evaluation:

 First Paragraph: Introduction
 What was investigated?
1. Describe the problem.
 Was the hypothesis supported by the data?
1. Compare your actual result to the expected (from the literature, or hypothesis) result.
2. Include a valid conclusion that relates to the initial problem or hypothesis.
 What were your major findings?
1. Did the findings support (or not) the hypothesis as the solution to the problem?
2. Calculate the percentage error from the expected value.
 Middle Paragraphs: Discuss the major findings of the experiment.

 How did your findings compare with other researchers?
1. Compare your result to other students‘ results in the class.
a. The body paragraphs support the introductory paragraph by elaborating on the
different pieces of information that were collected as data.
b. Each finding needs its own sentence and relates back to supporting or not supporting
the hypothesis.
c. The number of body paragraphs you have will depend on how many different types of
data were collected. They should always refer back to the findings in the first
paragraph.
 Last Paragraph: Conclusion

 What possible explanations can you offer for your findings?
1. Evaluate your method.
2. State any assumptions that were made which may affect the result.
 What recommendations do you have for further study and for improving the experiment?
1. Comment on the limitations of the method chosen.
2. Suggest how the method chosen could be improved to obtain more accurate and reliable
results.
 What are some possible applications of the experiment?
1. How can this experiment or the findings of this experiment be used in the real world for
the benefit of society?

Hands-on Activities
Teacher
Laboratory Techniques and Safety
NGSSS:
SC.912.N.1. Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods.
SC.912.N.1.6 Describe how scientific inferences are drawn from scientific observations and
(Also addresses SC.912.N.1.1, SC.912.N.2.1, SC.912.N.3.1 and SC.912.N.3.4).
Purpose of Lab/Activity:
To practice working safely in a laboratory.
Learn how to interpret chemical hazard labels.
To become familiar with ―Material Safety and Data Sheets.‖
Prerequisite: Prior to this activity, the student should be able to:

Identify the main safety concerns in a laboratory.
Locate the fire safety equipment in the laboratory.
Indicate the primary safety equipment used in laboratory.
Materials (per group/station):

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS Sheets, available also online at:
http://www.ehso.com/msds.php).
1Petri dish
1 Egg
10 ml 1M Hydrochloric acid
Bunsen burner or alcohol burner, matches
Tongs or tweezers
2 strips of yarn or string
1 can of hairspray
Paper towels
Strips of silk, wool and rayon
Procedures: Day of Activity:

What the teacher will do:
a. Outline the safety equipment in the lab with the students.
b. Demonstrate safety procedures with some common lab reagents.
c. Print out and distribute sample Material Safety Data Sheets.
d. Set up as many ―lab stations‖ as available (up to 7) through which students
will rotate.
e. Prepare materials for each lab station as follows:
Before
1. Lab Station A. How is a Fume Hood Used? This station needs to be
activity:
inside the fume hood. Materials: Place paper towel and tape inside the
hood
2. Lab Station B. What information is contained in a Manufacturer‘s Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS)? Materials: At this station print and place any 4
MSDS for students to work with.
3. Lab Station C. How does acid affect proteins? Materials: petri dish, 1
egg per group, 1M HCL, and dropper
Teacher
4. Lab Station D. How do chemicals affect fabric? Materials: Paper towels,

10 ml 1 M HCl acid, strips of silk, wool & rayon
5. Lab Station E. Hairspray simulation Materials: Lighter, tongs or
tweezers, 2 strips of yarn, hairspray.
6. Lab Station F. Where are the fire extinguisher and the fire blanket
located and how do you use them? Materials: Paper, pencil, and
common sense
7. Lab Station G. Chemical Toxicity and Disposal. Materials: Chart paper
and markers.
8. Lab Station H. Transit time and evacuation procedures. Materials: Paper
and pencil
a. Supervise each station to make sure the tasks for each table are being
completed.
During
b. Confirm that the safety guidelines are being followed.
activity:
c. Ask the students to explain the experimental observations at the stations C,
D, and E.
d. Make sure the students‘ reports are being completed.
a. Review the lab stations‘ correct answers with the students.
b. Discuss the MSDS with the students
c. Have students list the basic safety rules of the laboratory.
After d. Optional 1: Distribute a sample National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
activity: label and have students analyze the label using the ―Understanding
Chemical Hazard Labels and MSDS‖ worksheet‖. .
e. Optional 2: Distribute ―Disaster scripts‖ #1, #2, #3. (See Student Section,
Optional Activity 2) and have students role play the scenarios and the
solution to the problems described
Extension: Ask the students for homework to write down the chemical substances found in
detergents at home. Then, they should look up the MSDS at http://www.ehso.com/msds.php.
For each chemical substance they most record their toxicity and precautions in the event of
ingestion.

Student
Laboratory Techniques and Safety
NGSSS:
SC.912.N.1. Describe and explain what characterizes science and its methods..
SC.912.N.1.6 Describe how scientific inferences are drawn from scientific observations and
(Also addresses SC.912.N.1.1, SC.912.N.2.1, SC.912.N.3.1 and SC.912.N.3.4).
Background:
Chemistry has been developed largely through experimentation. Chemistry courses use
laboratory experiences to demonstrate, clarify, and develop principles of chemistry.
Behavior in the laboratory is more structured than in the classroom. Certain rules of conduct
pertaining to safety and keeping a clean work environment must be followed at all times. You
must also adopt correct procedures for using glassware and other pieces of equipment. General
safety rules are summarized at the beginning of this lab manual. However, there often will be
more specific safety rules or special procedures to follow when performing an experiment. Your
teacher will provide these added instructions before you perform any lab activity. If you are
unsure of any procedure, always ask your teacher before proceeding. In this activity, you will
practice some laboratory techniques and apply laboratory safety rules.
Purpose or Problem Statement:

To practice working safely in a laboratory.
Learn how to interpret chemical hazard labels.
To become familiar with ―Material Safety and Data Sheets.‖
Safety:
There should be no eating or drinking in the lab.
Goggles and aprons must be worn at all times.
Vocabulary: Material Safety and Data Sheets (MSDS), toxicity, hazardous
Materials (per group):

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS Tongs or tweezers
Sheets). 2 strips of yarn or string
1Petri dish 1 can of hairspray
1 Egg Paper towels
10 ml 1M Hydrochloric acid Strips of silk, wool and rayon
Lighter
Procedures:
Complete the activities in each station and investigate each of the following questions. The
investigations do not need to be done in order. The write-up for each will follow this basic lab
report format:
1. Purpose: What question are you trying to answer?

2. Method: What did you do?
3. Data: What did you observe?
Student
4. Results and Conclusions: Write one safety rule that follows from your observations.
Lab Station A. How is a fume hood used?

Materials: paper towel, tape
Safety: none
What to do:
1) Go to the fume hood. Examine the switches and valves to determine what each does
and make a labeled diagram.
2) Raise the glass door (sash) all the way to the top. Note that there is a strip of paper
taped to the bottom of the glass window. Turn on the fan. Describe what happens to
the paper as you lower the glass door.
3) Clean up: Turn everything off, lower the glass door
Lab Station B. What information is contained in a Manufacturer’s Safety Data Sheet?

Materials: four different Manufacturer‘s Safety Data Sheets
Safety: none
What to do:
1) List the sections that all MSDS‘s have in common.
2) Make a table of the four chemicals with the following information: name, chemical
formula, flammability, health hazards, safe disposal methods.
3) Which is the most hazardous of the four chemicals? Why?
4) Clean up: return all MSDS‘s sheets.
Lab Station C. How does acid affect protein?

Materials: petri dish, 1 egg, 1 M HCl, and dropper
Safety: safety goggles required 10 ml 1 M HCl acid for all; aprons are suggested
What to do:
1) Break an egg into the petri dish. The egg white is similar to the protein your eyes.
Place a few drops of acid on the egg white and observe for a few minutes.
2) Based on your results, explain to a younger student why they should wear safety
goggles.
3) Optional: Why should you remove contact lenses if you are wearing them?
4) Clean up: discard egg in trash; wash, dry and return petri dish; wash your hands.
Lab Station D. How do chemicals affect fabric?

Materials: paper towels, 10 ml 1 M HCl acid, strips of silk, wool & rayon
Safety: safety goggles for all; aprons suggested
What to do:
1) Layout a strip of each fabric on paper towels.
2) Place several drops of acid on each; wait at least 5 minutes
3) Explain to a younger student why you should wear a lab apron and close shoes.
4) clean up: discard of fabric & paper towel in trash, return acid to teacher, wash your
hands, rinse table if needed.
Lab Station E. Hairspray simulation

Materials: Lighter, tongs or tweezers, 2 strips of yarn, hairspray
Safety: be careful of the fire
Student
What to do:
1) Cut two strips of yarn about 8 cm long. Coat one with hairspray and let it dry.
2) One at a time, hold the un-covered yarn with the tong and light one end for less than 5
seconds. Repeat with the hairspray covered yarn and make observations.
3) Clean up: put out the flame by smothering the fire with a lid; throw yarn in trash;
return other materials to station.
Lab Station F. Where are the fire extinguisher and the fire blanket located and how do
you use it?
Materials: paper, pencil, and common sense
Safety: none, but don‘t actually discharge the fire extinguisher
What to do:
1) Make a map that locates the fire extinguishers that are available to you.
2) Take one off the wall and read the label; describe the types of fires it can put out and
how to use it
3) Clean up: put the fire extinguisher back
Lab Station G. Chemical Toxicity and Disposal

Materials: chart paper and markers
Safety: none
What to do:
1) Imagine that a terrorist is out to poison you. List the four ways or routes that the
poison could enter your body (they must be unique; for instance, eating or drinking it
are the same route).
2) Suppose that you have toxic materials to dispose; trace the fate (where it ends up) of
each:
a. a liquid—a highly infectious agent—poured down the drain
b. a solid--a mercury-containing battery—in the trash
c. a gas—the chemical warfare agent, mustard gas — released into the air
3) Why should you not eat in the lab?
4) Why should you wash your hands before you leave?
5) Clean up: none
Lab Station H. Transit time and evacuation procedures

Materials: stopwatch, paper, and pencil
Safety: none
What to do:
1) Suppose you splash acid in your eye from the furthest part of the room and you need
to go to the eye wash station. Make sure that the path is clear and walk calmly to the
eyewash station; have a student use a timer to measure the transit time in seconds.
Now clutter the path with backpacks, chairs, etc and measure the transit time in
seconds.
2) Look at the layout of the room; find the exits and make a map of the room, with arrows
to indicate the safest escape route from each area of the lab. Also note the closest
―safe‖ area to evacuate to (e.g., practice football field)
3) Clean up: Unclutter the path and return the stopwatch.

Student
Optional Activity 1- Understanding Chemical Hazard Labels and MSDS Sheets
Objective: To read and interpret chemical hazard labels and MSDS.
Materials: (per student)

How to read a Chemical Label handout
MSDS – Acetone
Procedures: Use the documents listed above to answer the following questions.
1. Interpret the following colors on a chemical hazard label:
a. red; b. yellow; c. blue; and d. white
2. Interpret numbers on a chemical hazard label.
a. A number ____ is the most serious, and a number ____ is the least serious.
b. What does the number four on a red background indicate to the user?
c. What does the number zero on a yellow background mean?
3. Complete the following for acetone:
a. Fill in the appropriate NFPA hazard coding colors and numbers on the label above.
b. Complete the missing information on the MSDS on the back of this page.
4. What does MSDS stand for?
5. What information is found in an MSDS sheet?
6. What information do the chemical hazard label and MSDS have in common?
7. Why should an individual working with chemicals understand the hazard coding system
on a chemical label?
8. What additional information provided on an MSDS might be of use to an individual
working with chemicals?
9. What does the physical data include?
10. What are the Fire Hazards associated with this product?
11. Is this substance stable or reactive?
12. Can this substance be considered toxic? How?
13. Write the safety precautions for its handling.
Chemical Labels: Lay out different chemicals for students to analyze the information
provided in the labels.
1. What is the information contained in a label of any chemical?
2. What does a lower number indicate? A higher number?
3. What is the storage code for your chemical?
4. Look on page 14 (p18) of the Modern Chemistry book, according to the table, what are
the different grades of chemicals?
Optional Activity 2 –Disaster Scripts
Materials: Script instructions
Procedures: Distribute students in group to perform the disaster scripts for the class. Discuss
what was observed and write the rules that should have been followed in each scenario.

Student
1. Acid in the Eyes Disaster Script

Props: Everyone needs goggles and aprons. The victim needs a burner, a test tube, and a test
tube holder. Other actors can be using miscellaneous props to simulate a lab situation.
Acid in Eyes – Victim

About 30 seconds into this scene, put your goggles on your forehead, pretend to warm up a test
tube and then smell it. Begin to yell, ―Ouch, my eyes! I‘ve got something in my eyes! It burns!‖
Keep yelling until someone comes to help. If they are speaking, stop yelling so they can be
heard. When asked if you are wearing contacts, say yes. Do not resist their attempts to help
you, but remember, you are in pain and cannot see. Particularly, if they try to move you to the
eyewash, act like you are totally blind with your eyes clamped shut.
Acid in Eyes – Actor #2

When the victim hurts his/her eyes, run over and yell something like, ―Quick! Splash your eyes
with water.‖ Pretend to turn on the sink and try to get the victim to splash water in his/her face.

After Actor #2 tries to splash the victim with water, say to the victim, ―No, you need to use the
eyewash.‖ Do NOT make any attempt to help the victim get there.

The victim needs to get to the eyewash but cannot see to get there. Go to the victim, take
him/her by the arm, and carefully but quickly lead the victim to the eyewash. Ask Actor #5 to
help you turn on the eyewash. When prompted by Actor #5, put one hand on the victim‘s
forehead and the other behind his/her head. Lower the victim‘s head down to the eyewash.

Go with Actor #4 and the victim to the eyewash. When you get there, loudly say, ―Watch his/her
head!‖ After the victim‘s head has been lowered, pretend to turn on the eyewash. Do not
actually push down on the knob.

When the victim‘s head has been lowered to the eyewash, ask if the victim is wearing contacts.

When you hear that the victim has contact lenses, say, ―We need to get them out!‖ and call for
the teacher.
Acid in the Eyes – Actor #8

You must watch the area of the accident. When they move to the eyewash, you must go to the
area where the victim was working and turn off the burner. Also, put the test tube in the test
tube rack, if necessary.

Student
2. Person on Fire Script

Props: Everyone needs goggles and aprons. The victim needs a burner and a beaker to reach
for. Other actors can be using miscellaneous props to simulate a lab situation.
Person on Fire – Victim

After the scene starts, PRETEND that you are heating something over a burner and you
accidentally reach over the flame and catch your sleeve on fire. Yell, ―I‘m burning!‖ Wave your
arm around (not too wildly) and try to beat out the flames. Move away from your lab area. Do
not resist any help.
Person on Fire – Actor #2

When the victim catches on fire, yell, ―I know what to do! Here‘s some water!‖ Grab a beaker or
squirt bottle and pretend to throw/squirt water on the victim.

After someone else tries to put out the fire with a beaker of water, say, ―No, we need more water
than that. We need to use the shower!‖ You go to the shower, but the victim is too frantic and is
not cooperating.

Tell the victim to ―Stop, Drop, and Roll,‖ and get him/her to the floor. Everyone should respond
as though this isn‘t working.

Once the victim is on the floor, take off your apron, run over to the victim, and say, ―I‘ll fix it!
Hold still and I‘ll beat it out!‖ PRETEND that you are trying to beat out the fire with your apron.
Do NOT actually hit the victim.

When beating the fire with an apron doesn‘t work, say something like, ―I‘ll go get the fire
extinguisher.‖ Bring the fire extinguisher to the area of the victim, but do not try to use it. Just
hold it.

After the fire extinguisher suggestion, say, ―No, we can‘t use that on him/her. We need the fire
blanket.‖
Person on Fire – Actor #8 + helper

Get the fire blanket and place it over the victim. PRETEND that you gently pat out the flames.

You must watch the area of the accident. When the victim moves away, go over and PRETEND
to turn off the burner. At some point, call for the teacher.

Student
3. Person Badly Cut Script

Props: Everyone needs goggles and aprons. The victim needs a beaker that Pretends to get
―broken.‖ Other actors can be using miscellaneous props to simulate a lab situation.
Person Cut – Victim

You will PRETEND that you have broken a beaker and are picking up the broken pieces with
your hands. The broken glass has badly cut your wrist, and blood is gushing out. Say
something like, ―Oh no! I broke a beaker.‖ Then say, ―Ouch! I cut my wrist. Blood is going
everywhere!‖ Wave it around (not too wildly). When people come to help you, take the paper
towel they give you, hold it on your wound, and then slowly drop to the floor in a faint.
Person Cut – Actor #2

You see that the victim is badly cut. Get some paper towel and give it to the victim. Tell him/her
to put it over the wound and press down firmly. You might say, ―You need to apply direct
pressure. Here, press down on it with this.‖

You see that the victim is badly cut. After the victim faints, you ask Actor #4 to help you. You
grab some paper towels and begin applying direct pressure to the wound.

You see that the victim is badly cut. After the victim faints, Actor #3 will ask you to help him/her
help the victim. You must refuse to help and say something like, ―No, it‘s too dangerous. I don‘t
want to get his/her blood on me!‖

You can‘t stand the sight of blood. Say loudly that you don‘t feel good and slowly faint.

When Actor #5 faints, go to assist him/her.
Person Cut – Actor #7 + extras

When you hear the commotion, go over and stand around so you get in the way without helping.
When prompted by Actor #8, one of you should get the first aid kit and give a latex glove to
Actor #3 saying, ―Here, put on this glove.‖ Another of you should get the teacher when asked by
Actor #8.

You see people milling around and the victim on the floor. Go over and take control. Point to a
specific person and tell him/her to get the first aid kit. Call another student by name and tell
him/her to get the teacher.

During all of the commotion, get the dust pan. Sweep up the broken glass and put it in the
broken glass container so no one else gets hurt.

Teacher
Cleaning Up an Oil Spill

(Replaces Alka Popper Lab)
NGSSS:
SC.912.N.1.1 Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example: biology,
chemistry, physics, and earth/space science, and do the following: 1) pose questions about the
natural world, 2) conduct systematic observations, 3) examine books and other sources of
information to see what is already known, 4) review what is known in light of empirical evidence,
5) plan investigations, 6) use tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data (this includes the use of
measurement in metric and other systems, and also the generation and interpretation of
graphical representations of data, including data tables and graphs), 7) pose answers,
explanations, or descriptions of events, 8) generate explanations that explicate or describe
natural phenomena (inferences), 9) use appropriate evidence and reasoning to justify these
explanations to others, 10) communicate results of scientific investigations, and 11) evaluate the
merits of the explanations produced by others.
(Also addresses: SC.912.N.1.2 to N.1.7, SC.912.N.2.2 and SC.912.N.2.4)
Purpose of Lab/Activity: Use scientific inquiry to explore the effectiveness of different methods
to contain a simulated salt water oil spill.
Prerequisite: Prior to this activity the student should be able to

Review the lab roles for each member of the lab group
Describe the methodology used by scientists to solve problems.
Explain the relative densities of oil and water.

Safety equipment: goggles and lab aprons
Several translucent containers
Water
Kosher salt (Use of kosher salt to prepare salt water will eliminate the "clouding" that
results from using regular table salt. Add 38 g of NaCI to 1 L water
Cooking oil*, other types of oil may be substituted for this experiment, however, other
types of oil may not be environmentally safe to use or to dispose of. (Optional) Adding
cocoa powder to the oil will simulate the look of heavy oil. Add about 2 tsp of cocoa
powder per 250 ml of oil
Blue food coloring
Graduated cylinder
Cleaning supplies: paper towels, fabric, coffee filters, string, sponges, scrap construction
paper, various brands of detergent
Procedures: Day of Activity

a. Provide students with different scenarios of experiments and have them
Before identify the manipulated, responding and constant variables and the
activity: experimental and control groups in each case.
b. Introduce the purpose of today‘s lab and explain that they will be acting as
scientists in proposing viable solutions to the problem.
Teacher
c. Provide students with a copy of the handout: Power Writing and the Art of
Scientific Conclusions. Discuss and clarify with the class each section of
the write up.
d. Divide students into groups of 4 and have them brainstorm possible
methods of cleaning the simulated oil spill based on the possible materials
available for the lab.
e. Ask students what is the importance of including a control group? Also have
students discuss why more than one trial is necessary when performing an
experiment.
f. Have each lab group propose a plan that includes a hypothesis, the
experimental design, a detailed list of materials, and the step by step
procedures. The procedure should include a method to measure the
amount of oil before and after the clean up. Review each plan and clarify
any errors with each lab group before they test their hypothesis.
g. Provide students with a translucent container with 400 ml of the prepared
simulated ocean water and access to the materials that they will need for
their test.
a. Discuss with each group the distribution of roles for the lab.
b. Monitor each group as they perform their experiment.
During
c. Review their data collection instruments and ASK PROBING QUESTIONS
activity:
about the qualitative and quantitative observations made by each group.
d. Make sure that students document any changes that they make to their
original plan.
a. Have students present their findings to the class including a summary of
their plan, and any pictures and data that document their results.
b. Ask students how the use of the scientific method was instrumental in
helping them propose a plan to contain the simulated oil spill.
After c. Have students evaluate the results provided by each team and judge which
activity: would be the best method to contain the oil spill.
d. Each student should write a complete report for their lab using the “Power
Writing Model 2009”
1. In their conclusions, students should refer to the magnitude of the Exxon
Valdez and the BP Gulf of Mexico oil spills and explain the advantages
and limitations of using models in scientific inquiry.
Extension:
Gizmo: Mystery Powder Analysis

Student
Cleaning Up an Oil Spill
NGSSS:
SC.912.N.1.1 Define a problem based on a specific body of knowledge, for example: biology,
chemistry, physics, and earth/space science, and do the following: 1) pose questions about the
natural world, 2) conduct systematic observations, 3) examine books and other sources of
information to see what is already known, 4) review what is known in light of empirical evidence,
5) plan investigations, 6) use tools to gather, analyze, and interpret data (this includes the use of
measurement in metric and other systems, and also the generation and interpretation of
graphical representations of data, including data tables and graphs), 7) pose answers,
explanations, or descriptions of events, 8) generate explanations that explicate or describe
natural phenomena (inferences), 9) use appropriate evidence and reasoning to justify these
explanations to others, 10) communicate results of scientific investigations, and 11) evaluate the
merits of the explanations produced by others.
(Also addresses: SC.912.N.1.2 to N.1.7, SC.912.N.2.2 and SC.912.N.2.4)
Background:
Accidental oil spills are not common; but when they occur, they can cause huge environment
damage, affecting wildlife and inhabits of the area. Two of the major oil spills are the Exxon
Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound, off the coast of Alaska in the mid 80‘s, and recently the
BP Gulf of Mexico oil spill, off the coast of Louisiana, Alabama and Florida. As the oil spreads
over the surface of the water, it forms a large oil slick which is particularly challenging to contain
and clean. Generally, the process involves the physical containment of slick and then the
breaking up of the large slick into clumps which are easier to clean. Natural processes such as
evaporation, wave action, and biological breakdown work to clean up the oil but at a very slow
rate. In this lab, you will act as scientists to test the most effective physical and chemical
methods to contain remove or dissolve the oil, to prevent major damages, and restore a safe
environment for all living organisms.
Purpose of activity:
Use scientific inquiry to explore the effectiveness of different methods to contain a
simulated salt water oil spill.
Safety:
Always wear safety goggles and a lab apron.
Do not eat or drink anything in a laboratory.
Follow appropriate disposal of excess oil, waste oil and water mixtures, and any oil
soaked materials. Do not pour down the drain.
Vocabulary: independent (manipulative) variable, dependent (responding) variable, constant

variable, experimental design, experimental and control groups.

One translucent container
Simulated salt water
Cooking oil, or simulated heavy oil (* 20 ml per spill).
Blue food coloring

Student
Graduated cylinder
Cleaning supplies: paper towels, fabric, coffee filters, string, sponges, scrap construction
paper, sand, string and various brands of detergent
Instrument to measure: rulers (cm), pipettes, graduated cylinder.
Optional: blank acetate or tracing paper and markers.
Procedures:
1. Brainstorm different methods for containing and cleaning an oil spill within your lab group.
Propose and write up a treatment plan that includes a problem statement, hypothesis, the
experimental design, a detailed list of materials, and a method to quantify the amount of
oil slick before and after clean up.
2. Obtain the materials required to test your treatment plan.
3. Create your simulated oil spill using the translucent container to which you will add the
ocean water prepared by your teacher and using a graduated cylinder add 20 ml of
simulated oil to represent the slick.
4. Measure the initial oil slick and record in a data table.
5. Follow your proposed plan to contain and clean the slick. Record your observations in
your table.
6. Measure the remaining oil slick and record in table.
Observations/Data:
1. Create a data table to record your observations and measurements for each trial of your
oil containment and cleaning tests.
2. If possible, take photographs and try to visually document the size of your slick using
trace paper or acetate.
Data Analysis:
1. Use data generated in all trials and compare the surface area of the initial oil slick and the
oil slick after the proposed treatment.
2. Compare your group data with the data presented by other groups‘ containment and
clean up treatment.
Results:
1. How would oil floating between the surface and the bottom or oil stuck in the ocean floor
impact the method of cleanup?
2. Did time affect the oil spill?
3. Based on the results presented by each group, which cleanup treatment tested in this
investigation was the most effective. Explain.
4. Did trying several treatments make a difference in the cleanup? Would combining several
methods be effective?
5. What problems could be encountered in reclaiming and reusing the oil removed?
6. What effect did the detergent have on the oil spill? Hint: Research surfactants.
7. What were some of the limitations of this oil spill simulation?
Conclusion:
Write a report, using the ―Power Writing Model‖ provided by your teacher.

Teacher
Density
NGSSS:
MA.912.S.1.2 Determine appropriate and consistent standards of measurement for the data to
be collected in a survey or experiment.
MA.912.S.3.2 Collects, organizes, and analyzes data sets, determine the best format for the
data and present visual summaries for the following: bar graphs, line graphs, stem and leaf
plots, circle graphs, histogram, box and whisker plots, scatter plots and cumulative frequency
(ogive) graphs.
Measure the mass and volume of several different objects.
Calculate the density of objects by using their measured mass and volume.
Compare the densities of various objects.
Learn how to calculate experimental percentage error.
Prerequisite: Prior to this activity the student should be able to

Describe the units used to measure matter in science.
Report measurements using certainty and uncertainty readings.
Manipulate variables in simple algebraic formulas.
Materials (individual or per group):

100-ml graduated cylinder can of non-diet soft drink
2-L graduated cylinder (plastic) can of diet soft drink
balance (50g capacity) dropper
distilled water 2000 ml graduated cylinder (or large
rubber stopper (#2 solid) container)

a. Set up all lab equipment and calculate the density of the rubber stopper
with the most accurate equipment available to you. This will give students
a theoretical value for them to compare their results.
b. Help students differentiate between mass and weight. Compare the efforts
of pushing horizontally on a block of slippery ice on a frozen pond versus
lifting it. The block has the same mass but it will feel different when you try
to lift it. Ask what is responsible for this?
Before c. Students have misconceptions about volume. Measure a particular amount
activity: of water using a graduated cylinder and then pour the water into containers
of different shape. Make sure that students are able to understand that the
volume remains the same although the way the liquid is distributed is
dependent of the shape of the container.
d. Students often confuse mass and volume particularly when measuring
liquids, review concepts, instruments and units.
e. Make sure that students add enough water to do the graduated cylinder or
container where you drop the soda or the experiment will not yield the
expected results.
Teacher
f. The following misconceptions relating to density have been identified by the

American Institute of Physics and should be addressed throughout the
activity.
1. Large objects sink and small objects float.
2. Objects float in water because they are lighter than water.
3. Objects sink in water because they are heavier than water.
4. Wood floats and metal sinks.
5. All objects containing air float.
6. Mass/volume/weight/heaviness/size/density may be perceived as
equivalent.
a. Monitor that students are using the instruments to measure mass and
volume correctly. For example if using analytical balances make sure that
students know how to calibrate to 0.000 g.
During b. Make sure students know how to read the meniscus correctly.
activity: c. As you visit each group, ask them for a definition of mass and volume and
check that their understanding is accurate. It is important to reinforce this
notion throughout the entire activity to minimize student misconceptions.
d. Ask students to offer explanations for the differences observed in the
density of the soda.
a. Have students share their lab group data with the whole class.
b. Lead a discussion to try to explain the differences in the values reported by
each group. Introduce the concept of random variation in measurements
caused by different students measuring the same quantity with different
equipment.
c. Review the use of the formula to calculate % error. Explain to students that
for this type of a lab an error below 5% is acceptable. If any group has an
error that is higher, lead a discussion on measurement error and
instrumental error.
After d. Check the student results with the following values:
activity: 1. Density of Coke- 1.01 g/cm3 (volume=376 ml (1 ml= 1 cm3),
mass=380.8 g.)
2. Density of Diet Coke- 0.97 g/cm3 (volume=376 ml (1 ml= 1 cm3),
mass=366.6 g.)
e. While two cans have the same volume, they differ in mass due to the sugar
content. Sugar used in regular Coke has a mass of 39 grams while the diet
version takes 100 mg of Nutra Sweet in a 12 oz diet can. Students should
visualize that in the same amount of space the regular soda has more
matter which translates into particles more crowded together. This
enhances a preferred particle level view of density as opposed to a more
common formulaic definition of mass over volume.
Extension:
Gizmo: Density Laboratory

Student
Density
NGSSS:
MA.912.S.1.2 Determine appropriate and consistent standards of measurement for the data to
be collected in a survey or experiment.
MA.912.S.3.2 Collects, organizes, and analyzes data sets, determine the best format for the
data and present visual summaries for the following: bar graphs, line graphs, stem and leaf
plots, circle graphs, histogram, box and whisker plots, scatter plots and cumulative frequency
(ogive) graphs.
Background:
Density is a physical property of a substance and is often used to identify what the substance is.
Density is a ratio that represents how much mass (amount of matter) there is in a unit of volume
(amount of space something occupies) of a substance. Density can be computed by using the
equation - . Mass is usually expressed in grams and volume in milliliters (ml), which are
equivalent to cubic centimeters (cm3).
Mass and volume measurements can be made in the laboratory. Mass can be determined by
using a balance. If the object has a regular shape, such as a cube or a cylinder, volume can be
calculated from length measurements. However, most objects have irregular shapes, and the
volume must be determined indirectly. One way to measure the volume of an irregularly shaped
item that does not dissolve in or react with water is by water displacement. An item that is
entirely submerged in water will displace a volume of water equal to its volume. It is necessary
to use the proper units when calculating the density of a substance. Densities of liquids and
solids are usually expressed in terms of g/ml or g/cm 3. Densities of gases are usually expressed
in g/L.
The accuracy of your methods can be reported in terms of percent error. The percent error of
measurements is a comparison of the differences between experimental results and theoretical
or standard values, expressed as a percentage. The equation for percent error is:
Measure the mass and volume of several different objects.
Calculate the density of objects by using their measured mass and volume.
Compare the densities of various objects.
Calculate percentage error
Safety:
Clean up any spills immediately.
Vocabulary: matter, mass, volume, density, significant digits, percent error

Student

100-ml graduated cylinder
2-L graduated cylinder (plastic)
balance (50g capacity)
distilled water
rubber stopper (#2 solid)
can of non-diet soft drink
can of diet soft drink
dropper
2000 ml graduated cylinder (or large container)
Procedures:
Part A: Density of Water
1. Find the mass of a clean, dry 100-ml graduated cylinder. Record this mass in Data Table
1.
2. Fill the cylinder with distilled water. Use a dropper to adjust the bottom of the meniscus
exactly to the 100.0-ml mark.
3. Find and record the mass of the graduated cylinder and water.
4. Calculate and record the mass of the water.
Part B: Density of a Rubber Stopper

5. Find the mass of a solid #2 rubber stopper. Record this mass in Data Table 2.
6. Pour about 50 ml of tap water into the 100-ml graduated cylinder. Read and record the
exact volume.
7. Place the rubber stopper into the graduated cylinder. Make sure that it is completely
submerged. (If it floats, use a pencil to hold the stopper just under the surface of the
water.)
8. Read and record the exact volume.
Part C: Density of a Can of Non-Diet Soft Drink

9. Find the mass of an unopened can of non-diet soft drink. Record this mass in Data Table
3.
10. Pour about 1000 ml of tap water into the 2000-ml graduated cylinder (or a large
container). Record the exact volume.
11. Place the unopened can of soft drink into the graduated cylinder, making sure that it is
completely submerged.
Part D: Density of a Can of Diet Soft Drink

13. Find the mass of an unopened can of diet soft drink. Record this mass in Data Table 4.
14. Pour about 1000 ml of tap water into the 2000-ml graduated cylinder (or a large
container). Record the exact volume.
15. Place the unopened can of diet soft drink into the graduated cylinder, making sure that it
is completely submerged.

Student
17. Use the mass and volume data to calculate the densities of water, the rubber stopper, a
can of non-diet soft drink, and a can of diet soft drink. Show work and then record the
answers in the data tables.
Observations/Data:
Data Table 1
Part A: Density of Water
Mass of empty graduated cylinder (g)
Mass of graduated cylinder and water (g)
Mass of water (g)
Volume of water (ml)
Density of water (g/ml)
Data Table 2
Part B: Density of Rubber Stopper
Mass of rubber stopper (g)
Initial volume of water in graduated cylinder (ml)
Final volume of water in graduated cylinder (ml)
Volume of rubber stopper (ml)
Density of rubber stopper (g/ml)
Data Table 3
Part C: Density of a Can of Non-Diet Soft Drink
Mass of can of non-diet soft drink (g)
Volume of can of can of non-diet soft drink (ml)
Density of can of non-diet soft drink (g/ml)
Data Table 4
Part D: Density of a Can of Diet Soft Drink
Mass of can of diet soft drink (g)
Volume of can of diet soft drink (ml)
Density of can of diet soft drink (g/ml)
Observation/Data Analysis:
1. What is the density determined for your water sample?
2. Using 1g/ml or 1 g/cm3 as the theoretical density of distilled water, calculate the percent
error of your measurement (see formula in Background Information section). Show work.
3. What could you do to improve the accuracy of your measurements?
4. How does the density of the rubber stopper compare to the density of water?
5. Compare the densities of the soft drinks tested? Which soda is denser? How can you
explain this result?

Student
Conclusion:
1. When you use the terms heavier or lighter to compare different objects with the same
volume (such as the two soda cans), what property of the objects are you actually
comparing?
2. Would you expect the densities of various fruit juices in the same container to all be the
same? Explain.
3. How can the concept of density be used to differentiate between a genuine diamond and
an imitation diamond?
4. Explain why a tractor-trailer can be completely filled with one type of merchandise, such
as butter, but only partially filled with a second type of material, such as steel.
5. The density of aluminum is 2.70 g/cm3. What volume will 13.5 grams of aluminum
occupy?

Teacher
Conservation of Mass during Change

(Replaces Physical and Chemical Changes)
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.8.1 Differentiate among the four states of matter.
SC.912.P.8.2 Differentiate between physical and chemical properties and physical and chemical
changes of matter.
To learn to operate a balance as a tool to measure mass.
To establish the law of conservation of mass from experimental evidence
To understand and represent the following changes of a system at the particle level:
o Part 1: Expansion of matter by pulling steel wool strands apart
o Part 2: Melting of ice
o Part 3: Combining solutions to form a precipitate
o Part 4: Burning steel wool which adds oxygen particles to the iron wool
o Part 5: Dissolving sugar
o Part 6: Dissolving Alka-Seltzer
To be able to conclude that despite observable changes in a closed system the mass
does not change. The changes occur due to a rearrangement of the atoms, but as long
as the amount of atoms remains constant, so will the mass.
Prerequisites: Prior to this activity, the student should be able to:

Provide a working definition of mass.
Understand that all matter is composed of individual finite particles, atoms, must be
established prior to this activity.
Define mass as the amount of matter (particles, or stuff) in an object.
Understand that a heavier object must have more mass, than a lighter object
independent of their volume.
Experiment Overview: The lab activity consists of 6 parts. For every part, the students will first
predict what will happen to the system as the change is performed. Then they will measure the
mass of the system before and after an observable change has occurred. By using the initial
and final mass, students will calculate the change of mass using the formula: ∆m = m f - mi. The
use of an analog balance is preferred but digital balances are also acceptable.

Part 1:
Small wad of steel wool
Part 2:
Small vial and chip of ice
Part 3:
Small vials
Solutions of calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 and sodium carbonate Na2CO3

Teacher
Part 4:
Small tuft of steel wool
Crucible tongs
Evaporating dish
Bunsen burner (a lighter will also work)
Part 5:
Vial with cap
Sugar
Part 6:
Vial with cap
¼ tablet of Alka-Seltzer

a. Have all materials available for all 6 parts
b. Review with students the concept of mass. Explain to them that the idea of
this lab is to see how the mass of a system is affected by an observable
change.
c. Instruct students on how to use a balance
d. Explain students each of the 6 parts and the overall procedure
Before e. Ask them to predict how the described change will affect the system‘s mass.
activity: The options are, the mass will increase (∆m > 0), the mass will decrease
(∆m < 0), and the mass will stay the same (∆m = 0). They should write their
prediction on the data sheet for each part before the run the lab.
f. For part 2 – Melting of ice, remind students what happens when they put a
soft drink in the freezer. Water expands as it freezes and contracts as it
melts. The point is to find out if the mass is affected by this change.
g. For Part 4 – Burning steel wool, ask student what happens to the mass of an
object as it is heated or burn
a. As you supervise the students engage them by asking questions on the
experiments they are performing. You can ask them to state their
hypothesis, state their reason for their hypothesis and to tell you about their
results as they record them in their student data sheet.
During b. Make sure that all the students are conducting the experiments according to
activity: procedure in a safe manner, especially in part 4.
c. Ask groups to show their particle level representations and ask for the
reasons behind their representations. Most of the time the students will just
draw a picture of what they see. This is not the point of this activity. Remind
them that they are trying to draw that which they cannot see, the atoms that
make up the system. This is fundamental to the success of this activity.
After a. Assign each group one of the 6 experiments to present their results to the
activity: class.
b. The students should present the experiments in the following order:

Teacher
1. Part 1: Pulling apart steel wool

2. Part 2: Melting of ice
3. Part 5: Dissolving sugar
4. Part 3: Combining solutions to form a precipitate
5. Part 4: Burning steel wool
6. Part 6: Dissolving Alka-Seltzer
c. As students present, discuss with them what is happening at the particle
level and how that explains what is observed at the macro level. The
following is a summary of each part. Even though this is not the order in
which the experiments are performed the order below is the most effective
for the discussion.
1. Part 1: When the steel wool is pulled, the mass is not supposed to
change. Some students feel that it will become lighter because it looks
more dispersed or puffier. Some students believe it should become
heavier as it is bigger. Some groups will notice a decrease in mass
because small parts of the steel wool will be lost as it is pulled apart..
2. Part 2: Melting of the ice should not change the system‘s mass. The
volume decreases but the mass stays the same. Students should
represent the particles in a solid more structured and ordered while the
liquid is more disorganized and random.
3. Part 3: Forming a precipitate does not change the mass but the process
is opposite to the one of sugar dissolving. In this case, the particles are
coming together to form a visible solid but the total amount of particles is
the same. Once again, mass is conserved.
4. Part 4: When steel wool is burned, the mass is supposed to increase.
Students may be very surprised as they always predict a loss of mass
due to burning. Ask students why the mass increases, mass measures
the amount of matter, more mass, more mater. Where does matter
come from? As the iron burns, it reacts with oxygen in the air forming
iron oxide. Oxygen particles are now attached to the iron making the
steel wool heavier.
5. Part 5: Dissolving sugar does not change the mass of the system.
Mention to students that even though the sugar cannot be seen, it is still
there, for it can be tasted. Ask them why particles cannot be seen now.
Conclude that as the sugar dissolves, the particles separate and they
are too small to be seen. The total number of particles, however, does
not change.
6. Part 6: If cap of vial was loose, mass should drop. If cap is screwed on
tightly, mass remains constant. Students feel that bubbles are ―too light‖
or carry no mass. Loss of mass should prove to them that there is
matter inside the bubbles even though it is not visible. Have them
conclude that as particles escape, mass is lost in the system but mass
must be gained somewhere else.
d. Summarize each part and then reach overall conclusion of the lab. The
mass of the system will not change if no particles are added or removed
from it despite of a change in appearance. This statement is similar to the
law of conservation of mass.

Student
Conservation of Mass during Change
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.8.1 Differentiate among the four states of matter.
changes of matter.
Background: It is possible to imagine all matter as composed of very small particles called
atoms. Mass is a property of matter which accounts for the amount of ―stuff‖ in an object. The
heavier an object, the more mass it has, which means the more matter or atoms. A balance is a
piece of equipment which can measure the amount of mass, in grams, of an object.
Purpose of Lab/Activity: In this lab you will perform 6 experiments and in each one an object,
called the system, will undergo a visible change. The question to be answered is how this
change will affect the mass of the system.
Safety: All parts require minimal safety precautions except for part 4. In part 4 you will be
working with a Bunsen burner or a lighter. Remember to wear goggles and pull all hair back
while operating a burner.
Vocabulary: Mass, balance, precipitate, oxidation, solution

Part 1:
Small wad of steel wool
Part 2:
Small vial and chip of ice
Part 3:
Small vials
Solutions of calcium nitrate Ca(NO3)2 and sodium carbonate Na2CO3
Part 4:
Small tuft of steel wool
Crucible tongs
Evaporating dish
Bunsen burner (a lighter will also work)
Part 5:
Vial with cap
Sugar
Part 6:
Vial with cap
¼ tablet of Alka-Seltzer

Student
Procedures:
Part 1 – Pulling Steel wool apart
1. Obtain a small wad of steel wool which is tightly rolled in a ball.
2. Measure the mass of the small tuft of steel wool
3. Separate the strands of steel wool until it reaches twice the size
4. Measure the mass of the expanded steel wool.
5. Keep the steel wool around as you will use it again in part 4
6. Calculate ∆m and represent the change you observed at the particle level
Part 2 – Melting Ice

1. Obtain a small chip of ice and place in a small vial, cap the vial.
2. Measure the mass of the vial with the ice inside
3. Allow the ice to melt completely
4. Measure the mass of the vial now containing water
Part 3 – Combining Solutions to Form a Precipitate

1. Obtain two vials and fill each one to 1/3 with the two solutions, calcium nitrate and
sodium carbonate
2. Measure the mass of both vials and solutions together
3. Carefully pour the contents of one vial into the other
4. Measure the mass of both vials (one empty now, the other one 2/3 full)
Part 4 – Burning Steel Wool

1. Measure the mass of the same piece of steel wool from part 1again
2. Obtain crucible tongs and an evaporating dish
3. With your teacher‘s help, set up a Bunsen burner and ignite it
4. Hold the piece of steel wool with the crucible tongs and heat in the Bunsen burner for a
minute or two. Place the evaporating dish underneath to collect any pieces of the metal
that may fly away.
5. After the steel wool is cooled, measure the mass again, include any pieces of metal
collected in the evaporating dish.
Part 5 – Dissolving Sugar

1. Fill a vial ½ full with water
2. Put about a 1/4 tsp of sugar in the cap of the vial
3. Measure the mass of the vial with water and the cap with sugar (do not combine sugar
and water)
4. Carefully put the sugar in the water and cap the vial
5. Shake vial to dissolve all the sugar
6. Measure the mass of the dissolved sugar
a. Calculate ∆m and represent the change you observed at the particle level
Part 6 – Dissolving Alka-Seltzer

1. Fill a vial ½ full with water
2. Put a 1/4 tablet of Alka-Seltzer in the cap of the vial
Student
3. Measure the mass of the vial with water and the cap with the Alka-Seltzer
4. Place the Alka-Seltzer in the water and wait until it all dissolves and stops bubbling
5. Measure the mass of the dissolved Alka-Seltzer and cap
Observations/Data Analysis:
Answer the following questions on a separate sheet for each of the six parts:
1. Explain this experiment and predict how the mass of the system will be affected by the
change you perform?
Mass of system before change (g)

Mass of system after change (g)
∆m (g)
2. Particle Level Representation
Before change After change
Results/Conclusion:
1. How do your results compare to your predictions? Why?
2. From the post-lab class discussion, what is the understanding you have gained from this
experiment?

Teacher
Isotopes
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.8.3 Explore the scientific theory of atoms (also known as atomic theory) by describing
changes in the atomic model over time and why those changes were necessitated by
experimental evidence.
the structure of atoms in terms of protons, neutrons and electrons, and differentiate among
these particles in terms of their mass, electrical charges and locations within the atom.
To determine the isotopic composition of 100 pennies
To apply the lessons of the penny-isotope analogy to isotopic data.

Describe how the periodic table of elements is arranged.
Identify the parts of an atom and describe its basic structure.
Explain the role of the electrons, protons and neutrons in determining the properties of
matter.

100 pennies* (include a mixture of pre and post 1982 pennies)
Zip loc bag
balance
large box top
2 plastic cups
*This activity can be done with a smaller amount of pennies as long as the amount used by all
groups is consistent. Also, to facilitate obtaining the pennies, teachers should ask students to
bring pennies from home the day before the activity.

a. Prepare the data collection materials. Prepare one zip loc bag for each lab
group containing the 100 pennies. Make sure that each bag contains pre
and post 1982 pennies.
b. Review the basic structure of atoms.
c. Show students a sample of beans or nuts and ask them if they are all the
same or how are they different. Lead students to discuss how this is an
Before
analogy for atoms of the same element.
activity:
d. Dalton‘s theory states that all atoms of an element are identical, have
students evaluate this statement. How are theories changed in science?
e. Have students discuss the distribution of natural isotopes for different
elements. Provide diagrams of 1H, 2H and 3H, also 12C, 13C and 14C. Have
them compare these to the atomic mass listed in the Periodic table. Have
students predict which of these elements is most common (stable in
nature).

Teacher
f. How is the ―average‖ atomic mass of an element derived from its relative
isotopes?
g. Model deriving the weighted average value of 4 quarters, 5 dimes, and 9
pennies. (In a weighted average, the value of each type of item is multiplied
by the number of that type of item. The products are added, and the sum is
divided by the total number of items). Have the students describe the steps
and calculate their answers.
h. Have students read the entire laboratory activity and make a flow chart of
the procedure the students will follow.
a. Ensure that students are completing the data tables correctly.
b. Probe the thinking behind the experimental design: ―Why are we using 100
pennies for this activity?‖ Have you noticed any differences in the mass of
During
the pennies? Why are these differences found?
activity:
c. Ask the students, what further analogies can they describe in the
experiment?
d. Have students brainstorm the parts of the experiment that may not mimic
the natural properties of isotopes.
a. Ask the students, ―How are the different types of pennies analogous to the
isotopes of an element?
b. How could the design of this experiment be improved?
c. Which step of the calculations is analogous to the relative mass of an
After
isotope?
activity:
d. Which step of the calculations is analogous to the relative weighted mass of
an isotope?
e. Have students explain which calculation is comparable to the average
weighted mass of the element, in this case an imaginary element called
―Pennium‖
Extension: Ask students to research online the existence, properties, and use of naturally
occurring and man-made isotopes of various elements.

Student
Isotopes
NGSSS:
Background:
The defining characteristic of an atom of a chemical element is the number of protons in its
nucleus. A given element may have a natural of different isotopes, which are nuclei with the
same numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons. For example, 12C and 14C are two
isotopes of carbon. The nuclei of both isotopes contain six protons. However, 12C has six
neutrons, whereas 14C has eight neutrons. In general, it is the number of protons and electrons
that determines chemical properties of an element. Thus, the different isotopes of an element
are usually chemically indistinguishable. These isotopes, however, have different masses.
Between 1962 and 1982, pennies were made of brass, which is an alloy composed of 95%
copper and 5% zinc. In 1982, the rising price of copper led to a change in the composition of the
penny. Beginning in 1982, pennies have been made of zinc plated with copper. These pennies
contain 2.5% copper and 97.5% zinc. In this experiment, the two different types of pennies will
represent two isotopes of an element.
To determine the isotopic composition of 100 pennies
To apply the lessons of the penny-isotope analogy to isotopic data.
Safety: Always wear safety goggles and a lab apron in the lab.
Vocabulary: “Average” atomic mass, relative and weighted atomic mass, Isotopes

Zip loc bag with pennies prepared by your teachers
balance
large box top
2 plastic cups
Procedures:
1. Use the plastic cups and large box top to contain pennies so they do not get lost.
2. Measure the mass of ten pre-1982 pennies to the nearest 0.01 g. Record your
measurement in Data Table 1. Repeat for post-1982 pennies.
3. Using your data from step 1, calculate the average mass of one pre-1982 penny. Record
this average mass in Data Table 1. Repeat for a post-1982 penny.
4. Obtain 100 pennies. Find the mass of the sample to the nearest 0.01 g. Record your
measurement in Data Table 2.

Student
5. Divide the sample of 100 pennies into pre-1982 and post-1982 pennies. Record the
numbers of each in Data Table 2.
6. Cleanup and Disposal- Follow your teacher's instructions for returning the coins.
Observations/Data:
Data Table 1
Mass of Pennies (g)
Pennies Mass (g)
10 pre-1982
10 post-1982
Avg. pre-1982 penny
Avg.post-1982 penny
Data Table 2
Data for 100-penny sample
Mass of 100 pennies (g)
Number of pre-1982 pennies in 100-penny
sample
Number of post-1982 pennies in 100-penny
sample
Ave mass of a penny in 100-penny sample (g)
Data Analysis/Results:
1. In procedure step 1, why did you measure the mass of 10 pennies instead of the mass of
1 penny?
2. Using the mass of pre-1982 and post-1982 pennies from data table 1 and the number of
each type of penny calculate the relative mass (RM) of each type of penny and list as
average pre-1982 and post-1982 mass.
3. Calculate the relative abundance (RA) for each type of penny by dividing the amount of
each type of penny by the total amount of pennies.
4. Derive the relative weighted mass (RWM) of each penny by multiplying the relative
abundance by the relative mass for each type of penny.
5. Derive the weighted average mass (WAM) of Pennium by adding the two values from the
previous step.
WAM = (RMpre-1982 X RApre-1982)+ (RMpost-1928 X RApost-1982)
Conclusions:
1. The density of copper is 8.96 g/cm3, and that of zinc is 7.13 g/cm3. Using the
compositions given in the introduction, the density of a pre-1982 penny is (0.95) (8.96
g/cm3) + (0.05)(7.13 g/cm3) = 8.87 g/cm3. Calculate the density of a post-1982 penny.

Student
2. A typical penny has a diameter of 1.905 cm and a thickness of 0.124 cm. What is the
volume in cm3 of a typical penny? Hint: V = (π x r2)(thickness of penny).
3. Using the density and volume values from questions 1 and 2, calculate the theoretical
mass of a pre-1982 penny and the mass of a post-1982 penny.
4. Data Table 3 shows the isotopic mass and relative abundance for the most common
isotopes of copper and zinc.
a. How many protons and neutrons are there in a 64-Cu nucleus?
b. How many protons and neutrons are there in a nucleus of 64-Zn?
Data Table 3
Atomic Mass Isotopic mass Relative
Isotope
number number (amu) abundance (%)
Copper-63 29 63 62.9298 69.09
Copper-64 29 64 64.9278 30.91
Zinc-64 30 64 63.9291 48.89
Zinc-66 30 66 65.9260 27.81
Zinc-67 30 67 66.9271 4.73
Zinc-68 30 68 67.9249 18.57
5. Use the data in table 3 to answer the following questions:

a. Calculate the atomic mass of copper.
b. Calculate the atomic mass of zinc.
6. Use the values from the Table 1 and the answers from question 5 to calculate:
a. How many atoms of copper are in a pre-1982 penny (Hint: use Avogadro‘s number).
b. How many atoms of zinc are in a pre-1982 penny?
c. How many total atoms of Cu and Zn are in a pre-1982 penny?
d. How many total atoms of Cu and Zn are in a post-1982 penny?
7. A nuclear power plant that generates 1000 MegaWatts of power uses 3.20 kg per day of
U-235. Naturally occurring uranium contains 0.7% of U-235 and 99.3% U-238. What
mass of natural uranium is required to keep the generator running for a day?

Teacher
Flame Tests
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.10.9 Describe the quantization of energy at the atomic level.
SC.912.P.10.18 Explore the theory of electromagnetism by comparing and contrasting the
different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency, and energy,
and relate them to phenomena and applications.
Observe the spectra emitted by different ions.
Identify the metallic ions by the color emitted
Prerequisite: Prior to this activity the student should be able to:

Know precautions to take when working with an open flame?
Understand the basic structure of the atom.
Describe the changes to atomic theory prior
List the colors of the visible spectrum in order of increasing wavelength.

lab goggles
lab apron
Bunsen burner
nichrome wire loop
wash bottle with distilled water
well plate
hydrochloric acid (HCl) 6.0 M in a dropper bottle
solutions of metallic salts:
o calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2 )
o copper nitrate (Cu(NO3)2)
o lithium nitrate (LiNO3)
o potassium nitrate (KNO3)
o strontium nitrate (Sr(NO3)2)
o sodium chloride (NaCl)
o unknown solution (prepared by teacher)

a. Review with students the electromagnetic spectrum. Make sure that they
know that all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light 3.00 X10 8
m/s.
b. If available, provide prisms to the students and have them observe sunlight
Before
(indirectly). Ask students to describe the colors that they are able to see
activity:
and have them locate this region on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Emphasize that visible light is a small portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum and that we use certain instruments (ex. Infrared devices) to
extend our view of the spectrum
c. Prepare 0.5M solutions of metallic salts. If nitrates are not available you can
Teacher
substitute with chlorides.

d. Review procedures for using a Bunsen burner, emphasize fire safety.
e. Prepare the unknown solutions with any of the metallic salts used. Make
sure you record which salt is contained in the unknown given to each
group.
a. Monitor that safety procedures are being followed.
b. Remind students to clean the nichrome wire correctly to prevent
contamination. After cleaning the wire in the HCl acid, they should hold the
nichrome wire in the burner till the wire imparts no color to the flame.
c. The students should allow the wire to cool down before it is inserted in the
During salt solution.
activity: d. Talk to the students about the parts of the flame and ask them: In which
part of the flame should the wire be inserted?
e. Ask each lab group how they will determine the identity of the unknown.
They may have to repeat their flame tests several times to be certain of the
color observed.
f. If possible provide pieces of cobalt glass which will allow for separation of
colors that may obscure another.
a. Discuss with students the results obtained from their lab. Have groups
compare the colors that they observed.
b. Lead students to understand that atoms give off light as they are subjected
to energy.
c. Discuss ―ground state‖, ―excited state‖, and photons.
d. From their results, students should conclude that atoms of each element
emit only select frequencies of light which can be used to identify that
element.
After
e. Lead the students to understand the relationship between wavelength and
activity:
frequencies emitted and differences in energy between ground state and
excited state
f. Ask students to describe the difference between a line spectra and the
continuous spectrum that they observed with the prism. Emphasize the
discreteness of the lines from atoms in the gaseous state and make sure
that they understand that in a solid lamp filament (incandescent lamp) the
energy levels interact producing a smudged distribution of frequencies.
Use the analogy of the tone of bells when struck together in a box, vs. the
tone produced by each bell separate from another.
Extension:
Gizmo: Star Spectra
Using Planck‘s equation : Energy = Planck‘s constant (h) X frequency (√), ask the
students to calculate the energy of one photon or one packet of energy.

Student
Flame Tests
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.10.9 Describe the quantization of energy at the atomic level.
SC.912.P.10.18 Explore the theory of electromagnetism by comparing and contrasting the
different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency, and energy,
and relate them to phenomena and applications.
Background:
Flame tests provide a way to test for the presence of specific metallic ions. The heat of the
flame excites the loosely-held electrons in the metal ion prompting the electrons to jump from a
ground level to a higher energy level in the atom. As the electrons fall back to their ground state,
energy is released from the excited electrons and can be seen as a colored flame. The color is a
combination of the wavelengths of each transition and can be used to determine the identity of
an unknown ion. Although white light produces a continuous spectrum in which all wavelengths
of visible light are present (400-700nm), an excited electron produces one or more specific lines
in the spectrum. This unique spectrum corresponds to an element‘s distinct electron
configuration.
Observe the spectra emitted by different ions.
Identify the metallic ions by the color emitted
Safety:
Always wear safety goggles and a lab apron in the lab.
Tie back hair and secure loose bulky clothing while working near a flame.
All of the salt solutions (except NaCl) are toxic, if any of the solutions splash on your skin,
wash affected area with large amounts of water and notify your teacher.
Handle carefully the heated nichrome wire. Make sure to hold only from the handle.
Hydrochloric acid is corrosive to the skin and clothing and the vapors are irritating to the
lungs and the eyes. Avoid contact with the solution and inhalation of its vapors. If acid
splashes on your skin or clothing wash immediately with soap and plenty of water and
notify your teacher.
Vocabulary: atoms, electrons protons, continuous spectra, emission spectra, line spectra, wave
length, frequency, energy, ground state (or level), excited state (or level).

lab goggles
lab apron
Bunsen burner
nichrome wire loop
wash bottle with distilled water
well plate
hydrochloric acid (HCl) 6.0 M in a dropper bottle
solutions of metallic salts:
o calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2 )
Student
o copper nitrate (Cu(NO3)2)

o lithium nitrate (LiNO3)
o potassium nitrate (KNO3)
o strontium nitrate (Sr(NO3)2)
o sodium chloride (NaCl)
o unknown solution
Procedures:
1. Put on your goggles and lab apron, and secure your hair.
2. Obtain a well plate and place it on a white sheet of paper. Label each well with the name
of the solutions to be tested including a well for the unknown solution. Put a dropperful of
each known solution into its corresponding well.
3. Clean the nichrome wire before testing each solution. Rinse the loop with distilled water
followed by rinsing with the 6.0 M HCl. Place the loop into the flame for about a minute.
4. Following your teacher‘s discussion, make sure that the wire is inserted in the appropriate
region of the flame.
5. Observe the color of the clean nichrome wire in the flame; this is the color you should see
after you clean the wire for each new test. Briefly allow the wire to briefly cool down
between tests.
6. Dip the nichrome wire into the well with the calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2) solution and
immediately place the loop into the flame. Observe and record the color of the flame in
the Data Table. Repeat each test 2 or 3 times before trying a new solution. Clean the
nichrome wire between each test (see step 3). Continue testing and recording the flame
colors produced by the metallic ions of each solution.
7. Sodium has a very strong color which could affect the color results of your other tests. To
prevent this from happening follow proper nichrome wire cleaning procedure and leave
the sodium test for last.
8. Obtain an unknown from your teacher and repeat steps 3 and 4.
Observations/Data:
Compound in Solution Ion Flame Color

calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2 Ca 2+
copper nitrate (Cu (NO3)2) Cu 2+
lithium nitrate (LiNO3) Li 1+
potassium nitrate (KNO3) K 1+
strontium nitrate (Sr(NO3)2) Sr 2+
sodium chloride (NaCl) Na 1+
unknown solution
1. Is the color of the flame, a chemical or a physical property of these metals? Explain.

Student
2. What particles are found in the chemicals that may be responsible for the production of
colored light in the metallic salts you tested?
3. What color did your unknown produce in the flame? What is your unknown?
4. What would have been another way of exciting the electrons without using a Bunsen
burner?
Conclusion:
1. Why do different metals have different characteristic flame test colors?
2. The majority of the known compounds tested contain nitrate, yet the colors of the flames
were different. What effect would you expect on the flame colors if these compounds
were chlorides instead of nitrates?
3. A firework contains copper chloride and strontium sulfate. What colors would you expect
to be produced?
4. When a pan of milk boils over onto the stove the flame turns red-orange. Explain why.
Extension for Advanced Students:

1. Describe the relationship between frequency and wavelength
2. Calculate the wavelength of the yellow light emitted by a sodium lamp, in meters, if the
frequency of the radiation is 5.10 X 1014/sec.
3. What is the energy of a photon of green light whose frequency is 6.85 X 10 14/sec?
4. The spectrum of lithium has a red line of 670.8 nanometers. (Hint: 1 meter =1 X 109nm).
a. Convert the nanometers, using dimensional analysis to meters.
b. Calculate the frequency of the wave.
c. Calculate the energy of a photon with this wavelength.
5. How is spectrometry used to determine the composition of stars?

Teacher
Periodic Trends
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.8.5 Relate properties of atoms and their position in the periodic table to the
SC.912.P.8.7 Interpret formula representations of molecules and compounds in terms of
Determine the periodic trends per group of main elements.
Relate the reactivity of elements to their electron structure.

Understand the structure of the atom.
Determine the number of valence electrons for the main group elements.
Relate how ions are formed when valence electrons are donated or received.
Locate the Main Group elements on the Periodic Table labeled as 1, 2 and 3-18.

96 –well microplate or Playdough Ruler (cm)
36 plastic straws or coffee stirrers Graph paper
Scissors Table of atomic radii and ionization
Calculator energies

a. Ask students which are the various ways that elements might be listed in a
single vertical column.
b. Ask students which are some of the properties of elements that could be
Before used to organize the elements in the Periodic Table.
activity: c. Have students infer how groups and periods are used to organize elements
with similarities.
d. Review with students the use of a scale to do conversions. In this case,
students should consider the length of the straw in cm. to propose a scale
to convert Angstroms to centimeters.
Part 1- Atomic radius
a. Discuss with students the tables provided that highlight the atomic radii and
the Ionization energy data per element.
b. Review students‘ proposed scale, make sure they can convert from
Angstroms to centimeters (e.g., 2 cm = 1 Å)
During
1. Example: Li has an atomic radius of 1.52 Å. To create a model using the
activity:
scale above, students must do the following: 1.52 Å X 2 cm / 1 Å = 3.04
cm. Therefore, the scaled radius of lithium will need a straw cut at the
rounded value of 3.00 cm.
c. Monitor that students use the scaled value to measure first and then cut the
straws in centimeters.
d. Straws should be placed all the way into the well plates or into the Play
Teacher
Dough. The 3D model should include the elements‘ symbol that they
represent and the scale used.
Part 2- Ionization Energy

d. Make sure that students are graphing the ionization energy in the y axis and
the atomic number in the x axis.
a. Make sure students answer the analysis and conclusion questions before
After taking their 3D model apart. If possible have them attach a photo or a hand
activity: drawn picture of their model to their lab.
b. Have students predict what they think will happen with the 2nd and 3rd
Ionization energies.
Extension:
Gizmo: Element Builder, Electron Configuration

Student
Periodic Trends
NGSSS:
Background:
Elements within the same family in the Periodic Table have similar properties and in many
cases, one element can be replaced by another element with similar properties. This knowledge
is presently being widely used in medicine with radioactive tracers that are being used more
frequently to locate tumors in the body and deliver medications for their treatment. This
knowledge is also being widely studied in external pollutants and contaminants that replace
essential elements within the human body, such as the replacement of calcium in bones by
radioactive strontium

Determine the periodic trends per group of main elements.
Relate the reactivity of elements to their electron structure.
Safety: Non-applicable
Vocabulary: periodic trends, ionization energy and atomic radius.

96 –well microplate or Play dough
36 plastic straws or coffee stirrers
Scissors
Calculator
Ruler (cm)
Graph paper
Color pencils or markers
Procedures:
Part 1- Making a 3D Model of Atomic Radius
1. Copy the values of Atomic Radii in Angstroms given in the first column of Table 1 into
your Periodic Table. Describe any patterns you find as you from top to bottom and from
left to right.
2. To create a 3-D model of the Atomic Radius trend, first measure a plastic straw to find
the total length in cm.
3. Choose a conversion factor to change the radius of the first 35 elements listed in Table 1
from Angstroms into centimeters (Add the conversion factor to column 3 of Table 1) .
Using the conversion factor, estimate the centimeters for each of the 35 elements, round
each value to the nearest tenth and fill in the fourth column of Table 1.

Student
4. Using the derived centimeters measure a straw for each element and cut and place each
straw securely into the 96-well microplate to model the arrangement of the first 35
elements found in the Periodic Table.
Table 1- Conversion of Atomic Radii from Angstrom to Centimeter
Conversion factor Derived centimeters

Element Radius in Angstroms
( X _____) (cm)
Li 1.52
Be 1.11
B 0.80
C 0.77
N 0.71
O 0.66
F 0.64
Na 1.86
Mg 1.60
Al 1.43
Si 1.18
P 1.09
S 1.03
Cl 0.99
K 2.27
Ca 1.97
Ga 1.22
Ge 1.23
As 1.21
Se 1.40
Br 1.14
Rb 2.48
Sr 2.15
In 1.63
Sn 1.62
Sb 1.41
Te 1.38
I 1.33
Ce 2.65
Ba 2.17
Tl 1.70
Pb 1.75
Bi 1.46
Po 1.67
At 1.40

Student
Part 2- Graphing the First Ionization Energy

1. Analyze the information provided in Table 2-Ionization Energy which shows the energy
necessary to remove the first electron (first ionization energy) from several elements and
their corresponding atomic number (Z).
Table 2- Ionization Energy

First Ionization Energy
Element Z
(eV)
He 2 24.60
Li 3 5.40
Be 4 9.30
F 9 17.40
Ne 10 21.50
Na 11 5.10
Mg 12 7.60
Cl 17 13.00
Ar 18 15.70
K 19 4.30
Ca 20 6.10
Br 35 11.80
Kr 36 14.00
Rb 37 4.20
Sr 38 5.70
2. Plot the points of the ionization energy (y axis) vs. the atomic number (x axis) and label
each point with the element symbol in the graph provided below.
3. Connect with different color lines the points corresponding to the elements within the
same family or group.
Observations/Data Analysis:
1. For Part 1, analyze the 3-D model you created for the atomic radii for the first 35
elements. What pattern does this data show?
2. For Part 2, analyze your graph, what pattern does your graph show?
Conclusion:
1. Provide an explanation for the pattern of the elements as you go across a group? Provide
an explanation for the pattern of the elements as you go down the group
2. Which group has the least reactive elements? How does this relate to their electronic
structure?
3. Which group of elements are the most reactive? Where are they found in the periodic
table?
4. Would you predict the second ionization energy to be higher or lower than the first?
Explain.
5. What patterns would you expect for reactivity of the Transition elements? Explain.
6. Provide students with a blank Periodic Table and have them summarize the pattern found
for both Atomic Radii and for Ionization energy.
7. Which elements are most likely to lose electrons? Explain.
Student
8. Which elements are most likely to gain electrons? Explain.

9. Electron affinity is the energy change when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous
atom, how would the pattern of the ionization energy relate to the pattern of electron
affinity? Explain.

Teacher
Models of Atomic Structure and Electrostatic Forces
NGSSS:
Purpose of Lab/Activity: To investigate the behavior of electrically charged objects and to

create a model of atomic structure to account for the observed behavior.
Prerequisite:
Students should have a solid understanding that matter is composed of tiny particles
called atoms. It is not necessary for students to know that these particles have internal
structure.
One of the goals of this activity is for them to develop a model which includes oppositely
charged particles as the atomic constituents.
Students should also recognize that there is some natural force of attraction which keeps
particles of a solid together and that make atoms stick to form compounds.

Roll of scotch tape
Piece of PVC pipe (about a foot in length)
Piece of natural fur, or wool, or a cotton tube sock
Rubber balloon
Small pieces of paper or confetti

a. Have the students work in pairs preferably. Groups of three will work fine
also.
b. Begin the activity with a simple demonstration of electrostatic forces. Inflate
a balloon and rub it against your hair (without any hair styling products).
The balloon is now charged and it will easily stick to the wall or another
vertical flat surface. Then rub the balloon against your hair again and put it
near some small pieces of paper or confetti. The paper will fly to the
Before
balloon. Ask the students what is it about the atoms of the balloon that once
activity:
rubbed they behave in this way. Bring up the fact that this force must be
stronger than gravity if it is able to make the small pieces of paper fly up. To
show that this force is not just happening with balloons, rub a PVC pipe with
natural fur, wool, or a tube sock and show them that it is also able to pick
up the small paper pieces. Even more impressive is to open a water faucet
so that a thin continuous stream of water flows out and approach the
charged PVC pipe near it. The water stream will bend as it is attracted to
the PVC pipe. Tell them that they are to perform an activity to investigate

Teacher
the nature of this force.

c. Demonstrate how to set up the tools for this investigation, specifically the
tapes. Demonstrate that pulling two pieces of tape apart (see student
procedure steps1-5) produces tapes that can interact with an electrical
force. Guide students in a discussion of how to investigate interactions with
the other materials supplied.
d. After showing how to create usable strips of tape, the students should be
challenged to explore all possible two-strip interactions as well as
interactions between the strips and other student-chosen objects (such as
pens, notebooks, themselves, etc.).
a. As students set up the tapes supervise that they are following the correct
procedure or their results will not be correct
b. It is sometimes difficult for students to see repulsion when two like tapes
are brought together. If this is the case, the students need to recharge the
tapes by putting them on the base tape and separating them again (see
During
student procedure for detailed explanation).
activity:
c. Encourage students to use terms such as attraction or repulsion to describe
the effect of the tapes on other objects
d. Students should check what happens when opposite tapes (attract) and
when two equivalent tapes (repel) are brought together. They should also
test the charged PVC rod with the tapes (it should attract the top tape and
repel the bottom tape)
a. After students gather their results bring the students together for whole
class discussion.
b. Ask students what they think is happening to the atoms of the tapes as they
are separated that transform their properties
c. The idea is to realize that when the tapes separate or the rod is rubbed with
fur, electrons are transferred from one of the objects to the other.
d. By definition, the plastic rod is considered to have a negative charge after
being rubbed with a piece of fur or wool. Lead students to realize that the
bottom tape is like the rod; so, it is also negative. The top tape has the
opposite properties so it is positive.
e. Ask students what happened when they brought both tapes close to
After
common objects around the room. They should conclude that both bottom
activity:
and top tapes attracted these objects. Lead students to understand that
most objects are both positive and negative and therefore they show
attraction to both tapes but there is no attraction or repulsion between the
neutral objects.
f. Students should realize that sub atomic particles (electrons) carry the
negative charge in an atom while opposite sub atomic particles (protons)
carry the positive charges. For most substances the amount of protons and
electrons is equal making the substance neutral. Electrons are able to
travel while protons remain in the atom.
g. Energy from rubbing the fur or from separating the tapes is able to make
electrons migrate creating an unequal number of protons and electrons that
result in a charged object.
Teacher
h. In the student version there is a diagram of tapes being pulled apart for
them to add dots to represent electrons. An ideal representation is
presented below:
The bottom tape has gained electrons from the top and is now negative.
The top tape lost electrons and it is now positive. This diagram assumes
that having 4 electrons (dots) makes the atom neutral which is the case
when the tapes are stuck together.
i. It is now possible to relate this activity with electricity. Students are familiar
with the shock they feel when they walk on a carpet wearing socks and
touch a grounded object. Make sure students understand that this
movement of electrons is called electricity. If you have a Van de Graaff
generator it is possible to show students a series of fun demonstrations of
electricity in action.
j. Students should also connect their newly developed model of the atom to
the forces which holds solids together and that make atoms stick as
compounds. This atomic glue is called electrostatic force.
k. Conclusion questions address everyday instances where students
experience static electricity. One important hazard students must be aware
of is static spark hazard at gas stations. This link
http://www.esdjournal.com/static/refuelfr.htm has a video of a girl
inadvertently starting a fire while pumping gas. Instruct students that they
should touch the car before nearing the gas pump to discharge themselves
and prevent a hazardous spark.
Extension:
Gizmo: Pith Ball Lab, Coulomb Force (Static)

Student
Models of Atomic Structure and Electrostatic Forces

NGSSS:
Background: A solid is able to hold its shape because the particles that make it up are strongly
attracted to each other. Also a chemical compound such as water is composed of separate
atoms, H2O. There is a force which holds the hydrogens to the oxygens so that they form a
molecule. Some property inside the atom is responsible for the existence of this force.
Purpose or Problem Statement: To investigate the behavior of electrically charged objects

and to create a model of atomic structure to account for the observed behavior.
Safety: Basic laboratory safety should be observed during this lab.
Vocabulary: Electrostatic force, electricity, electrons, attraction, repulsion.
Materials:
Roll of scotch tape (shared between two groups)
Piece of PVC pipe (about a foot in length)
Piece of natural fur, or wool, or a cotton tube sock
Procedures:
Part 1 - Preparing the tapes
1. Take a 15 cm piece of transparent tape and make a handle on the end by folding under the
first cm of tape, sticky side to sticky side. Place this tape on the lab table. This is the base
tape.
2. Take a second 15 cm piece of transparent tape, make a handle as before, and place this
tape on top of the base tape. Label this tape ―B‖ for bottom.
3. Attach a third similarly prepared strip of tape onto the bottom tape. Label this tape ―T‖ for
top.
4. Repeat steps 1 through 3 above. You now have two sets of 3-layer tapes.

Student
Part 2 - Examining the behavior of the tapes

1. Peel one set of T and B tapes from its base tape, keeping the T and B tapes together.
Run your finger down the non-sticky side, then quickly peel them apart.
2. As one student holds the freshly peeled top and bottom tapes on each hand, another
student repeats the process with the other set of tapes.
3. Approach the two top tapes together, then the two bottom tapes and then all
combinations of top and bottom tape. Record your observations.
4. Take a PVC rod and rub it with fur, wool, or any other cloth provided by your teacher.
Approach the rubbed PVC pipe to freshly separated tapes. Record your observation.
5. Use a freshly separated top and bottom tape and approach it to objects around the room,
it is your choice. Record your observations.
6. You may need to ―recharge‖ you tapes after using them for a while. Just repeat steps 2-
5. If after recharging, the tapes still don‘t behave as expected, use new strips of tape.
Observations/Data:
1. What happens when you bring two top tapes near each other?
2. What happens when you bring two bottom tapes near each other?
3. What happens when you bring a top and a bottom tape near each other?
4. What happens when you bring the tapes near a recently rubbed PVC rod?
5. List the behavior of the tapes as you approach them to three objects of your choice.
Conclusion:
1. You should have noticed that when the tapes were in the roll there was no difference
between them but after they were separated they behaved differently. Similarly, before
rubbing the plastic rod, the rod is not able to attract anything but after rubbing, the rod
becomes attractive. Based on a number of observations scientists have assigned the
label of negative (–) to the charge of a rubber or plastic rod rubbed with fur or wool. The
fur or wool becomes positively charged (+). Based on your observations from using the
rod, label the T and B tapes as either a (+) or (–). Explain your reasoning.
2. Below you will find a diagram of two tapes being pulled apart. The circles in the tape
represent atoms of the tape. Based on your observations and class discussion, draw
electrons inside of the atoms (as black dots) to show the difference between the top tape
and bottom tape before and after the tapes were separated. Explain your reasoning for
each case.

Student
3. Both bottom and top tapes are able to attract a piece of paper. Knowing that objects of
opposite charge attract each other, is the piece of paper negative or positive? Explain
your reasoning
4. On a dry day you walk on carpet wearing socks. As you grab the door knob to open the
door you feel a small shock. Explain what is happening at the particle level
5. Many gas stations have a warning for spark hazard. It is possible to ignite a dangerous
fire at a gas station just by getting in and out of your car once you start fueling. Why
does this occur and how can you prevent it?

Teacher
A Bagged Chemical Reaction
NGSSS:
changes of matter.
SC.912.P.8.8 Characterize types of chemical reaction, for example: redox, acid-base, synthesis
and single and double replacement reaction.
Observe the changes associated with a chemical reaction including heat changes,
changes in an indicator, bubble of gas released.
Determine which compounds are reactants and which are products through the use of a
chemical equation.
Use indicators in order to identify whether a solution is acidic or basic.

Identify the reactants and the products of a chemical reaction
Describe the changes that can evidence that a reaction has taken place.

Safety goggles & Lab apron Phenol red solution (acid/base indicator
Plastic cup solution)
Calcium chloride pellets (CaCl2) Measuring cup or graduated cylinder
Baking soda, sodium bicarbonate 2 plastic teaspoons
(NaHCO3) 1-gallon Ziploc-type bag
Water 2 twist ties or rubber bands

a. Lead students to acknowledge that when a chemical reaction takes place
new substances are formed as particles are rearranged.
Before b. Guide a class discussion on identifying types of evidence that a chemical
activity: reaction has taken place.
c. Verify that students distinguish between endothermic and exothermic.
Clarify misconceptions; many students think that all chemical reactions are
exothermic.
a. Ensure the students shake the bag away from their faces and clothes.
Once bags get tightly filled with gas, release the CO2. Bags may explode!
b. Ask students about the role that water has in this experiment. What would
During happen if the reaction was attempted just with dry products? Students
activity: should answer that without water the reaction would take very long. Refer
them to the Conductivity and Solubility Lab to remind them that since the
reactants are ionic, they dissociate or break apart in water.
c. If the bag does explode, all the products are non-toxic and can be washed
off.
Teacher

a. Discuss the evidence that the students saw of a chemical reaction as a
class.
b. Students should find that in the first 2 bags a physical change took place
even if heat was generated in the bag with CaCl2 and water.
c. The students should observe the bubbling/fizzing and the filling up of the
bag with CO2 to denote the production of this gas. A burning splint can be
introduced to verify the presence of this gas in the third bag. Note: Phenol
red is flammable
d. In the fourth bag where phenol red (acid base indicator is added), the color
changes from red to yellow to demonstrates that this reaction is acidic.
e. Make sure that students understand that the increase of temperature in the
third and fourth bag correspond to the release of energy from chemical
bonds that are broken.
f. Try to have the students draw the reaction at the particulate level. They
should account for the kinetic energy of the water molecules bumping the
After
ions from the reactants into each other (collision theory). As H ions bump
activity:
into the oxygen ions they bond covalently to form water. In a similar
fashion, the carbon and the oxygen ions form the carbon dioxide (can be
identified by the bubbles) and the calcium carbonate also forms. Some of
the calcium carbonate dissolves and the rest is a solid. The sodium and
chloride ions remain in solution.
g. With help, they should be able to write out the chemical equation for the
reaction as shown here:
2NaHCO3(s) + CaCl2(s)  CaCO3(s) +2NaCl(aq) + HCl(aq)

NaHCO3(s) + HCl(aq)  H2O(l) + CO2(g) + NaCl(aq)
Students may recognize CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) as a main component

of chalk. Also, they may identify NaCl and H2O as a a mixture of salt water
in the bag. Lastly, the gas in the bag is carbon dioxide, which is exhaled
from our bodies and then taken in by plants, so they can generate oxygen.
h. Review the completion of the data table with students (see answers below)
Table 1 - Answer Key

Physical or
Production of Temperature
Chemical Color change
gas change
change
NaHCO3 in Bright pink
physical no cold
water + indicator (pH>8.2 basic)
CaCl2 in water physical no no warm
NaHCO3 + Yes
chemical no final- warm
CaCl2 in water (CO2)
NaHCO3 +
CaCl2 with water Gas Yellow
chemical final-warm
+ indicator (CO2) (pH<6.8 acidic)
solution
Teacher
Extension:
Gizmo: Limiting Reactants

Student
A Bagged Chemical Reaction
NGSSS:
changes of matter.
Background:
Chemical reactions occur when molecules come together to form new products. In our bodies
and environments, chemical reactions occur continuously to help run our lives. During a
reaction, chemical bonds are broken and remade. Usually, color changes, gases being
released, changes in temperature, and/or formation of solute characterize chemical reactions.
These events describe changes in energy or solubility of the compound, meaning new products
were produced.
Chemical reactions can be defined by a chemical equation in which reactants and products are
characterized by chemical symbols. All chemical reactions are accompanied by a change in
energy. Some reactions release energy to their surroundings (usually in the form of heat) and
are called exothermic. For example, sodium and chlorine react so violently that flames can be
seen as the exothermic reaction gives off heat. On the other hand, some reactions need to
absorb heat from their surroundings to proceed. These reactions are called endothermic. A
good example of an endothermic reaction is that which takes place inside of an instant '"cold
pack." Commercial cold packs usually consist of two compounds - urea and ammonium chloride
in separate containers within a plastic bag. When the bag is bent and the inside containers are
broken, the two compounds mix together and begin to react. Because the reaction is
endothermic, it absorbs heat from the surrounding environment and the bag gets cold.
Observe the changes associated with a chemical reaction including heat changes,
changes in an indicator, bubble of gas released.
Determine which compounds are reactants and which are products through the use of a
chemical equation.
Use indicators in order to identify whether a solution is acidic or basic.
Safety:
Remind students that there is NO eating or drinking during the lab.
CO2 is produced in the bags. Make sure the area is well-ventilated before releasing all
the gas.
Do not let students ingest baking soda or calcium chloride. Avoid contact with eyes or
mouth. If ingested in small amounts neither compounds are toxic, but if ingested in larger
amounts give student a full glass of water and contact a medical facility.
Watch for bags exploding. Ensure the students shake the bag away from their faces and
clothes.
Once bags get tightly filled with gas, release the CO2. If the bag does explode, all the
products are non-toxic and can be washed off.
The bags can be disposed of in the trash because all products are non-toxic.

Student
Vocabulary: chemical reaction, reactants, products, exothermic, endothermic

Safety goggles & Lab apron 2 plastic teaspoons
4 tbsps Calcium chloride pellets (CaCl2) Plastic cup
2 tbsp Baking soda, sodium bicarbonate 4 1-gallon Ziploc-type bag
(NaHCO3) 2 twist ties or rubber bands
Phenol red solution Water
Measuring cup or graduated cylinder
Procedures:
1. In a Ziploc type of bag, place 2 tablespoons of sodium bicarbonate (sodium hydrogen
carbonate) and a film-canister or vial (1/3 full of water or 30 ml) with 3 drops of the phenol
red indicator added to the water. Place canister/vial in the bag in the upright position.
Squeeze the excess air and seal the bag. Spill the water into the bag and record
observations. Record observations in Table 1.
2. To a second Ziploc type bag add 1 tablespoon of calcium chloride and add the same
amount of water as in the previous step but without the phenol red indicator. Repeat
procedure in step 1. Record observations in Table 1.
3. To a third Ziploc bag, add 2 tablespoons of calcium chloride into one corner of the bag,
twist off the corner to separate chemical from the rest of the bag and tie with a rubber
band or twist tie.
4. Into the opposite corner of the third bag, add 2 tablespoons of sodium bicarbonate and
twist off the corner to separate from the rest of the bag and tie with a rubber band or twist
tie.
5. Place the canister/vial with 30 ml of water in the middle of the bag in the upright position.
6. Squeeze the excess air and seal the bag.
7. Carefully untwist the 2 corners (if using rubber bands, use scissors to cut them careful
not to cut the bag) while the partner holds both corners apart.
8. Release both corners and allow all three chemicals to mix. Quickly observe any
immediate changes in the corners. Record all your observations in Table 1.
9. In a fourth bag repeat steps #3-8 but this time with 3 drops of the phenol red indicator to
the water. Record all your observations in Table 1.

Student
Observations/Data
Table 1- Physical and Chemical Changes

Physical or
Production Of Temperature
Chemical Color change
gas change
change
NaHCO3 in
water + indicator
CaCl2 in water
NaHCO3 +
CaCl2 in water
NaHCO3 +
CaCl2 with water
+ indicator
solution
Observation/Data Analysis:
1. Which steps could be characterized as physical or chemical change? Justify your
reasoning
2. What observations confirm the presence of a chemical change?
3. Which process(es) would you characterize as exothermic? Explain.
4. Which process(es) would you characterize as endothermic? Explain.
Conclusion:
1. What was the function of the phenol red in the experiment?
2. During this reaction, baking soda (NaHCO3) is combined with calcium chloride (CaCl2) in
water. Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction that occurred.
3. Give the names of all the compounds present in the chemical reaction you observed.
4. What type of gas is in your bags? How can you verify?
5. Propose an explanation for where the energy change originated.
6. Which general chemical principles or laws can you confirm in this investigation?

Teacher
A Mole Ratio
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.8.9 Apply the mole concept and the law of conservation of mass to calculate
To examine the qualitative properties of chemical processes.
To relate macroscopic observations to changes on an atomic scale.
To quantify the amount of mass and moles of chemical species
To determine % yield and limiting reactants.
To develop a sound model for oxidation reduction reactions

Understand the differences between chemical and physical processes.
Describe the basic structure of an atom.
Relate the subatomic particles to the properties of an atom.
Distinguish between compounds, elements and mixtures.
Understand clearly that the number of valence electrons determines the difference
between ions and elements. It must be clear that elements have a zero charge due to the
same number of electrons and protons while ions can be positive or negative due to the
unequal number of protons and electrons.
Convert from grams to moles and vice versa.

Iron metal filings: 20 mesh
Copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O)
400-ml and 150-ml beakers
weighing paper (filter paper can be used)
balance, hot plates
Beaker tongs, distilled water
Stirring rod

a. Prepare the required chemical reagents.
b. Summarize the procedure to students. Emphasize the fact that they will be
combining a solution (CuSO4) with a metal in its elemental form (Iron)
Before c. Have students describe at the particle level the state of the reactants. The
activity: goal is for them to visualize that the copper and sulfate are charged ions
which have been separated by the water in the aqueous state while the iron
is elemental with zero charge.
d. After establishing the nature and charge of the reactants, ask students to
predict the products. Allow them to be creative but limit them to the
Teacher
reactants used. They should not incorporate extraneous substances. Resist

giving them the answer.
e. Review safety procedures before student work on activity
e. Direct the students to describe the physical properties being observed such
as color change or appearance of a new substance.
f. As soon as students add the iron to the copper sulfate they will observe the
reaction occur right away. Ask students to consider possible reasons for their
observations.
g. Students should soon realize that a new ―orange‖ substance is appearing.
During Once the reaction is finished and the product is isolated, ask them what they
activity: think this new substance is. Many students believe it is ―rust‖, remind them
that rust is iron oxide and point to the properties of the new substance such
as its orange color and shininess. The idea is for them to realize that the
substance is pure elemental copper.
h. Point to students that the color of the supernatant solution has changed.
This is a very important clue for them to understand the chemical process.
i. Have students reason on how to conclude when the process is complete.
j. What is the purpose of heating the solution initially?
a. After cleaning and disposal, students should work in groups to complete
analysis questions in their procedure.
b. Bring students together for whole class discussion. The discussion has two
main parts, qualitative and quantitative. Depending on the amount of class
time, these could be done in different days.
c. The objective in the qualitative discussion is for students to have a clear
understanding of the oxidation reduction process. One of the clues you
should give your students is that the iron disappears from view. Point to them
also that copper was in aqueous ionic form before the reaction and after the
reaction it became elemental neutral copper. Copper went from the 2+ state
to the zero state. The only way for this to happen is for the copper to gain
electrons. Lead students to realize that copper removed the electrons from
the iron filings and that the iron went from zero state to some ion state (2+ or
After
3+).
activity:
d. Introduce the terms oxidation and reduction. Use a mnemonic device such
as LEO says GER (Lose Electrons Oxidation, Gaining Electrons Reduction)
to help student memorize the newly acquired concepts.
e. Ask students to explain the role of the sulfate ions. Lead them to see that
they do not participate in the reaction. The state and properties of sulfate do
not change in the reaction. They are called spectator ions and they do not
participate in the reaction.
f. Direct the students to construct a chemical equation for the process.
Because iron could turn into Fe2+ or Fe3+ there are two possible equations.
This is the bridge to the quantitative discussion that will ensue.
g. Ask student to propose quantitative ways to determine if iron (II) or iron (III)
was produced. They should conclude that the coefficients in the balanced
equations are different and that a mole ratio analysis could determine the
correct product.
Teacher
h. Help students identify which reactant ―ran out‖ first. They should observe
that no iron remains. Introduce the concept of limiting and excess reagent.
i. Discuss the process of calculating theoretical, actual and percent yield.
j. A few enrichment questions that could be addressed at the end of this activity
include:
1. Could the reaction be forced backwards? Why or why not?
2. What are the factors that affect the percentage yield?
3. Is there a way to increase the yield in the reaction?
4. What do the color change of the supernatant solution tells you?
5. What other reactions follow this same pattern?
Extension:
Gizmo: Chemical Equations

Student
A Mole Ratio
NGSSS:
Background:
Chemicals react with each other in fixed proportions based on various bonding principles. The
valence electrons in the reacting atoms are responsible for the nature of these reactions. For
these reactions to occur, the atoms must collide in the appropriate set of conditions. In this

To examine the qualitative properties of chemical processes.
To relate macroscopic observations to changes on an atomic scale.
To quantify the amount mass and moles of chemical species
To determine % yield and limiting reactants.
Safety:
Safety goggles and aprons must always be worn!
No eating or drinking
Hot objects will not appear to be hot
Do not handle or heat broken, chipped, or cracked glassware
Turn off the hot plate when not in use.
Vocabulary: Chemical reactions, moles, limiting reagent, excess reagent, actual, theoretical
and percentage yield, valence electrons, compounds, ions, atoms, molecules, elements,
oxidation-reduction, spectator ions.

Iron metal filings: 20 mesh
Copper (II) pentahydrate (CuSO4.5H2O)
400-ml and 150-ml beakers
Weighing paper (filter paper can be used)
Balance, hot plates, beaker tongs, distilled water
Stirring rods.
Procedures:
1. Measure and record the mass of a clean, dry 150-ml beaker.
2. Place approximately 12.00-grams of copper (II) pentahydrate into the 150-ml beaker and
measure and record the combined mass.
3. Add 50.00-ml of distilled water to the copper (II) pentahydrate and heat the mixture on the
hot plate at a medium setting. Stir until the solid is dissolved, but do not boil. Using
tongs, remove the beaker from the hot plate.
4. Measure approximately 2.00-grams of iron metal filings onto a piece of weighing paper.
Measure and record the exact mass of the filings.
Student
5. While stirring, slowly add the iron filings to the hot copper (II) sulfate solution.
6. Allow the reaction mixture to stand, without stirring, for 5 minutes to ensure complete
reaction. A new solid product will settle to the bottom of the beaker.
7. Use the stirring rod to decant (pour off) the liquid into a 400-ml beaker. Be careful to
decant only the liquid.
8. Add 15.00-ml of distilled water to the solid and carefully swirl the beaker to wash the
product. Decant the liquid into the 400-ml beaker.
9. Repeat step 8 two more times.
10. Place the 150-ml beaker containing the wet solid on the hot plate. Use low heat to dry
the solid.
11. Remove the beaker from the hot plate and allow it to cool.
12. Measure and record the mass of the cooled 150-ml beaker and the solid.
13. Cleanup and Disposal:
a. Make sure the hot plate is off and cool.
b. The dry solid can be placed in a waste container. Wet any residue that sticks to the
beaker and wipe it out using a paper towel. Pour the supernatant solution into a large
beaker in the fume hood.
c. Return all lab equipment to its proper place.
d. Wash your hands thoroughly after all lab work and cleanup is complete.
Observations/Data:
Data Table
Mass of empty 150-ml beaker (g)
Mass of 150-ml beaker + CuSO4 5H2O
(g)
Mass of CuSO4 ·5H2O (g)
Mass of iron filings (g)
Mass of 150-ml beaker and dried product
(g)
Mass of dried product (g)
Observations:

Student
1. List all the observations that serve as evidence that a chemical reaction occurred?
2. From your data, determine the mass of the copper produced.
3. Use the mass of copper to calculate the moles of copper produced.
4. Calculate the moles of iron used in the reaction.
5. Determine the whole number ratio of moles of iron to the moles of copper from your data
in steps 3 and 4.
6. Based on your result from part 5, write a chemical equation for the reaction that took
place.
7. Use the balanced chemical equation to calculate the mass of copper that should have
been produced from the sample of iron used: theoretical yield.
8. Use this number and the mass of copper you actually obtained (actual yield) to calculate
the percentage yield.
9. What was the source of any deviation from the mole ratio calculated?
10. How could the yield have been improved?
Conclusions:
1. Using mole ratios, determine the expected yield of copper metal if all the CuSO4.5H2O
had been consumed.
2. Use this answer and that of #7 to explain what reagent was the limiting reagent.
3. Using the terms oxidation and reduction to explain at the particle level the process that
occurred in the reaction.
4. How could reactions which involve the spontaneous transfer of electrons be used in a
practical way?
5. An internal combustion engine relies primarily on the efficient production of energy by the
combination of oxygen (O2) and gasoline (assume this is primarily octane, C8H18). Write
the chemical equation for this reaction and derive the exact ratio of oxygen to octane for
100% efficiency.
6. Automobile air bags inflate on impact because a series of gas-producing chemical
reactions are triggered. To be effective in saving lives, the bags must not overinflate or
underinflate. What factors must automotive engineers take into account in the design of
air bags?

Teacher
Hydrated Crystals
NGSSS:
To evaluate the relationship between mass and chemical change.
To derive the empirical formula of a hydrated salt using gravimetric analysis.

Quantify the relationship between mass and moles.
Write chemical formulas using the basic principle of chemical bonding.
Understand the differences between chemical and physical processes.
Understand the basic principle of the 1st law of thermodynamics.
Be able to compare briefly endothermic and exothermic changes.

Hotplates
Balance (preferably 2 decimal places)
Hydrated MgSO4.nH2O (Epsom salts)
crucible
crucible tongs
400-ml beaker

a. Review the principles of chemical bonding with the students.
b. Explain the differences between ionic and covalent bonding
c. Help students to visualize how water molecules are bonded to an ionic solid
to form a hydrate.
d. Have the students describe the ―phase‖ of the water in the hydrate- Is it a
solid or liquid? Why or why not?
Before
e. Introduce the coordinate covalent bonding briefly between the unit of the
activity:
salt and the molecules of water.
f. Demonstrate the safe and proper use of the hot plates, crucible and
crucible tongs.
g. Review the steps in measuring/calculating the mass and moles of the water
and the salt.
h. Explain how the data will be used to derive the empirical formula of the
hydrate.
During a. Supervise the safety precautions in handling the hot plates, crucibles and
activity: proper use of the crucible tongs.
b. Ask students if they observe any evidence of water leaving the hydrate
Teacher
c. Ask students to explain, ―What is the phase of the water molecules being
lost‖?
d. What part of the process is chemical? What part is physical?
e. Help the students evaluate and minimize the sources of error as they are
conducting the experiment.
a. Have students work in groups to answers the analysis questions.
b. Supervise the mathematical manipulations of data to ensure that students
understand the steps.
After
c. Help the students relate their observations to the calculated results.
activity:
d. As a whole class discussion format discuss all the analysis questions in the
student results.
e. Have students describe the energy changes taking place between the
atoms during the experiment.
Extension:
Gizmo: Stoichiometry

Student
Hydrated Crystals
NGSSS:
Background:
Hydrates are crystalline compounds with water molecules incorporated in their structure. The
ratio of moles of water to one mole of the compound is a whole number which can be
determined experimentally by heating the hydrate to remove the water. For example, in the
hydrated compound copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO 4·5H2O), the ratio is 5:1. There are 5
molecules of water for each formula unit of copper (II) sulfate. Once the water has been
removed from a hydrated compound, it has become anhydrous. The ions in the compound are
associated via ionic bonding. The atoms in water molecules are associated covalently. The ionic
compound and the covalent compound are associated by a coordinate covalent bond. The
overall structure can be viewed as an ionic compound. It can be thought that water is trapped
inside the ionic crystal lattice and heating the substance can provide the energy necessary to
liberate the water molecules.
The percentage error between the experimental and theoretical percentages of water in a
hydrate can be calculated using the following equation:

To evaluate the relationship between mass and chemical change.
To derive the empirical formula of a hydrated salt using gravimetric analysis.
Safety:
Always wear safety goggles and a lab apron
Hot objects will not appear to be hot.
Vocabulary: hydrates, anhydrous, gravimetric analysis, coordinate covalent bond, endothermic,

exothermic

Hot plate
Balance (preferably 2 decimal places)
Hydrated MgSO4.nH2O (Epsom salts)
Crucible
Crucible tongs
400 ml beaker

Student
Procedure:
1. Allow hot plate to warm up on the high setting.
2. Measure to the nearest 0.01 g the mass of a clean, dry crucible and record.
3. Add provided hydrated MgSO4 to the crucible and measure the mass of the crucible plus
hydrate to the nearest 0.01 g. Record the mass.
4. Observe and describe the properties of the solid hydrate before heating
5. Place the crucible with hydrate on the hot plate and cover with the large beaker.
6. After a few minutes write down what you observe happening inside the large beaker, and
then carefully remove the large beaker while wearing a hot mitt or with beaker tongs.
7. Continue heating the crucible and contents for a total of about 10 minutes.
8. Use the crucible tongs to remove the crucible from the hot plate, allow it to cool, and
determine the mass of crucible plus the anhydrous contents. Record this mass.
9. Reheat the crucible and contents for about 5 minutes, cool, and mass it again.
10. If these last two masses do not agree within 0.02g, you should reheat the crucible and
contents a third time.
11. Dispose of the MgSO4 according to your teacher‘s directions, and then clean the beakers
and crucible.
Observations/Data:
Table 1
Observations
Solid Hydrated MgSO4
Large beaker during initial heating
Solid Anhydrous MgSO4
Table 2
Mass Data
Mass of crucible
Mass of crucible + MgSO4 hydrate
Mass MgSO4 hydrate
Mass of crucible + anhydrous
MgSO4
Mass anhydrous MgSO4
Mass of water in MgSO4 hydrate
Percentage of Water
1. Calculate the percentage of water in the hydrated crystals of MgSO4 using your
experimental data.
2. Assuming that the correct formula for the hydrate is MgSO4 • 7H2O, calculate the
theoretical percentage of water in the hydrated crystals.

Student
3. Calculate your percentage error by comparing your experimental and theoretical

percentages of water in the hydrate.
Hydrate Formula
1. Calculate the moles of anhydrous MgSO4.
2. Calculate the moles of water removed from the hydrate by heating.
3. Determine the ratio of moles of water to moles of anhydrous MgSO4.
4. Using this ratio, give the experimentally determined, predicted formula for hydrated
MgSO4.
Conclusions:
1. Compare your observations of the hydrated and anhydrous crystals.
2. The method used in this experiment is not suitable for determining the percentage of
water in all hydrates. Explain why this may be so.
3. What might you observe if the anhydrous crystals were left uncovered overnight?
4. If you were to repeat this experiment, what would you change in order to decrease your
% error?
5. What if the hydrate was added to water, would this be a physical or chemical change?
Explain and represent the change in an equation.
6. If energy was added (endothermic change) to remove the water from the salt, then what
would happen energetically if water was added to the anhydrous salt? Explain.
7. Packets of the anhydrous form of a hydrate are sometimes used to keep cellars from
being damp. Is there a limit to how long a packet could be used?
8. Gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) is a mineral used for making wallboard for construction. The
mineral is stripped of three-quarters of its water of hydration in a process called
calcinning. Then, after mixing with water, it hardens to a white substance called plaster of
Paris. Infer what happens as calcinned gypsum becomes plaster of Paris.
9. How could the energetic processes involving a hydrate be used in a heat exchange
process?

Teacher
Changes of State
NGSSS:
changes.
SC.912.P.8.6 Distinguish between bonding forces holding compounds together and other
SC.912.P.10.5 Relate temperature to the average molecular kinetic energy.
Determine how the temperature changes as water changes state.
Understand the role of energy as an agent of change at the particle level.
Given a heating/ cooling curve for a substance, name each phase corresponding to the
curve.

Represent with a particle level model the difference between solid, liquid and gas, and
the vocabulary used to describe those changes.
Understand that temperature is determined by the movement of particles (kinetic or more
specific thermal energy)
Understand how energy is transferred through conduction.

Ice
Beaker (400 ml)
Thermometer
Stirring rod
Timer (s.)
Hot plate or Bunsen burner
Optional-Graphing calculator/CBL/temperature probes or any other digital hand-held
device(increases accuracy and instant feedback of the changes occurring)

a. Review particle diagrams for each phase of matter.
b. Discuss how the pattern of the particle diagrams corresponds to the
properties of matter at the macroscopic level.
c. Ask students what explains the rigidity of solids, and the fluidity of liquids
and gases. Lead students to infer the ―stickiness‖ or forces of attraction
Before
between the particles for each model.
activity:
d. Review student prior knowledge on terminology used for changes of state
of matter (i.e., condensation, evaporation, fusion, deposition, etc.)
e. Introduce the purpose of the lab activity, to measure the temperature as it
changes from solid to liquid to gas.
f. Have the students predict the shape of the line in a temperature vs. time
graph.

Teacher

a. Monitor data collection and engage each group by probing their
understanding of what is occurring at the particle level.
b. Ensure that students are completing the guiding questions provided in the
―Student Lab Guide‖ as they are collecting data. Focus on their particle
diagram for accurate modeling. Students tend to draw at the macroscopic
During
level, remind them to draw what they cannot see (microscopic level) but
activity:
they infer.
c. If students are working with a Bunsen burner make sure that proper safety
procedures are followed. If hot plates are used, maintain a low temperature
during the melting phase after this phase change the temperature can then
be increased.
d. Remind students that stirring is needed only during the melting phase.
a. Make sure that each student has a heating curve completed.
b. Discuss how their final graph compares to their initial predictions.
c. Have the students divide their graphs into regions as follows:
1. a low temperature plateau
2. a region of temperature change
3. a high temperature plateau
d. Use probing questions below to have students analyze what is occurring at
each region of the graph.
1. During the melting phase, why is the temperature not changing even
though the beaker is on the hot plate? Have students explain what is
happening at the particle level in this region; are the particles moving
faster?
2. After establishing that the particles are not changing their average
speed and observing that temperature remains constant, ask: How is
After
the energy being used? The idea is to have students conclude that the
activity:
energy is acting to overcome the attractive forces thus leading to the
melting process.
3. Have students look at the next region of the graph and relate the
temperature change to the behavior of the particles and the increase in
kinetic energy.
4. Have the students compare and contrast the two plateaus in their graph.
Ask students which process would be expected to require more energy,
solid to liquid or liquid to vapor, and provide explanations for their
answers.
5. Have students extend (extrapolate) on their graph the regions when
water is all in the solid state and all in gaseous state. Students can use
ΔT = 0 or ΔT >0 for the different regions of their graph.
6. Note: A good rule for students to remember is that when you have 2
phases present, the temperature is constant, but when you have only 1
phase the temperature could be changing.
Extension:
Gizmo: Phase Changes

Student
Changes of State
NGSSS:
changes.
Background: Matter can be found in three different states, solids, liquids, and gases. (There
are other states of matter that will not be addressed in this lab). In a solid, the particles are
attracted to each other strongly which makes them keep their shape and be rigid. In a liquid,
particles are attracted more loosely and this allows them to move pass one another and be fluid.
In a gas, the attraction between particles is very small and particles move around bouncing into
one another and into the walls of the container. Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy
of the particles in a system. The higher the temperature, the more energy of motion the particles
have.
Determine how the temperature changes as water changes state.
Understand the role of energy as an agent of change at the particle level.
Given a heating/ cooling curve for a substance name each phase corresponding to the
curve.
Safety:
Use hot mitts to handle hot plates.
Vocabulary: temperature, states of matter, kinetic energy, potential energy , melting (fusion),
freezing, evaporation, condensation, temperature change (ΔT), heating/cooling curve

Ice
Beaker (400 ml)
Thermometer
Stirring rod
Timer (sec)
Hot plate or Bunsen burner
Optional-Graphing calculator/CBL/temperature probes or any other electronic hand-held
device (increases accuracy and instant feedback of the changes occurring)
Procedures:
1. Turn your hot plate to medium setting (or as recommended by your teacher) and allow a
few minutes for the plate to heat up.
2. Add ice (preferably crushed) to the 400ml beaker (half filled is enough).
3. Measure the initial temperature of the water in ºC and record in Table 1.
Student
4. Place the beaker on the hot plate and record the temperature every 30s. Carefully stir the
ice 5 seconds before taking temperature readings. Do not allow the thermometer to touch
the bottom of the beaker when recording the temperature.
5. When the water starts boiling, continue recording the temperature every 30 seconds for
an additional three minutes. Extend Table 1 as needed to record your data.
Observations/Data Analysis: As you perform the experiment, make your observations and
analyze your data completing the ―Student Lab Guide‖.
Conclusion: Summarize the scientific principles that you discovered in this lab using the
following terms:
temperature
states of matter
kinetic energy
potential energy
melting (fusion)
freezing
evaporation
condensation
temperature change (ΔT)
heating/cooling curve

Student
Changes of State Lab – Student Lab Guide
1. In the following graph sketch your prediction of what will happen to the temperature of the
system as you start heating it. Include any relevant temperatures.
2. Explain your reasoning behind your prediction:

3. Keep track of your data using a table similar to the one below:
Table 1- Temperature vs. Time

Time (s) Temperature (ºC)
Initial
30 s
60 s
90 s
4. Start heating the beaker. As you heat the beaker while stirring constantly, what is
happening to the temperature of the system?
5. What phase(s) are present in the beaker?
6. Using the boxes below, draw at the particle level the changes occurring as the ice melts

Student
7. What happens to the kinetic energy of the system as the ice is melting? Why?
8. When all the ice has melted, what happens to the temperature of the system? What
phase (s) is (are) present in the beaker?
9. Using the boxes below, draw at the particle level the changes occurring as the water
heats up
10. What happens to the kinetic energy of the system as the water is heating? Why?
11. When the water starts boiling, what happens to the temperature of the system? What
phase (s) is (are) present in the beaker?
12. Using the boxes below, draw at the particle level the changes occurring as the water boils
13. What happens to the kinetic energy of the system as the water is boiling? Why?
14. After 4 minutes of boiling, sketch the graph that you obtained as you collected data.

Student
15. How is the curve you obtained different from your prediction?
16. On the graph above, divide your heating curve into three sections. For each section, of
the graph, state what phases were present in:
a. a low temperature plateau?
b. an area of temperature change?
c. a high temperature plateau?
Conclusion: Summarize the scientific principles that you discovered in this lab using the
following terms:
temperature
states of matter
kinetic energy
potential energy
melting (fusion)
freezing
evaporation
condensation
temperature change (ΔT)
heating/cooling curve

Teacher
Bonding: Conductivity and Solubility
NGSSS:
SC.912.L.18.12 Discuss the special properties of water that contribute to Earth's suitability as
an environment for life: cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon
freezing, and versatility as a solvent.
Identify the types of bonding (ionic, covalent, metallic) by investigating conductivity and
solubility of substances.
Visualize how atoms, ions and molecules interact with each other at the particle level to
account for the behavior at the macro level.
Prerequisite:
Students should have a basic model of atomic structure which includes the electrical
nature of atoms. The existence of a negative mobile particle, the electron, and a positive
stationary particle, the proton, is necessary for this activity. When the amount of protons
and electrons is equal, the atom is neutral.
Students should be able to visualize that there is a force of attraction between unlike
charges and repulsion between like charges.
Students know that electricity is the flow of the mobile negative particles through a
medium which will allow this flow.
Students should have a view of the dissolving process such as water being able separate
the molecules of a solid by overcoming the attractions the molecules feel towards each
other
Materials:
small beakers or cups (100 ml or less)
distilled water (~100 ml)
wash bottle filled with distilled water
stirring rod
1 cm2 of Aluminum foil
a penny
rubbing alcohol (isopropyl alcohol - 10ml)
Approximately 1 g of the following:
o sucrose (table sugar)
o NaCl (table salt)
o SiO2 (sand)
o Candle wax
o CaCl2 (calcium chloride)
o CuSO4 (copper II sulfate)
Teacher
Conductivity Apparatus: From Sciencenter -
http://www.sciencenter.org/chemistry/d/carryingcharges.pdf
o tape
o 9-V battery
o battery clip
o bare wire leads
o resistor
o LED or buzzer
o wood backing.(tongue depressor)
Additional Materials Needed to build Apparatus:

o Scissors
o Wire stripper
o Tape solder
o 1 nail
o Candle wax or soldering iron
o Pliers
o Matches
Note: Teacher may opt to use commercially available conductivity testers. Materials for
construction of student-made apparatus can be obtained at local hobby/electrical supply
stores.

a. You can choose to build the conductivity tester in advanced or have
students build them using the materials listed. These testers can be used in
subsequent years once built.
b. Begin the activity by reviewing some of the prerequisites for the activity
Before mentioned above. Remind students that solids keep their shape due to the
activity: attractions that the atoms or molecules feel towards each other. This
attraction comes from the internal structure of the atom and the charge
associated with protons and electrons. When a solid dissolves the particles
are separated by the solvent making them too small to see. Also remind
students that electricity occurs when electrons are able to flow freely
through a medium.
Teacher
c. Pose the question to students if they think that electricity can flow through a
liquid. Most of them are aware that it is dangerous to be in water when
electrical equipment is around. However, pure water is actually a poor
conductor. Tap water on the other hand is a better conductor due to the
presence of dissolved solids.
d. Tell students that they will be testing solubility and conductivity of different
materials and writing down their observations.
e. Give each group a set of materials, a conductivity tester and tell them to
test for solubility and conductivity. The solids should be tested for
conductivity before and after dissolving them.
f. Review the data table students are to complete and answer any questions
students may have on the procedure
a. Supervise students as they perform their investigation. As you visit
separate groups, engage their thinking with some of the following
questions: (Resist giving them the answer until the whole class discussion
During at the end of the lab)
activity: 1. why they think that some solids dissolve and some do not.
2. why some substances conduct electricity once they dissolve but not
when solid
3. why some substances do not conduct as a solid or in solution
b. Make sure students collect data and fill out their data table correctly
a. Once students have collected all their data, bring the class together for
class discussion
b. Address the fact that substances that are not soluble in water have particles
which are attracting to each other so strongly that water cannot break them
apart. In this experiment, the only substances that will do this are the two
metals (Al and Cu), the sand and the wax.
c. Distinguish the wax and sand from the metals with the conductivity test.
The wax and sand do not conduct while the metals do. Conclude that
metals are insoluble (strong bonds) and conduct electricity. They are also
shiny and good conductors of heat. These are the characteristics of
metallic bonding. Because metals can conduct it implies that the atoms
After allow electrons to flow through them easily. Explain to the class that metals
activity: tend to have high melting and boiling points thanks to the strength of the
metallic bonds.
d. Sugar, salt, copper sulfate, and calcium chloride all dissolved which means
that water is able to break their structure apart. After testing the
conductivity, sugar does not conduct while the three other do. In the
conductivity tester there are electrons on one lead trying to flow to the other
lead (forced by the difference in potential in the battery). Copper sulfate,
calcium chloride and sodium chloride are able to ―ferry‖ the electrons from
one lead to the other. This happens because these solids break up into
oppositely charged particles or ions. These substances are considered
ionic. In the solid state these substances do not conduct because the ions
are locked in place in the crystal lattice. In solution, the ions can flow freely
and take electrons back and forth. Sugar is not able to conduct electricity
Teacher
because when sugar dissolves it breaks into neutral clusters of atoms

named molecules. These neutral clusters are not able to transport
electrons because they have equal attraction and repulsion to these
electrons. Within the molecules they exhibit covalent bonding.
e. Have students notice that most ionic substances are composed of a metal
and non-metal atom. Most molecular compounds are composed of non-
metals only.
f. Tell them that covalent compounds have very strong intramolecular forces
and weak intermolecular forces
g. Define each one of the types of bonding based on properties, give
examples of other substances which exhibit the same characteristics.
Extension:
Gizmo: Solubility and Temperature

Student
Bonding: Conductivity and Solubility
NGSSS:
SC.912.L.18.12 Discuss the special properties of water that contribute to Earth's suitability as
an environment for life: cohesive behavior, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon
freezing, and versatility as a solvent.
Background: Recall that solids are able to keep their shape due to the force of attraction
between the particles that compose it. This attraction comes from the internal structure of the
atom which includes positive protons and negative electrons. Opposite charges attract and like
charges repel. Electricity occurs when electrons are able to flow through a substance. Materials
which allow electrons to flow are called conductors and those that do not insulators. If a solid
can dissolve in water it is said to be soluble and this occurs because the solvent (water in this
case) can separate the particles of the solid.
Purpose:
To classify substances based on their properties of solubility and conductivity.
To develop a particle level model to account for the differences in properties of solubility
and conductivity.
Safety:
Always wear safety goggles.
Use conductivity tester only for described activities.
Vocabulary: Conductivity, solubility, insulator, electrolyte, non-electrolyte, ions, metallic

bonding, covalent bonding, ionic bonding, covalent network.

Conductivity apparatus Approximately 0.5 g of the
small beakers or cups (100 ml or following:
less) o sucrose (table sugar)
distilled water (~100 ml) o NaCl (table salt)
wash bottle filled with distilled water o SiO2 (sand)
stirring rod o Candle wax
1 cm2 of Al foil o CaCl2 (calcium chloride)
a penny o CuSO4 (copper (II) sulfate)
rubbing alcohol (isopropyl) (10ml)
Procedure:
1. Conductivity- Use conductivity apparatus to test the conductivity of all substances
before making any solutions. Be sure to keep the wire test probes apart. Record your
Student
results in the second column of Table 1. Rinse and dry the paper clip probes with distilled
water between each test.
2. Solubility- Take ~1 g of each solid substance, place it in the small beaker or cup and try
to dissolve it with ~10 ml of distilled water. Record your results in the third column of
Table 1.
3. Conducts when dissolved- If the substance dissolves in water, test the solution with the
conductivity apparatus. Make sure to keep the probes apart. Enter your results in the final
column of Table 1. If a substance did not dissolve enter NO in this column.
Observations/Data:
Table 1: Test Results
Original
Substance Solution
substance
Substances dissolves? conducts?
conducts?
Yes/No Yes/No
Yes/No
Al (s) - Aluminum foil
C12H22O11(s)
Sucrose (sugar)
C20H42 (s) candle (wax)
C3H8O (l) isopropyl alcohol
CaCl2 (s) calcium chloride
Cu (s) -- Copper
CuSO4 (s) -- Copper sulfate
H2O (l) -- Distilled water N/A N/A

NaCl (s) salt -- Sodium
chloride
SiO2 (s), sand -- Silicon
dioxide
1. Group the substances that have the same characteristics. Which groups did you form?
2. From each group that you assembled, look at the similarities and differences between
atoms that make up the substances. Describe the similarities and differences that you
detected.
Conclusion:
1. Explain at the particle level why some substances dissolve in water while others do not.
2. Some substances dissolved and conducted electricity while others dissolved but did not
conduct electricity. What are solutions that conduct electricity called?
Student
3. Explain at the particle level how some solutions can conduct electricity while others
cannot.
4. Based on the 3 types of bonding discussed (metallic, ionic, covalent) assign the
appropriate one to each substance tested.
5. Using a 3 column chart, compare and contrast ionic, covalent and metallic bonding.
6. What is a covalent network? What substance in this experiment is considered a covalent
network? Name at least another substance that exhibits this type of arrangement.

Teacher
Solubility Curve of KCl
NGSSS:
changes.
SC.912.P.12.11 Describe phase transitions in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
To study the effect of temperature on solubility
To understand the process of solubility and saturation at the particle level
To experimentally construct a solubility curve
To use a solubility curve to find the solubility of a solute at different temperatures
Prerequisite: Students should have clear model on how the solution process works. Most
important is for them to realize that solids dissolve and disappear from view as the particles of
the solid are separated by the solvent. Students should also know that temperature is a
measure of the kinetic energy of the particles in a system. Basic laboratory safety and
techniques are expected due to the nature of this experiment.

potassium chloride (KCl) test tube (18X150 mm)
distilled water utility clamp
balance glass stirring rod
evaporating dish (or 100-ml beaker) thermometer or temperature probes
25-ml graduated cylinder funnel
watch glass cotton wadding
250 or 400 ml beaker tongs &/or hot mitts
hot plate or burner with ring stand, 2 graph paper
rings & wire gauze

a. Gather all materials and set up the students into groups
b. Ask students about their experience with solutions. Sugar in lemonade or
iced tea is usually an event most students are familiar with.
c. Introduce the difference in solubility at different temperatures by asking
Before
whether more sugar will dissolve in hot tea or iced tea.
activity:
d. Explain the procedure to students
e. Assign a different temperature to each group (i.e., room temperature, 30
o
C, 40 oC, 50 oC, 60 oC, 70 oC, 80 oC, and 90 oC). Adjust temperature
assignment according to the number of groups. Warn students not to allow
the water bath to boil.
During What the teacher will do:
activity: a. Make sure students are working safely and diligently.
Teacher
b. The most difficult part of this lab is to keep the temperature of the water
bath constant. Assist students with this task and make sure that they are
reading the thermometers correctly.
c. Visit each group individually and ask them questions about what steps they
are completing and why.
d. Point out to students that given the initial amount of KCl added (about 10
grams) they should not expect all the salt to ever dissolve. Ask them if they
expect the amount of solute dissolved in the solvent to be constant at
different temperatures and why.
e. Set up a space in the room for groups to post their results. The quality of
the graph will depend on the individual group results so great care must be
taken if good results are desired.
a. Students should gather data from the whole class and construct their
solubility curve
b. After all groups build their graph, bring them together for a whole class
discussion and analysis of results
c. The class discussion should have two main goals: First, to help students
develop a particle level model of solubility and how temperature affects it.
Second, for students to know how to read their chart and answer questions
such as the ones in the conclusion section of the student procedure.
d. Have students explain orally how water dissolves KCl. They should say that
in the solid state, the ions of potassium and chlorine are attracting each
other in a crystal lattice structure. All the ions together amount to a visible
quantity of salt. When water is added the water molecules surround the
ions and separate them from the lattice. Now the ions are in the aqueous
state and invisible.
e. Once this is established, ask why temperature affects this process. Lead
students to see that at higher temperatures the water molecules have more
After energy and are moving faster. At the same time, the potassium chloride
activity: lattice has more energy as well. The extra energy makes is easier for the
water molecules to separate the potassium and chloride ions. Therefore,
fewer water molecules are needed to separate the particles and the amount
of solute dissolved increases.
f. Turn now to the analysis of the solubility curve that the students produced.
Ask students what the solubility line represents. This is the combination of
temperature and amount of solute at saturation. Below the line the solution
is unsaturated. Above the line the solution is saturated and there are visible
undissolved solids. One of the conclusion questions addresses
extrapolation of the curve by asking students for solubility at temperatures
outside of the range of data collected. Students may have difficulty
understanding how the units in the vertical axis in the chart. The units are
grams of solute (KCl) per 100 grams of solvent (water). A question in the
student section addresses this understanding by checking on other
amounts of solvent. Another question in the conclusion section addresses
calculating how much solute precipitates if a solution is cooled down. Feel
free to add more questions such as this which enforce graphical analysis.
g. Two extension questions are given at the end for students to apply their
Teacher
understanding of the situation to real life applications. One deals with the
solubility of gases - carbon dioxide in soda. The question begins by telling
students that the opposite trend is observed when dealing with the solubility
of gases. Explain to students that gases would rather escape the liquid and
they are lightly attracted to the solvent particles. Increasing the temperature
will help the particles escape the attraction and leave the liquid phase.
Extension:
Gizmo: Solubility and Temperature

Student
Solubility Curve of KCl
NGSSS:
changes.
Background: A homogeneous mixture of a solute in a solvent is called a solution. If the solute

is originally a solid, the solvent is able to separate the particles of the solid to the point that the
solid disappears from view. An unsaturated solution is capable of dissolving additional solute
for a given amount of solvent because there are free solvent molecules available to do the
dissolving. Molecules of the solvent surround particles of the solute as they separate them.
When all the solvent particles are ―busy‖ surrounding solute particles no more solute can
dissolve. This is called a saturated solution. Any additional solute added to a saturated solution
will collect on the bottom of the container and remain undissolved. Think of adding sugar to
lemonade. At the beginning all the sugar will dissolve but at some point no more sugar will
dissolve and the extra sugar just sits in the bottom. The amount of solute that can be dissolved
in a given amount of solvent at a specific temperature and pressure is defined as the solubility of
the solute. Solubility is dependent upon temperature. You can dissolve more sugar in hot
lemonade than in cold lemonade. In this activity, you will determine the solubility of a salt at
different temperatures and will plot a solubility curve for the solute.
To determine the solubility of a solute, potassium chloride (KCl), in water as the
temperature of the solution is changed.
Safety:
Never taste any substance used in the lab.
Test tube and evaporating dish may be cause burns
Use caution around hot items.
Vocabulary: Solubility, solution, saturated, unsaturated, homogeneous, solubility curve,

supersaturated.

potassium chloride watch glass utility clamp
(KCl) 250 or 400 ml glass stirring rod
distilled water beaker thermometer
balance hot plate or burner funnel
evaporating dish (or with ring stand, 2 cotton wadding
100-ml beaker) rings & wire gauze tongs &/or hot mitts
25-ml graduated test tube (18X150 graph paper
cylinder mm)

Student
Procedures:
1. Your teacher will assign your group a temperature between 20ºC and 90ºC.
2. Determine the mass of a clean, dry evaporating dish (or 100 ml beaker) with watch glass
cover. Set aside.
3. Fill the large 250 or 400 ml beaker with water ½ way and place on hot plate to heat.
4. Put 15 ml of distilled water in the test tube and add about 10 g of KCl. Immerse the test
tube in the large (250 ml) beaker.
5. Place the thermometer in the large beaker and heat the water until it reaches your
assigned temperature. Maintain this temperature for 10 minutes, stirring every few
minutes and rechecking the temperature.
6. Set up a funnel for filtering the solution, using a small wad of cotton instead of filter paper,
placing the previously weighed evaporating dish (or 100 ml beaker) below the funnel.
7. Remove the test tube from the water bath, being careful that any solid at the bottom of
the test tube is undisturbed. Decant about half of the solution into the funnel.
8. Weigh the evaporating dish, watch glass, cover and contents when filtering is complete.
9. Evaporate the water from the solution by heating rapidly at first and then more slowly.
Start the evaporation without the watch glass and then cover the evaporating dish with
the watch glass to prevent loss of KCl by spattering.
10. After the evaporating dish has cooled, measure the mass again. Reheat until the mass
changes by less than 0.02 g.
11. Cleanup and Disposal:
a. Turn off the hot plate and allow it to cool.
b. Make sure all glassware is cool before emptying the contents.
c. Dissolve all the KCl with plenty of water and flush down the drain
d. Return all lab equipment to its proper place.
e. Clean up your work area.
Observations/Data:
1. Record your data calculation answers in Table 1.
2. Record class data in Table 2
3. Make a line graph of the solubility of KCl in grams KCl/100 g water (Y-axis) versus the
temperature in ºC (X-axis).
Table 1 - Individual Group Data

Assigned Temperature
Mass of evaporating dish and cover
Mass of evaporating dish and cover plus KCl solution
Mass of KCl solution
Mass of evaporating dish and cover plus dry KCl
Mass of dry KCl
Mass of water that was in solution
Grams KCl in one g water
Grams KCl in 100 g water

Student
Table 2 - Class Data

Temperature (ºC) Mass of KCl per 100 g water
Conclusion:
1. Describe your findings on the effect of temperature on the solubility of KCl.
2. Explain, at the particle level, why changes in temperature affect solubility?
3. Using the plot you made, predict the solubility of KCl in water at 15°C and 95°C
4. A saturated solution of potassium chloride in 50 g of water at 70°C is cooled to 30°C.
How much solute will precipitate out of the solution?
5. If you wish to fully dissolve 500 grams of KCl in a liter of water, at what temperature
should the solution be?
6. In a dishwasher, the temperature of the water is very hot. Explain why it is better to use
hot water in a dishwasher rather than cold water.
7. Unlike solids for which solubility in a liquid generally increases with increasing
temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid usually decreases as the temperature
increases. Knowing this, explain why you should never heat a can containing a
carbonated soft drink.

Teacher
Determining the Percentage of Acetic Acid in a Vinegar Solution
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.8.8 Characterize types of chemical reactions, for example: redox, acid-base,
SC.912.P.8.11 Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and pH.
Purpose of Lab/Activity
Determine the end point of an acid-base titration
Calculate the molarity of acetic acid in vinegar
Calculate the percentage of acetic acid in vinegar.
Prerequisite: Prior to this activity, the student should be able to

Use the pH scale.
Identify and list some common acids and bases.
Explain the properties of acids and bases.

apron
goggles
10 ml graduated cylinder
24-well plate or 3 small beakers
phenolphthalein indicator
2.0 ml standardized 0.6 M NaOH
2.0 ml white vinegar
stirrer

a. Review the pH scale with the students.
b. Manipulate some examples of concentration and derivation of pH.
c. Use the expression MaVa α MbVb to derive the unknown volumes or
Before
concentrations.
activity:
d. Have students list some common bases and acids.
e. Review the relationships between volume, mass, density, moles, and
molarity.
f. Review the relationship between solute, solvent, and solution.
What the teacher will do
a. Monitor the proper technique for calibrating the pipets.
b. Make sure the students are not cross contaminating their instruments.
During
c. Ensure the students are keeping a track of their calculations as they
activity:
complete their titrations.
d. Make sure the students are following proper safety techniques for handling
chemicals.

Teacher

a. Ask the students, ―How was the end point determined in the chemical
reaction?‖
After b. Discuss the errors associated with the end point
activity: c. Have students discuss the differences between the equivalence point and
the end point.
d. Evaluate the sources of error in the calibration of the pipets and the
subsequent titration.
Extension:
Gizmo: pH Analysis, pH Analysis: Quad Color Indicator

Student
Determining the Percentage of Acetic Acid in a Vinegar Solution
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.8.8 Characterize types of chemical reactions, for example: redox, acid-base,
SC.912.P.8.11 Relate acidity and basicity to hydronium and hydroxyl ion concentration and pH.
Background Information:
Vinegar, which is naturally produced from the fermentation of apple cider in the absence of
oxygen, contains acetic acid (CH3COOH) at a concentration 4.0 to 5.5 %. The exact
concentration of acetic acid can be determined by titration with a standard base such as sodium
hydroxide. This can be done on a microscale as described below by counting drops of base
needed to neutralize the acid in vinegar, or on a larger scale with a standard 50 ml buret setup.
Purpose of Lab/Activity
Determine the end point of an acid-base titration
Calculate the molarity of acetic acid in vinegar
Calculate the percentage of acetic acid in vinegar.
Safety Precautions:
Wear safety goggles and a lab apron.
Do not touch chemicals
Vocabulary: titration, concentration, molarity, mol per liter, solution, solvent, solute, acid, base,
pH scale, hydronium and hydroxide ions.

apron
goggles
10 ml graduated cylinder
24-well plate or 3 small beakers
phenolphthalein indicator
2.0 ml standardized 0.6 M NaOH
2.0 ml white vinegar
stirrer
Procedures:
Calibrate pipet droppers:
1. Put about 5 ml of water in the 10 ml graduated cylinder and read the exact volume.
Record this reading in Data Table 1- Calibration Data.
2. Fill the pipet with water. Holding the pipet in a vertical position, transfer exactly 20 drops
of water to the graduated cylinder. Record the new volume in the graduated cylinder as
the final volume for trial 1.
3. The final volume for trial 1 will then be the Initial volume for trial 2 as 20 more drops are
added to the graduated cylinder.
4. Record the new final volume and repeat for a third trial.
Student
5. Mark this pipet as ―Acid‖.

6. Repeat steps 1 to 4 and mark the second pipet as ―Base‖.
7. Fill in the Data Table 1- Calibration Data with the Average Volume of 20 Drops and the
Average Volume Per Drop for both pipets.
Data Table 1 - Calibration Data

Acid Pipet Base Pipet
Trial
Initial Final ml added Initial Final ml added
1
2
3
Average
Volume of -- -- -- --
20 Drops
Average
Volume -- -- -- --
Per Drop
Titration:
1. Drain the water from the Acid pipet, rinse the Acid pipet with vinegar, and discard this
vinegar. Then fill the pipet with fresh vinegar.
2. Hold the pipet vertically and add 20 drops of vinegar and 1 drop of phenolphthalein to 3
wells of the well plate or to the 3 small beakers.
3. Drain the water from the Base pipet, rinse the Base pipet with NaOH solution, and
discard this rinse solution. Then fill the pipet with fresh NaOH solution.
4. Hold the Base pipet vertically and add NaOH solution drop by drop to one well or beaker
with gentle swirling after each drop is added. Continue adding drops of NaOH solution
until the pink phenolphthalein color remains for 30 s. Record the number of drops of
NaOH added in the Titration Data Table.
5. Repeat step 4 with the 2 other 20-drop vinegar samples refilling the NaOH pipet if
necessary. Record the observed number of drops in the Data Table 2- Titration.
6. Cleanup: Clean all equipment used and dispose of the chemicals as directed by your
teacher. Wash your hands.
Data Table 2 - Titration

Number of Drops Added Volume Added (ml)
Trial
Vinegar NaOH Vinegar NaOH
1
2
3
1. Calculate the volumes of vinegar and NaOH for each trial and record in Data Table 2-
Titration. Show your calculations.
Student
2. From the molarity of the standardized NaOH solution (provided by your teacher) calculate
the number of moles of NaOH used to neutralize the acetic acid in each trial. Show work.
3. Write the balanced equation for the neutralization of acetic acid by sodium hydroxide.
4. From the calculations in steps 2 and 3, and the mole ratio from the balanced equation of
#3 above, calculate the number of moles of acetic acid neutralized by NaOH each trial.
Show work.
5. From the moles of acetic calculated in #4 and the volumes of vinegar used in each trial,
calculate the molarities of acetic acid in each trial, then average your results.
6. Calculate the molar mass of acetic acid, CH3COOH.
7. Using your average molarity of acetic acid in vinegar (#5), calculate the mass of acetic
acid in 100 ml (0.100 L) of vinegar. Hint: Find the mass of acetic acid in 1L and then the
mass in 100 ml.
8. Assume that the density of vinegar is close to 1.00 g/ml, so that the mass of 100 ml of
vinegar will be 100.g. Determine the percentage of acetic acid in your sample of vinegar.
Conclusion:
1. Why was phenolphthalein used in each titration? Could you have done your titrations
without phenolphthalein?
2. How could the end point have been determined more accurately?
3. Why does the titrated mixture have to be stirred vigorously to ensure greater accuracy?
4. Why were you instructed to hold the pipets in a vertical position when you used them?
5. What if the pipet was not rinsed with the standard, NaOH before it was used to titrate the
acid solution, what effect would it have had on the % by volume?
6. How does a company producing vinegar solution ensure that the concentration is
accurate enough?
7. How does fermentation of apple cider result in the production of an acid?
8. Describe some other fermentation processes that are useful biochemically?

Teacher
Energy Content of Foods and Fuels
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.10.1 Differentiate among the various forms of energy and recognize that they can be
transformed from one form to others.
SC.912.P.10.2 Explore the Law of Conservation of Energy by differentiating among open,
closed, and isolated systems and explain that the total energy in an isolated system is a
conserved quantity.
SC.912.P.10.7 Distinguish between endothermic and exothermic chemical processes.
Determine the energy content of foods and fuels and compare to standard values.
Understand how energy is produced from chemical reactions that take place all around
us.
To evaluate the efficacy of experimental set ups for energy measurements

Distinguish between potential and kinetic energy.
Be able to relate the energy stored to the interactions between atoms.
Relate the law of conservation of energy and matter to metabolic processes in living
matter.
Be familiar with the units used for energy and to apply basic heating calculations
Be able to discuss that combustion reactions occur between organic compounds and
oxygen.
Be able to write balanced chemical equations for various chemical processes.

Lab Pro or CBL 2 system* *graph paper (instead of
TI graphing calculator* probe/CBL/TI calculator)
Temperature probe* utility clamp and slit stopper
DataMate program
2 Food samples 2 Stirring rods
food holder (paper clip + foil) ring stand and 4-inch ring
wooden splint 100-ml Graduated cylinder
candle (large diameter) soda can
aluminum foil squares cold water
*thermometer (instead of matches
probe/CBL/TI calculator)
goggles
*thermometer and graph paper (instead of probe/CBL/TI calculator)

a. Bring up the concept of energy with the students. In previous activities
Before energy is defined as a quantity which is responsible for change in a system.
activity: Bring relevance to the concept by explaining that the human body also
needs energy to function and change. Ask students where the energy they
eat comes from. The easily connect that this energy comes from the food
Teacher
they eat.
b. Ask the class how the energy is stored in food. They should conclude that
energy is stored as chemical potential in the molecules of food. Bring to
their attention that a chemical reaction needs to occur for that energy to
become useful in our bodies. Remind them that a chemical reaction means
a rearranging of the atoms of reactants to form products.
c. Ask students what the food we eat react with in our bodies? The idea is for
them to realize that the oxygen we breathe is also use in this process of
respiration. If the food reacts with oxygen in our bodies, it can also react
with oxygen outside. Demonstrate how food can catch on fire and release
energy.
d. Have students briefly distinguish the caloric differences between various
food groups.
e. Familiarize the students with the proper use of the technology used for this
lab and with the overall procedure.
a. Monitor the proper use of the technology
b. Supervise the construction of the food holder and the set up used.
During
c. Ask the students to discuss the change in potential energy and kinetic
activity:
energy and how they are related to each other.
d. Ask students if they feel that all the energy of the reaction is going into
heating the water or if some is going somewhere else.
a. Summarize the differences between the fuel values of the various chemical
groups.
b. Make sure the students have manipulated their calculations correctly.
c. Help the students interpret their data properly
d. Students should compare the values obtained from their experiment with
After the values in the food labels. They should be greatly smaller. This is
activity: because of the low quality of the experimental setup which allows for a high
percentage of the energy to be dissipated. Discuss with them how the
results are going to be tied to how much energy is received by the water in
the can. Ask students to come up with ideas on how this problem can be
eliminated. If no good ideas come up, explain to them the concept of a
bomb calorimeter which submerges the reaction in water so that all the
energy released goes into the water as opposed to the air around it.
Extension:
Gizmo: Calorimetry Lab

Student
Energy Content of Food and Fuels
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.10.1 Differentiate among the various forms of energy and recognize that they can be
transformed from one form to others.
SC.912.P.10.2 Explore the Law of Conservation of Energy by differentiating among open,
closed, and isolated systems and explain that the total energy in an isolated system is a
conserved quantity.
Background: All human activity requires ―burning‖ food and fuel for energy. The energy is
originally stored in the food as chemical potential energy. This energy is released when atoms
rearrange in chemical reactions. In this experiment, you will determine the energy released (in
kJ/g) as various foods and fuels burn such as cashews, marshmallows, peanuts, popcorn,
paraffin wax, and ethanol. You will look for patterns in the amounts of energy released during
burning of the different foods and fuels.
Determine the energy content of foods and fuels and compare to standard values.
Understand how energy is produced from chemical reactions that take place all around
us.
Safety:
Tie back hair and secure loose bulky clothing while working near a flame.
Note: If anyone is allergic to nuts, you can substitute with potato chips or other snack
food
Vocabulary: Exothermic and endothermic processes, enthalpy change diagrams, chemical

potential energy, kinetic energy. Fuel value and caloric content.

Lab Pro or CBL 2 system* 2 Stirring rods
TI graphing calculator* ring stand and 4-inch ring
Temperature probe*
DataMate program 100-ml Graduated cylinder
2 Food samples soda can
food holder (paper clip + foil) cold water
wooden splint matches
candle (large diameter) goggles
aluminum foil squares
utility clamp and slit stopper
*thermometer and graph paper (instead of probe/CBL/TI calculator)

Student
Part A: Energy Content of Foods

Procedures:
1. Obtain and wear goggles and a lab apron. Tie back long hair and secure loose fitting
clothes.
2. The following procedure will focus on the use of a temperature sensor and CBL or
LabPro interface.
Note: A low-tech approach using a thermometer and a stop watch is also possible
using this procedure. However, students will have to record the data by hand
directly from the thermometer.
3. Plug the Temperature Probe into Channel 1 of the LabPro or CBL 2 interface. Use the
link cable to connect the TI Graphing Calculator to the interface. Firmly press in the cable
ends.
4. Turn on the calculator and start the DATAMATE program. Press CLEAR to reset the
program.
5. Set up the calculator and interface for the Temperature Probe.
a. Select SETUP from the main screen.
b. If the calculator displays a Temperature Probe in CH 1, proceed directly to Step 5. If it
does not, continue with this step to set up your sensor manually.
c. Press ENTER to select CH 1.
d. Select TEMPERATURE from the SELECT SENSOR menu.
e. Select the Temperature Probe you are using (in °C) from the TEMPERATURE menu.
6. Set up the data-collection mode.
a. To select MODE, press once and press ENTER .
b. Select TIME GRAPH from the SELECT MODE menu.
c. Select CHANGE TIME SETTINGS from the TIME GRAPH SETTINGS menu.
d. Enter ―6‖ as the time between samples in seconds.
e. Enter ―100‖ as the number of samples. The length of the data collection will be 10
minutes.
f. Select OK to return to the setup screen.
g. Select OK again to return to the main screen.
7. Obtain a piece of one of the two foods assigned to you and a food holder. To make the
food holder shape the paper clips into a small tripod and place on a piece of aluminum
foil. Find and record in Data Table 1 the initial mass of the food sample and food holder.
8. Determine and record the mass of an empty can. Add 50 ml of cold water to the can.
Determine and record in the mass of the can and water.
9. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1. Use a ring and stirring rod to suspend the can
about 2.5 cm (1 inch) above the food sample. Use a utility clamp to suspend the
Temperature Probe (or thermometer) in the water. The probe (or thermometer) should
not touch the bottom of the can. Remember: The Temperature Probe must be in the
water for at least 30 seconds before you do Step 10.
10. Select START to begin collecting data. Record the initial temperature of the water, T1, in
your data table (round to the nearest 0.1°C). Note: You can monitor temperature in the
upper-right corner of the real-time graph displayed on the calculator screen. Remove the
food sample from under the can and use a wooden splint to light it. Quickly place the
burning food sample directly under the center of the can. Allow the water to be heated
until the food sample stops burning. CAUTION: Keep hair and clothing away from open
flames.
Student
11. If using a thermometer, record a temperature every 15 seconds. At first, the temperature
will increase until it reaches a maximum and then it will decrease. The most important
data points are the initial (T1) and highest temperature (T2)
12. Continue stirring the water until the temperature stops rising. Record this maximum
temperature, T2. Data collection will stop after 10 minutes (or press the STO key to stop
before 10 minutes has elapsed).
13. Determine and record the final mass of the food sample and food holder.
14. To confirm the initial (T1) and final (T2) values you recorded earlier, examine the data
points along the curve on the displayed graph. As you move the cursor right or left, the
time (X) and temperature (Y) values of each data point are displayed below the graph.
15. Press ENTER to return to the main screen. Select START to repeat the data collection for
the second food sample. Use a new 50-ml portion of cold water. Repeat Steps 7-14.
16. When you are done, place burned food, used matches, and partially-burned wooden
splints in the container provided by the teacher.
Figure 1
Observations/Data:
1. Find the mass of water heated for each sample and record in Data Table 1.
2. Find the change in temperature of the water, ∆T, for each sample and record in Data
Table 1.

Student
Data Table 1 - Group Results

Food type Amounts
Initial mass of food and holder g g
Final mass of food and holder g g
Mass of food burned g g
Mass of can and water g g
Mass of empty can g g
Mass of water heated g g
Final temperature, T2 °C °C
Initial temperature, T1 °C °C
Temperature change, ∆T °C °C
Heat, q kJ kJ
Energy content in kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g
1. Calculate the heat absorbed by the water, q, using the equation q = Cp•m•∆t where q is
heat, Cp is the specific heat capacity, m is the mass of water, and ∆T is the change in
temperature. For water, Cp is 4.18 J/g °C. Change your final answer to kJ.
2. Find the mass (in g) of each food sample burned.
3. Use the results of Steps 3 and 4 to calculate the energy content (in kJ/g) of each food
sample.
4. Record your results and the results of other groups in Data Table 2.
Data Table 2 - Class Results

Marshmallows Peanuts Cashews Popcorn
kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g
kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g
kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g
kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g
kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g
Average Results for each food type:

Marshmallows Peanuts Cashews Popcorn
kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g kJ/g

Student
Conclusion:
1. Which food had the highest energy content? The lowest energy content?
2. Food energy is often expressed in a unit called a Calorie. There are 4.18 kJ in one
Calorie. Based on the class average for peanuts, calculate the number of Calories in a
50-g package of peanuts.
3. Using the food label determine the caloric content of each food and compare with your
results. Explain what factors in the experimental design account for this difference.
4. Two of the foods in the experiment have a high fat content (peanuts and cashews) and
two have high carbohydrate content (marshmallows and popcorn). From your results,
what generalization can you make about the relative energy content of fats and
carbohydrates?
Part B: Energy Content of Fuels

Procedures:
1. Obtain and wear goggles.
2. The following procedure will focus on the use of a temperature sensor and CBL or
LabPro interface. A low-tech approach using a thermometer and a stop watch is also
possible using this procedure. However, students will have to record the data by hand
directly from the thermometer.
3. Plug the Temperature Probe into Channel 1 of the LabPro or CBL 2 interface. Use the
link cable to connect the TI Graphing Calculator to the interface. Firmly press in the cable
ends.
4. Turn on the calculator and start the DATAMATE program. Press CLEAR to reset the
program.
5. Set up the calculator and interface for the Temperature Probe.
a. Select SETUP from the main screen.
b. If the calculator displays a Temperature Probe in CH 1, proceed directly to Step 5. If it
does not, continue with this step to set up your sensor manually.
c. Press ENTER to select CH 1.
d. Select TEMPERATURE from the SELECT SENSOR menu.
e. Select the Temperature Probe you are using (in °C) from the TEMPERATURE menu.
6. Set up the data-collection mode.
a. To select MODE, press once and press ENTER .
b. Select TIME GRAPH from the SELECT MODE menu.
c. Select CHANGE TIME SETTINGS from the TIME GRAPH SETTINGS menu.
d. Enter ―6‖ as the time between samples in seconds.
e. Enter ―100‖ as the number of samples. The length of the data collection will be 10
minutes.
f. Select OK to return to the setup screen.
g. Select OK again to return to the main screen.
7. Set the candle on a piece of aluminum foil or any type of candle holder. Wider based
candles (ex. 1 inch diameter) are preferable because they do not tip over.
8. Find and record in Table 1 Part 1 the combined mass of the candle and aluminum foil
9. Determine and record the mass of an empty can. Add 100 ml of chilled water to the can
Determine and record the mass of the can and water.
10. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2. Use a ring and stirring rod to suspend the can
about 5 cm above the wick. Use a utility clamp to suspend the Temperature Probe (or
thermometer) in the water. The probe/thermometer should not touch the bottom of the
Student
can. Remember: The Temperature Probe must be in the water for at least 30 seconds
before you do Step 11.
Figure 2
11. Select START on the calculator to begin collecting data. Monitor temperature (in °C) on
the calculator screen for about 30 seconds and record the initial temperature of the water,
t1, in your data table. Light the candle and heat the water until its temperature reaches
40°C and then extinguish the flame. CAUTION: Keep hair and clothing away from an
open flame.
12. If using a thermometer, record a temperature every 15 seconds. At first, the temperature
will increase until it reaches a maximum and then it will decrease. The most important
data points are the initial (T1) and highest temperature (T2)
13. Continue stirring the water until the temperature stops rising. Record this maximum
temperature, T2. Data collection will stop after 10 minutes (or press the STO key to stop
before 10 minutes has elapsed).
14. Determine and record in Table 1 Part 1, the final mass of the cooled candle and foil,
including all drippings.
15. To confirm the initial (T1) and final (T2) values you recorded earlier, examine the data
points along the curve on the displayed graph. As you move the cursor right or left, the
time (X) and temperature (Y) values of each data point are displayed below the graph.
16. Press ENTER to return to the main screen. Select START to repeat the data collection
using ethanol in an alcohol burner. Repeat Steps 8-15. Be sure to use 200 ml of chilled
water in Step 9.

Student
Observations/Data:
1. Find the mass of water heated.
2. Find the change in temperature of the water, ΔT.
1. Calculate the heat absorbed by the water, q, using the formula in the introduction of this
experiment. For water, Cp is 4.18 J/g°C. Change your final answer to kJ.
2. Calculate the heat absorbed by the water, q, using the equation q = Cp•m•ΔT, where q is
heat, Cp is the specific heat capacity, m is the mass of water, and Δt is the change in
temperature. For water, Cp is 4.18 J/g°C. Change your final answer to kJ.
3. Find the mass of paraffin burned.
4. Calculate the heat of combustion for paraffin in kJ/g. Use your Step 3 and Step 4
answers.
5. Calculate the % efficiency in both trials of the experiment. Divide your experimental value
(in kJ/g) by the accepted value, and multiply the answer by 100. The accepted heat of
combustion of paraffin is 41.5 kJ/g, and for ethanol the value is 30.0 kJ/g. Record in Data
Table 2.
Data Table 3 - Paraffin Fuel

Amount
Initial mass of fuel + container g
Final mass of fuel + container g
Mass of fuel burned g
Mass of can and water g
Mass of empty can g
Mass of water heated g
Final temperature, t2 °C
Initial temperature, t1 °C
Temperature change, Δt °C
Data Table 4 - Heat

Heat, q kJ
Heat of combustion, in kJ/g kJ/g paraffin
% efficiency %
Conclusion:
1. Based on your results, which fuel produces more energy per gram burned? Give an
explanation for the difference. (Hint: Ethanol, C2H5OH, is an oxygenated molecule;
paraffin, C25H52, does not contain oxygen.)
2. Suggest some advantages of using ethanol (or paraffin) as a fuel.
3. Discuss heat loss factors that contribute to the inefficiency of the experiment.
Student
Student Independent Research:

1. How does the energy from the sun become stored in foods and fuels?
2. How does this energy flow through biological systems and through the processes that
shape the Earth?

Teacher
Rates of Evaporation
NGSSS:
changes.
Measure and compare the rates of evaporation for different liquids.
Classify liquids based on their rates of evaporation.

Explain the process of evaporation and the energy involved.
Describe phase changes in terms of the kinetic molecular model.
Relate the collision theory to the kinetic molecular model.

distilled water small plastic cups (5)
ethanol grease pencil or marking pen
isopropyl alcohol masking tape
acetone paper towel
household ammonia square of waxed paper
droppers (5) stopwatch

a. Review with students the kinetic molecular model asking them to represent
water using the particle model for each state of matter.
1. Ask students what forces are holding the molecules together in each
case.
b. Using a spray bottle with water squirt a student volunteer and have them
make observations after a couple of minutes. Discuss what is happening
with the water and have students describe what is occurring at the particle
level. Have them also note any temperature changes they may feel.
Before c. Now use 2 spray bottles one with alcohol and the other with water, spray
activity: several volunteer students on their forearm and have them compare and
describe what they feel with their classmates. Try to involve students in
relating what is happening at the particle level to energy changes and to
complete a drawing to represent this.
d. Show students a container with ping pong balls and ask them to describe
what needs to occur for evaporation to take place. They should identify the
balls at the surface as the ones that escape or evaporate. Have them
relate this model to kinetic energy.
e. In order to help them visualize the intermolecular forces you can use
Velcro pieces to hold the balls together. Ask students what would happen
Teacher
if you used heavier balls such as baseballs, which balls would require
more energy to evaporate or escape from the surface. (Note: make sure
students do not isolate these factors as attractive forces and molecular
weight occurs simultaneously).
f. Have students predict which factors could affect the evaporation rate of
different substances.
g. Make sure students understand that the rate of evaporation of a substance
is always compared to the rate of vaporization of a specific known material
and hence it is stated as a ratio. For this reason, there are no units for rate
of evaporation. You may wish to tell them that the general reference
material for evaporation rates is n-butyl acetate (commonly abbreviated
BuAc) which has a relative evaporation rate of 1.0.
h. Explain to the students that during this lab, the rate of evaporation will be
defined as the time in seconds for the drop to evaporate assuming that the
volume of the drop is comparable in each case.
a. Review with students the basic lab procedures and data collection that
should take place during the experiment. They should discuss how they
During will identify when the liquid has completely evaporated and how to
activity: standardize this observation.
b. Make sure that students draw the shape of the drop. Try to get them to
express the direction of the attractions using arrows. Also if possible urge
them to use the terms cohesion and adhesion.
a. Review with students their results. Refer back to the Changes of State lab
to discuss energy changes that took place as the substance evaporated.
They should explain that thermal energy must be sufficient to overcome
After the surface tension or the cohesion of the liquid in order to evaporate.
activity: b. For advanced students provide the boiling and melting points of the
substances tested. Have students identify the pattern and compare these
trends with evaporation rate.
c. You may want to copy the diagrams from the following pages to review
with students the differences between intra and intermolecular forces.
Extension:
Gizmo: Phase Changes

Teacher
Intermolecular and Intramolecular Forces

Force Model Basis of Attraction Energy (kJ/mol) Example
Intramolecular
Ionic Opposite charges 4000 – 400 NaCl
Covalent Nuclei – shared e- pair 1100 – 150 H-H
Metal cations and

Metallic 1000 – 75 Au
delocalized electrons
Intermolecular
Ion-dipole Ion and polar molecule 600 – 40 Na+ & H2O
Partial charges of polar

Dipole-dipole 25 – 5 HCl & HCl
molecules
H bonded to N, O, or F,
Hydrogen bond 40 – 10 H2O & NH3
and another N, O, or F
London Induced dipoles of
40 – 0.05 Xe & Xe
dispersion polarizable molecules

Student
Rates of Evaporation
NGSSS:
changes.
Background:
A puddle of water formed after it rains, will evaporate after some time. The process of
evaporation describes how liquids change to gases as the molecular kinetic energy is increased
allowing some of the molecules to separate from the liquid. Several factors determine how fast a
sample of liquid evaporates. The volume of the sample is a key factor. A drop of water takes
less time to evaporate than a liter of water. The amount of energy supplied to the sample is
another factor.
In order to understand the process of evaporation you need to be familiar with properties of
liquids such as viscosity, surface tension, and polarity. The ability of a substance to resist
flowing is called viscosity. Highly viscous liquids have strong intermolecular forces that hold the
liquid from flowing freely. Surface tension refers to the force on the molecules at the surface of
the liquid. Substances with high surface tension have stronger forces of attraction between
molecules. Polarity is a property that refers to a molecule with one end slightly positive and the
other slightly negative. The attraction of polar molecules to other polar molecules occurs through
dipole-dipole forces. The attraction of nonpolar molecules to other nonpolar molecules occurs
through London dispersion forces.
Measure and compare the rates of evaporation for different liquids.
Classify liquids based on their rates of evaporation.
Predict which intermolecular forces exist between the particles of each liquid.
Safety:
Wear gloves because some of the liquids can dry out your skin.
Avoid inhaling any of the vapors, especially ammonia.
There should be no open flames in the lab; some of the liquids are flammable.
Vocabulary:
Intermolecular forces of attraction, viscosity, evaporation, surface tension, polarity, volatile
substances, cohesive and adhesive

distilled water
ethanol
isopropyl alcohol
acetone
Student
household
ammonia
droppers (5)
small plastic cups (5)
grease pencil or marking pen
masking tape
paper towel
square of waxed paper
stopwatch
Procedures:
1. Use a grease pencil or masking tape to label each of five small plastic cups. Use A for
distilled water, B for ethanol, C for isopropyl alcohol, D for acetone, and E for household
ammonia.
2. Place the plastic cups on a paper towel.
3. Use a dropper to collect about 1 ml of distilled water and add to cup labeled A.
4. Place the dropper on the paper towel directly in front of the cup. Repeat with the other
liquids.
5. Place a square of waxed paper on your lab surface.
6. Plan where on the waxed paper you will place each of the 5 drops that you will test. The
drops must be as far apart as possible to avoid mixing.
7. Have your stopwatch ready. Collect some water in your water dropper and place a single
drop on the waxed paper. Begin timing. Time how long it takes for the drop to completely
evaporate. While you wait, calculate the molecular weight for each substance and record
your answer in Table 1 along with the time for the liquid to evaporate. Also while you are
waiting make two drawings of each drop, the first should show the shape of the drop as
viewed from above and the second should be a side view at eye level. If possible use
arrows to show attraction of molecules to each other or to the paper and try to label with
the terms: ―cohesion and adhesion‖.
8. Note: If drops take longer than 5 min to evaporate, record 300 s in your data table.
9. Repeat step 5 with the four other liquids.
10. Use the above procedure to design an experiment in which you can observe the effect of
temperature on the rate of evaporation of ethanol. Your teacher will provide a sample of
warm ethanol. Record your observations.
Observations/Data:
Data Table 1- Evaporation Rate
Liquid Formula Molecular Weight Evaporation time (s)
Distilled water H2O
Ethanol C2H5OH
Isopropyl alcohol (2-
C3H8O
propanol)
Acetone (CH3)2CO
Household ammonia NH3

Student
Table 2- Drawing of Drops

Liquid Top View Side Eye-level View
Distilled water
Ethanol
Isopropyl alcohol (2-

propanol)
Acetone
Household ammonia

Student
1. Which liquids evaporated quickly? Rate them in order of speed of evaporation.
2. Based on your data, in which liquid(s) are the attractive forces between molecules most
likely to be solely dispersion forces?
3. Make a generalization about the molecular weight and the evaporation rate of the liquid.
4. What is the relationship between surface tension and the shape of a liquid drop? What
are the attractive forces that increase surface tension?
5. Which liquid is more efficient (water ethanol, alcohol, acetone, or ammonia) at cooling
down an object as a result of evaporation? Is there a relationship between the rate of
evaporation and the cooling effect that a liquid exhibits? Explain.
6. The isopropyl alcohol you used is a mixture of isopropyl alcohol and water. Would pure
isopropyl alcohol evaporate more quickly or more slowly compared to the alcohol and
water mixture? Give a reason for your answer.
7. Household ammonia is a mixture of ammonia and water. Based on the data you
collected, is there more ammonia or more water in the mixture? Use what you learned
about the relative strengths of the attractive forces in ammonia and water to support your
conclusion.
Conclusion:
1. Should rate of evaporation be directly or inversely related to the strength of
intermolecular attraction? Give clear reasons for your choice.
2. Make a generalization about the shape of a liquid drop and the evaporation rate of the
liquid.
3. The vapor phases of liquids such as acetone and alcohol are more flammable than their
liquid phases. For flammable liquids, what is the relationship between evaporation rate
and the likelihood that the liquid will burn?
4. Suggest why a person who has a higher than normal temperature might be given a
rubdown with rubbing alcohol (70% isopropyl alcohol).
5. Table salt can be collected from salt water by evaporation. The water is placed in large,
shallow containers. What advantage do these shallow containers have over deep
containers with the same overall volumes?
6. Is there a relationship between the boiling point of these liquids and their rate of
evaporation?
7. How does the rate of evaporation of warm ethanol compare to ethanol at room
temperature? Use kinetic-molecular theory to explain your observations.

Teacher
Determining Reaction Rates

NGSSS:
SC.912.P.12.12 Explain how various factors, such as concentration, temperature, and presence
of a catalyst affect the rate of a chemical reaction.
SC.912.P.10.6 Create and interpret potential energy diagrams, for example: chemical reactions,
orbits around a central body, motion of a pendulum.
To determine the factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction {e.g., temperature, pH,
concentration (pressure), and catalyst.}
To determine the percentage yield and limiting reagent in chemical process.
To evaluate Le Chatelier‘s principle. (for advanced students)
To quantify the enthalpy change of a process (for advanced students)

Understand and express the particle meaning of concentration, pressure and
temperature
Describe the collision theory as it relates to the movement of particles.
Explain how energy is related to the changes in chemical structure.
To list and briefly describe the main factors that affect reaction rates.
For teachers of Honors and/or AP Chemistry students, the following should also be
considered:
o Be familiar with the relationship between moles, mass, volume (of liquid phases or
gases)
o To discuss the idea of limiting reactants and excess reactants.
o To derive and compare the theoretical and actual yield.

Safety goggles 7 original formula effervescent Alka-
Stopwatch (seconds) Seltzer tablets
Thermometer (extension) Hot water/ice cubes
Distilled water Mortar and Pestle
Graduated cylinder Test tube 16 X 150mm
7 Clear plastic cups Cork stopper, #4

g. Guide the students through a modeling discussion of the kinetic molecular
theory.
h. Have students explain how the kinetic molecular theory relates to
Before temperature.
activity: i. Have students discuss how the 4 main factors (temperature, surface area,
concentration, and amount of activation energy as it relates to the catalyst)
that affect rates of reactions relate to the collision theory.
j. Guide the students through a construction and comprehension of enthalpy
change diagrams (Optional-for advanced students)
Teacher
k. For the extended version: Review stoichiometry, percentage yield, limiting

reagents.
l. Discuss the principles of enthalpy change in physical and chemical
processes (Note: Changes in state can bring about changes in
temperature. When this happens at constant pressure we call it enthalpy.
Another word for the enthalpy of a chemical reaction is the heat of reaction.
Knowing the heat capacity of the system the enthalpy of the can be
calculated - (Tf-Ti) x Cp = ΔH.)
m. Clarify the difference between the process of dissolving the Alka Seltzer
and the subsequent chemical change. A common misconception is that
dissolving is a chemical change.
a. Guide the students through the interpretation of data as it relates to the
kinetic molecular theory.
b. Instruct students to analyze their results and relate them to the collision
theory, for example: 1) Ask the students, ‗How does temperature affect the
During
movement of the particles? 2) How does concentration affect the collisions
activity:
of the particles?
c. For the extended version with advanced students ask: 1) What does the
pressure represent? 2) How is the pressure changing and why? 34) What is
the effect of pressure on the reaction direction and why? 4) Where is the
‗energy change‘ originating?
a. Summarize how the observations in the experiment confirm the collision
theory.
b. Ask the students to relate how the different trials of the reactions relate to
the collision theory?
c. Relate the specific factors examined experimentally: concentration
(pressure), temperature, surface area relate to the rates of reactions.
After d. Review students‘ comprehension of the limiting reagent.
activity: e. Review the effect of the limiting reagent on the results of chemical
reactions.
f. Review actual yield, theoretical yield, percentage yield and discuss specific
factors that affect the percentage yield.
g. Direct the students to clarify and evaluate the relationship between
concentration and pressure as it relates to gases.
h. Summarize the experimental observations that confirm Le Chatelier‘s
principle.
Answer Key Experiment V:

Determining the percentage yield, limiting reagent and the molar enthalpy of the reaction
Observations/Data Analysis :
1. Active Ingredients from package of ―original formula‖ fast relief Antacid and pain
medicine-Alka-Seltzer:
325 mg of Aspirin, Acetylsalicylic acid, or 2-acetoxybenzoic acid (C9H8O4)
1000 mg of Citric acid (H3C6H5O7)
1916 mg of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)
Teacher
2. obtain from experimental data in Data Table 5A

3. obtain from experimental data in Data Table 5A
4. The balanced reaction with citric acid:
Sodium bicarbonate + Citric acid Water + Carbon dioxide + Trisodium citrate
5. The balanced reaction with acetylsalicylic acid:
Sodium bicarbonate + acetylsalicylic acid Water + Carbon dioxide + ????
6. Baking Soda and Citric Acid
84.01g/mol + 192.124 g/mol 18.016 g/mol + 44.01 g/mol + 166.106 g/mol
To simplify calculations use mmols (the ratio in g/mol is equivalent to mg/mmols, make
sure that students understand that all you are doing is working in a smaller unit which will
keep the numbers larger and easier to manipulate) see example below:
Net Ionic Equation: - -
The millimoles of citric acid are given by:
If you do not want to use milimoles the alternative calculation in moles is as follows:
Using the mole ratio then, of baking soda is

needed.
Baking Soda and acetylsalicylic acid
84.01g/mol + 180.157 g/mol 18.016 g/mol + 44.01 g/mol + 203.147 g/mol

Net Ionic equation: - -
The millimoles of acetylsalicylic acid are given by. .
Then, of baking soda is used.
The millimoles of baking soda are given by: .

Teacher
Then, of citric acid needed L.R. (not enough, refer to

actual amount of 5.205 mmol calculated previously)
Then of baking soda is used and
of acid needed; L.R. (not enough, refer to actual amount

of 1.804 mmol calculated previously)
To find the excess mass of baking soda left over:

- of baking soda left over*.
This value is given to the student in step 3 of Observation Experiment V.
Expected mass of CO2 produced:

1.804 mmols acetylsalicylic acid (LR) x 44.01 g/mol CO = 0.07939 g CO2
5.205 mmols citric acid 44.01 g/mol CO2 = 0.06872g CO2
Then, the total theoretical yield would be 0.07939 g CO2 + 0.06872g CO2 = 0.7666 g
To find the percentage yield use the data generated in the experiment. (A typical percent
yield could be approximately 83.0%). Note: this value could be affected by binders,
sugar, food coloring (not applicable here} and human error (most likely).
Extension:
Gizmo: Limiting Reactants, Collision Theory

Student
Determining Reaction Rates

NGSSS:
SC.912.P.12.12 Explain how various factors, such as concentration, temperature, and presence
of a catalyst affect the rate of a chemical reaction.
SC.912.P.10.6 Create and interpret potential energy diagrams, for example: chemical reactions,
orbits around a central body, motion of a pendulum.
Background: Students must be very familiar with the kinetic molecular theory and how it relates
to the collision theory. The idea of concentration, pressure, temperature, kinetic energy must be
discussed. The role of catalysts and their properties must be reviewed and perhaps related to
the biological role of enzymes. The rate of a chemical reaction depends on the frequency of the
collisions between the atoms or ions of the reactants. The concentration or pressure has an
effect on the frequency of the collisions of the particles. The manipulation of concentration,
temperature and/or pressure/volume can also affect direction of a reaction. Temperature will
―drive‖ the extent of a reaction in either direction.
To examine the factors that affect the rates of reactions.
Extended: To quantify the energy change of the process.
Extended: To determine the percentage yield of the chemical process.
Extended to examine Le Chatelier‘s principle as it relates to the yield in a chemical
process
Safety:
Safety goggles,
Aprons.
No eating or drinking
Vocabulary: reaction rates, reaction order, rate constant, temperature, kinetic energy, catalysts,
pressure, concentration, surface area, collision theory, frequency of collisions enzymes. For
those considering the extended part of the lab these should also be presented: moles as it
relates to mass, volume of liquid and gas phases, limiting reactant, excess reactant, theoretical
and actual yield, the percentage yield, molar enthalpy change, endothermic and exothermic
reactions. Le Chatelier‘s principle.

Safety goggles 7 original formula effervescent Alka-
Stopwatch (seconds) Seltzer tablets
Thermometer (extension) Hot water/ice cubes
Distilled water Mortar and Pestle
Graduated cylinder Test tube 16 X 150mm
7 Clear plastic cups Cork stopper, #4
Experiment I: Effect of temperature on reaction rates

Procedures:
1. Use one whole tablet for each trial
Student
2. Use 250 milliliters of water for each trial

3. Different temperatures could be: 0 oC (ice), water at room temperature (about 20 oC),
heated water (about 60 oC). Make sure to record temperatures in Table 1.
4. Add the tablet to each temperature trial and start the stopwatch immediately!
5. Stop the time when the tablet has dissolved completely and be consistent. Pay
Attention! Record the time in Table 1 in seconds.
Observations/Data:
Data Table 1
Time (seconds) for Temperature (degrees
Trials #
dissolving tablet. Celsius)
#1
#2
#3
1. Graph the Water Temperature vs Time for Tablet to Dissolve.
2. Using the hot water, the rate was how many times faster than at 0 degrees Celsius?
3. Estimate the time it would take to dissolve an Alka-Seltzer tablet at 10 oC.
4. What if the temperature is doubled from 20 to 40 oC, by how much will the reaction rate
change?
Experiment II: Effect of surface area on reaction rates

Procedures:
1. For each trial use a whole tablet, one broken into 8 equal pieces, and a crushed tablet
2. Use 250 ml of water at room temperature (or lukewarm water) for each trial. Be
consistent.
3. Crush one tablet completely in the mortar and pestle
4. Except for the trials with the whole and 8-piece tablets, the crushed tablet must be
transferred to the clear plastic cup before adding the measured water. Start timing
immediately until completely dissolved! Record the time in Table 2.
5. Be sure to be consistent when recording the time for completely dissolving each tablet.
Observations/Data:
Data Table 2
Time (seconds) for
Trial # Tablet
dissolving tablet.
#1 ―Whole‖ tablet
#2 ―8-piece‖ tablet
#3 ―Crushed‖ tablet
1. What is the effect of particle size on the rate of the reaction?

Student
2. The rate of the reaction for the crushed tablet was how many times faster than that of the
whole tablet?
3. As the particle size decreases, what is the effect on the total surface area and the
probability of interactions between atoms/ions/rate of the reactions?
4. Compare the results of particle size to the effect of temperature on the rate of the
reaction (Hint: Use data from Experiment 1.) Explain.
Experiment III: Effect of a lower pH on the reaction rate

Procedures:
1. Prepare two slightly acidic solutions by diluting a 2-Molar solution of HCl (strong acid) ,
the first one with 125 ml of water to 125 ml of the acid and the second weakly acidic
solution by measuring 250 ml of commercial vinegar.
2. Add a tablet to each acidic solution and record the time for the tablet to dissolve under
trials #2 and #3 of Data Table 3.
3. The data from Trial#1 of Data Table #2 can be used as Trial #1 for this experiment.
Transfer the value from Table 2 to Table 3.
Observations/Data:
Data Table 3
Time (sec.) for
Trials # pH of solution
dissolving tablet
#1
Neutral H2O pH = 7
(from Data Table 2)
Slightly acidic
#2 5% by Vol.
Vinegar pH = 3
Strongly acidic
#3
1.00 Molar HCl pH = 0
1. Compare the results and analyze the pH difference in the 3 trials and its effect on the rate
of the reaction.
2. Evaluate the effect of a decreased pH on the rate of the dissolving process; does it
increase or decrease the rate of the reaction?
3. What if the pH was increased? What effect would this have on the rate of the reaction?
Explain.

Student
Optional-Extension for Advanced Students
Experiment IV: Evaluating the effect of pressure: Le Chatelier’s principle

Procedures:
Part A: Rate of Reaction at normal pressure.
1. Fill a 16 X 150 mm test tube ½ full of water at room temperature.
2. Break an Alka-Seltzer tablet in half and drop the pieces into the test tube.
3. Measure the time required for the reaction/dissolving of the Alka-Seltzer in water. Record
the time.
Part B: Rate of Reaction under increased pressure.

1. Repeat steps 1 and 2 from part A
2. Immediately insert the cork stopper in the end of the test tube just enough to slow down
the escape of carbon dioxide gas. Do not insert the cork completely because the
pressure from the contents will break the test tube. The pressure being exerted upon the
system (test tube and contents) is equal to the pressure you feel being exerted against
the cork.
3. Important: To avoid a total ―blow-out‖ of the liquid from the tube, release the gas by lifting
the cork slightly. This will allow the gas and liquid ―to squeeze‖ its way past the cork, in
controlled amounts.
4. When the gas bubbles are no longer visible in the liquid the reaction will be at equilibrium.
Observe and record the time of the reaction in Table 4.
5. Slightly release the pressure on the cork once more. Record your observations in
question #3 of the results section of this lab.
Observations/Data:
Data Table 4
Time (seconds) for
Trial # Pressure (atm)
dissolving tablet.
Normal sea level
Part A
pressure (1 atm)
Part B Increased pressure
1. How does the increased pressure affect the time for the production of the gas?
2. When the gas bubbles are no longer visible in the liquid the reaction will be at equilibrium
(at equal rates represented by 2 arrows of the same size but in opposite direction). What
other factors could have been used to shift the direction of the arrows toward the product
besides the pressure?
3. In step 8 you were asked to again slightly release the pressure on the cork once. What
did you observe? Propose an explanation what occurred.
Extended discussion:
A known process in chemistry is the Bon-Haber process for synthesizing ammonia which is
widely used in the production of fertilizers and explosives. Research this process in the following
sites and answer the following questions.

Student
Consider the need to optimize the % yield in the process for (the precursor for producing
fertilizers and explosives!) under ideal circumstances.
1. Write the balanced chemical reaction for the process.

2. Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic? Use thermodynamic tables found in different
sources (for example Appendix C Chemistry the Central Science by Brown and Lemay).
3. Is the entropy increasing or decreasing? Explain the entropy change qualitatively and
derive it quantitatively: Use thermodynamic tables (for example Appendix C Chemistry
the Central Science by Brown and Lemay).
4. Is this process spontaneous at room temperature? Use the free energy expression: ΔG =
ΔH – TΔS.
5. As temperature increases how will the rate be affected? What about the percentage
yield? (Le Chatelier‘s principle)
6. How will an increased pressure affect the percentage yield? Explain.
7. Propose a solution to ―optimize‖ the production of ammonia under ideal conditions.

Student
Experiment V: Determining the percentage yield, limiting reagent, and the molar enthalpy
of the reaction
Procedures:
1. Obtain the mass of an Alka-Seltzer tablet.
2. Obtain the mass of an empty clear plastic cup.
3. Using a graduated cylinder measure 250 ml of the water and add to the cup.
4. Measure the initial temperature (Ti) of the water in degree Celsius.
5. Add the tablet to the water.
6. After the tablet completely dissolves, record the final temperature(Tf) in degree Celsius
7. Mass the cup of water and ―reacted‖ tablet at the end of the process.
Observations/Data:
Data Table 5A
Measurements
Initial Mass of Alka- Seltzer tablet g
Mass of Empty Cup g
Volume of water ml
Initial Total mass of tablet, water and cup g
Final Mass of water, cup and reacted tablet g
Mass of gas produced g
o
Initial temp of Water C
o
Final temp of Solution C
o
Δ T of Solution C
Data Analysis:
1. Record the mass and the type of active ingredients from the package of an original
formula Alka-Seltzer (bright blue packet).
2. To find the mass of gas produced, subtract the initial mass of tablet, water and cup from
the final mass of water, cup and reacted tablet and record in the corresponding space in
Data Table 5A and in 5B (under mass of CO2).
3. The answer in step 2 is the mass of the gas evolved but the tablet includes additional
substances such as excess baking soda which must be considered in the calculations.
To find the actual mass of the CO2 gas, complete the following calculation:
a. Answer from #2 – 0.4529g of baking soda* = CO2 gas
4. Write the balanced chemical equation between the baking soda and the citric acid.
5. Write the balanced equation between the baking soda and the acetylsalicylic acid
6. Derive the molar masses for each reactant and product and derive the moles of each of
the reactants and record in Table 5B.
Data Table 5B
Chemical substances Molar masses Actual Mass # of Mols
Aspirin
Baking Soda
Citric Acid
Water
Carbon dioxide

Student
Results:
1. Determine the limiting reagent. Show all your work
2. Determine the expected or theoretical mass of the gas evolved.
3. Calculate the excess mass of the reactant left over (already given in Experiment V step
3) but you need to show the work of how this value was derived.
4. Derive the percentage yield of the reactions. Hint: use CO2 answer from Data Table 5A
divided by the answer in step 2 above X 100.
5. Derive the enthalpy of the ―solution‖ and the ―reaction‖ in kilojoules per mol of reaction by
the following: [Q = mc T] / limiting reagent in moles; where the m is given by the Final
Mass of water + cup + reacted tablet, C is the specific heat capacity of water: 4.184J/g-K,
and ΔT is the final temperature minus the initial temperature in Celsius or Kelvin.
Data Table 5C
o
Initial Temperature (Ti) C
o
Final Temperature (Tf) C
Mass of system (m) g
Specific heat (C) J/g-K
Energy (Q) - {Q = m C ΔT} J
Energy ―gained‖ by the
kJ
reaction/dissolution process
moles of limiting reactant (citric acid) mol
To calculate the Molar Enthalpy ( H) of reaction:

H = Q (heat in kilojoules)/n (moles of limiting reagent) = __________kJ/mol
Conclusions:
1. Explain the role of aspirin, baking soda and citric acid chemically?
2. Why was the baking soda ―chosen‖ to be the excess reagent?
3. Evaluate the sources of error in deriving the enthalpy of the reaction. Outline the specific
effects of the errors identified.

Teacher
Boyle’s Law
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.12.10 Interpret the behavior of ideal gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
Purpose of Lab/Activity: To examine the idea of pressure and its relationship to volume.

State Boyle‘s law in their own words.
Use the kinetic molecular theory to describe how particle behavior is related to Boyle‘s
law.
Describe the change of pressure with respect to elevation.
Give all the units for pressure and explain their origins.
Explain pressure in terms of force and area.
Derive the standard units for force, area and volume.
Compare the use of a barometer to a manometer.

safety goggles
Boyle‘s law apparatus
ring stand clamp
5 chemistry textbooks
2 pens or pencils of different colors

a. Review the basic principles of the kinetic molecular theory.
b. Derive the standard units for pressure, force, and area.
c. Explain the use of a barometer and the principle underlying the
Before measurement of pressure.
activity: d. Relate pressure to elevation and its subsequent implications.
e. Review the use of graphs in evaluating variables as a basic tool of the
scientific method.
f. Review the use of a piston as a measurement of PV work
g. Discuss the chemical composition of air.
a. Supervise the safe use of the piston
During b. Provide directions for reading the syringes accurately.
activity: c. Confirm the dependent variable is assigned as the volume.
d. Ask the students, ―why is the pressure considered the independent variable
for this experiment?‖
a. Have the students construct the mathematical relationship between
After
pressure and volume.
activity:
b. Have students discuss the behavior of the particles using the kinetic
molecular theory.
Teacher
c. Discuss the shape of the graphs and compare to initial predictions.
d. Have students calculate the PV constant for the piston using the
appropriate units.
e. Have students establish Boyle‘s law in their own words based on their
experimental observations.
Extension:
Interactive Boyle‘s Law Apparatus
Gizmo: Boyle's Law and Charles' Law

Student
Boyle’s Law
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.12.10 Interpret the behavior of ideal gases in terms of kinetic molecular theory.
Background Information:
In this investigation, you will observe the behavior of a gas, using a device called a Boyle‘s law
apparatus. The apparatus consists of a graduated syringe with a movable piston. Initially, the
syringe is adjusted to trap a volume of gas at the same pressure as its surroundings. The piston
then does not move because the pressure exerted by the gas in the syringe equals the pressure
of the atmosphere pushing on the piston. If the piston is pushed downward, it compresses the
gas trapped in the syringe. If the pressure on the piston is then decreased, the pressure of the
trapped gas will push the piston up.
In order to read the volume of trapped gas correctly, you must always read the measurement on
the side of the piston that is in contact with the gas. Because air is a mixture of gases-mostly
nitrogen and oxygen-that behaves physically as a single gas, the data from this lab can be
treated as data for a single gas. As the pressure of the air changes, you will monitor and collect
data on the resulting changes in volume. You can then use your data to find the atmospheric
pressure and determine how closely your results agree with Boyle‘s law
Purpose of Lab/Activity: Determine the relationship between pressure and volume.
Safety Precautions:
Wear appropriate safety goggles.
Don‘t let the students aim the pressurized syringe at anyone as the syringe tip cap could
shoot off.
Note: The increasing load of books on the piston may become unsteady. Falling books
can injure the person measuring the gas volumes and damage the Boyle’s law
apparatus. Steady the books by resting them slightly against the ring or by nudging them
into balance as you would with wooden building blocks.
Vocabulary: Force, area, pressure, barometer, manometer, gases, altitude, elevation, density,
torr, psi (pounds per square inch- Ibs/in2), N/m2, mmHg, atm, volume

safety goggles.
Boyle‘s law apparatus.
ring stand clamp
5 chemistry textbooks
2 pens or pencils of different colors.

Student
Procedures:
1. Work with a partner so that one person operates the apparatus (see figure below) while
the other steadies the books and keeps track of the procedural steps.
2. Put on your safety goggles. Secure the Boyle‘s law apparatus with a ring stand and
clamp. Adjust the initial volume (about 30 ml) to atmospheric pressure as directed by
your teacher.
3. Test the apparatus by pushing down on the piston with your hand slowly and steadily
until the volume of the trapped gas is reduced to 15 ml. Release the piston and note
whether it returns to initial volume. If not, check and adjust the seal at the syringe
opening.(Note: if red tip seals are too loose try replacing it with a small rubber stop with a
small indentation).
4. Place the apparatus on a flat, steady surface, such as a sturdy table or the floor. Record
the initial volume at 0 books of pressure in the data table.
5. Place one book on the piston and record the resulting volume of trapped gas in the data
table. Add a second book and record the gas volume. Continue adding books and
recording the resulting volumes until all 5 books are resting on the piston. Remember to
steady the books, especially when the apparatus is being read.
6. Remove all the books from the piston and reset the apparatus to the initial volume
recorded in Step 2.
7. Repeat Step 5 and 6 two more times, remembering to reset the apparatus between sets
of trials.
8. Clean up your work area.

Student
Observations/Data:
Data Table 1- Volume and Pressure Relationship

(Ptotal)
Pressure Vavg 1/Vavg
V1 (ml) V2 (ml) V3 (ml) Patm Ptotal x
(#books) (ml) (ml-1)
(Vavg)
Data Analysis and Results:

1. Find the average of each set of three volumes and record these averages in the data
table.
2. For Graph #1 plot the pressure (in books) on the horizontal axis, and the average
volume, Vavg on the vertical axis. Draw a smooth line through the points. Make sure the
graphs are titled, axes clearly labeled with units, and scales properly sequenced.
3. According to Boyle‘s law, pressure and volume have an inversely proportional
relationship. If this idea is correct, you should obtain a linear relationship (straight line)
when you plot pressure versus the corresponding inverse of the average volume.
Calculate the inverse, 1/Vavg, of each volume and record these values in the appropriate
column of the data table.
4. For Graph #2, plot the corresponding 1/Vavg values versus pressures in units of ―books‖
on the horizontal axis. Note: the graph of Pressure vs 1/Vavg is also ―linear‖, yielding a
slope of m = PV; furthermore the y = mx + b equation will confirm that the y-intercept is
the initial atmospheric pressure when 1/V = 0 (no books initially present).
5. The line obtained for the second plot crosses the vertical axis of the graph above the
origin, which tells you that there is pressure on the gas even when there are no books on
the piston. Consider that 1/V = 0 only when the total pressure on the gas is zero (and the
volume is infinitely large). The additional pressure is the atmospheric pressure. To find
this pressure in units of books, extend the plot of 1/Vavg versus Pressurebooks on Graph
#2 to the point where it intersects the horizontal axis. At this point, 1/V avg = 0. The scale
distance from this point to the origin is the atmospheric pressure measured in books.
Using your graph, determine this value (See Sample Graph 2 below).
6. Record the value of Patm in each row of the table in the proper column.
7. Add the value you found for atmospheric pressure (Patm) to pressure in books (Pbooks) for
each trial and record these values of Ptotal in the table.
Ptotal = Pbooks + Patm.
8. Calculate the product of Ptotal x Vavg for each trial and record these values in the data
table.
Student
Conclusions:
1. What is the benefit of repeating the measurements 3 times?
2. Explain the relationship between pressure and volume shown in Graph#1.
3. Describe the results shown in Graph #2.
4. Look at the values you calculated in the last column of the data table. How do they
compare?
5. State Boyle‘s Law.
6. How do the pressure and volume values relate in terms of Boyle‘s law?
7. Will this pressure/volume relationship hold true for solids and liquids? Why or why not?
8. When the plunger was compressed, it got more and more difficult to push the plunger in.
Explain, using the kinetic molecular theory, why this happens.
9. Solve the following problems: 1) For an initial volume of 5.20-L and a pressure of 103
kilopascals, at what pressure in atmospheres will the volume of the gas expand to 12.00-
L? 2) A gas at 700.0 milimeters mercury occupies volume of 200.0 milliliters, at how
many atmospheres will it occupy 0.950-Liter?
Sample Graph
Extension for Advanced Students:

1. If the gas had behaved non ideally, what would have been the effect on the results of the
experiment? (Hint: There will be a negative and a positive deviation away from the
expected behavior- research the molecular origin of these effects).
2. When you use a bicycle pump to inflate a tire you push on the pump and air moves into
the tire. In order for the pump to work, air pressure must be greater in the pump than in
the bicycle tire. The air will move from the pump to the tire, causing inflation. How does
the principle of Boyle‘s law come into effect in the operation of bicycle pump?

Teacher
Half-Life
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.10.10 Compare the magnitude and range of the four fundamental forces
(gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, strong nuclear).
SC.912.P.10.11 Explain and compare nuclear reactions (radioactive decay, fission and fusion),
the energy changes associated with them and their associated safety issues.
SC.912.P.10.12 Differentiate between chemical and nuclear reactions.
.
To graph and interpret data of the isotope‘s half-life.
To model the half-life of an imaginary isotope.

Describe the basic structure of an atom
Explain the general role of the sub atomic particles
Explain the role of isotopes and their natural occurrence.
Describe the implications of the law of conservation of energy and matter.

100 pennies
Plastic cup
Container with lid such as a shoebox
Timer or clock with second hand.

a. Review the model of the atom, making sure that students identify the
properties of the nucleus.
b. Have students review how the subatomic particles determine the properties
of the atom.
c. Ask students, what determines the degree to which an atom is unstable?
d. Ask students, how the stability relates to the time it takes for a particle to
Before disintegrate?
activity: e. Ask students, what 2 forces are related to the disintegration of the nucleus.
You should introduce a general idea of strong and weak nuclear forces are
acting on the atom.
f. Discuss the law of conservation of energy and matter.
g. Introduce the main purpose of the activity.
h. On the board, set-up Table 2.Group Data (from the Student Section); so,
that once the groups complete the experiment and calculations, one person
from each group reports their group data on the board
During a. Ask students how the heads and tails analogy relates to parent and
activity: daughter isotopes as you are studying radioactive decay
b. Does the data obtained from the 2 trials describe the behavior of natural
Teacher
isotopes? Explain.
c. As students collect data, ask them to describe patterns that are emerging
and what is the meaning of those patterns?
d. Direct the students to write their group data on the Group Data Table
displayed on the board.
a. Ask student to explain why two trials of tossing the coins are needed and
how the calculated average minimizes any statistical deviations?
b. Looking at Table 2. Group Data on the board, ask the students: How does
After
each group‘s data compare to the class average data? Explain the
activity:
discrepancies.
c. How does this experimental design model the natural occurrence of
isotopes?
d. What are the limitations of this model?
Extension:
Gizmo: Half–life

Student
Half-Life
NGSSS:
SC.912.P.10.10 Compare the magnitude and range of the four fundamental forces
(gravitational, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, strong nuclear).
SC.912.P.10.11 Explain and compare nuclear reactions (radioactive decay, fission and fusion),
the energy changes associated with them and their associated safety issues.
SC.912.P.10.12 Differentiate between chemical and nuclear reactions.
Background:
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different atomic masses. These different masses
are a result of having different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. Isotopes can be stable or
unstable (radioactive). Radioactive isotopes have unstable nuclei that break down in a process
called radioactive decay. During this process, the radioactive isotope is transformed into
another, usually more stable, element. The amount of time it takes half the atoms of a
radioactive isotope in a particular sample to change into another element is its half-life. A half-
life can be a fraction of a second for one isotope or more than a billion years for another isotope,
but it is always the same for any particular isotope.
To graph and interpret data of the isotope‘s half-life.
To model the half-life of an imaginary isotope.
Safety: Do not eat or drink or eat in lab.
Vocabulary: Spontaneous decay, radioactivity, alpha, beta, gamma emission, half-life, protons,
neutrons, electrons, nucleus, energy, potential energy, stability, elements, atom.

100 pennies
Plastic cup
Container with lid such as a shoebox
Timer or clock with second hand.
Procedures:
1. Place 100 pennies, each head-side up, into the container. Each penny represents an
atom (parent nuclei) of an unstable isotope.
2. Place the lid securely on the container. Holding the container level, shake it vigorously for
20 seconds.
3. Set the container on the table and remove the lid. Remove only pennies that are now in a
tails-up position (decayed nuclei or daughter nuclei).
4. Count the pennies you removed and record this number in Table 1 under Trial 1. Also
record the number of heads-up pennies that are left (undecayed parent nuclei).
5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 until there are no pennies left in the container.
6. Repeat steps 1 through 5 and record your data in Table 1 under Trial 2.

Student
Observations/Data:
1. Calculate the averages for each time period and record these numbers in Table 1. The
first row is done for you.
2. Graph the average data from Table 1. Graph the number of heads-up pennies remaining
on the Y-axis (undecayed atoms or nuclei) against time in seconds (on X-axis) using a
symbol such as X,O, Δ, or different colors to represent the trials and the average values.
3. Record the averages for each time trial per group in your class in Table 2. The first row is
done for you.
4. Determine the totals and then the averages for the combined data from all groups and
record in Table 2.
5. Create a second graph for the average class data for undecayed nuclei. Use a different
symbol or color for each group and the class‘ average in the same way as you graphed
your individual group‘s data.
6. Be sure to include a symbol key for each graph.
Data Analysis:
Table 1 - Group Data
Trial 1 Trial 2
Averages
A B C D
Number of Number of Number of Number of Columns Columns
Shaking
Heads-up Tails-up Heads-up Tails-up A and C B and D
Time
Remaining Removed Remaining Removed (H) (T)
At 0 s 100 0 100 0 100 0
After 20 s
After 40 s
After 60 s
After 80 s
After 100 s
After 120 s
After 140 s

Student
Table 2 - Class Data
Group I II III IV V VI VII VIII Total Average
H 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 800 100
0s
T 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
H
20 s
T
H
40 s
T
H
60 s
T
H
80 s
T
H
100 s
T
H
120 s
T
H
140 s
T
H = Heads; T = Tails
Results:
1. In this model, what represented the process of radioactive decay?
2. Which side of the penny represented the decayed isotope? Which side represented the
undecayed atoms?
3. In this model, what was the half-life of the pennies? Explain
4. Why were more accurate results obtained when the data from all groups was combined
and graphed?
Conclusions:
1. What can you conclude about the total number of atoms that decay during any half- life
period of the pennies?
2. If your half-life model had decayed perfectly, how many atoms of the radioactive isotope
should have been left after 80 seconds of shaking? (Hint: extrapolate the graph).
3. If you started with 256 radioactive pennies, how many would have remained undecayed
after 60 seconds of shaking? (Hint: interpolate the graph).

Teacher
Extra Lab -Precipitation Reactions Activity

(Replaces Activities of Metals Lab)
NGSSS:
changes of matter.
To introduce students to precipitation reactions, a type of double displacement reactions
To practice nomenclature of ionic compounds and formula writing
To create a particle level model to explain precipitation reactions
To identify the parts of a chemical equation and the state subscripts
Prerequisite: Students should already be familiar with ionic compounds and electrolytes. They
should have a clear model of how a solid dissolves in a solvent to produce an aqueous solution.
They should also be aware of basic nomenclature of ionic compounds including polyatomic ions.
Materials:
NiCl2 NaOH AgNO3
Na2S Na2CO3 Pb(NO3)2
Co(NO3)2 CaCl2 Glass spot plate or
Ba(NO3)2 KI well plate
K2CrO4
CuSO4

a. Prepare all solutions. Bottles with droppers work well and can be used for
many groups and years to follow. Upside down beral pipettes work well
too. Label the bottles or pipettes with the formula of the compound only to
make students practice nomenclature.
Before b. Ask students how soluble solids dissolve when placed in a solvent such as
activity: water. Review the particle level model that explains this situation. Stress
that water molecules separate the ions in the solid until they become
invisible. There is a force that allows the water molecules to overcome the
attraction between the ions in the solid.
c. Show students the containers of the solids that you used to make the
solutions. The nickel chloride and potassium chromate are both colorful
Teacher
enough for them to see what the chemical looks like in the solid state and
then show them the solutions they will be using.
d. Explain students the procedure and stress that they don‘t use more than
two drops of reactant. Some of these chemicals such as the chromates
and lead salts are toxic and harmful for the environment. So to reduce
waste the amounts must be small.
e. Warn students not to mix anything other than what is described in the
activity.
f. This activity works best when students work in pairs.
g. Groups can work in any order they prefer. If all groups work in order they
will all need the same bottles at the same time. Working out of order will
minimize this delay. Another solution is to make enough solutions for every
group.
a. Students will be very surprised to see what happens when they start
combining the solutions. Some precipitates are white and others are black
or colored. Therefore, student should have a white piece of paper under the
glass spot plate and a dark surface to see the colors well.
b. Students may not realize that the color change occurs because a solid is
During forming. You may need to point out that at the bottom they can see some
activity: flecks of solid collecting as the mixture settles.
c. Ask the students what they think it is happening or where the solid is
coming from.
d. Watch students write some of the formulas for the products and reactants.
Correct mistakes in nomenclature as you observe them
e. Follow appropriate disposal procedure for the chemicals used in this
experiment.
a. Bring the students together for class discussion.
b. Ask students to explain what they think is happening at the particle level
that makes a solid form out of two clear solutions
c. Lead students to conclude that each solution has an ion that when they
finally combine they attach to each other very strongly and water cannot
break the lattice apart.
d. Ask students what is the role of the ions that do not precipitate. Introduce
After
the concept of spectator ions. These ions do not participate in the reaction,
activity:
they just watch as spectators in a show do.
e. This time you can choose to cover the concept of total ionic equations and
net ionic equations if you deem this appropriate for your course. Also you
can introduce solubility rules.
f. Mention that this type of reactions is called precipitation reactions and they
are also part of the type of reaction called double displacement.
g. Discuss the conclusion questions in the student procedure after students
have had time to work through them.
Extension:
Gizmo: Limiting Reactants, Collision Theory

Student
Precipitation Reactions Activity
NGSSS:
changes of matter.
Background: It is common to see a solid in water dissolve until it disappears. The water
molecules are able to dismantle the lattice structure of the solid and separate it into ions too
small to see. In this case, the force between the water and the ions is stronger than the forces
between the ions and dissolution occurs. Is it possible for this process to happen in reverse?
The following activity will answer that question.
Purpose or Problem Statement: In the following activity you will combine solutions of ionic
compounds to form precipitates. You will learn how these precipitates form at the particle level.
Safety:
Use only the amount of chemical described in the procedure
Use goggles at all times
You will be handling small amounts of toxic chemicals. Do not touch or ingest the
chemicals in any way.
Dispose the chemicals as instructed by your teacher
Vocabulary: Precipitate, Lattice, solution, ions, solute, solvent, precipitation reactions, double
displacement reactions, spectator ions.

NiCl2 NaOH AgNO3
Na2S Na2CO3 Pb(NO3)2
Co(NO3)2 CaCl2 Glass spot plate or
Ba(NO3)2 KI well plate
K2CrO4
CuSO4
Procedures:
Using the following chemical reactions:
1. Combine two drops of each reactant (left of the arrow, ––>) on the glass plate. The
products are right of the arrow. [(ppt) means precipitate, flecks of solid formed and (aq)
means aqueous, or in solution, no solid formed.
2. Write the chemical formula for each compound in the reaction.
Student
3. Under the chemical formula for the precipitate (ppt), write the color of the precipitate.
1) Nickel(II) chloride(aq) + sodium sulfide(aq) ––> nickel(II) sulfide(ppt) + sodium chloride(aq)
2) Barium nitrate(aq) + copper(II) sulfate(aq) ––> barium sulfate(ppt) + copper(II) nitrate (aq)
3) Sodium carbonate(aq) + calcium chloride(aq) ––> calcium carbonate(ppt) + sodium chloride(aq)
4) Potassium chromate(aq) + silver nitrate(aq) ––> silver chromate(ppt) + potassium nitrate(aq)
5) Silver nitrate(aq) + nickel(II) chloride(aq) ––> silver chloride(ppt) + nickel nitrate(aq)
6) Cobalt(II) nitrate(aq) + sodium hydroxide(aq) ––> cobalt(ll) hydroxide(ppt) + sodium nitrate(aq)
7) Potassium iodide(aq) and lead(II) nitrate(aq) ––> lead(ll) iodide(ppt) + potassium nitrate(aq)
4. Disposal and cleaning: Follow your teacher‘s instructions for the cleaning and
disposal. Do not flush the chemicals down the drain. This lab involves heavy metals
such as lead, barium, and silver which are toxic and harmful to the environment.
These chemicals should be disposed the appropriate way.
Conclusion:
1. In your own words, define precipitate
2. Explain how precipitation reactions occur at the particle level
3. What are spectator ions?
4. Tap water involves many dissolved solids including calcium and magnesium. In some
areas of high mineral concentration pipes clog overtime just from the water running
through them. Based on your knowledge of precipitation reactions, explain how the
pipes clog.
5. Based on the reactions that you produced above, what chemical could you add to a
solution containing chloride ions if you wish to separate the chloride out of the
solution?
6. Heavy metals such as lead, silver, and barium are toxic and sometimes present in the
water. Based on your knowledge of precipitation reactions, how can water treatment
plants get rid of these toxic ions?
7. Kidney stones, a very painful condition, are composed of solid calcium oxalate.
Provide an explanation on how these stones can originate in your body.

ANTI-DISCRIMINATION POLICY
Federal and State Laws
The School Board of Miami-Dade County, Florida adheres to a policy of nondiscrimination in

employment and educational programs/activities and strives affirmatively to provide equal
opportunity for all as required by law:
Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color,
religion, or national origin.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, as amended - prohibits discrimination in employment
on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, or national origin.
Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 - prohibits discrimination on the basis of

gender.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA), as amended - prohibits

discrimination on the basis of age with respect to individuals who are at least 40.
The Equal Pay Act of 1963, as amended - prohibits gender discrimination in payment of
wages to women and men performing substantially equal work in the same establishment.
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 - prohibits discrimination against the disabled.
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) - prohibits discrimination against individuals
with disabilities in employment, public service, public accommodations and telecommunications.
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) - requires covered employers to provide
up to 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave to ―eligible‖ employees for certain family and
medical reasons.
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 - prohibits discrimination in employment on the

basis of pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions.
Florida Educational Equity Act (FEEA) - prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, gender,
national origin, marital status, or handicap against a student or employee.
Florida Civil Rights Act of 1992 - secures for all individuals within the state freedom from
discrimination because of race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, handicap, or marital
status.
Veterans are provided re-employment rights in accordance with P.L. 93-508 (Federal Law) and
Section 295.07 (Florida Statutes), which stipulates categorical preferences for employment.
Revised 9/2008

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Chemistry HSL Page 1

Curriculum and Instruction

Perla Tabares Hantman, Chair

Dr. Maria P. de Armas

First Nine Weeks

Second Nine Weeks

Third Nine Weeks

Fourth Nine Weeks

Additional Hands-on Activities

Chemistry HSL Page 3

Chemistry HSL Page 4

1. LACC.1112.RST.1.1: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and

Chemistry HSL Page 5

Chemistry HSL Page 6

Chemistry HSL Page 7

Chemistry HSL Page 8

1. Laboratory Techniques and Safety

2. Cleaning Up an Oil Spill

4. Conservation of Mass during Change

8. Models of Atomic Structure and Electrostatic Forces

9. A Bagged Chemical Reaction

10. A Mole Ratio

11. Hydrated Crystals

Chemistry HSL Page 11

13. Bonding: Conductivity and Solubility

14. Solubility Curve of KCl

15. Determining the Percentage of Acetic Acid in a Vinegar Solution

16. Energy Content of Foods and Fuels

17. Rates of Evaporation

18. Determining Reaction Rates

19. Boyle’s Law

21. Precipitation Reactions

Chemistry HSL Page 13

Work at your assigned seat unless obtaining equipment and chemicals.

Do not handle equipment or chemicals without the teacher‘s permission.

Follow laboratory procedures as explained and do not perform unauthorized experiments.

Work as quietly as possible and cooperate with your lab partner.

Wear appropriate clothing, proper footwear, and eye protection.

Report to the teachers all accidents and possible hazards.

Always make safety your first consideration in the laboratory.

Signature: ____________________________ Date: ___________________

Chemistry HSL Page 14

Materials Manager (MM)

Safety Director (SD)

When assigning lab groups, various factors need to be taken in consideration:

Chemistry HSL Page 15

Parts of a Lab Report: A Step-by-Step Checklist

Title (underlined and on the top center of the page)

Materials and activity set up:

Variables and Control Test:

Conclusion and Evaluation:

 Middle Paragraphs: Discuss the major findings of the experiment.

 Last Paragraph: Conclusion

Chemistry HSL Page 17

Laboratory Techniques and Safety

Prerequisite: Prior to this activity, the student should be able to:

Materials (per group/station):

Procedures: Day of Activity:

4. Lab Station D. How do chemicals affect fabric? Materials: Paper towels,

Chemistry HSL Page 20

Laboratory Techniques and Safety

Purpose or Problem Statement:

Vocabulary: Material Safety and Data Sheets (MSDS), toxicity, hazardous

Signature: __________ Date: _