EXPERIMENT NO.

1
Intoduction To Instruments & Basic Dc Circuit
OBJECTIVE:
Basic DC Circuit and Use of Instruments to Measure Resistance Voltage & Current.

EQUIPMENT REQURIED:
 Bread Board
 4 different types of resisters
 Volt meter
 Amper meter
 Ohm meter
 Digital multi meter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Measurements of Voltage:

Voltages are measured by digital multi meter which have different ranges of values. volt meter should
attach parallel to circuit so that it may not draw current from circuit .It must have very high value of
resistance .So that it will not short the circuit which the is to be measured. An ideal voltmeter has infinite
value of resistance. Resistance of volt meter should be higher than resistance of circuit other wise it will
load the circuit and will alter the potential which is required to be measured.
Measurement of Current:

Current is measured by multi meter which have different values of ranges.Ampere meter should
attach in series .Resistance of ampere meter should be very small so that it does not disturb the
circuit when it connected in series in order to measure current.

Measurement of Resistance:

Resistance is measured using a multi meter set to a resistance range, or a dedicated instrument called an
ohmmeter. The meter is connected across the resistor being measured.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take different values of resistances ,bread board and DMM.
2. Put a resistance on the bread board and measured its value with the help of ohm meter it should
be in kilo ohms.
3. Then provide 10 volts from DC power Supply to the circuit.
4. To measure current in the circuit we attach ampere meter in series with circuit.
5. To measure voltages we should have to attach volt meter parallel to circuit.
6. Take different values of resisters and measure current in the circuit resistance the resisters
&voltages across it.

OBSERVATIONS:

Resistance in Calclaulated Current

Sr. no Voltages K (Ω) voltages
provide

CONCLUSIONS:
Hence, we learn basic DC circuit and use of an instruments to measure resistance volts &
current
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
Color Coding Technique
OBJECTIVE:
To find the Resistance by Color Code Technique.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 Different types of resisters.
 DMM.
 Bread board.

THEORY:
Resistor Tolerance:

It is not possible to manufacture a resistor so that it has an exact value of resistance. Instead the
resistor is made to a tolerance, that is, the resistor can have any value within a given range of
resistance values.

The resistor manufacturer will normally specify a nominal resistor value (for example 1kΩ) plus
a tolerance (for example ±5%).

To calculate the upper and lower limits of the resistance range, for a resistor with a nominal
value R and tolerance of ±5%:

For example, a resistor of nominal value 1kΩ and a tolerance of ±5% will have a
resistance range whose limits are:
  The 4-Band Color Coding System for Low Power Resistors: The nominal value of a
resistor and its tolerance on this value, are indicated by a system of four colored bands
around the body. This is illustrated in Fig 4.1.

The bands may be arranged at one end of the resistor body to indicate which way round the value
should be read.

1. The FIRST band (nearest the end of the resistor) indicates the first digit of the resistor
value.
2. The SECOND band indicates the second digit of the resistor value.
3. The THIRD band indicates the number of 0's after the two digits, that is, this represents
the multiplier.
4. The FOURTH band indicates the tolerance on the nominal indicated value.
The resistor color code values

Three Band resisters are low value resisters these are consists of three bands.

 1st band indicate the 1st digit of numerical value.

 2n d band indicate the 2nd digit of numerical value.
 3rd band indicate the multiplier.
 4th band may or may not exist.

1st band = Brown

2nd band = Black
3rd band = Red

Now we must remember the equivalents of those colors.

Brown = 1
Black = 0
Red = 2, so add 2 zeros
Okay, the value of this resistor is 1000Ω, which can also be written as 1k Ω.

Remember that the 3rd band means the number of zeros to be added to the significant digits. So
since the 3rd band is red which has an equivalent of two, it means two zeros must be added to the
significant digits 10, which makes it 1000.

When a resistor, does not have a 4th band, which determines the tolerance rating, the resistor
automatically assumes a +20% or -20% tolerance. That means that whatever the value is of the
resistor, it can go above that value +20% more or -20% less, and the resistor can still be
considered in good operational condition. However, once it goes beyond the +20% or -20%
tolerance, the resistor is considered bad and must be replaced.

TABLE OF COLOURS OF 3 BAND RESISTERS:

Five band resisters are high value resisters with greater precision.

In above given table there is also method to indicate the value of 5 band resisters.
Same method as 6 band resisters.
 PROCEDURE:
 For each of the resistors R3 to R10 note the colors of the four bands, record them in
Table [Given below 4.2] and hence identify their nominal values and tolerances.
 Calculate the upper and lower limits of the resistance range for each resistor, and record
these limits in Table .
 Measure the resistance of each resistor using the multimeter set to a suitable resistance
range, or use autorange facility if available. Record the values in Table
 Compare the values identified from the color coding with the measured values.
 Check that each resistor is within its specified tolerance (that is, the measured resistance
value lies between the calculated upper and lower tolerance limits).
OBSREVATIONS:
Tolerance Calculated Resistance Measured
st nd rd
Sr# 1 2 3 band resistance Difference
digit digit digit % Total Min
Max

CONCLUSION:
With the help of color coding method we can find the value of every resisters with out DMM or
OHM meter.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Verification of Ohm’s Law.
OBJECTIVE:
This exercise examines Ohm‟s law, one of the Fundamental laws governing Electrical Circuits. It

states that Voltage is equal to the product of Current times Resistance.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 Multimeter.
 Resisters
 Connecting wires.

THEORY:
Ohm's Law states:
The voltage across a conductor is directly proportional to the current flowing
through it.

This can be expressed as follows:

VαI
V = (constant) x I

Where the constant is the resistance (R) of the conductor. Thus:

V=IR
where:
V = Voltage (Volts)
I = Current (Amperes)
R = Resistance (Ohms)
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. I made the above circuit on a bread board.
2. I keept the value of R= 1 k ohms throughout the practical.
3. I set the supply voltage as 3V from gernater. Now measure the voltage drop VR across
the resistor using a digital multi meter.
4. Then I measured the current in the circuit with the help of digital multi meter.
5. I take the ratio of V, R and I. This value should be approximately equal to 1 k ohms and
should remain the same throughout the practical. It shows that as current increases by
increasing the supply voltage, the voltage drop across the resistor also increases
proportionally and the ratio of the voltage drop and the current remains the same (i.e. R).
6. Repeat the above procedure by changing the supply voltage to 6V, 9V, 12V ,15V,18V &
20V.
7. I also repeat this experiment with 6.8 k ohm resisters with the same values.
8. Then plot a graph between Voltage drop and the current. A straight line graph is obtained
that shows the direct proportionality between V and I.
OBSERVATIONS:
TABLE#1:
Vs(Applied) Vr(Volts) R(ohm)K I(ma) R=V/I
SR# ohm

TABLE#2
SR# Vs(Applied) Vr(Volts) R(ohm)K ohm I(ma) R=V/I
 V(Voltage) Vs I (Current) Graph from the AboveExperimental Results

CONCLUSION:
Hence, in this exercise examines Ohm‟s law, one of the fundamental laws governing electrical
circuits. It states that voltage is equal to the product of current times resistance
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Series Combination & Voltage Divider Rules

OBJECTIVE:
To Measure Equivalent Resistance, Voltages and Currents in Series Connected circuit. The
Voltage Divider Rule will also be investigated.

EQUIPMENT REQURIED:

 Resistors of different values

 Multi meter
 Dc voltage
 Voltage divider rule(DVR)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 THEORY:

Equivalent Resistance of Resistors Connected in Series:

 A series circuit is defined by a single loop in which all components are arranged in
chain
fashion.
 The current is the same at all points in the loop and may be found by dividing the
total
voltage source by the total resistance.
 As the resistors are connected together in series the same current passes through each
resistor in the chain and the total resistance, R(T)of the circuit must be equal to the
sum of
all the individual resistors added together. That is RT = R1 + R2 + R3
 This total resistance is generally known as the Equivalent Resistance and can be
defined
as; " a single value of resistance that can replace any number of resistors without
altering the values of the current or the voltage in the circuit" . Then the equation
given for
calculating total resistance of the circuit when resistors are connected together in
series is
given as:

Series Resistor Equation

 Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ..... Rn etc.

Voltage Dividing with Series Resistors:

fig shows three resistors connected in series. The current I is the same through each resistor,
producing volt drop V1 across R1, V2 across R2 and V3 across R3. This circuit is referred to as a
potential divider or voltage divider, since the supply voltage is divided into a number of potential
differences or voltage drops.

A potential difference (pd) is the voltage difference between one end of a resistor and the other.
The sum of the voltage drops is equal to the source voltage V:

V = V1+ V2 + V3

'The sum of the voltage drops around a closed circuit is equal to the applied voltage.'

It is possible to calculate the voltage drop across each resistor in a series connected circuit. We
know that the total circuit resistance is:

RT = R1+ R2 + R3

and that the supply current I is the same through each resistor. Therefore by applying Ohm's law:

V = I x RT
V1 = I x R1
V2 = I x R2
V3 = I x R3

EXAMPLE NO. 1 ( USING OHM’S LAW):

 Ohms law is the easiest way to calculate resistance ,voltages and current in the circuit.
 TABLE#1:

Imaginary values

SR# ResistanceΩ Current Voltages(V)

1 1k 1 1

2 6.8 0.44 3
3 6.8 1.34 9

EXAMPLE NO. 2 ( USING VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE):

Voltage divider rule is also use to measure voltages across different resisters in seriers
circuit.

Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit with R1 = 1 k, R2 = 6.8 k, R3 = 390 k.
2. Calculate the Resistances with the help of color code and also compute total Resistance
by Series connection of Resistors Equation.
3. Measure the Resistances with the help of DMM and also measure the total Resistance by
connecting Resistors in series on breadboard without using Power Supply.
4. Fill the Table 1 by using above values.
5. Adjust Supply Voltage 10 volts, Calculate Current .
6. Set the DMM to read DC current and insert it in the circuit at point A. Remember,
ammeters go in-line and require the circuit to be opened for proper measurement. The red
lead should be placed closer to the positive source terminal. Record this current. Repeat
the current measurements at points B and C.
7. Using the theoretical current found in Step 1, apply Ohm‟s law to Calculate the expected
voltage drops across R1, R2, and R3.
8. Apply Voltage Divider Rule (VDR) to Calculate Voltage across R1, R2, and R3.
9. Set the DMM to measure DC voltage. Remember, unlike current, voltage is measured
across components. Place the DMM probes across R1 and measure its voltage. Again, red
 lead should be placed closer to the positive source terminal. Repeat this process for the
voltages across R2 and R3.
Also find V AC & VB
To find V AC place the red probe on point A and the black probe on point C.
Similarly, to find V
B, place the red probe on point B and the black probe on ground.

OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE#1
SR# Resistance Measured voltages Calculated Daviation
resistance

TABLE#2
Current I measured at I measured at I measured at I measured at
calculated A B C D

Table#3
Voltage Voltages Voltages Voltage VDR Daviation
measured by across R calculated(OHMS
DMM LAW)
R1=1k
 R2=6.8k

R3=390k
R4=397k

CONCLUSION:
We can calculate voltages and current in series with the help of ohms law and voltage divider
rule. With the help of voltage divider rule we can find voltages very precisely.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Parallel Combination & Current Divider Rule

OBJECTIVE:
To Measure Equivalent Resistance, Voltages and Currents in Parallel Connected Circuit
and verification of Current Divider Rule.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 Resisters of different values.
 DMM
 Bread board
 DC Voltage source
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
The Equivalent Resistance of Resistors Connected in Parallel:

fig shows three resistors R1, R2 & R3 connected in parallel and the equivalentsingle resistor RT.
The input supply current IT splits into components I1, I2 & I3.

IT = I1 + I2 + I3

Knowing that the supply voltage V is applied across all three resistors in the aboveexpression we
can apply Ohm's Law and write:

Therefore the total resistance of resistors connected in parallel is:

For the case of two resistors in parallel:

This equation may be expressed as

 A parallel circuit is defined by the fact that all components share two common nodes
 The voltage is the same across all components and will equal the applied source voltage.
 Resistors are said to be connected together in "Parallel" when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of the other resistor or resistors. The voltage drop
across all of the resistors in parallel is the same. In the following circuit the resistors R 1,
R2 and R3 are all connected together in parallel between the two points A and B.
Parallel Resistor Equation

Here, the reciprocal ( 1/Rn ) value of the individual resistances are all added together instead of
the resistances themselves. This gives us a value known as Conductance, symbol G with the
units of conductance being the Siemens, symbol S. Conductance is therefore the reciprocal or the
inverse of resistance, ( G = 1/R ). To convert this conductance sum back into a resistance value
we need to take the reciprocal of the conductance giving us then the total resistance, R T of the
resistors in parallel.

 The total supplied current may be found by dividing the voltage source by the
equivalent parallel resistance. It may also be found by summing the currents in all of
the branches.
 The current through any resistor branch may be found by dividing the source voltage
by the resistor value. Consequently, the currents in a parallel circuit are inversely
proportional to the associated resistances.
  An alternate technique to find a particular current is the current divider rule. For a two
resistor circuit this states that the current through one resistor is equal to the total
current times the ratio of the other resistor to the total resistance.

CDR & OHM,S LAW:

 If we have two resistors R1 & R2 in parallel then we can apply current division.
For deriving its formula we use the following steps:
 By ohms law,
 V1 = I1/R1
 As V1= Vs (since the battery is in parallel with the resistors)
 So I1 = Vs/ R1
 As R1 and R2 are connected in parallel so the equivalent resistance will be given
as:
 Req = (R1xR2)/ (R1+ R2)
 Hence the total current „Is‟ supplied by the battery is:
 Is = Vs / Req
 Vs = Is x [(R1xR2)/ (R1+ R2)]

PROCEDURE:

1. Construct the circuit in Figure 1 with R1 = 1 k, R2 = 6.8 k, R3 = 390k.

2. Calculate the Resistances with the help of color code and also compute total Resistance by
Parallel connection of Resistors Equation.
3. Measure the Resistances with the help of DMM and also measure the total Resistance by
connecting Resistors in parallel on breadboard without using Power Supply.
4. Adjust Supply Voltage 10 volts, determine the theoretical voltages at points A, B, C & D with
respect to groun and record it in Table.
 5. Set the DMM to read DC voltage and apply it to the circuit from point A to ground. The red lead
should be placed at point A and the black lead should be connected to ground. Record this voltage
in Table.
6. Apply Current Divider Rule (CDR) to Calculate Current through R1, R2, and R3.

7. Set the DMM to measure DC current. Remember, current is measured at a single point and
requires the meter to be inserted in-line. To measure the total supplied current place the DMM
between points A and B. The red lead should be placed closer to the positive source terminal.
Record this value in Table 3. Repeat this process for the currents through R1 and R2. Determine
the percent deviation between theoretical and measured for each of the currents and record these
in the table.
8. Also find Ix , To find insert the ammeter at point X with the black probe closer to R3. Record this
value in Table.

OBSERVATIONS:
TABLE#1:

SR# Resistance (KΩ) Measured resistace Calculated Difference

DMM Resistance

TABLE#2:

Voltages Ohm’s law DMM Difference

 TABLE#3:
SR# Resistance Current(ohm’s CDR(Current divider rule) DMM Difference
law)

CONCLUSION:
Hence, we learn how to measure equivalent resistance, voltages and currents in parallel
resistor circuit.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Series Parallel Circuit
OBJECTIVE:
To Measure Current, Voltage and Resistance in a Series-Parallel Circuit.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 Resistors of different values
 Digital Multi meter
 Breadboard
 DC power supply
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT:

A circuit in which resistors are connected in both, series and parallel combination, is known as
parallal-series circuit.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PARALLEL-SERIES CIRCUIT:

In such circuit, the resistors connected in series, have the same value of current passing through them
while voltage divides depending upon the value of resistance.
From the parallel portion, voltage remains same while the current divides depending upon the value of
resistance.

PROCEDURE:
1. I took four different resistors and calculated their values by colour-coding technique.
2. Secondly, I measured the values of resistors with the help of digital multimeter.
3. I calculated the value of current using Current Divider Rule and voltage using Voltage Divider
Rule.
4. Then, I put the resistors in breadboard according to the above circuit and measured the current‟s
value with digital multi meter.
5. I also measured the value of voltage across each resistor using digital multi meter.
6. I observed the difference between the values of current and voltage obtained by calculation and
measurement by digital multi meter.
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATION:
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

Sr Calculated Value Measured Value Deviation

Resistance
No. (KΩ) (KΩ) (KΩ)

MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT

Current Divider Rule: In = IT RT / Rn

Or: I2 = IT× R1/(R1+R2)

Current calculated Current measured

Sr Current by by Deviation
No. (mA) Current Divider Rule Digital Multimeter (mA)
(mA) (mA)
MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE

Voltage Divider Rule: V1 = R1/Req × VT

Voltage calculated Voltage measured

Sr Voltage Difference
by VDR by DMM
No. (V) (V)
(V) (V)

CONCLUSIONS:
In the calculation of current, resistance and voltage, the values calculated by CDR, VDR
and measured by DMM are negligibly different due to environmental or some other errors.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 7
Verification Of KVL & KCL

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

OBJECTIVE:

Understanding and performing Kirchhoff‟s Voltage law and Kirchhoff‟s Current law.

EQUIPMENT REQURIED:

 Resistors
 DMM

STATEMENT:

The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is
zero, or:
More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential
drops in that loop, or:
The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents in them in
a closed loop is equal to the total emf available in that loop.
 By KVL,
-E + V1 + V2 = 0
Or;
E = V1 + V2

 Circuit - a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an electrical current flows.
 Path - a line of connecting elements or sources with no elements or sources included more
than once.
 Node - a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit were two or more circuit
elements are connected or joined together giving a connection point between two or more
branches. A node is indicated by a dot.
 Branch - a branch is a single or group of components such as resistors or a source which are
connected between two nodes.
 Loop - a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit element or node is
encountered more than once.

Example: 1:

R1=R2=R3=1kΩ

 Loop 1:
-V1 + I1 1k ohm + (I1 - I2) 1k ohm = 0
  Loop 2:
I1 1k ohm + (I1 - I2) 1k ohm = V2
Let: V1 = 7V and V2 = 4V

 Results:
I1 = 3.33 mA
I2 = -0.33 mA

 Finally
Vout = (I1 - I2) 1k ohm = 3.66V

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

 Branches: 6
 Nodes:5
 Loops:2
-Vs+V1+V2-V5=0
-V2+V3+V4=0
Main loop;-Vs-V5+V1+V4+V3=0

R1=R2=1KΩ
R3=R5=1.5KΩ
R2=2.2KΩ/3.9KΩ
Procedure:
1. Make the above circuit on the bread board. Take R1=R2= 1 k ohm and R2= 2.2 k/3.9ohm
and R3=R5=1.5kohm.
 2. Set the input value as 5V and measure the potential drop V1, V2, V3 across R1, R2,
R3,R4,R5 respectively with the help of DMM.
3. Note the readings in the table 1(a). 2
4. Add V1, V2, V3,V4,V5 to get the total emf of the battery. It should be equal to the
voltage supplied.
5. Now repeat the above steps by changing the supply voltage to 12V and 15V.
6. Now fill the table 1(b) with the values calculated theoretically using KVL.
7. The calculated and observed values should approximately be the same.

Kirchhoff's Current law (KCL)

OBJECTIVE:
Understanding and performing Kirchhoff‟s current law.

STATEMENT:
At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal
to the sum of currents flowing out of that node, or:
The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero

Here,
I = IA + IB + IC
PROCEDURE:

1. Make the above circuit on the bread board. Take R1=R4= 1 k ohm , R3= R5=1.5 k ohm
andR2=3.9kohm.
2. Set the input value as 5V and measure the currents I R1, IR2, IR3,IR4,IR5 across R1, R2, R3,R4,R5
respectively and the total current Itotal with the help of DMM.
3. Note the readings in the table 1(a).
4. Add IR1, IR2 ,IR3,IR4,IR5 to get the total current supplied by the battery. It should be equal to the
total current Itotal measured with the help of DMM.
5. Now repeat the above steps by changing the supply voltage to 12V and 15V.
8. The calculated and observed values should approximately be the same.
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
Both observation of kvl and kcl……………….

Currents Resistances I(ma) V(voltages)

(KΩ)
Calculated Measured Deviation
Calculated Measured Deviation

CONCLUSION:
we can calculate the values of voltages and currents in the circuit which have numbers of
resistances in it with the help of KVL and KCL……
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
Power Dissipation
OBJECTIVE:
To Measure Power Dissipated in a Resistor and Prove that Power Supply is equal to
Power Dissipated in Circuit.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 DC Power Supply.
 DMM
 Resisters.
 For 1st experiment R1=6.7kΩ,R2=67kΩ,R3=10kΩ
 For 2nd Experiment R1=33kΩ,R2=58kΩ,R3=270kΩ,R4=39kΩ

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

For experiment#1
THEORY:
The power in a DC circuit is given by Voltage x Current, the units being watts:

In these expressions, the voltage units are volts, current units are amperes and the resistance units
are ohms, the resulting power being in watts.

The electrical power dissipated in a resistor is converted to heat. The current flowing through a
resistor will cause its temperature to rise. This temperature rise must be limited or the resistor
will be damaged. All resistors have a specified maximum power rating which must not be
exceeded. To ensure that the power dissipated in a resistor does not exceed the maximum power
rating it is important that the applied voltage and the circuit current are limited to safe levels. The
power rating for a resistor depends on the material used for its construction and on its physical
size.

PROCEDURE:
 I take the resisters of R1=6.7kΩ,R2=67kΩ,R3=10kΩ and apply voltage of 10volts
respectively .
 I find current through each resister.
 Then I find the power dissipated across each resister.
 I write the values in the table 1.
TABLE#1
Power
SR# Resistance Voltages Current dissipated
(KΩ) (Volt) (ma) (m Watt)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
For 2nd diagram

 For 2nd Experiment R1=33kΩ,R2=58kΩ,R3=270kΩ,R4=39kΩ

Total Power Dissipation in a Series Resistor Circuit:

The total power dissipation in a series resistor circuit is equal to the sum of the power dissipation
of the individual resistors.
PT = I2R1 + I2R2 + I2R3 = I2 (R1 + R2 + R3) = I2RT
so the total power dissipation can also be expressed as:

These formulas for total power dissipation hold true for any series resistor circuit:

where I is the supply current, V is the supply voltage and RT is the total circuit resistance
TABLE#2
Sr# Voltages Current Power Voltages Current Power
Supply Supply Dissipated across through across
(Vs) (Is) (Ps) resisters resisters each
resisters

CONCLUSION:
Hence, we learn how to Measure Power Dissipated in a Resistor and prove that power
supply is equal to power dissipated in circuit.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9
Verification Of Superpostion Principle
OBJECTIVE:
The objective of this experiment is to study the Principle of Superposition.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 DC Power Supply.
 DMM
 Resisters.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that
element due to each independent source acting alone.
The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear circuit with more than one
independent source by calculating the contribution of each independent source separately.
However, to apply the superposition principle, we must keep two things in mind:

1. We consider one independent source at a time while all other independent sources are turned
off. This implies that we replace every voltage source by 0 V (or a short circuit), and every
current source by 0 A (or an open circuit). This way we obtain a simpler and more manageable
circuit.

With these in mind, we apply the superposition principle in three steps:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source. Find the output (voltage or current) due to
that active source using the different techniques .
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to the independent
sources.

PROCEDURE:
 I take 5 resisters of different values.
 I take two DC voltages supply and made the circuit according circuit diagram.
 Then I found the effect of 1st voltage supply that is 10 volt .I found current through
each resisters and voltages across resisters.
 I repeat this experiment with 15 volts power supply.
 To prove principle of superposition I apply both 10 and 15 voltages and calculate
effect of both sources across each resisters.

TABLE#1
For 10 voltages.

Sr# voltages current

TABLE#2:For 15 voltages..

Sr# voltages current

TABLE#3:
For 10 and 15 voltages combined effect

Sr# voltages current

GRAPH OF VALUES:

CONCUSION:
we can prove that superposition principle is the voltage across (or current through) an element
in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through) that element
due to each independent source acting alone.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10
Characterstics Of Variable Resistor
OBJECTIVES:
How to measure Resistance, Voltage and Current in Variable Resister and use of Variable
Resister as Potential Divider.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 Variable resister
 DMM
 Connecting wires
 Resister

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
To measure voltages around variable resistor and load resistor

To measure current variable resistor

THEORY:
A potentiometer informally a pot, is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact
that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and the wiper, it
acts as a variable resistor or rheostat .The measuring instrument called a potentiometer is
essentially a voltage divider used for measuring electric potential (voltage). Normally,
potentiometers are wired as variable voltage dividers: connect +V to one side, connect the other
side to ground, and the middle pin will output a voltage between 0 and +V . However, by only
connecting two pins (one outside pin and one center pin) of a potentiometer to your circuit, you
can turn a pot into a variable resistor. Think about it this way: the potentiometer is filled with
resistive material and turning the knob changes the amount of this material that the electrons
must travel through before leaving the pot. This means that the maximum resistance of this
variable resistor is the total resistance of the pot. The pot has a total resistance of 41kOhms, so if
the pot is turned all the way to the left the resistance between the two black wires is 41kOhms. If
the pot is turned all the way to the right the amount of resistive material between the two black
leads drops to zero and the resistance goes to zero as well. Any position in the middle will give a
resistance between 0 and 41kOhms. If I'd soldered a wire to the left lead instead of the right all
of this will flip: turning all the way to the left is 0Ohms and all the way to the right is 41kOhms.
One thing you might want to keep in mind when using
this technique is the taper of your pot. This pot has a B label on it, which means it is a linear
taper pot. This means the resistance of the material inside the pot is uniform for all positions of
the knob. If the knob of the pot is positioned exactly halfway between the two extremes, the
resistance between the black wires equals 41kOhm/2 = 20.5kOhm. Position the knob halfway
between this mid point and the right extreme and the resistance between the two wires equals
41kOhm/4 = 10.25kOhm. If the wiring is reversed (wires connected to the left and middle pin
instead of right and middle) the pot is still linear but the knob positions of 0Ohm and 41kOhms
have reversed.

PROCEDURE:
1. Take a variable resistor and make circuit according to diagram.
2. Connect a DC voltage source at point A and B, and provide 10 volts around it.
3. To measure voltages put DMM across the point A and B.
4. Connect a load resistor between points B and C and measure voltages around it
5. To find current through the variable resister join the Dc voltage at point A and C .
6. To find current connect DMM in series with the variable resistor.
OBSERVATIONS:

TABLE#1
To measure resistance and current through it.

Rotation RAW RWB RAB IAW(ma)

To measure voltages around point A and B and load resistor

VWB(with out Rl) VWB (Rl=6.7k) VWB(Rl=1K)

Full CCW
Conclusion:
Hence we learn how to measure resistance, voltage and current in variable resister and use of
variable resister as potential divider.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11
Verification Of Thevenin Theorem With Single Voltage Source
OBJECTIVE:
To verify Thevenin Theorem for a Single Voltage Source.

STATEMENT:
Thevenin‟s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

 Variable resister
 DMM
 Connecting wires
 Resister
 DC power supply

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
Thevenin‟s theorem provides a technique by which the fixed part of the circuit is replaced by an
equivalent circuit. that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit
voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

If the network has no dependent sources, we turn off all independent sources. is the input
resistance of the network looking between terminals a and b

Thevenin‟s theorem is very important in circuit analysis. It helps simplify a circuit. A large
circuit may be replaced by a single independent voltage source and a single resistor. This
replacement technique is a powerful tool in circuit design.

As mentioned earlier, a linear circuit with a variable load can be replaced by the Thevenin
equivalent, exclusive of the load. The equivalent network behaves the same way externally as the
original circuit.Consider a linear circuit terminated by a load Rl.

The current IL through the load and the voltage Vth across the load are easily determined once
the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit at the load‟s terminals is obtained.

PROCEDURE:

1. I made the circuit on bread board as shown in circuit diagram by using resistors and
power supply.
2. I disconnect the load resistor and made the circuit open.
3. Then I find voltage across the point from which the load resistor is removed .
4. Then I find equivalent resistance of circuit from which the load resistor removed.
5. Then I find the current through circuit by applying load resistor.
6. Join Rth load resistor and voltage resistor….

OBSERVATIONS:
Measured:

Sr.no RL Rth Vth VL IL

Calculated:

Sr# RL Rth Vth VL IL

CONCLUSION:
Thevenin‟s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-
circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals
when the independent sources are turned off.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 12
Verification Of Thevenin Theorem With Two Voltage Source
OBJECTIVE:
To verify Thevenin‟s Theorem for two Voltage Sources.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 DC power supply
 Resistors of different values
 Breadboard
 Digital multimeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

Any linear circuit can be replaced by equivalent voltage source VTH (or VOC) and an equivalent
resistance RTH; connected in series.

For this purpose, all voltage sources are short and all the current sources are opened. We find an
equivalent circuit for the measurement of voltage and currents.
PROCEDURE:
1. I took three resistors of different values and connected them in breadboard to mearure current and
voltage.
2. I disconnected the load resistance and short out one of the voltage sources and find out the
voltage across the terminals from where the load resistance is removed.
3. I repeated this step by placing second voltage source instead of first.
4. Then, I find thevenin‟s resistance RTH.
5. After this, I reconnected the load resistance RL, thevenin‟s voltage VTH and thevenin‟s resistance
RTH in series.
6. In this way, I obtained a simple circuit and measured the circuit parameters easily.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

CURRENT DIVIDER RULE (CDR):

I1 = Req/R1 × IS

VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE (VDR):

V1 = R1/RT × VT

MEASURED VALUES:

Sr
RL VTH RTH VL IL
No.

CALCULATED VALUES:

Sr
RL VTH RTH VL IL
No.
CONCLUSION:
With the help of Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit, I measured the circuit parameters in an easy way by
replacing a linear network with an equivalent circuit.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13
Verification Of Norton’s Theorem
OBJECTIVE:
To Study and Investigate Norton’s theorem Practically.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 DC power supply
 Resistors of different values
 Breadboard
 Digital multimeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Norton’s Theorem states that :

“A linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in
parallel with a resistor RN, where IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input
or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off “.

Norton‟s theorem is expressed in terms of the short-circuit current delivered by the network, and in terms
of conductances instead of resistances. This makes Norton‟s theorem especially useful in the study of
parallel circuits.

NORTON‟S THEOREM, makes use of a theoretical, but very useful, device called a CONSTANT-
CURRENT GENERATOR. As the name says, a „„constant-current generator‟‟ is a theoretical generator
that delivers the same constant current to all finite load resistances it is connected to.
PROCEDURE:
 First of all I remove the resistance (if any) across the two given terminals and put a short circuit
across them.
 Then I compute short-circuit current Isc.
 After this I Remove all voltage sources but retain their internal resistances, if any.
 Then Next find the resistance Ri of the network as looked into from the given terminals.
 The current source (Isc) joined in parallel across Ri between the two terminals gives Norton „s
equivalent circuit.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

MEASURED VALUES:
Sr
RL VTH RTH VL IN
No.

CALCULATED VALUES:
Sr
RL VTH RTH VL IN
No.
CONCLUSION:
With the help of Norton‟s equivalent circuit, I measured the circuit parameters in an easy way by
replacing a linear network with an equivalent circuit.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 14
Verification Of Source Transformation
OBJECTIVE:
To Study and Prove the Source Transformation.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
 DC power supply
 Resistors of different values
 Breadboard
 Digital multimeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The superposition theorem is very useful for finding the voltages and currents in a circuit
with two or more sources of supply, and is usually easier to use than Kirchoff ‟s law equations. One
supply is selected and the circuit is redrawn to show the other supply (or supplies) short-circuited (leaving
only the internal resistance of each supply). The voltage and current caused by the first supply can then be
calculated, using V = RI methods together with the rules for combining series and parallel resistors. Each
supply is treated in turn in the same way, and finally the voltages and currents caused by each supply are
added.
Hence, this theorem may be state as follows:

“Response of a linear network to a number of sources applied simultaneously is equal to the sum of the
responses of the network when each source is applied individually”.

PROCEDURE:
 First of all I solve all the connections in which all current sources connected to series
resistors.
 Then measure the voltage using dmm and connect that resistors in parallel.
 Then I simply find out the equivalent resistance of all resistors either they are connected
in series or parallel combination.
 And simply find out the total current through the resistor.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

CURRENT DIVIDER RULE (CDR):

I1 = Req/R1 × IS

VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE (VDR):

V1 = R1/RT × VT

Total Applied Total

SR# Resistance Voltage Current
(KΩ) (Volts) (ma)

CONCLUSION:
Hence we study about the source transformation in and implement the source
transformation theorem on a circuit and observe the values.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 15
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
OBJECTIVE:
To Study and Verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
 DC power supply
 Resistors of different values
 Breadboard
 Digital multimeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Maximum Power Transfered can be defined as:

“The power transferred from a supply source to a load is at its maximum when the resistance of the load
is equal to the internal resistance of the source.”
On the other words A resistive load will be consumptive maximum power from the supply when the load
resister is equal to the equivalent (Thevenin) network resister"
RL = Rth ……. For maximum power transfer.
IL = Vth / (Rth + RL)
= Vth / (Rth + Rth)
= Vth / 2
 Where,
Pmax = IL2 RL
= Vth2 / 4Rth

PROCEDURE:
 Connect the circuit shown in figure below. From the circuit, we can note that
Rth=100Ω and Vth=5V.
 Change the value of RL in steps as shown in table.
 Measure the voltage "VL" and current "IL" and record it in the table.
 Repeat steps (2-3) by using Rth = 150Ω .

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

CALCULATIONS:
Hence we study and calculate maximum power using maximum power
transfer theorem.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 16
CAPACITORS AND INDUCTORS
OBJECTIVE:
To Study and know about Capacitors And Inductors.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
 Capacitors and Inductors of different values
 Breadboard
 Digital multimeter

THEORY:
The inductor behaves identically to the resistor in terms of series and parallel combinations. That is, the
equivalent of a series connection of inductors is simply the sum of the values. For a parallel connection of
inductors either the product-sum rule or the “reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals” rule may be used.
Capacitors, in contrast, behave in an opposite manner. The equivalent of a parallel grouping of capacitors
is simply the sum of the capacitances while a series connection must be treated with the product-sum or
reciprocal rules.

For circuit analysis in the steady state case, inductors may be treated as shorts (or for
more accuracy, as a small resistance known as the coil resistance, Rcoil, which is dependent on the
construction of the device) while capacitors may be treated as opens. If multiple capacitors are in series,
the applied voltage will be split among them inversely to the capacitance. That is, the largest capacitors
will drop the smallest voltages.

PROCEDURE:
 Using an RLC meter, measure the values of the two capacitors and two inductors and record them
in Table 15.1. Also, measure the equivalent DC series resistance of the two inductors and record
them in Table 15.1. Using these values, determine and record the theoretical series and parallel
combinations specified in Table 15.2.
 Connect the two capacitors in series and measure the total capacitance using the RLC meter.
Record this value in Table 15.2. Repeat this process for the remaining combinations in Table
15.2. Also determine and record the deviations.
 Consider the circuit of Figure 15.1 using E = 5 volts, C1 = .1 µF and C2 = .22 µF. Determine the
voltage across each capacitor and record these values in Table 15.3.
 Build the circuit of Figure 15.1 using E = 5 volts, C1 = .1 µF and C2 = .22 µF. Measure the
voltage across each capacitor and record these values in Table 15.3. Also determine and record
the deviations.
  Consider the circuit of Figure 15.2 using E = 10 volts, R1 = 4.7 k, R2 = 10 k, C = .1 µF and L = 1
mH. Determine the steady state voltage across each component and record these values in Table
15.4.
 Build the circuit of Figure 15.2 using E = 10 volts, R1 = 4.7 k, R2 = 10 k, C = .1 µF and L = 1
mH. Energize the circuit. It will reach steady state in less than one second. Measure the steady
state voltage across each component and record these values in Table 15.4. Also determine and
record the deviations.
OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:
CONCLUSION:
Hence we know about the working of capacitors and inductors and we well
know about it.