THE APPLICATION OF MARKETING STRATEGIES IN THE

CONTAINER SEAPORT MARKET.

Dr. Pardali Angeliki, Associate Professor, Kounoupas Evangelos, PhD Candidate

Dept. of Maritime Studies, University of Piraeus, email: apardali@unipi.gr,
kounoupa@unipi.gr

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this paper is to provide an insight of how marketing has evolved in the
area of Port economics and management. Our interest is focused on Container
terminals. The paper examines the traditional, contemporary and evolving
characteristics of the container terminal market based on a critical review of
bibliography and published research. We present the container port marketplace form a
marketing perspective and distinguish three different levels of marketing strategy
application in the port market, namely the Governance Level, the Port Authority Level
and the Port Terminal Operator (PTO) Level. We present the differences in strategy and
implementation of port marketing within these levels, thus providing a basis to
understand how these notions develop in each stage and the need for their integration in
a holistic marketing approach.

Keywords:

Container Terminal, Port Product, Port Competition, Port, Marketing Levels

1. Introduction

Over the last 40 years, much has been discussed, published and debated over the
scientific field of marketing signalling the development of a more customer orientated
culture, for both academics and business practitioners. Market and not industry became
the centre of attention, since customers “are not bound by the typical single-industry
definition of competition” [1]. According to Levitt [2] marketing “is the whole business
seen from the point of view of the final result, that is, from the customer's point of view
… concern and responsibility for marketing must therefore permeate all areas of the
enterprise”. However, considering the volume of literature in consumer, service and
industrial marketing, little has been written for the case of Marketing in the Seaport
sector. Early approaches, such as the ISL (1991) [3] and UNCTAD [4] publications
have been limited in their perspective, however recent developments in the container
seaport market is reinforcing the interest in the field. The Port Product encompasses
tangible and intangible activities therefore any attempts to explore port marketing need
to also consider the principles of service marketing. However, service and product
marketing are not adequate to describe Seaport/container terminal operations. Ports
exist because raw materials and goods need to be transported and in fact the port
product and services are used as interim stages within a supply chain that delivers what
is actually wanted by the end consumer. Hence, the Port Market is an industrial market
and differences cover aspects of oligopoly situations, limited number of buyers,
technical complexity, realistic and orthological buying behaviour [5]. Although defining
the conceptual context is necessary, it is not adequate when studying Port Marketing.
The Container Terminal Market is characterised by fierce competition and constant
changes in the shape and power of its customers. Moreover, market key players such as
Port Terminal Operators (PTOs), Port Authorities and Governing organisations have
different roles and interests. By analysing the factors that constitute the container
terminal market and exploring related literature we as highlight the necessity of
marketing strategy formulation in separate levels.

2. Traditional Characteristics of the Container Market and the Early approaches

to Port Marketing.

Traditional Characteristics of the Container Market

Traditionally, emphasis in port economics had been placed in developing the water-side
and yard side operations. Shipping lines, global or local as well as shippers [6] [7], were
defined as the main customers, the role of local hinterland was highly appreciated and
port competition was mainly examined at an inter-port level. Yard side interest was
placed in the centre of attention following the trend for continuously arising ship size,
with demand imposing costly investments in infrastructure [8]. Regional monopolistic
power developed by main ports left little space for competitive policies to arise, since
fragmented markets and state protectionism controlled the market. Port performance
was mainly measured based on efficiency-related measures and techniques [9]. In the
post-war years, port management and consequent academic research was devoted to
efficiency gains in ports operation and the shift from public towards private ownership
and operations of port facilities. Up to the early 90’s the pursued economies of scale
from shipping companies was confronted by extremely costly infrastructure investments
and the development of dedicated terminals. The hub and spoke system enhanced the
trend towards increasing container ship size, while alliances between major shipping
lines [10] resulted in the strengthening of their bargaining power, thus creating a
buyer’s market [11]. Academic thinking at that time stresses that this would eventually
limit the choices of global transport operators to only two or three European ports of
call [12] with some ports might be “already fighting a lost battle” [13].

The Early approaches to Port Marketing.

At the same time we can trace the early approaches on Port Marketing. Marti [6],
UNCTAD publications [4] present some basic marketing guidelines mainly to cover
operational aspects of port marketing, emphasising on promotion, statistical data
gathering, competitive benchmarking, awareness building, enquiry servicing etc.
Although pioneering, these considerations of port marketing adopt a rather limited and
simplistic perspective on port marketing. In the early 90s the ISL publication on port
marketing [3] cites a set of articles and proposes the first attempt to a holistic conceptual
framework for port marketing, emphasising market orientation [14] [5], the complexity
of port environment [15] the limitations of pricing strategies as the basic competitive
policy [7], market segmentation and niche marketing [16] and the organisation of a Port
Marketing Department [17]. It has to be noted though, that despite being the first truly
marketing orientated publication on port management, most approaches were based on
consumer marketing principles and today no longer provide a comprehensive basis for
understanding contemporary port management.

3. Contemporary characteristics of the container terminal market and the

evolution of port marketing principles.

Contemporary characteristics of the container terminal market:

Globalised economy, liberalization of international and local trade, the rise of

containerisation, technological evolution in ship construction, terminal equipment and
information systems, the worldwide trend for horizontal and vertical integration, the
establishment of independent global logistic service providers have changed the scenery
in port operations [17] [18][19][20]. Already in 1993, Heaver [21], comments that
terminals and not ports are now the focus of competitive strategies. Ports are regarded
as “pawns in a global game of commerce” [22]. The success or failure of port
operations is now dependent or even determined not only by ports own core
competences and performance but by a complex set of external factors [19][23]. The
deployment of mega containerships and the further raise of transhipment increase the
pressure of keeping the pace for satellite or feeder ports [24] [25], which due to their
limited infrastructure facilities can become bottlenecks to the transport chain [26].
Emphasis is shifted from container terminal efficiency, productivity and associated
costs to total customer cost [22], derived utility [11] and time efficiency [27][28]. In
summary, major changes to modern port market environment refer to:
- Vertical and Horizontal Integration in Shipping and Terminal Operations: Vertical
and horizontal integration of shipping lines (according to ESPO factual report in 2006,
top 20 carriers carrying 80% of world total full TEUs in 2006, with top five companies
responsible for the 45% [29]) is followed by a respective trend in the stevedoring
industry with the emergence of global PTOs. Indeed in 2003, 37,5% of global container
throughput was handled through the top-five global PTOs (HPH, PSA, APM Terminals,
P&O Ports, Eurogate - Pardali 2007, p. 450). In Northern Europe, top five operators
control over 95% of the multi user terminal capacity [24].

- The changing nature of the Port product: Port Authorities, Port management teams
and researchers are struggling to define the new core business of the port [22]. Pardali
and Stathopoulou (2005) argue that since a port is the link between sea and land
transportation and the terminal is the fundamental production unit, port product refers to
the cargo handling within the port area, being the sum of the existing terminal outputs
and it is measured in cargo amount in tones or TEUs in a given time period. Of course
this product is offered to the port customer assorted with a set of complementary
products which can be orientated towards the water front (mooring, anchorage, piloting
etc.) and/or to the land side (trail or road connections to hinterland, storage or
consolidation facilities, etc.). The port product is finally enriched by a set of what is
defined as the Seaport Cluster Product(s), which may include free trade zones,
bunkering or ship repairing services up to financing and distribution services [19][20].

- The changing nature of Port Competition: The traditional paradigm of port

competition focuses on competition between ports that have common geographical
characteristics, or cover similar direct and regional hinterlands [30]. Intensified
competition goes further from the traditional model of ports with similar or identical
hinterlands, since policy regulations and recommendations are now encouraging intra
port competition [19][31]. Moreover, it is now widely accepted that competition
expands not just between independent ports/terminals, but between supply chains or
logistical networks [19][20][22][32][33][34][36][37][38]. Despite competing against
companies in the same industry (Shipping lines versus Shipping lines, and PTOs versus
other PTOs) market players from different industries now compete against each other.
Pardali (2005, pp.457-460) frames 3 dimensions of port competition within the
competing supply chains: inter-port competition at the port operator level, intra-port
competition at the port operator level, transhipment centres competition and inter-port
competition at the Port Authority level. In a different conceptual approach, Fremont and
Parola (2007) realise that gradually competing forces will have to shift from being
opponents to becoming global partners [24], thus engaging in co-opetition [34].

- The changing role of port Authorities: Many authors [32][39][40] recognise that due
to privatisation and commercialisation trends Port Authorities gradually lose the extent
of previous control over the production of the port product and need to adopt new roles.
Lamonarca & Papa (2005) note that “Port authorities are becoming the hub of a
composite set of interactions … the coordination task appears even more relevant and
port authorities have the institutional function to regulate all facilities and activities
which take place within the port”[41]. In this sense, Port Authorities need to become
regulating bodies, responsible for the overall coordination of the port and port cluster
product, controlling environmental and safety issues and the overall port marketing. As
a governing institution, a Port Authority should focus on improving and monitoring the
port and port cluster competitiveness aiming at effective positioning of the port within
the global logistics chains [20].

- The changing form of the Port Customer: Having assumed that port competition
develops on the level of global logistic chains, it is profound that the port customer
profile and expectations are constantly evolving. Port clientele is broadened to include
importers and exporters of goods, transport operators [42] which will select the ports
that provide superior access to markets in a faster and more cost-effective way [43]
[44]. This highlights the fact that ports entail a mixture of industry and service which
serves specific production processes, the latter being defined [35] as highly
sophisticated logistics activities. From this perspective, customers are now seeking to
minimise the total logistic cost of transport within the frame of door-to-door philosophy,
something that increases the pressure on port operations [45] [45]. Robinson (2002)
argues that ports are now elements in value-driven chain systems. Shippers would now
choose the port (and its related services) that offer acceptable value “on a sustainable
basis in an end-to-end logistics pathway”. Shipping lines, Shipping agents, Stevedoring
Companies/Port Operators, Hinterland Transport modes, Cargo Owners, 4th Party
Logistics Providers (4Pls), Regulating Authorities, companies of the Seaport cluster,
competing and cooperating port networks become the new players in the container
market.

The evolution of Port Marketing principles:

The shift in the focus of attention is apparent in the way Port marketing
conceptualisation evolved in the academic thinking. We can further distinguish the
contemporary references to port marketing in three categories:

- Port Marketing as a response to competing logistics chains: The “Serie Research

Memoranda” (2001) treats Seaports as the main challenger of traditional logistics
service providers and argue that Port Marketers should be targeting good transhipment
services, comprehensive information management and seek backing up from deep-sea
carriers in order to confront land-side rivals [47]. Lu (2002) proposes market
segmentation based on shippers’ service requirements, defining port clientele to fall in
three categories (consolidation services, cargo related and support services oriented
firms) [48]. The concept of competitive benchmarking [8] against leading ports,
directed on the endogenous (traditional and logistics) port services, is also suggested in
order to identify the fields where a specific port has “greater room to modify and
improve”. Clients are now defined as Shipping companies and Import-export
companies.

- Port Marketing as a source of Value Creation: On this stage, marketing approaches

move away from the simplistic introduction of consumer/product marketing principles
and examine the port environment and competition from the perspective of Value
Creation for the port user and competing logistics chains. References in essential
marketing principles, especially in connection with changes in the competitive port
environment are mentioned in the works of Zeien (1998) regarding marketing niche
strategies [49], Baird’s (2000) reference to trade facilitation [50], Paixao & Marlow
(2003) on lean and agile port organisation [33], Chlomoudis et al [35] on port
reorganisation, in De Langen (2003) who considers marketing as a major “collective
action regime” of the seaport cluster [51]. Although descriptive in essence, Pando et al
(2005) study the reasons behind the need for port marketing with their findings
associating the existence and coverage of port marketing strategies to national economic
factors, port governance and ownership models, hinterland size, port size and function
and internal resource allocation to marketing activities [52]. Elements of marketing
principles, although not explicitly stated as such are apparent to the works of
Winkelmans , Notteboom and Robinson[11][32][45][46][59].

- Recent Developments on Strategic and Operational Port marketing: It has not been
until recently that mainly Cahoon [38][53][54] produced a series of papers focusing on
strategic aspects of marketing management applied in the seaport context. Cahoon and
Hecker (2007) suggest the use of services marketing strategies to assist in overcoming
competitive pressures in the port market was proposed. Cahoon also highlights the
importance of effective communications within the complex port environment [53].
These authors analyse product, logistical and pricing strategies, suggest market
segmentation and coordinated market research as bases for effective port marketing
strategy, together with Customer Relations Management, communications and
employee involvement strategies. Earlier, Cahoon had distinguished four main elements
in port marketing, namely promotion, community liaison, trade and business
development and Customer Relations management [53]. Cahoon stresses the
significance of customer retention further to customer creation and propose Customer
Relations techniques as a major strategic tool.

5. A new conceptual approach to Strategic Port Marketing

The previous analysis has postulated the complex and continuously evolving nature of
the container port market. The market is enlarging in volume and monetary value [26],
traditional location-based advantages are less sustainable and the distinct roles of the
market players in the past are becoming more obscure. Hyper-competition over price
and infrastructure [38], competing logistics chains and the importance of value adding
services demand a more thorough examination of the market, based not just on the port
producer capabilities but rather on the port user requirements. In such an environment, a
first and perhaps justifiable conclusion is that the container terminal market is totally
customer-dominated and the burden of providing the port product is almost unbearable
by most PTOs and perhaps triggers a trend towards oligopolistic competition.

However, our proposition is that a marketing-focused perspective allows reconsidering

the situation. A starting point is that not all customers are the same and that even if the
outcome of their buying behaviour is similar, the reasons behind it may appear different.
Parola & Musso (2007) offer an intriguing example by observing that although the ports
of Bremen/Bremerhaven and Hamburg are geographically related and service the same
hinterland, they have developed different market positions, with Hamburg focusing on
Asian trade and Bremen on transatlantic cargo flows [24]. Viewing this example from a
total logistic pathway perspective, it means that these ports despite being in the same
industry, they are actually not in the same market, since different trade services imply
different ship sizes, number of calls, different customer characteristics (corporate sizes,
capabilities, targets, culture, structure, etc). The fact that top-5 sea carriers concentrate
45% of movement allows for a 55% market share spread globally to other companies
with different strategies, different goals and policies.

Seaports are indeed limited in responding to competitors since they are unable to
relocate, as Cahoon and Hecker (2007) support. Nevertheless, from a logistics chain
perspective, if a shipping line or multimodal transport operator decides to switch
between two ports, this will demand the reallocation of the complete logistical chain,
which will bear costs, time constraints, and overall inflexibility. Therefore, it is at least
intriguing to inspect whether a port can actually use strategies to attract and retain the
desirable kind of customers and operate in a relational rather than transactional –
orientated behaviour [55]. The Strategic positioning concept, as postulated by Elson
(2003), implies that a company can actually chose the specific market it wants to be in,
in line with its corporate capabilities and goals, the trends in competition and socio-
political environment [56]. Ports might have become a weak link, but “port
management continues to play a role of some significance” [10]. In other words the
situation we presented provides a solid basis for attempting to implement marketing
principles to port management.

Even though recent thinking on port marketing provide an useful insights on the issues
that port marketing should examine, they do not clarify who will actually perform
market planning and execute marketing strategies. In line with this comment is the
question raised by the World Bank, on whether a port will continue to have a marketing
and planning function after privatization, or this will be left to the individual service
providers. As discussed, the container port market consists of customers with different
characteristics, various closely related key players and port production takes place in
distinct but interrelated stages (terminal product, complementary products and Seaport
Cluster products). Our proposition is that since the container port community consists of
players with different characteristics and production takes place in different levels, port
marketing strategies should also evolve in three distinct but integrated levels.

5.1. Port marketing at the Port terminal Operator level:

Having defined the terminal as the main producer of the port product, it is obvious that
this is the first stage of marketing implementation. A port terminal operator (PTO) may
be an independent or a venture of stevedores, a subsidiary of sea-carrier; it can belong
to the port authority or be part of a 4PL company. Depending of its position in the value
chain, its strategy and goals, the PTO will implement the suitable marketing strategy.
At this level, marketing research demands a thorough understanding of the exact
characteristics of existing and prospect customers for the specific terminal. For sea
carriers these can include ship sizes, number of calls, routing and itinerary, previous
stops, type of containers transported, proportion of transhipment versus local cargo,
participation in global alliances etc. Basic financial figures, elements of corporate
structure and culture can be also kept to assist in deeper understanding of customer
expectations and predict future investment demands. This will allow better adjustments
and can lead to better service quality and responsiveness.

Looking at existing and prospect customer characteristics, a PTO might find it useful to
proceed in horizontal integrating strategies, acquiring stakes in other terminals or
vertical expansion in rail companies or warehousing facilities. Examining local (inter-
port or intra-port) or distant competitors can create a mental map of customer needs
coverage and identify possible growth opportunities or discourage investments where
customers are already adequately served. Strategic positioning in this level means to
select the basis on which the terminal will built a sustainable competitive advantage by
trying to attract and retain the type of customers it can most profitably serve. As Ellson
(2002) remarks, “strategic positioning chooses the exact value basis on which the firm
will compete” [56]. This strategic choice “must reflect a firm’s ability to deliver the
expectations associated from that particular positioning [57]. In other words the PTO
has to decide, in line with its company mission and vision, if it will be oriented on quay
side operations (pure stevedoring), on logistics and warehousing facilities or provide
other port cluster services, thus constructing a terminal product portfolio. Although
theoretically anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy a want is a product [58],
it is important to define which elements of the product add more value to customers [2].
Robinson (2002) states that port authorities need to “segment their customers in terms
of a value proposition… and capture value for themselves and for the chain they are
embedded in so doing” [11]. Using benefit segmentation techniques is a way of
mapping customer value paths. These options are not limited or mutually excluded.
They assist in creating a terminal product mix that can be now targeted to the specific
characteristics of the selected port customers in a more efficient and cost-effective way.
Customer Segmentation can also identify cost-sensitive customers or customers that are
more prominent in paying for value-added services, hence leading to competitive
Pricing Strategies [20][38] Customer relation programs (loyalty schemes, involvement
in port development planning) are necessary to retain targeted customers, and enhance
relationships. Elements of the right communication strategies towards present and
potential customers are necessary to build port terminal awareness, corporate image and
contribution. The Internal marketing concept aims at bounding all employees towards
customer satisfaction through internal communication, training and promotion
programs, by recognizing that employees are the people actually delivering the valued
service to the customer and play a key role in information exchange between customers
and management. Marketing control follows to measure the success of marketing plans,
ensure that ineffective marketing plans are reconsidered and produce reports for the
overall evaluation of the terminal marketing strategy. It is the duty of the PTO
Marketing Department to coordinate the previously mentioned activities and in line with
top management set the strategic course of the organization.

5.2. Port marketing at the Port Authority level:

As we mentioned earlier, the role of Port Authorities s changing from producing the
port product towards becoming a regulating body, responsible for the investment on
infrastructure the overall port function, security, environmental policy and land use.
Most publications [3][4][23][59][60] associate marketing to the role of a (public) port
authority. In (UNCTAD/SDTE/TIB/1) it is argued that “the Port Authority should not
substitute itself for the direct customer-oriented marketing of the private operators;
rather, it should jointly with them promote and market projects abroad”[4]. Under a
landlord operating model, a Port Authority can set the long term marketing focus of a
port, by allocating space for developing logistics/warehousing/consolidation and other
value adding facilities, and combined transport infrastructure. A port Authority, having
the overall picture of the port can exercise its own marketing strategy starting by
attaining these operators whose characteristics can fit the wider port authority strategy.

Further to that, in the case intra-port competition with multiple PTOs operating within a
port authority framework, we assume that each PTO will pursue its own competitive
strategy. The role of the Port Authority then becomes crucial in tuning port producers
marketing strategies to a total offer, and promote this Port Product Portfolio to existing
and prospect users. Liaising and promotional strategies with local community are
essential. A port authority can assist in information gathering and dissemination to
PTOs regarding market trends, which can be locally, nationally or regionally specific.
Then, they can join resources and capabilities for a more effective marketing
management (UNCTAD/SDD/PORT/4). As an institutional body, a port authority can
represent port operators together with other companies of the seaport cluster, thus
promoting the notion of “one stop shop”. With positioning strategies in this level aiming
at differentiating the total port cluster product from other competing ports/port clusters,
marketing communications target external stakeholders such as local community and
national or multinational regulating bodies. Marketing at port authority level must also
target governmental or regional agencies aiming to promote port operations impact and
secure ports’ interests within the national (or regional) port policy. In a world of fierce
competition and constantly evolving globalization, ports in the world are increasingly
faced with common issues and concerns, with a need to solve those them in an
international framework. Port Authorities can represent port cluster issues and engage
in active collaboration with the international agencies (IAPH, IMO, ESPO etc). This
means that the stakeholder definition is much broader from a port authority marketing
than from a PTO marketing perspective.

5.3. Port marketing at the National – Regional level:

Seldom do Ports operate completely independently. In most countries, there is a

national or regional seaport policy, which may appear independent or as part of a
transportation sector policy (p.ex. the E.U. Green Paper on Sea Ports and Maritime
Infrastructure, 1997). In other words, national or international regulating bodies or
agencies actually engage and proceed with the design and long term planning of port
policy. Governments or intergovernmental organisations regulate the financing or set
the goals of investments in seaports. The need for a market orientated strategy at this
level is apparent as decisions have long term implications and can set the course of
long-term port planning. The decision of the British Government to proceed in massive
privatisation of British ports was an ineffective positioning strategy for fund raising,
based on considering ports merely as assets. The recent MoU signed by the Greek and
the Korean government for a new transhipment port development in Crete (southern
Greece) is a market networking strategy. To proceed with such investments, legislators
and policy makers need extensive market information. In this advanced level, the same
principles apply, this time however, customers and suppliers are not just companies but
sectors of economic activity and decisions are based on national rather than corporate
capabilities and competitive positions. For example, the construction or financing of a
new container port/terminal must take into consideration issues of location, hinterland
connections, space availability within the national or regional context. Competitors need
to be defined in a broader context. Decisions still need to be orientated towards value
creation and customer needs and expected benefits of but at this time stakeholders are
national/regional economic sectors and not private companies.
The following figure summarises our analysis.

Figure 1. The three levels of Port Marketing

Level Player Competition Product Marketing Aim

Improving the strategic
Port Terminal Inter-port
Company One Product position of the Container
Operator Intra-port
terminal
Portfolio of Improving the strategic
Cluster Port Authority Inter-port Products of the position of the Seaport
Seaport Cluster Cluster
Portfolio of
Government -
Regional - Inter-port Products from Improving the position of
International
Network Organisations
Inter-regional the Region - Port the Region - Port Sector
Network

Conclusion

The above analysis has distinguished a set of marketing strategies; depending on the
level of strategic marketing formulation, a terminal operator, port authority and
governmental/regional agents need to decide on the competitive position it will pursue,
build and sustain. There is no uniform marketing strategy to cover all ports and
terminals. The complexity of the port market environment in matters of key players,
customer and product definition needs to be thoroughly assessed. The plethora of
literature on available marketing strategies allows for a selection of a variety of
competitive positions and strategies at each level of port marketing. It is then the duty of
port marketing management to develop the right marketing plan, elevate the sense of
market orientation throughout its organization to achieve long lasting competitive
advantage. Following the frame we have postulated, future research can examine the
exact elements of marketing strategy in each stage, adjusted to the specific
characteristics of each level. Furthermore, national and regional policy makers need to
adopt a market orientated culture that will incorporate, coordinate and further enhance
the marketing strategies of the port authority and terminal operator level, bearing always
in mind the offering of superior utility to the whole transportation system.

Note: Mr Evangelos Kounoupas is a Scholar of “Propondis Foundation”.

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