Ink

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For other uses, see Ink (disambiguation).

Bottles of ink from Germany

Writing ink and a quill

Ink is a liquid or paste that contains pigments or dyes and is used to color a
surface to produce an image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing or writing
with a pen, brush, or quill. Thicker inks, in paste form, are used extensively in
letterpress and lithographic printing.

Ink can be a complex medium, composed of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins,

lubricants, solubilizers, surfactants, particulate matter, fluorescents, and other
materials. The components of inks serve many purposes; the ink's carrier,
colorants, and other additives affect the flow and thickness of the ink and its dry
appearance.

In 2011 worldwide consumption of printing inks generated revenues of more than 20

billion US dollars. Demand by traditional print media is shrinking, on the other
hand more and more printing inks are consumed for packagings.[1]

Contents
1 History
2 Types
2.1 Colorants
2.1.1 Pigments
2.1.2 Dyes
3 Health and environmental aspects
3.1 Carbon
3.2 Iron gall (common ink)
4 Indelible ink
5 See also
6 References
7 Sources
8 Further reading
9 External links
History

Ink drawing of Ganesha under an umbrella (early 19th century). Ink, called masi, an
admixture of several chemical components, has been used in India since at least the
4th century BC.[2] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was
common in early South India.[3] Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.
[4]
Many ancient cultures around the world have independently discovered and formulated
inks for the purposes of writing and drawing. The knowledge of the inks, their
recipes and the techniques for their production comes from archaeological analysis
or from written text itself. The earliest inks from all civilisations are believed
to have been made with lampblack, a kind of soot, as this would have been easily
collected as a by-product of fire.[5]

Ink was used in Ancient Egypt for writing and drawing on papyrus from at least the
26th century BC.[6] Chinese inks may go back as far as three[7] or maybe four
millennia,[8] to the Chinese Neolithic Period. These used plants, animal, and
mineral inks based on such materials as graphite that were ground with water and
applied with ink brushes. Direct evidence for the earliest Chinese inks, similar to
modern inksticks, is around 256 BC in the end of the Warring States period and
produced from soot and animal glue.[9] The best inks for drawing or painting on
paper or silk are produced from the resin of the pine tree. They must be between 50
and 100 years old. The Chinese inkstick is produced with a fish glue, whereas
Japanese glue (? "nikawa") is from cow or stag.[10]

India ink was first invented in China,[11][12] though materials were often traded
from India, hence the name.[11][12] The traditional Chinese method of making the
ink was to grind a mixture of hide glue, carbon black, lampblack, and bone black
pigment with a pestle and mortar, then pouring it into a ceramic dish where it
could dry.[11] To use the dry mixture, a wet brush would be applied until it
reliquified.[11] The manufacture of India ink was well-established by the Cao Wei
Dynasty (220�265 AD).[13] Indian documents written in Kharosthi with ink have been
unearthed in Chinese Turkestan.[14] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp
pointed needle was common in early South India.[3] Several Buddhist and Jain sutras
in India were compiled in ink.[4]

In ancient Rome, atramentum was used; in an article for the Christian Science
Monitor, Sharon J. Huntington describes these other historical inks:

Oak galls and iron(II) sulfate .

About 1,600 years ago, a popular ink recipe was created. The recipe was used for
centuries. Iron salts, such as ferrous sulfate (made by treating iron with sulfuric
acid), were mixed with tannin from gallnuts (they grow on trees) and a thickener.
When first put to paper, this ink is bluish-black. Over time it fades to a dull
brown.

Scribes in medieval Europe (about AD 800 to 1500) wrote principally on parchment or

vellum. One 12th century ink recipe called for hawthorn branches to be cut in the
spring and left to dry. Then the bark was pounded from the branches and soaked in
water for eight days. The water was boiled until it thickened and turned black.
Wine was added during boiling. The ink was poured into special bags and hung in the
sun. Once dried, the mixture was mixed with wine and iron salt over a fire to make
the final ink.[15]

The reservoir pen, which may have been the first fountain pen, dates back to 953,
when Ma'ad al-Mu'izz, the caliph of Egypt, demanded a pen that would not stain his
hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held ink in a reservoir.[16]

In the 15th century, a new type of ink had to be developed in Europe for the
printing press by Johannes Gutenberg. According to Martyn Lyons in his book Books:
A Living History, Gutenberg's dye was indelible, oil-based, and made from the soot
of lamps (lamp-black) mixed with varnish and egg white.[17] Two types of ink were
prevalent at the time: the Greek and Roman writing ink (soot, glue, and water) and
the 12th century variety composed of ferrous sulfate, gall, gum, and water.[18]
Neither of these handwriting inks could adhere to printing surfaces without
creating blurs. Eventually an oily, varnish-like ink made of soot, turpentine, and
walnut oil was created specifically for the printing press.

Types

Magnified line drawn by a fountain pen.

Ink formulas vary, but commonly involve two components:

Colorants
Vehicles (binders)
Inks generally fall into four classes:[19]

Aqueous
Liquid
Paste
Powder
Colorants
Pigments
Main article: Pigment
Pigment inks are used more frequently than dyes because they are more color-fast,
but they are also more expensive, less consistent in color, and have less of a
color range than dyes.[19] Pigments are solid, opaque particles suspended in ink to
provide color.[19] Pigment molecules typically link together in crystalline
structures that are 0.1�2 �m in size and comprise 5�30 percent of the ink volume.
[19] Qualities such as hue, saturation, and lightness vary depending on the source
and type of pigment.

Dyes
Main article: Dye
Dye-based inks are generally much stronger than pigment-based inks and can produce
much more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are
dissolved in the liquid phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, potentially
allowing the ink to bleed at the edges of an image.

To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly
or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot air on the
fresh print. Other methods include harder paper sizing and more specialized paper
coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks used in non-industrial settings
(which must conform to tighter toxicity and emission controls), such as inkjet
printer inks. Another technique involves coating the paper with a charged coating.
If the dye has the opposite charge, it is attracted to and retained by this
coating, while the solvent soaks into the paper. Cellulose, the wood-derived
material most paper is made of, is naturally charged, and so a compound that
complexes with both the dye and the paper's surface aids retention at the surface.
Such a compound is commonly used in ink-jet printing inks.

An additional advantage of dye-based ink systems is that the dye molecules can
interact with other ink ingredients, potentially allowing greater benefit as
compared to pigmented inks from optical brighteners and color-enhancing agents
designed to increase the intensity and appearance of dyes.

A more recent development in dye-based inks are dyes that react with cellulose to
permanently color the paper. Such inks are not affected by water, alcohol, and
other solvents.[citation needed] As such, their use is recommended to prevent
frauds that involve removing signatures, such as check washing. This kind of ink is
most commonly found in gel inks and in certain fountain pen inks.[citation needed]

Health and environmental aspects

See also: Environmental issues with paper

This section needs more medical references for verification or relies too heavily
on primary sources. Please review the contents of the section and add the
appropriate references if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be
challenged and removed. (June 2018)
Rod of Asclepius2.svg
There is a misconception that ink is non-toxic even if swallowed. Once ingested,
ink can be hazardous to one's health. Certain inks, such as those used in digital
printers, and even those found in a common pen can be harmful. Though ink does not
easily cause death, repeated skin contact or ingestion can cause effects such as
severe headaches, skin irritation, or nervous system damage.[20] These effects can
be caused by solvents, or by pigment ingredients such as p-Anisidine, which helps
create some inks' color and shine.
Three main environmental issues with ink are:

Heavy metals

"Wikipedia" written with self-made iron gall ink

Non-renewable oils
Volatile organic compounds
Some regulatory bodies have set standards for the amount of heavy metals in ink.
[21] There is a trend toward vegetable oils rather than petroleum oils in recent
years in response to a demand for better environmental sustainability performance.

Ink uses up non-renewable oils and metals, which has a negative impact on the
environment.[22]

Carbon

Chinese inkstick; carbon-based and made from soot and animal glue.
Carbon inks were commonly made from lampblack or soot and a binding agent such as
gum arabic or animal glue. The binding agent keeps carbon particles in suspension
and adhered to paper. Carbon particles do not fade over time even when bleached or
when in sunlight. One benefit is that carbon ink does not harm paper. Over time,
the ink is chemically stable and therefore does not threaten the paper's strength.
Despite these benefits, carbon ink is not ideal for permanence and ease of
preservation. Carbon ink tends to smudge in humid environments and can be washed
off surfaces. The best method of preserving a document written in carbon ink is to
store it in a dry environment (Barrow 1972).

Recently, carbon inks made from carbon nanotubes have been successfully created.
They are similar in composition to traditional inks in that they use a polymer to
suspend the carbon nanotubes. These inks can be used in inkjet printers and produce
electrically conductive patterns.[23]

Iron gall (common ink)

Main article: Iron gall ink
Iron gall inks became prominent in the early 12th century; they were used for
centuries and were widely thought to be the best type of ink. However, iron gall
ink is corrosive and damages paper over time (Waters 1940). Items containing this
ink can become brittle and the writing fades to brown. The original scores of
Johann Sebastian Bach are threatened by the destructive properties of iron gall
ink. The majority of his works are held by the German State Library, and about 25%
of those are in advanced stages of decay (American Libraries 2000). The rate at
which the writing fades is based on several factors, such as proportions of ink
ingredients, amount deposited on the paper, and paper composition (Barrow 1972:16).
Corrosion is caused by acid catalysed hydrolysis and iron(II)-catalysed oxidation
of cellulose (Rouchon-Quillet 2004:389).

Treatment is a controversial subject. No treatment undoes damage already caused by

acidic ink. Deterioration can only be stopped or slowed. Some[who?] think it best
not to treat the item at all for fear of the consequences. Others believe that non-
aqueous procedures are the best solution. Yet others think an aqueous procedure may
preserve items written with iron gall ink. Aqueous treatments include distilled
water at different temperatures, calcium hydroxide, calcium bicarbonate, magnesium
carbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, and calcium phytate. There are many possible side
effects from these treatments. There can be mechanical damage, which further
weakens the paper. Paper color or ink color may change, and ink may bleed. Other
consequences of aqueous treatment are a change of ink texture or formation of
plaque on the surface of the ink (Reibland & de Groot 1999).
Iron gall inks require storage in a stable environment, because fluctuating
relative humidity increases the rate that formic acid, acetic acid, and furan
derivatives form in the material the ink was used on. Sulfuric acid acts as a
catalyst to cellulose hydrolysis, and iron (II) sulfate acts as a catalyst to
cellulose oxidation. These chemical reactions physically weaken the paper, causing
brittleness.[24]

Indelible ink

A voter's thumb stained with indelible ink

Main article: Election ink
Indelible means "unremovable". Some types of indelible ink have a very short shelf
life because of the quickly evaporating solvents used. India, Mexico, Indonesia,
Malaysia and other developing countries have used indelible ink in the form of
electoral stain to prevent electoral fraud. The Indian Scientist Dr. M.L. Goel is
the founding father of indelible ink in India and gave the secret formula to NPL
(National Physical Laboratory) of India.

The Election Commission in India has used indelible ink for many elections.
Indonesia used it in its last election in Aceh. In Mali, the ink is applied to the
fingernail. Indelible ink itself is not infallible as it can be used to commit
electoral fraud by marking opponent party members before they have chances to cast
their votes. There are also reports of "indelible" ink washing off voters' fingers
in Afghanistan.[25]

See also
Blue Wool Scale
De-inked pulp
Election ink
Fountain pen inks
Gel pen
Ink eraser
Lightfastness
Inksaving typeface
Invisible ink
Pharmaceutical ink
Preservation (library and archival science)
Preservation of illuminated manuscripts
Soy ink
Squid ink
Stark's ink
Tattoo ink
Toner
Inkjet printing
References
"Market Study: Printing Inks � World". Ceresana. Retrieved 2013-05-21.
Banerji, page 673
Sircar, page 62
Sircar, page 67
Joseph Needham; Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin (11 July 1985). Science and Civilisation in
China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-08690-5.
Tallet, Pierre (2012). "Ayn Sukhna and Wadi el-Jarf: Two newly discovered
pharaonic harbours on the Suez Gulf" (PDF). British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt
and Sudan. 18: 147�68. ISSN 2049-5021. Retrieved 21 April 2013.
Joseph Needham; Tsien Tsuen-Hsuin (11 July 1985). Science and Civilisation in
China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Paper and Printing.
Cambridge University Press. p. 234. ISBN 978-0-521-08690-5.
* Woods, Michael; Woods, Mary (2000). Ancient Communication: Form Grunts to
Graffiti.pp 51�52. Minneapolis: Runestone Press; an imprint of Lerner Publishing
Group.....
?, ??, ???????, National Chang-Hua Hall of Social Education, Archived from the
original on 2004-11-26
Yuuko Suzuki, Introduction to Japanese calligraphy, Search Press 2005,
Calligraphie japonaise, 2003, �d. Fleurus, Paris
Gottsegen, Mark D. (2006). The Painter's Handbook: A Complete Reference.Page 30,
New York: Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 0-8230-3496-8.
Smith, Joseph A. (1992). The Pen and Ink Book: Materials and Techniques for
Today's Artist.p. 23. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications. ISBN 0-8230-3986-2.
Sung, Sun & Sun, page 286-288.
Sircar, page 206
"Think ink!", Christian Science Monitor, September 21, 2004
CE Bosworth, A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of the Fountain Pen? Journal of Semitic
Studies, 26(2):229�234, 1981
Lyons, M. (2011). Books: A living history. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum.
Many recipes for iron gall inks are featured in A booke of secrets: shewing diuers
waies to make and prepare all sorts of inke... tr. out of Dutch into Englishe by
W.P. [i.e. William Philip], London, 1596.
Kipphan, Helmut (2001), Handbook of print media: technologies and production
methods (Illustrated ed.), Springer, pp. 130�144, ISBN 978-3-540-67326-2
"First Aid for Ink Poisoning". www.dovemed.com. 2018. Retrieved 2019-01-18.
Canadian Printing Ink Manufacturers' Association
"Ink � Ten Random Facts". Ten Random Facts. 2013-07-15. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
Simmons, Trevor; Hashim, D; Vajtai, R; Ajayan, PM (2007), "Large Area-Aligned
Arrays from Direct Deposition of Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes", J. Am. Chem. Soc.,
129 (33): 10088�10089, doi:10.1021/ja073745e, PMID 17663555.
Henk J. Porck and Ren� Teygeler, Preservation Science Survey (Washington, D.C.:
Council on Library and Information Resources, 2000).
Afghanistan election: 'indelible' ink washes off voters' fingers
"Think Ink!" by Sharon J. Huntington, Christian Science Monitor, September 21,
2004, retrieved January 17, 2006.
"A History of Technology and Invention" by Maurice Audin, page 630.
Ainsworth, Mitchell, C., "Inks and Their Composition and Manufacture," Charles
Griffin and Company Ltd, 1904.
Mart�n-Gil J, Ramos-S�nchez MC, Mart�n-Gil FJ and Jos�-Yacam�n M. "Chemical
composition of a fountain pen ink". Journal of Chemical Education, 2006, 83,
1476�78
Banerji, Sures Chandra (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature. Motilal
Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0063-X.
Sircar, D.C. (1996).Indian epigraphy. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1166-6.
"Ink Chemistry" Joy T. Kunjappu, https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/ink-
chemistry/3002158.article
"Essays in Ink Chemistry (For Paints and Coatings Too)" Joy T. Kunjappu, Nova
Science Publishers, New York, 2001
Sources

This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because
it has insufficient inline citations. Please help to improve this article by
introducing more precise citations. (June 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this
template message)
N.a. (March 2000), "Bach Scores Turning to Dust in German Library", American
Libraries: 24�25
Barrow, W.J. (1972), Manuscripts and Documents: Their Deterioration and
Restoration, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, ISBN 978-0813904085
Rei�land, Birgit; de Groot, Suzan (August 15�21, 1999), "Ink Corrosion: Comparison
of the Currently Used Aqueous Treatments for Paper Objects", Preprint from the 9th
International Congress of IADA, pp. 121�129
Rouchon-Quillet, V.; Remazeilles, C.; Bernard, J.; Wattiaux, A.; Fournes, L.; et
al. (2004), "The Impact of Gallic Acid on Iron Gall Ink Corrosion", Applied Physics
A, 79 (2): 389�392, doi:10.1007/s00339-004-2541-1
Waters, C.E. (1940), Inks, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Bureau of
Standards, United States Government Printing Office
Further reading
Cueppers, Christoph (1989). "On the Manufacture of Ink." Ancient Nepal � Journal of
the Department of Archaeology, Number 113, August�September 1989, pp. 1�7. [The
Tibetan text and translation of a section of the work called, Bzo gnas nyer mkho'i
za ma tog by 'Jam-mgon 'Ju Mi-pham-rgya-mtsho (1846�1912) describing various
traditional Tibetan techniques of making inks from different sources of soot, and
from earth, puffballs, dung, ser-sha � a yellow fungus, and the fruit of tsi dra ka
(Ricinus communis).]
External links
Quotations related to ink at Wikiquote The dictionary definition of ink at
Wiktionary

Forty Centuries of Ink (David N. Carvalho); A detailed online textbook

Roman ink article by Alexander Allen In Smith's Dictionary Greek and Roman
Antiquities (1875), in LacusCurtius
Ancient and Modern Ink Recipes (David N. Carvalho)
Gorgeous Portrayal Of How Ink Is Made � video at The Huffington Post
"A Light Note on the Science of Writing and Inks" is a manuscript, in Arabic, from
1852. It discusses the process of making inks.