Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Kurla Mumbai

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SE Mech (Div A & B)

SEM.IV

Production Process.II (CBCGS)

Prepared by

PROF.SUDHAKAR S. AMBHORE

Date: 05.02.2019

MODULE.1

METAL CUTTING

1.1 Features of machining processes, concept of speed and cutting, mechanism of

chip formation, concept of shear plane, chip reduction coefficient force analysis,
Merchants circle of cutting forces, expression for shear plane angle and coefficient
of friction in terms of cutting forces and tool angles, Merchants theory-original and
modified, effect of various parameters on cutting forces.
1.2 Different types of dynamometers and their operations, Tool life definition,
mechanism of tool wear and measurement, preliminary and ultimate feature,
factors influencing tool life such as speed, feed, depth of cut, tool material, cutting
fluids etc., Machinability, factors affecting surface finish.

1.1 Introduction:
Metal cutting process forms the basis of engineering industry & is involved either
directly or indirectly in the manufacture of nearly every product of our modern civilization. The
theory of metal cutting is of vital importance and a basic knowledge of fundamentals of
machining of materials and of the theory of metal cutting will help to develop scientific approach
in solving problems encountered in machining.
A metal cutting tool is the part of a metal cutting machine tool that, in the cutting process,
acts directly on the blank from which the finished part is to be made. The metal cutting process
accompanied by deformation in compression, tension & shear by a great deal of friction & heat
generation is governed by definite laws. Metal cutting operation involves three basic
requirements. (1) There must be a cutting tool that is harder and wear resistant than the work
piece material, (2) there must be interference between the tool & the work piece as designated by
the feed and depth of cut, and (3) There must be relative motion or cutting velocity between the
tool & the work piece with sufficient force and power to overcome the resistance of work piece
material. As long as above three conditions exist, the portion of the material being machined that
interferes with free passage of the tool will be displaced to create a chip.
1.2 Classification of production process:
The metals are given different usable forms by various processes. These processes may
be classified as under.

Metal Forming

Chip-forming Process Chip-less Process

(Metal Cutting)

Continuous-contact Intermittent Continuous Impact or

Cutting cutting (Rolling, Spinning Intermittent
Etc.) Contact
(Forgoing,
Drop-stamping)
Single-edge Double Sizable Ground Chips
Cutting edged Swarf (Honing, Grinding,
(Turning, cutting (Milling) etc.)
Shaping, (Drilling)
Boring)

In chip removal processes the desired shape and dimensions are obtained by separating a layer
from the parent work piece in the form of chips. During the process of metal cutting there is a
relative motion between the work piece & cutting tool. Such a relative motion is produced by a
combination of rotary and translatory movements either of the work piece or of cutting tool or of
both. These relative motions depend upon the type of metal cutting operation. The following
table indicates the nature of relative motion for various cutting processes.

Table 1.1

Sr. No. Operation Motion of work piece Motion of cutting tool

01 Shaping Fixed Translatory
02 Turning Rotary Translatory
03 Drilling Fixed Rotary & Translatory
04 Milling Translatory Rotary
05 Hobbing Rotary & Translatory Rotary
06 Honing Fixed Rotary
07 Grinding (surface) Translatory Rotary
Grinding
08 (Cylindrical & Rotary & Translatory Rotary
Center less)

In chip less processes the metal is given the desired shape without removing any material
from the parent work piece.

1.3 Basic elements of cutting tools:

The cutting tool consists of three basic elements (1) cutting element or Principle
element – This is the element, which is actually fed into the material of work piece to cut the
chips. E.g. In drilling lips (or cutting edges) are cutting elements. (2) Sizing element – The
part, which serves to make up any deficiencies of cutting element after sharpening, is sizing
element. It imparts final shape to the machined surface and also provides guidance in tool
operation E.g. In drill sizing element; (flute portion) immediately follows the lips. (3) Mounting
element – It serves for securing the tool in machine or holding it in hand of worker. E.g. In the
twist drill the shank is mounting element. The cutting & sizing element taken together is
referred as working element of the tool.

1.4 Machining parameters:

1.4.1 Cutting Speed (V) – It is the travel of a point on cutting edge relative to surface of cut in
unit time in process of accomplishing the primary cutting motion. It is denoted by ‘V’. The unit
of cutting speed is m/min.
 In lathe work for turning a blank of diameter ‘D’ mm, (The diameter of machined surface
is ‘Do’ mm.) rotating at a speed ‘N’ (rpm) the cutting speed at periphery (maximum) is given by.
V = π D N /1000, m/min ........………………………….. 1.41

Fig. 1.1 Elements of cutting process in turning

SPEED

FEED DEPTH OF CUT

Fig. 1.2 Sketches Showing V, f and d

From this formula it is easy to find rotational speed

N = 1000 V / Π D ................... 1.42
From figure 1.1. it is evident that the cutting speed varies along the cutting edge from
maximum at point ‘m’ to minimum at point ‘K’ though the rotational speed is same.
In drilling a work piece with a drill of diameter ‘D’ mm., rotating at a speed ‘N’ (rpm) the
cutting speed will vary from zero at center to maximum at periphery given by eqn 1.41.
πDN
V= , m/min
1000
Similarly in facing the cutting speed varies from zero at center to maximum at periphery.

1.4.2 Feed (Feed rate) (f, fm)or(S, Sm)

It is the travel of the cutting edge in the direction of feed motion relative to the machined
surface in unit time. The feed may be expressed as distance traveled by the tool in one minute
(Sm) or distance traveled by the tool in one revolution (S). The terms ‘S’ and Sm are related by
S = Sm / N, mm/rev . . . . . . . . . 1.43
In lathe work, distinction is made between longitudinal feed, when tool travels in a
direction parallel to work axis, cross feed when tool travels in a direction perpendicular to the
work axis, and angular feed when tool travels at an angle to work axis (for example, in turning
tapered surface.)

1.4.3 Depth of cut: (t)

It is the thickness of the layer of metal removed in one cut or pass; measured in direction
perpendicular to machined surface. The depth of cut is always perpendicular to the direction of
feed motion and, in external longitudinal turning; it is half the difference between the work
diameter and the diameter of machined surface obtained after one pass.
t = (D – Do)/2 mm ............ 1.4.4

1.4.4 Machining time:

The machining time is calculated by dividing the length of cut, or the length of stroke, by
the feed of the tool in mm/min (Sm). Thus
Tm = L/ Sm., min. or Tm = L/S.N, min., Where, L = Length of cut.
1.4.5 Metal Removal Rate: (w)
It is the volume of metal removed in unit time expressed as mm3/min. It helps to
calculate time required to remove specified quantity of material from the work piece.
w = Ac × V = ( b.a) × V
Where, Ac = Cross sectional area of chips.
b = Width of chip.
a= thickness of chip.
To reduce machining cost machining time should be less i.e. the metal removal rate should be
high. To achieve this objective the following facts should be considered.
1) Proper cutting tool material should be selected.
2) Correct tool (angle) geometry should be produced or ground on tool
3) The tool should be rigidly held to avoid vibrations.
4) Depending on the rigidity of machine – tool system maximum values of speed & feed
should be selected.
A process, which removes metal at a faster rate, may not be the most economical process,
since the power consumed & cost factors must also be taken into account. Thus, to compare two
processes, the amount of metal removed per unit of power consumed in unit time is determined
and is called “ Specific metal removal rate”. It is expressed as, mm3/w/min, if the power is
measured in watts.

1.5 Basic shape of cutting tools: Wedge.

Almost all cutting tools used in metal cutting operations consist of basic form of a wedge,
which is defined as one form of inclined plane in shape of a triangular prism. Assume that a
wedge under the action of force P is penetrating into another body at a constant speed as shown
in Fig.1.3
N

β K

M β N N

N P

P
L

Fig. 1.3 Force acting on an indenting wedge Fig. 1.4 Force triangle at the wedge check
. The body resists the motion of the wedge. The reactions N.N. appear at the cheeks of the
wedge. The forces N.N. are perpendicular to the cheeks in absence of friction. From the
equilibrium of forces (fig.1.4) The mechanical advantage on application of force P is given by
N KM 1 1
M. A. = = = =
P KL  KL / 2  2 sin β
2 
 KM  2

Work surface
K
N
β
N P β

N L 900
α
P
Fig.1.5 Orientation of the wedge during the parting Fig.1.6 Orientation of the wedge
or cutting by the indentation process during the separation of chips

Thus, the mechanical advantage in force is dependent on the wedge angle 'B'. The smaller the
angle of wedge, the greater will be the gain in force. In other words, the wedge angle 'β'
determines the resisting force of the cutting edge.
The cutting edge must be oriented at certain required angles with the work surface
depending on nature of operation to be performed. Fig.1.5 shows that the wedge must be set at
right angles to the work surface, so that the driving force "P" is in the direction of parting.
During chipping the wedge must be set at an angle inclined to work surface so that separation of
chip can be done. (Fig.1.6)
Thus for the wedge two geometric parameters can be defined i.e. (1) The wedge angle 'β β'
and (2) the axis of symmetry along which 'P' acts. In addition to above, two more parameters
are introduced to confirm conditions of chipping action. These parameters are set with respect to
velocity Vector, 'V' and are defined as (3) cutting angle 'δδ' and (4) clearance angle'α;, as shown
in fig.1.6. The sign convention for describing these angles is set w.r.t. left handed cork screw
rule with "Z" axis coinciding with the direction of the velocity vector, V, and the cutting edge
lying along 'Y' axis. Hence, 'δ' & 'α' are measured positive, when moving from 'Z' to 'X' axis as
shown in fig.1.7. The parameter ' γ ' defines the inclination of the top face of the wedge (called
Rake face) w.r.t. velocity vector V, while the parameter 'α' describes the relief provided from the
bottom face of the wedge (called flank), often another derived parameter, called (5) Rake angle
'γγ', is used to describe the inclination of the top face of the wedge. This is derived parameter
given by γ = 900 - δ .
However if δ > 90, then ' γ ' is negative. Thus from this equation it may be seen that
while 'δ' is always positive the rake angle can become positive or negative depending on value of
angle 'δ'.
v

δ
δ
β
β

β < 90 0 γ > 0 β > 90 0 γ < 0

Fig.1.7 Orientation of the wedge

However in Fig.1.7 the cutting edge of the wedge has been set at right angle to velocity
vector, V, along Y-axis. A new situation arises when the cutting edge shifts from Y axis and
another parameter called (6) Inclination angle is needed to describe the orientation of the wedge
with respect to velocity vector "V". The angle " λ " is measured positive when it lies in the
direction or rotation of left hand cork crew rule in the x-y-z system as shown.
When wedge shaped tool is set w.r.t. the work-place the actual values of the rake angle 'ϒ' and
clearance angle 'α' depend on the actual direction of velocity vector V with respect to the wedge.
The effect of setting the wedge has been shown in fig.1.8. It the wedge is set high w.r.t. line of
centers, the rake angle increases to (Ψ+ ϒ) from ϒ & clearance angle decreases to ( α - Ψ ) from
'α' opposite is the case when wedge is set low.

V
Ψ+γ

α-Ψ

Fig 1.8 orientation of the wedge

1.6 Types of metal cutting processes:

The metal cutting processes are classified in to two types, on the basis of angular
relationship between cutting velocity vector V, & the cutting edge of the tool.
(1) Orthogonal cutting process (two dimensional cutting)
 (2) Oblique cutting process (three dimensional cutting)
In orthogonal cutting the cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to cutting speed direction. In
oblique cutting, the angle between the cutting edge & cutting velocity vector is other than900 s
shown in fig 1.9 & fig.1.10

Fig19. Fig1.10
99

Point Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

1. Definition -
2. Alternative name
3.Volume of metal removal
for a cutting condition.
4. Tool life -
5. Friction & Chatter
6. Chip flow & - Shape
7. Suitable example
The cutting edge
perpendicular V;
Two dimensional cutting
Less metal removal due
to square cutting.
Shorter
More
Chip coils in a tight flat
spiral
Slotting, Parting
The Cutting edge is inclined at an angle
other than 900 to V.
Three dimensional cutting
More metal removal, as greater area of
chip is removed for same depth of cut
& other conditions.
Longer, as small amount of heat
developed due to friction at the job tool
interface.
Less
Chip flow sideways in along curl.
Turning, Drilling.

1.7 Chip formation (Mechanism):

The portion of the material cut away from the work material is called the chip.
Observations during metal cutting reveal several important characteristics of chip formation:
1) The cutting process generates heat,
2) The thickness of chip is greater than the thickness of layer from which it came.
3) The hardness of the chip is usually much greater than the hardness of parent material,
4) The above relative values are affected by changes in cutting, conditions & in properties of the
material to be machined to give chip that range from small lumps to long continuous ribbons.
This observation indicates that the process of chip formation is deformation or plastic
flow of the material with the degree of deformation dictating the type of chip produced.
Fig. 1.11 shows progressive formation of a chip using a wedge shaped (single point) tool.
At “a” tool contacts the work piece material. At “b” compression of material takes place at point
of contact. At “c” the cutting force overcomes the resistance of penetration of tool is begins to
deform by plastic flow. As the cutting force increase, either a rupture or plastic flow in direction
generally perpendicular to face of the tool occurs & the chip is formed as shown at “d”.

tool tool tool tool

a b c d

Fig. 1.11 Progressive formation of a metal chip.

 Fig1.1
2
The mechanism of deformation can be seen from fig. 1.12. Generally speaking there is
always deformation of metal lying ahead of the cutting edge by a process of shear. Here, with
application of force the metal deforms by shear in a narrow zone extending from cutting edge to
the work surface. This zone is treated as single plane for purpose of mathematical analysis & is
commonly referred to as Shear Plane. The angle, which the shear plane makes with direction of
tool travel, is known as Shear angle.
The process of plastic deformation occurring along the plane elongates the individual
crystals of metal in the general direction indicated by the shear angle. This tends to produce chip
that is thicker than the layer of the parent metal from which it came. Chip material moves up the
tool face in layers of distorted material. Each layer is pushed outward by a fixed amount w.r.t.
its adjacent layer & retains this position as the whole chip slides up the tool face. The distorted
layers move by means of phenomenon of slip & the layers are called slip planes. The number of
slip planes depends upon the lattice structure of parent work piece material. The distortion of
layers tends to strengthen them (work hardening or strain hardening) & therefore the hardness
of chip is much greater than the hardness of the parent material.
Thus in simple language the mechanism of chip formation in any machining operation is
a rapid series of plastic flow & slip movements ahead of the cutting edge. The degree of plastic
flow ahead of the cutting tool determines the type of chip that will be produced. If the w/p
material is brittle & has little capacity for deformation before fracture the chip will separate
along the shear plane to form what is known as a discontinuous segmental chip. Material that are
more ductile & have capacity for plastic flow will deform along the shear plane without rupture.
The planes tend to slip & weld to successive shear planes, & the result is a chip that flows in a
continuous ribbon along the face of tool. This is known as a continuous chip & is usually much
harder than the parent material because of its strain hardened conditions.

1.8. Types of Chips:

The tool engineer's handbook lists four different types of chips viz.
1) Segmental chips or Discontinuous chips
2) Continuous chips
3) Continuous chip with BUE or BUE chips.
4) Inhomogeneous chips.

1) Discontinuous Chips: These chips are in the form of small individual segments, which may
adhere loosely to each other to form a loose chip. These chips are formed as result of machining
of a brittle material such as gray cast iron or brass castings, etc. These chips are produced by
actual rupture or fracture of metal ahead of the tool in brittle manner. Since the chips break up
into small segments and also shorter chips have no interference with work surface. The friction
between chip & tool reduces resulting in better surface finish. These chips are convenient to
collect, handle & dispose off during production runs. The conditions favourable for formation of
discontinuous chips are:
1) Brittle & non ductile metals (like cast iron brass castings Beryllium, titanium etc.)
2) Low cutting speed.
3) Small rake angle of the tool.
4) Large chip thickness.

2) Continuous Chips: These chips are in the form of long coils having uniform thickness
throughout. These chips are formed as result of machining of relatively ductile materials where
definite successive raptures do not take place, at high cutting speeds. Due to large deformation
possible with ductile materials longer continuous chips are produced. These are referred to as
“ideal” chips because,
i) Due to stable cutting excellent surface finish is obtained.
ii) Low friction between chip & tool & hence heat generation is low and,
iii) Power consumption is low. On the other hand, these chips are difficult to handle & dispose
off. Chip coils can cause injury to operation. However these problems can be avoided by use of
“chip breakers” behind to cutting edge. The conditions favourable for formation of continuous
chips are
1) Ductile material
2) High cutting speeds.
3) Large rake angle of tool.
4) Small chip thickness.
5) Sharp cutting edge.
6) Efficient cutting fluid.
7) Low friction between chip tool interfaces.

3) BUE Chip (or continuous Chip with BUE): These chips are also produced in the form of
long coils like continuous chips, but they are not as smooth as continuous chips. These chips are
characterized by formation of built up edge on the nose of the tool owing to welding of chip
material on to tool face because of high friction between chip tool interfaces. Presence of this
welded material further increases the friction leading to building up of the edge, layer by layer.
As the built-up edge continuous to grow, the chip flow breaks a portion of it into fragments.
Some of them are deposited on the work piece material while the rest are carried away by the
chips. The hardness of this BUE is two to three times higher than the work piece material. This
is the reason why the cutting edge remains active even when it is covered with built-up edge.
The only point in favor of BUE is that it protects the cutting edge from wear due to moving chips
and the action of heat. This brings about an increase in tool life. These chips normally occur
while cutting ductile materials with HSS tools with low cutting speeds. Chips with BUE are
undesirable as they result in higher power consumption, poor surface finish and higher tool wear.
Generally speaking any change in cutting conditions that will eliminate or reduce BUE is
desirable, since high friction between chip & tool face is major cause of BUE. Any means of
reduction of friction such as use of lubricant & adhesion preventing agent is often effective to
reduce BUE, especially when it is necessary to operate at low cutting speeds. Tool material with
inherent low coefficient of friction or a high polish on tool face can also reduce friction & hence
BUE. The conditions favourable for BUE chip are.
1) Ductile material
2) Low cutting speed.
3) Small rake angle of tool.
4) Dull cutting edge.
5) Coarse feed.
6) Insufficient cutting fluid.
7) High friction at chip tool interface.

4) Inhomogeneous Chip: These chips are produced owing to non uniform strain set up in
material during chip formation and they are characterized by notches on the free side of chip,
while the side adjoining the tool face is smooth. The shear deformation which occurs during
chip formation causes temperatures on shear plane to rise which in turn may decrease the
strength of material & cause further strain if the material is poor conductor. This process when
repeated several times results in a large strain at the point of initial strain. Then a new shear
plane will develop at some distance from first and deformation shifts to this point. The resultant
chip is bonded with regions of large and small strain. This is characteristic of metals suffering
marked decrease in yield strength with temperature and poor thermal conductivity. These chips
are produced while machining some steels and titanium alloys at medium cutting speeds.
Table 1.1. : Factors responsible for the formation of different types of chips.
Types of chips
Factors Discontinuous Continuous With BUE Inhomogeneous
1. Material Brittle Ductile Ductile Which Shows
decreased in Yield
Strength with temp. &
Thermal conductivity
medium.
2. Cutting speed Low High Low -
3. Tool geometry Small rake Large rake Small -
4. Friction - Lower Higher -
5. Chip thickness Large Small Small -
6. Cutting fluid - Efficient Poor -
7. Feed - - Coarse -
8. Cutting edge - Sharp Blunt -

1.9 Cutting Ratio (Chip thickness ratio):

During the cutting the mean chip thickness is always greater than, the undeformed chip
thickness which is actually fed (or the thickness of metal from which it came) in orthogonal
cutting. The ratio of chip before removal to its thickness after removal from material being cut is
termed as the "Cutting ratio", the inverse of cutting ratio is known as "Chip compression" factor
or chip reduction coefficient. However, even in the orthogonal cutting the cross section of chip
is not always rectangular. The chip has a tendency to move side ways so that the width of chip is
more than width of cut. In addition thickness of chip is not uniform throughout its width. It
tends to be thicker at center and tapers slightly towards sides. But for the purpose of analysis
chip width is taken to be equal to width of cut & thickness is taken to be uniform throughout its
width. The chip thickness ratio is always less than unity.
Thus, Cutting ratio, r = a1/a2

Where t a1 = undeformed chip thickness (i.e. before cutting) and

a2 = mean thickness of chip ( i.e., after cutting )
Chip reduction coefficient K = 1/r
The following methods can be used to determine cutting ratio
1) The cutting ratio "r" can be obtained by direct measurement of a1 & a2. However since
underside of chip is rough the correct value of a2 is difficult to obtain and hence a2 can be
calculated by measuring length of chip (1c) and weight of piece of chip "W".
a2= W/ (bc .1c. ρ )
Where, 1c = length of chip
bc = width of chip
ρ = Density of material assumed to be unchanged during chip formation.
2) Alternatively, the length of chip (1c) & length of work (l) can be determined. The length
of work can be determined by using a work piece with slot, which will break the chip for each
revolution of work piece. The length of chip can be measured by string.
It can be shown that r = 1/1c as under. When metal is cut there is no change in volume of
metal cut. Hence volume of chip before cutting is equal to volume of chip after cutting i.e.
l.b. a1. = 1c.b. a2
or l. a1. = 1c a2 (assuming b = bc)
lc/ l = a1/a2 = r
3) Cutting ratio can also be determined by finding chip velocity (Vc) and cutting speed (V).
The chip velocity (Vc) can be accurately determined by determining length of chip with a string
for a particular cutting time measured with the help of a stopwatch. It can be shown that r =
Vc/V, as under. From the continuity equation, we know that volume of metal flowing per unit
time before cutting is equal to volume of metal flowing per unit time after cutting.
i.e. V.b. a1. = Vc .b.a2
or Vc/V = a1/a2 = r (assuming b = bc)

1.10 Shear Angle:

The shear angle is the angle made by shear plane with the direction of tool travel. In fig
1.7a it is the angle made by the line AB with direction of tool travel. The value of this angle
depends on cutting conditions, tool geometry, tool material & work material. If the shear angle
is small, the plane of shear is larger, the chip is thicker and therefore higher force is required to
remove the chip. On the other hand, if the angle is large, the plane of shear will be shorter, the
chip is thinner; hence less force is required to remove the chip. The shear angle is therefore
important parameter in metal cutting.
The shear angle can be determined by various methods. It can be obtained by direct
measurement from the photomicrograph of a partially formed chip. This is done by suddenly
withdrawing the tool during the course of cutting action with a quick stop mechanism. The
section of metal in the vicinity of partially formed chip is cut from work piece, ground, polished
& etched for study. This method is not very convenient. The shear angle is generally
determined from the cutting ratio "rc" by the equation.
rc cos γ
tan φ =
1 − rc sin γ
where γ = rake angle

the derivation of the above equation is as follows. from fig 1.14

a1 = AB
sin φ
a2 = AB sin cos (φ - γ )
a 2 1 cos (φ − γ )
= =
a1 r sin φ
cos φ cos γ + sin φ sin γ
=
sin φ
1
= cot φ cos γ + sin γ
r
1 
 − sin γ 
cot φ = 
r  = 1 − r sin γ
cos γ r cos γ

r cos γ
tan φ =
1 − r sin γ

1.11 Velocity relationships in orthogonal cutting

There are three velocities in orthogonal cutting process, namely
(i) Velocity of chip (Vc) which is defined as the velocity with which the chip moves over the
rake face of the cutting tool.
(ii) Velocity of shear (Vs) is the velocity with which the work piece metal shears along the shear
plane.
(iii) Cutting velocity (V) is the velocity of tool relative to the work piece.
Cutting velocity V and rake angle γ are always known Vc and Vs can be calculated with
the help of following relations, which refer to the velocity diagram of Fig.1.15.

sin φ cos γ
Vs= V, Vs = V,
cos (φ − γ ) cos (φ − γ )
 Fig 1.15 Velocities associated with chip formation
Applying sine rule we have,
V Vc Vs
= =
sin (90 − φ + γ ) sin (φ ) sin (90 − γ )

V Vc Vs
= =
cos (φ − γ ) sin (φ ) cos (γ )

V sin (φ ) V cos (γ )
∴Vc = ...and ...Vc =
cos (φ − γ ) cos (φ − γ )

1.12Shear Strain:
During the process of chip formation, each undeformed layer of material passes through the
shear plane and undergoes considerable plastic deformation. Shear strain "εε" can be defined as
the ratio of displacement of the layer ∆S along the shear plane to the thickness of layer '∆∆x'.
Thus shear strain can be related to the shear angle φ and rake angle "γ" by the following
equation:
∆s ∆x cot φ + ∆x tan(φ − γ ) cos γ
ε= = = Cot φ + tan (φ - γ) or ε=
∆x ∆x sin φ cos(φ − γ )
This relation can be obtained from the pack of inclined cards model suggested by Prof.
Pushpanen. In this model, the formation of chip and its motion along the tool face can be
visualized from an idealized model in which a stack of inclined (playing) cards is pushed against
the tool (fig.1.16). As the tool advances, segments which had been part of the work piece,
become part of the chip. From this figure it can be seen that card closest to the tool point slips to
a finite distance relative to the uncut material as tool point slips to a finite distance relative to the
uncut material as tool advances. As the tool point reaches the next card, the previously slipped
card moves up along the tool face as a part of the chip.

Fig 1.16 Pack of cards model for chip formation

BA = BE + AE

BA = ∆x cot φ +∆x cot {90 - (φ -γ)}

BA
ε= = cot φ + cot (90 − (φ − γ ) )
CE
 cos(φ ) sin(φ − γ )
= cot φ + Tan(φ − γ ) = +
sin(φ ) cos(φ − γ )

cos(φ ) cos(φ − γ ) + sin(φ ) sin(φ − γ )

=
sin(φ ). cos(φ − γ )

cos(φ − (φ − γ )) cos(γ )
= =
sin(φ ). cos(φ − γ ) sin(φ ). cos(φ − γ )

vs cos γ
But from velocity relations we have, =
v cos φ − γ
vs
Hence ε=
v sin φ
1.13Undeformed chip thickness:
The undeformed chip thickness "a1" can be estimated by referring fig. 1.17. Where two
consecutive cuts have been shown and various parameters such as feed f, depth of cut d, width of
cut b, thickness of undeformed chip t & chip thickness tc have been marked. It can be easily seen
that the following relations exist.
t
a1= s.sin φp b=
sinφ p
It is clear that the uncut chip thickness depends upon the primary cutting edge angle as shown in
fig.1.18. In fig. 1.18 (c) a where φp = 900, the uncut chip thickness, a1= feed "s" (mm/rev ) &
width of cut b = depth of cut "t".

a2

a1 a1
s
s

a1=s

t b=t
φp s

φp=900

Fig 1.18 Undeformed chip thickness

1.14 Cutting forces:
The force system in general case of conventional turning process is shown in Fig.1.19 a.
The resultant cutting force "R" is expressible by its components: "Fx" known as the "feed force"
in the direction of tool travel. "Fy" called as "thrust force" in the direction perpendicular to the
produced surface; and "Fz" the "cutting force" or "main force" acting in the direction of cutting
velocity vector. These directions have been chosen for their suitability of being determined by
properly designed tool force dynamometers.
After determining the individual components Fx, Fy & Fz the magnitude of the resultant
force, "R" can be evaluated as under

R = Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2 ........ 1.14.1

This three-dimensional force system can be reduced to a two-dimensional force system if in
orthogonal plane π 0 the forces are considered in such a way that the entire force system is
contained in the considered state, when
R= Fz2 + Fx2 y ..... . . . 1.14.2
Fxy = Fx2 + Fy2 ..... . . . 1.14.3
This is possible only when Fxy is contained in plane π0 which is possible only under conditions of
free orthogonal cutting. This corresponds to 'orthogonal system of first kind' for which
conditions are:
i) 0<φp< 90
ii) γb = 0
iii) The chip flow direction lies on the plane π0.
Fig. 1.20 shows the cutting forces for the case of orthogonal system of the first kind.
An orthogonal two-dimensional system of second kind can be obtained by choosing γb and
φp in such a manner that either Fx or Fy can be made zero.
For the orthogonal system of second kind either
i) "Fy" is made zero by having γb = 0 and
ii) φp = 900 when two dimensional force system is
R = Pz2 + Px2 ... . . . . 1.14.3
Fig. 1.21a shows the disposition of cutting forces in plane orthogonal turning with γb = 0 and φp
= 900.

Fig 1.19 cutting forces in turning process

Another, alternative way of having an orthogonal system of the second kind is to have Fx=0
during radial turning or facing operation, when
R= Pz2 + Py2
Fig. 1.21b shows the disposition of cutting forces in plane orthogonal radial turning or facing
with γb = 0 and φp = 0.

Fig 1.20 Reduced orthogonal system of first kind in

plane Π0, where γb =0 & 0 < φ < 0
 Fig 1.21a Reduced orthogonal system of second kind in
plane Π0, where γb =0 & φp =900

Fig 1.21b Reduced orthogonal system of second kind in plane Π0, where
γb =0 & φp =00

However out of all the above three cases shown in fig 1.20 1.21a and 1.21b the cutting in the first
two cases is "non free" or 'restricted" type where the auxiliary cutting edge is also active in
causing deviation of chip flow direction from the orthogonal plane.
The contribution of auxiliary cutting edge is to deviate Fxy from the orthogonal plane.
This deviation is small & neglected if the depth of cut is very large compared to feed, such
process is called "Restricted Orthogonal cutting.
However during cutting of a thin pipe with a cutting edge whose length is
considered to be very large compared to the width of cut, a "pure" orthogonal cutting of first or
second kind could be obtained. The principal schemes of metal cutting shall be based on pure
orthogonal cutting from which schemes for oblique or other continuous and intermittent cutting
processes like drilling, milling, etc., can be derived by similarly principles.

FIG1.22 FORCES IN METAL CUTTING

In the lathe tool dynamometer the two components of the resultant force can be measured
by selecting suitable orthogonal cutting set up involving the facing of a pipe by a tool with zero
back rake angle. The resultant cutting force is carried by the shear plane as well as by chip tool
interface. On tool face "R" can be resolved into friction force "F" & normal force "N" and on
the shear plane "R" can be resolved into shear force, "Fs" inclined at an angle φ with direction
of tool travel or along the shear plane and backing up force "Fn" setup by material normal to
shear plane.
1.15 Merchant's Analysis (Theory) :
Earnest & Merchant (1941) analysed the mechanics of metal cutting in order to develop
mathematical relationship connecting the variable in metal cutting the model is based on the
minimization of rate of energy dissipation. To simplify the mathematical relationship he made
following assumptions:

1)-The chip behaves as a free body in stable equilibrium under the action of two equal, opposite
and collinear resultant forces viz. R & R’.
2)-The tool edge is sharp.
3)-The work material suffers deformation across a thin shear plane.
4)-This is no side spread (or the deformation is two-dimensional).
5)-There is uniform distribution of normal & shear forces on the shear plane &
6)-The work material is rigid, perfectly plastic (or behaves like ideal plastic)
7)-As, (shear plane area). Ts (shear stress) & "β" (Friction angle), are constant & are
independent of shear angle 'φ
From the concept of chip formation and measuring force Ft and Ff with a cutting tool
dynamometer, Merchant was able to build up a picture of forces acting in the region of cutting
which give rise to plastic deformation and sliding of the chip down the tool rake face.
The forces exerted by the work piece on the chip are
Fn - Compressive force on the shear plane.
Fs - Shear force on the shear plane.
The forces exerted by the tool on the chip are
N - Normal force at the rake face of tool.
F - Frictional force along the rake face of tool.
The forces acting on the tool and measured by dynamometer are
Fc - tangential or cutting force
Ft – Thrust or feed force
Angle γ is tool rake angle,φ is shear plane angle and β is the angle of friction

Merchant suggested a compact and easy way of representing the various components of the
resultant force inside a circle having the diameter equal to R. For convenience the resultant force
is moved to the tool point.Fr constructing the Merchant circle the cutting force and the thrust
force are drawn to some scale at right angles to each other the hypotenuse of the triangle formed
will be the resultant force R. The R’ will have same magnitude but direction opposite to R. The
value of shear angle can be estimated from the formula for φ. Thus knowing the direction of the
shear plane the values of the two components Fs and Fn can be graphically found out. Similarly
as the value of rake angle is known the magnitudes of the other two components F, N can also be
found out graphically. These components can also be estimated by mathematical formulae which
can be derived as under. Certain four constructions are made in the fig 1.23 to find the se
mathematical relationships as under.
i) AE is drawn perpendicular to OC.( Extended.)
ii) AF is drawn perpendicular to BC.
iii) BG is drawn perpendicular to OD.
iv) BH is drawn perpendicular to AG.

In fig 1.23,∠ABC=∠AOC=φ, ∠ABH=γ, ∠BOD=90-β, ∠BOI=90-β+γ,

∴∠AOG=β-γ, ∠AOG=9-γ, ∠OAH= γ , ∠COB= φ + β-γ

The various unknown components of the resultant force(Fs, Fn, F, & N) can mathematically be
expressed as a function of known components (Fc, & Ft) and known angles( φ and γ) as under.

Fs = OE – EC = OE – AF = Fc Cos φ - Ft Sin φ

Fn = BF + FC = BF + AE = Fc Sinφ + Ft Cosφ

F = OG + GD = OG + BH = Fc Sin γ + Ft Cos γ

N = AG – AH = Fc Cos γ - Ft Sin γ
µ =Coefficient of friction =Tanβ =F / N or β= Tan−µ

b.a1 b.a1
Sinφ = or.Shearplane..area = As =
As Sinφ
Average shear stress =τs = Fs / As = Sin φ.Fs / b.a1

Average normal stress =σs = Fn / As = Sin φ.Fn / b.a1

From ∆ OCB and ∆ OAB, we have,

Fs
= cos ( β − γ + φ ) and Fc = R . cos (β -γ) i. e. R = Sec(β -γ) Fc
R
or Fs = R . cos (φ + β − α )
Fs = Fc Sec ( β - γ ) . cos (φ + β − γ )
F Sec ( β - γ ) . cos (φ + β − γ ) Sin(φ )
And τs = c
a1b

 Fc Sec ( β - γ ) 
τs =   cos (φ + β − γ ) Sin(φ )
 a1 .b 
As β is assumed to be independent of φ .Thus the terms in the bracket are independent of φ.
For maximum shear stress we have to partially differentiate the above equation and equate it to
zero i. e.

dτs
=0
dφ

 Fc Sec ( β - γ ) 
 Cos (φ + β − γ )Cos(φ ) − Sin (φ + β − γ ) Sin(φ ) = 0
 a1 .b 

Cos (φ + β − γ )Cos (φ ) − Sin (φ + β − γ ) Sin (φ ) = 0

Tan (φ + β − γ ) = Cot (φ )

π
Tan (φ + β − γ ) = Tan ( − φ)
2
π
φ + β −γ = −φ
2

π γ β
φ= + −
4 2 2
For all practical purpose the φ =γ for γ>150 and the φ =150 for γ<150

Comments on the Merchant’s equation for shear angle the φ .

i)The low friction in chip tool interface obtained by proper lubrication results in high shear angle.
ii)A high shear angle also indicates thin chip with less severe deformation due to associated low
strain .
iii)A high shear angle can also be obtained by increasing the rake angle.
iv)Little agreement was found between values computed by this equation and the practical
values.

Merchant observed no confirmation between the practical and theoretical values of shear angle.
Hence he reconsidered his last assumption and assumed that the shear stress along the shear
plane varies linearly with normal stress.
τ s = τ so + k σ n
Where τ so = τ s at σ n =0
He then derived the following equation

Cot(2φ + β − γ ) = K1
Or Cot(2φ + β − γ ) = K1

1.16 Power and energy Relationship:

The power or the total energy per unit time or the rate of energy consumption is the product of
cutting speed "V" and cutting force Fc i.e. E = Fc x V, K.g. mm/min.

The energy consumed during cutting process is primarily utilized at the shear plane,
where plastic deformation takes place and at chip tool interface where friction resists the flow of
chip. The total energy per unit time (E) is approximately equal to the sum of shear energy (Es),
Friction energy (Ef) and negligible amount of energy required to curl the otherwise straight chip,
kinetic energy required to accelerate the chip, surface energy required to produce new surface
etc.

Thus, E = Es + Ef

The energy required per unit time per unit volume of metal removed per unit time is called
specific energy (e)
Thus total specific energy

e = E/ba1.t.v.
e = Fc V/b. a1.v., (Kg/mm/min)/(mm3/min.)
e = Fc/b. a1. kg/mm2

Similarly specific shear energy (es) & specific friction energy (ef) can be defined by the
following relations.

eS = ES/b. a1.v. = FS . VS/b. a1.v. = FS . cosν/b. a1.cos (φ-ν), Kg/mm2

and
ef = Ef/b. a1.v. = FS . VS/b. a1.v. = F/b. a2 ,Kg/mm2
1.17 Measurement of cutting forces & Dynamometers:

A tool dynamometer is a exact method of measuring cutting forces acting on the tool.

In most metal cutting dynamometers the total force is determined by measuring, during metal
cutting, the deflections or strains in the elements supporting the cutting tool. The dynamometer
design should be such that it gives strain or displacements large enough to be measured
accurately.

Types of Dynamometer:
i) Mechanical Dial Gauge type dynamometer
ii) Strain Gage type dynamometer
- A strain gauge dynamometer is more accurate than a mechanical dial gauge type
dynamometer.
- In most metal-cutting-force dynamometers the tool force is determined by measuring
the deflections or strains in the elements supporting cutting tool.
- It is essential that the instrument should have high rigidity and high natural
frequencies so that the dimensional accuracy of the cutting operation is maintained
and the tendency for chatter or vibrations, to occur during cutting is minimised.
- The dynamometer must however, give strains or displacements large enough to be
measured accurately. The design of the dynamometer depends, to a large extent on
the strain or deflection measuring device & instrumentation used.

• Mechanical Dial Gauge type dynamometer:

- Fig. shows a simple type of two-component, cutting-force dynamometer, where the

cutting tool is supported at the end of a cantilever. The vertical & horizontal
components of the deflection of the cantilever under the action of the resultant tool
force are taken as a measure of the two force components (Ft & Fr).
- The dial gauge A gives a measure of cutting force (Ft) and dial gauge B gives a
measure of thrust force (Fr).
- The two components Ft and Fr of the resultant tool force measured with a
dynamometer may be used to calculate many important variables in the process of
continuous chip formation.
-
• Strain Gauge type dynamometer:
 - Fig. shows a two-component electrical strain gauge dynamometer. It consist of two
half rings arrange to support the cutting tool, the flat sides serving to simplify of
mounting the strain gauges on the ring.
- An electrical strain gauge is essentially a wound length of resistance wire duly
enveloped.(0.025mm diameter)
- In orthogonal or two dimensional cutting, the resulting force applied to the chip by
the tool is usually determined, in experimental work, from the measurement of two
orthogonal components.
i) Cutting force Ft or Fc
ii) Thrust force Fr
- The strain gauge is bonded with adhesive onto the surface under investigation. When
the surface is strained, the wire stretches with it. The resistance of wire is increased
by stretching due to the direct increased in length. If the surface is compressed, wire
length also compresses and the resistance of wire is decreased. This change in
resistance of the strain gauge is measured by a Wheatstone bridge.

- Formulae are available to convert these readings into changes in length, strain and
hence stresses to which surfaces or strain gauges were subjected.
- Following are the two sets of strain gauges, connected in two separate Wheatstone
bridges as;
i) To measure the vertical component of the applied force, gauges 1 to 4 are
mounted on the horizontal centre line of the half ring, when a vertical load is
applied, gauges 1 and 3 will record compressive strain and gauges 2 and 4 will
record tensile strain.
ii) To measure the horizontal component of the applied force, gauges 5 to 8 are
mounted on the sloping faces of the dynamometer, when a horizontal load is
applied, gauges 5 and 7 will record compressive strain and gauges 6 and 8 will
record tensile strain.
- Thus by recording the readings of strain gauges, the stresses and hence the forces Ft
and Fr can be calculated.

Meaning of Machinability:

The term machinability refers to the ease with which a metal can be machined to an acceptable
surface finish. Murphy defined machinability as “the ability of a material to be machined under
given set of cutting conditions”.

Materials with good machinability require little power to cut. Can be cut quickly, easily obtain a
good surface finish, and do not wear the tooling much. Such materials are said to be free
machinable.

Machinability can be difficult to predict exactly because machining process has so many
variables. Strong, tough materials are usually more difficult to machine, because greater force is
required to cut them.

Other important factors that affect machinability include:

i. Work parameters (chemical composition, microstructure hardness)

Tool parameters (tool geometry, tool material, tool life)

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ii. Machining parameters (cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, lubrication, etc.)
It is stated that the material A is more machinable than material B, this can three different
meanings, as;

iii. A lower wear rate is obtained with material A, or

iv. A better surface finish can be achieved with material A or

v. Less power required to machine material A.

Therefore it is important to note that machinability is always defined with a particular set of
conditions.

For example:

Condition set 1:

(Better surface finish) Material A (High carbon steel) has more machinability than material B
(Mild Steel).

Condition set 2: (Tool wear and power consumption):

Now result may be reversed. Material B (Mild Steel) has more machinability than material A
(High carbon steel).

Considering common H.S.S. tool for both the condition sets.

Evaluation (Quantification or Measures) of Machinability:

There are many factors affecting machinability, but no widely accepted way to quantify it.
Instead, machinability is generally measured on a case-by-case basic. The various tests
conducted to quantify machinability are tailored made to justify need of a specific manufacturing
facility.

Common quantifying measures include:

(i) Tool life.

(ii) Surface finish.

(iii) Cutting forces and power consumption.

(iv) Machinability rating index.

(v) Chip control.

(i) Tool Life:

Tool life is generally considered as an important measure of machinability. Higher the tool life
better is the machinability of a work material. Some standard tables and charts are available that
provide a reference for comparing the machinability of different materials. These tables usually
measures the machinability in terms of the cutting velocity for a given tool life. Machinability
ratings are based on a tool life of T = 60 minute.

(ii) Surface Finish:

Surface finish of machined work material is also an important measure of machinability specially
in case of finishing operations. More is the surface finish obtained; more will be the
machinability of the work material.

(iii) Cutting Forces and Power Consumption:

It is also a most widely used measure of machinability specially in roughing operations.

(iv) Machinability (Rating) Index:

The machinability rating/index of different materials is taken relative to the standard index. The
machinability index of free cutting steel is considered as standard index and fixed at 100%.
Machinability index is based on a tool life of T = 1 minute.

Machinability index of any other materials can be found by using following relation:

Machinability index = [(Cutting speed for standard free-cutting steel for 1min tool life) /
(Cutting speed of metal for 1min tool life)] x 100

Factors Affecting Machinability:

In general, it is considered that machinability is a property mainly depends upon the

microstructure and properties of work material, but it is also very much affected by some other
factors.

Some important and accountable factors which affect the machinability are following:

(i) Work material parameters.

(ii) Tool parameters.

(iii) Machining parameters.

(i) Work Material Parameters:

It includes:

i. Hardness.

ii. Microstructure.

iii. Chemical composition.

iv. Shape and dimensions.

v. Rigidity of holding.

vi. Tensile strength.

(ii) Toot Parameters:

It includes:

i. Tool geometry.

ii. Tool material.

iii. Rigidity of tool holding.

iv. Selection of proper tool.

v. Tool grinding process.

vi. Temperature of chip tool interface.

(iii) Machining Parameters:

It includes:

i. Cutting speed.
ii. Feed.

iii. Depth of cut.

iv. Cutting fluid.

v. Nature of cutting process (Intermittent or steady).

vi. Rigidity of work-tool holding.

vii. Ease of chip disposal.

Tool Life:

Definition –

Tool life generally indicates the amount of satisfactory performance or service rendered by a
fresh tool or a cutting point till it is declared failed.

Tool life is defined in two ways:

(a) In R & D: Actual machining time (period) by which a fresh cutting tool (or point)
satisfactorily works after which it needs replacement or reconditioning. The modern tools hardly
fail prematurely or abruptly by mechanical breakage or rapid plastic deformation. Those fail
mostly by wearing process which systematically grows slowly with machining time. In that case,
tool life means the span of actual machining time by which a fresh tool can work before attaining
the specified limit of tool wear. Mostly tool life is decided by the machining time till flank wear,
VB reaches 0.3 mm or crater wear, KT reaches 0.15 mm.

(b) In industries or shop floor: The length of time of satisfactory service or amount of acceptable
output provided by a fresh tool prior to it is required to replace or recondition.

Assessment of tool life:

For R & D purposes, tool life is always assessed or expressed by span of machining time in
minutes, whereas, in industries besides machining time in minutes some other means are also
used to assess tool life, depending upon the situation, such as
• No. of pieces of work machined
• Total volume of material removed
• Total length of cut.

Measurement of tool wear:

The various methods are:

i) by loss of tool material in volume or weight, in one life time – this method is crude and is
generally applicable for critical tools like grinding wheels.
ii) by grooving and indentation method – in this approximate method wear depth is measured
indirectly by the difference in length of the groove or the indentation outside and inside the worn
area
iii) using optical microscope fitted with micrometer – very common and effective method
iv) using scanning electron microscope (SEM) – used generally, for detailed study; both
qualitative and quantitative
v) Talysurf, specially for shallow crater wear.

Taylor’s tool life equation.

Wear and hence tool life of any tool for any work material is governed mainly by the level of the
machining parameters i.e., cutting velocity, (VC), feed, (so) and depth of cut (t). Cutting velocity
affects maximum and depth of cut minimum.
The usual pattern of growth of cutting tool wear (mainly VB), principle of assessing tool life and
its dependence on cutting velocity are schematically shown in Fig.
The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting velocity keeping other conditions
unaltered as indicated in Fig.

If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc are plotted against the corresponding cutting velocities, V1,
V2, V3, V4 etc as shown in Fig. a smooth curve like a rectangular hyperbola is found to appear.
When F. W. Taylor plotted the same figure taking both V and T in log-scale, a more distinct
linear relationship appeared as schematically shown in Fig.With the slope, n and intercept, c,
Taylor derived the simple equation as VTn= C where, n is called, Taylor’s tool life exponent. The
values of both ‘n’ and ‘c’ depend mainly upon the tool-work materials and the cutting
environment (cutting fluid application). The value of C depends also on the limiting value of VB
undertaken ( i.e., 0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.6 mm etc.)
Example of use of Taylor’s tool life equation Problem:

If in turning of a steel rod by a given cutting tool (material and geometry) at a given machining
condition (so and t) under a given environment (cutting fluid application), the tool life decreases
from 80 min to 20 min. due to increase in cutting velocity, VC from 60 m/min to 120 m/min.,
then at what cutting velocity the life of that tool under the same condition and environment will
be 40 min.?

Modified Taylor’s Tool Life equation:

In Taylor’s tool life equation, only the effect of variation of cutting velocity, VC on tool life has
been considered. But practically, the variation in feed (so) and depth of cut (t) also play role on
tool life to some extent.
Taking into account the effects of all those parameters, the Taylor’s tool life equation has been
modified as,

Where, TL = tool life in min

CT = a constant depending mainly upon the tool – work materials and the limiting value
of VB undertaken.
x, y and z = exponents so called tool life exponents depending upon the tool – work
materials and the machining environment.

Generally, x > y > z as VC affects tool life maximum and t minimum.

The values of the constants, CT, x, y and z are available in Machining Data Handbooks or can be
evaluated by machining tests.