Part XIII - Manufacturing Industries Français

Chapter 81 - Electrical Appliances and

Equipment

GENERAL PROFILE

N. A. Smith

Overview of the Sector

Electrical equipment includes a wide-ranging field of devices. It

would be impossible to include information on all items of
equipment, and this chapter will therefore be limited to coverage
of products of some of the major industries. Numerous processes
are involved in the manufacture of such equipment. This chapter
discusses the hazards likely to be encountered by persons
working in the manufacture of batteries, electric cables, electric
lamps and general domestic electrical equipment. It concentrates
upon electrical equipment; electronic equipment is discussed in
detail in the chapter Microelectronics and semiconductors.

Evolution of the Industry

The pioneering discovery of electromagnetic induction was

instrumental in the development of today’s vast electrical
industry. The discovery of the electrochemical effect led to the
development of batteries as a means of supplying electrical
equipment from portable power sources using direct current
systems. As devices which relied upon power from mains were
invented, a system of transmission and distribution of electricity
was required, which led to the introduction of flexible electrical
conductors (cables).

The early forms of artificial lighting (i.e., carbon arc and gas
lighting) were superseded by the filament lamp (originally with a
carbon filament, exhibited by Joseph Swan in England in January
1879). The filament lamp was to enjoy an unprecedented
monopoly in domestic, commercial and industrial applications
prior to the outbreak of the Second World War, at which stage the
fluorescent lamp was introduced. Other forms of discharge
lighting, all of which depend upon the passage of an electric
current through a gas or vapour, have subsequently been
developed and have a variety of applications in commerce and
industry.

Other electrical appliances in many fields (e.g., audio-visual,

heating, cooking and refrigeration) are constantly being
developed, and the range of such devices is increasing. This is
typified by the introduction of satellite television and the
microwave cooker.

While the availability and accessibility of raw materials had a

significant effect upon the development of the industries, the
locations of the industries were not necessarily determined by the
locations of the raw material sources. The raw materials are often
processed by a third party before being used in the assembly of
electrical appliances and equipment.

Characteristics of the Workforce

The skills and expertise possessed by those who work in the

industry now are different from those possessed by the workforce
in earlier years. Equipment used in the production and
manufacture of batteries, cables, lamps and domestic electrical
appliances is highly automated.

In many instances those who are currently involved in the

industry require specialized training in order to carry out their
work. Teamwork is a significant factor in the industry, since many
processes involve production line systems, where the work of
individuals depends upon the work of others.

An ever-increasing number of manufacturing processes involved

in the production of electrical appliances rely on some form of
computerization. It is necessary, therefore, for the workforce to be
familiar with computer techniques. This may not present any
problems to the younger workforce, but older workers may not
have had any previous computer experience, and it is likely that
they will need to be re-trained.

Economic Importance of the Industry

Some countries benefit more than others from the electrical

appliances and equipment industry. The industry has economic
importance for those countries from which raw materials are
obtained and those in which the end products are assembled
and/or constructed. Assembly and construction take place in
many different countries.

Raw materials do not have infinite availability. Discarded

equipment should be re-used wherever possible. However, the
costs involved in recovering those parts of discarded equipment
which may be re-used may ultimately be prohibitive.

LEAD-ACID BATTERY MANUFACTURE

Barry P. Kelley

The first practical design of a lead-acid battery was developed by

Gaston Planté in 1860, and production has continued to grow
steadily since. Automotive batteries represent the major use of
lead-acid technology, followed by industrial batteries (stand-by
power and traction). More than half the worldwide production of
lead goes into batteries.

The low cost and ease of manufacture of lead-acid batteries in

relation to other electrochemical couples should ensure a
continuing demand for this system in the future.

The lead-acid battery has a positive electrode of lead peroxide

(PbO2) and a negative electrode of high surface area spongy lead
(Pb). The electrolyte is a sulphuric acid solution with specific
gravity in the range 1.21 to 1.30 (28 to 39% by weight). On
discharge, both electrodes convert to lead sulphate, as shown
below:

     

Manufacturing Process

The manufacturing process, which is shown in the process flow

chart (figure 81.1), is described below:
Oxide manufacture: Lead oxide is manufactured from pigs of lead
(masses of lead from smelting furnaces) by one of two methods—a
Barton Pot or a milling process. In the Barton Pot process, air is
blown over molten lead to produce a fine stream of lead droplets.
The droplets react with oxygen in the air to form the oxide, which
consists of a core of lead with a lead oxide (PbO) coating.

Figure 81.1 Lead-acid battery manufacturing process

In the milling process, solid lead (which may range in size from
small balls to complete pigs) is fed into a rotating mill. The
tumbling action of the lead generates heat and the surface of the
lead oxidizes. As the particles roll around in the drum, the surface
layers of oxide are removed to expose more clean lead for
oxidation. The airstream carries the powder to a bag filter, where
it is collected.

Grid production: Grids are produced mainly by casting (both

automatic and manual) or, particularly for automotive batteries,
expansion from wrought or cast lead alloy.

Pasting: Battery paste is made by mixing the oxide with water,

sulphuric acid and a range of proprietary additives. The paste is
pressed by machine or hand into the grid lattice, and the plates
are usually flash-dried in a high-temperature oven.

Pasted plates are cured by storing them in ovens under carefully

controlled conditions of temperature, humidity and time. Free
lead in the paste converts to lead oxide.

Formation, plate cutting and assembly: Battery plates undergo an

electrical formation process in one of two ways. In tank
formation, plates are loaded into large baths of dilute sulphuric
acid and a direct current is passed to form the positive and
negative plates. After drying, the plates are cut and assembled,
with separators between them, into battery boxes. Plates of like
polarity are connected by welding together the plate lugs.

In jar formation, the plates are electrically formed after being

assembled into battery boxes.

Occupational Health Hazards and Controls

Lead

Lead is the major health hazard associated with battery

manufacture. The principal exposure route is through inhalation,
but ingestion can also pose a problem if insufficient attention is
paid to personal hygiene. Exposure can occur at all stages of
production.

Lead oxide manufacture is potentially very hazardous. Exposures

are controlled by automating the process, thus removing the
workers from the hazard. In many factories the process is
operated by one person.

In grid casting, exposures to lead fumes are minimized by the use

of local exhaust ventilation (LEV) together with thermostatic
control of lead pots (lead fume emissions increase markedly
above 500 °C). Lead-bearing dross, which forms on top of the
molten lead, can also cause problems. The dross contains a large
amount of very fine dust, and great care has to be exercised when
disposing of it.

Pasting areas have traditionally resulted in high lead exposures.

The manufacturing method often results in splashes of lead slurry
getting onto machinery, the floor, aprons and boots. These
splashes dry out and produce airborne lead dust. Control is
achieved by keeping the floor permanently wetted and frequently
sponging down aprons.

Lead exposures in other departments (forming, plate cutting and

assembly) occur through handling dry, dusty plates. Exposures
are minimized by LEV together with appropriate use of personal
protective equipment.

Many countries have legislation in place to limit the degree of

occupational exposure, and numerical standards exist for lead-in-
air and blood lead levels.

An occupational health professional is normally employed to take

blood samples from exposed workers. The frequency of blood
testing can range from annual for low-risk workers to quarterly
for those in high-risk departments (e.g., pasting). If a worker’s
blood lead level exceeds the statutory limit, then the worker
should be removed from any work exposure to lead until the
blood lead falls to a level deemed acceptable by the medical
adviser.

Air sampling for lead is complementary to blood lead testing.

Personal, rather than static, sampling is the preferred method. A
large number of lead-in-air samples is usually required because of
the inherent variability in results. Use of the correct statistical
procedures in analysing the data can give information on sources
of lead and can provide a basis for making improvements to
engineering design. Regular air sampling can be used to assess the
continuing effectiveness of control systems.

The allowable lead-in-air concentrations and blood lead

concentrations vary from country to country, and presently range
from 0.05 to 0.20 mg/m3 and 50 to 80 mg/dl respectively. There is a
continuing downward trend in these limits.

In addition to the normal engineering controls, other measures

are necessary to minimize lead exposures. There should be no
eating, smoking, drinking or gum chewing in any production area.

Suitable washing and changing facilities should be provided to

enable work clothing to be kept in a separate area from personal
clothing and footwear. Washing/shower facilities should be
located between the clean and dirty areas.

Sulphuric acid

During the formation process the active material on the plates is

converted to PbO2 at the positive and Pb at the negative electrode.
As the plates become fully charged, the formation current begins
to dissociate the water in the electrolyte into hydrogen and
oxygen:

Positive:     H + –
2O → 2H + ½ O2 + 2e

Negative:     

Gassing generates sulphuric acid mist. Tooth erosion was, at one

time, a common feature among workers in formation areas.
Battery companies have traditionally employed the services of a
dentist, and many continue to do so.
Recent studies (IARC 1992) have suggested a possible link between
exposures to inorganic acid mists (including sulphuric acid) and
cancer of the larynx. Research continues in this area.

The occupational exposure standard in the UK for sulphuric acid

mist is 1 mg/m3. Exposures can be kept below this level with LEV
in place over the formation circuits.

Skin exposure to the corrosive sulphuric acid liquid is also of

concern. Precautions include personal protection equipment,
eyewash fountains and emergency showers.

Talc

Talc is used in certain hand-casting operations as a mould release

agent. Long-term exposure to talc dust can cause pneumoconiosis,
and it is important that the dust be controlled by suitable
ventilation and process control measures.

Man-made mineral fibres (MMFs)

Separators are used in lead-acid batteries to electrically insulate

the positive from the negative plates. Various types of material
have been used over the years (e.g., rubber, cellulose, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polyethylene), but, increasingly, glass fibre
separators are being used. These separators are manufactured
from MMFs.

An increased risk of lung cancer amongst workers was

demonstrated in the early days of the mineral wool industry (HSE
1990). However, this may have been caused by other carcinogenic
materials in use at the time. It is prudent nevertheless to ensure
that any exposure to MMFs is kept to a minimum by either total
enclosure or LEV.

Stibine and arsine

Antimony and arsenic are commonly used in lead alloys, and
stibine (SbH3) or arsine (AsH3) can be produced under certain
circumstances:

·     when a cell is given excessive overcharge

·     when dross from a lead calcium alloy is mixed with dross from
a lead antimony or lead arsenic alloy. The two drosses can react
chemically to form calcium stibide or calcium arsenide which, on
subsequent wetting, can generate SbH3 or AsH3.

Stibine and arsine are both highly toxic gases which act by
destroying red blood cells. Strict process controls during battery
manufacture should prevent any risk of exposure to these gases.

Physical hazards

A variety of physical hazards also exists in battery manufacturing

(e.g., noise, molten metal and acid splashes, electrical hazards and
manual handling), but the risks from these can be reduced by
appropriate engineering and process controls.

Environmental Issues

The effect of lead on the health of children has been extensively

studied. It is therefore very important that environmental releases
of lead be kept to a minimum. For battery factories, the most
polluting air emissions should be filtered. All process waste
(usually an acidic lead-bearing slurry) should be processed at an
effluent treatment plant to neutralize the acid and settle out the
lead from the suspension.

Future Developments

It is likely that there will be increasing restrictions on the use of

lead in the future. In an occupational sense this will result in
increasing automation of processes so that the worker is removed
from the hazard.

BATTERIES

N. A. Smith

The term battery refers to a collection of individual cells, which

can generate electricity though chemical reactions. Cells are
categorized as either primary or secondary. In primary cells, the
chemical reactions that produce the electron flow are not
reversible, and therefore the cells are not easily recharged.
Conversely, secondary cells must be charged prior to their use,
which is achieved by passing an electrical current through the
cell. Secondary cells have the advantage that they can often be
repeatedly recharged and discharged through use.

The classic primary battery in everyday use is the Leclanché dry

cell, so called because the electrolyte is a paste, not a liquid. The
Leclanché cell is typified by the cylindrical batteries used in
flashlights, portable radios, calculators, electric toys and the like.
In recent years, alkaline batteries, such as the zinc-manganese
dioxide cell, have become more prevalent for this type of use.
Miniature or “button” batteries have found use in hearing aids,
computers, watches, cameras and other electronic equipment. The
silver oxide-zinc cell, mercury cell, the zinc-air cell, and the
lithium-manganese dioxide cell are some examples. See figure
81.2  for a cutaway view of a typical alkaline miniature battery.

Figure 81.2 Cutaway view of alkaline miniature battery

The classic secondary or storage battery is the lead-acid battery,
widely used in the transportation industry. Secondary batteries
are also used in power plants and industry. Rechargeable, battery-
operated tools, toothbrushes, flashlights and the like are a new
market for secondary cells. Nickel-cadmium secondary cells are
becoming more popular, especially in pocket cells for emergency
lighting, diesel starting and stationary and traction applications,
where the reliability, long life, frequent rechargeability and low-
temperature performance outweigh their extra cost.

Rechargeable batteries under development for use in electric

vehicles utilize lithium-ferrous sulphide, zinc-chlorine and
sodium-sulphur.

Table 81.1  gives the composition of some common batteries.

Table 81.1 Composition of common batteries

Type of battery Negative Positive electrode Electrolyte

electrode

Primary cells

Leclanché dry cell Zinc Manganese Water, zinc chloride, ammonium

dioxide chloride

Alkaline Zinc Manganese Potassium hydroxide

dioxide

Mercury (Ruben’s cell) Zinc Mercuric oxide Potassium hydroxide, zinc oxide,
water
Silver Zinc Silver oxide Potassium hydroxide, zinc oxide,
water

Lithium Lithium Manganese Lithium chlorate, LiCF3SO3

dioxide

Lithium Lithium Sulphur dioxide Sulphur dioxide, acetonitrile, lithium

bromide

    Thionyl chloride Lithium aluminium chloride

Zinc in air Zinc Oxygen Zinc oxide, potassium hydroxide

Secondary cells

Lead-acid Lead Lead dioxide Dilute sulphuric acid

Nickel-iron (Edison Iron Nickel oxide Potassium hydroxide

battery)

Nickel-cadmium Cadmium Nickel hydroxide Potassium hydroxide, possibly lithium

hydroxide hydroxide

Silver-zinc Zinc powder Silver oxide Potassium hydroxide

Manufacturing Processes

While there are clear differences in the manufacture of the

different types of batteries, there are several processes which are
common: weighing, grinding, mixing, compressing and drying of
constituent ingredients. In modern battery plants many of these
processes are enclosed and highly automated, using sealed
equipment. Therefore, exposure to the various ingredients can
occur during weighing and loading and during cleaning of the
equipment.

In older battery plants, many of the grinding, mixing and other

operations are done manually, or the transfer of ingredients from
one step of the process to another is done manually. In these
instances, the risk of inhalation of dusts or skin contact with
corrosive substances is high. Precautions for dust-producing
operations include total enclosure and mechanized handling and
weighing of powders, local exhaust ventilation, daily wet mopping
and/or vacuuming and wearing of respirators and other personal
protective equipment during maintenance operations.
Noise is also a hazard, since compressing machines and wrapping
machines are noisy. Noise control methods and hearing
conservation programmes are essential.

The electrolytes in many batteries contain corrosive potassium

hydroxide. Enclosure and skin and eye protection are indicated
precautions. Exposures can also occur to the particulates of toxic
metals such as cadmium oxide, mercury, mercuric oxide, nickel
and nickel compounds, and lithium and lithium compounds,
which are used as anodes or cathodes in particular types of
batteries. The lead-acid storage battery, sometimes referred to as
the accumulator, can involve considerable lead exposure hazards
and is discussed separately in the article “Lead-acid battery
manufacture”.

Lithium metal is highly reactive, thus lithium batteries must be

assembled in a dry atmosphere in order to avoid the lithium
reacting with water vapour. Sulphur dioxide and thionyl chloride,
used in some lithium batteries, are respiratory hazards. Hydrogen
gas, used in nickel-hydrogen batteries, is a fire and explosion
hazard. These, as well as materials in newly developed batteries,
will require special precautions.

Leclanché Cells
Leclanché dry-cell batteries are produced as shown in figure 81.3 .
The positive electrode or cathode mixture comprises 60 to 70%
manganese dioxide, the remainder being made up of graphite,
acetylene black, ammonium salts, zinc chloride and water. Dry,
finely ground manganese dioxide, graphite and acetylene black
are weighed and fed into a grinder-mixer; electrolyte containing
water, zinc chloride and ammonium chloride is added, and the
prepared mixture is pressed on a hand-fed tableting or
agglomerating press. In certain cases, the mixture is dried in an
oven, sifted and remoistened before tableting. The tablets are
inspected and wrapped on hand-fed machines after being allowed
to harden for a few days. The agglomerates are then placed in
trays and soaked in electrolyte, and are now ready for assembly.

Figure 81.3 Flow chart of Leclanché cell battery production

The anode is the zinc case, which is prepared from zinc blanks on
a hot press (or zinc sheets are folded and welded to the case). An
organic gelatinous paste consisting of maize and flour starches
soaked in electrolyte is mixed in large vats. The ingredients are
usually poured in from sacks without weighing. The mixture is
then purified with zinc chips and manganese dioxide. Mercuric
chloride is added to the electrolyte to form an amalgam with the
interior of the zinc container. This paste will form the conducting
medium or electrolyte.

Cells are assembled by automatic pouring of the required amount

of gelatinous paste into the zinc cases to form an inner sleeve
lining on the zinc container. In some cases, the cases receive a
chromate finish by the pouring in and emptying of a mixture of
chromic and hydrochloric acid before adding the gelatinous paste.
The cathode agglomerate is then placed in position in the centre of
the case. A carbon rod is placed centrally in the cathode to act as
the current collector.

The zinc cell is then sealed with molten wax or paraffin and
heated with a flame to give a better seal. The cells are then welded
together to form the battery. The reaction of the battery is:

     2 MnO2 + 2 NH4Cl + Zn → ZnCl2 + H2O2 + Mn2O3

Workers may be exposed to manganese dioxide during weighing,

mixer loading, grinding, cleaning the oven, sifting, hand pressing
and wrapping, depending on the degree of automation, sealed
enclosure and local exhaust ventilation. In manual pressing and
wet wrapping, there may be exposure to the wet mixture, which
can dry to produce inhalable dust; dermatitis may occur from
exposure to the slightly corrosive electrolyte. Personal hygiene
measures, gloves and respiratory protection for cleaning and
maintenance operations, showering facilities and separate lockers
for work and street clothes can reduce these risks. As mentioned
above, noise hazards can result from the wrapping and tableting
press.

Mixing is automatic during manufacture of the gelatinous paste,

and the only exposure is during addition of the materials. During
addition of mercuric chloride to the gelatinous paste, there is the
risk of inhalation and skin absorption and possible mercury
poisoning. LEV or personal protective equipment is necessary.

Exposure to spills of chromic acid and hydrochloric acid during

chromating and exposure to welding fumes and fumes from
heating the sealing compound are also possible. Mechanization of
the chromating process, use of gloves and LEV for heat sealing
and welding are suitable precautions.

Nickel-Cadmium Batteries
The most common method today of making nickel-cadmium
electrodes is by depositing the active electrode material directly
into a porous sintered nickel substrate, or plate. (See figure 81.4 .)
The plate is prepared by pressing a paste of sintered grade nickel
powder (often made by decomposition of nickel carbonyl) into the
open grid of nickel-plated perforated sheet steel (or nickel gauze
or nickel-plated steel gauze) and then sintering or drying in an
oven. These plates may then be cut, weighed and coined
(compressed) for particular purposes or rolled into a spiral for
household-type cells.

Figure 81.4 Flow chart of nickel-cadmium battery production

using sintered nickel
The sintered plaque is then impregnated with nickel nitrate
solution for the positive electrode or cadmium nitrate for the
negative electrode. These plaques are rinsed and dried, immersed
in sodium hydroxide to form nickel hydroxide or cadmium
hydroxide and washed and dried again. Usually the next step is to
immerse the positive and negative electrodes in a large temporary
cell containing 20 to 30% sodium hydroxide. Charge-discharge
cycles are run to remove impurities and the electrodes are
removed, washed and dried.

An alternative way of making cadmium electrodes is to prepare a

paste of cadmium oxide mixed with graphite, iron oxide and
paraffin, which is milled and finally compacted between rollers to
form the active material. This is then pressed into a moving
perforated steel strip that is dried, sometimes compressed, and cut
into plates. Lugs may be attached at this stage.

The next steps involve cell and battery assembly. For large
batteries, the individual electrodes are then assembled into
electrode groups with plates of opposite polarity interleaved with
plastic separators. These electrode groups may be bolted or
welded together and placed in a nickel-plated steel casing. More
recently, plastic battery casings have been introduced. The cells
are filled with an electrolyte solution of potassium hydroxide,
which may also contain lithium hydroxide. The cells are then
assembled into batteries and bolted together. Plastic cells may be
cemented or taped together. Each cell is connected with a lead
connector to the adjacent cell, leaving a positive and negative
terminal at the ends of the battery.

For cylindrical batteries, the impregnated plates are assembled

into electrode groups by winding the positive and negative
electrodes, separated by an inert material, into a tight cylinder.
The electrode cylinder is then placed in a nickel-plated metal case,
potassium hydroxide electrolyte is added and the cell is sealed by
welding.

The chemical reaction involved in the charging and discharging of

nickel-cadmium batteries is:

The major potential exposure to cadmium occurs from handling

of cadmium nitrate and its solution while making paste from
cadmium oxide powder and handling the dried active powders.
Exposure can also occur during reclamation of cadmium from
scrap plates. Enclosure and automated weighing and mixing can
reduce these hazards during the early steps.

Similar measures can control exposures to nickel compounds. The

production of sintered nickel from nickel carbonyl, although done
in sealed machinery, involves potential exposure to extremely
toxic nickel carbonyl and carbon monoxide. The process requires
continuous monitoring for gas leaks.

The handling of caustic potassium or lithium hydroxide requires

suitable ventilation and personal protection. Welding generates
fumes and requires LEV.

Health Effects and Disease Patterns

The most serious health hazards in traditional battery making are

lead, cadmium, mercury and manganese dioxide exposures. Lead
hazards are discussed elsewhere in this chapter and
Encyclopaedia. Cadmium can cause kidney disease and is
carcinogenic. Cadmium exposure was found to be widespread in
US nickel-cadmium battery plants, and many workers have had to
be medically removed under the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration’s Cadmium Standard provisions due to high
cadmium levels in blood and urine (McDiarmid et al. 1996).
Mercury affects the kidneys and nervous system. Excessive
exposure to mercury vapour has been shown in studies of several
mercury battery plants (Telesca 1983). Manganese dioxide
exposures have been shown to be high in powder mixing and
handling in alkaline dry cell manufacturing (Wallis, Menke and
Chelton 1993). This can result in neurofunctional deficits in
battery workers (Roels et al. 1992). Manganese dusts can, if
absorbed in excessive quantities, lead to disorders of the central
nervous system similar to Parkinson’s syndrome. Other metals of
concern include nickel, lithium, silver and cobalt.

Skin burns can result from exposure to zinc chloride, potassium

hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and lithium hydroxide solutions
used in the electrolytes of batteries.

ELECTRIC CABLE MANUFACTURE

David A. O’Malley

Cables come in a variety of sizes for different uses, from

supertension power cables which carry electrical power at more
than 100 kilovolts, down to telecommunication cables. The latter
in the past utilized copper conductors, but these have been
superseded by fibre optic cables, which carry more information in
a much smaller cable. In between there are the general cables
used for house wiring purposes, other flexible cables and power
cables at voltages below those of the supertension cables. In
addition, there are more specialized cables such as mineral
insulated cables (used where their inherent protection from
burning in a fire is crucial—for example, in a factory, in a hotel or
on board a ship), enamelled wires (used as electrical windings for
motors), tinsel wire (used in the curly connection of a telephone
handset), cooker cables (which historically used asbestos
insulation but now use other materials) and so on.
Materials and Processes

Conductors

The most common material used as the conductor in cables has

always been copper, due to its electrical conductivity. Copper has
to be refined to high purity before it can be made into a
conductor. The refining of copper from ore or scrap is a two-stage
process:

1.     fire refining in a large furnace to remove unwanted

impurities and cast a copper anode

2.     electrolytic refining in an electrical cell containing sulphuric

acid, from which very pure copper is deposited on to the cathode.

In modern plants, copper cathodes are melted in a shaft furnace

and continuously cast and rolled into copper rod. This rod is
drawn down to the required size on a wire-drawing machine by
pulling the copper through a series of precise dies. Historically,
the wire-drawing operation was conducted in one central
location, with many machines producing wires of different sizes.
More recently, smaller autonomous factories have their own,
smaller wire-drawing operation. For some specialist applications
the copper conductor is plated with a metal coating, such as tin,
silver or zinc.

Aluminium conductors are used in overhead power cables where

the lighter weight more than compensates for the inferior
conductivity compared to copper. Aluminium conductors are
made by squeezing a heated billet of aluminium through a die
using an extrusion press.

More specialized metallic conductors utilize special alloys for a

particular application. A cadmium-copper alloy has been used for
overhead catenaries (the overhead conductor used on a railway)
and for the tinsel wire used in a telephone handset. The cadmium
increases the tensile strength compared to pure copper, and is
used so that the catenary does not sag between supports.
Beryllium-copper alloy is also used in certain applications.

Optical fibres, consisting of a continuous filament of high optical

quality glass to transmit telecommunications, were developed in
the early 1980s. This required a totally new manufacturing
technology. Silicon tetrachloride is burnt inside a lathe to deposit
silicon dioxide on a blank. The silicon dioxide is converted to glass
by heating in a chlorine atmosphere; then it is drawn to size, and
a protective coating is applied.

Insulation

Many insulation materials have been used on different types of

cables. The most common types are plastic materials, such as PVC,
polyethylene, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and poly- amides. In
each case, the plastic is formulated to meet a technical
specification, and is applied to the outside of the conductor using
an extrusion machine. In some instances, materials may be added
to the plastic compound for a particular application. Some power
cables, for example, incorporate a silane compound for cross-
linking the plastic. In cases where the cable is going to be buried
in the ground, a pesticide is added to prevent termites from eating
the insulation.

Some flexible cables, particularly those in underground mines,

use rubber insulation. Hundreds of different rubber compounds
are needed to meet different specifications, and a specialist
rubber compounding facility is required. The rubber is extruded
on to the conductor. It must also be vulcanized by passing through
either a bath of hot nitrite salt or a pressurized liquid. To prevent
adjacent rubber-insulated conductors from sticking together, they
are drawn through talc powder.

The conductor inside a cable may be wrapped with an insulator

such as paper (which may have been soaked in a mineral or a
synthetic oil) or mica. An outer sheath is then applied, typically by
plastic extrusion.

Two methods of manufacturing mineral insulated (MI) cables

have been developed. In the first, a copper tube has a number of
solid copper conductors inserted into it, and the space between is
packed with a magnesium oxide powder. The whole assembly is
then drawn down through a series of dies to the required size. The
other technique involves continuous welding of a copper spiral
around conductors separated by powder. In use, the outer copper
sheath of an MI cable is the earth connection, and the inner
conductors carry the current. Although no outer layer is needed,
some customers specify a PVC sheath for aesthetic reasons. This is
counter-productive, since the main advantage of MI cable is that it
does not burn, and a PVC sheath negates this advantage
somewhat.

In recent years the behaviour of cables in fires has received

increasing attention for two reasons:

1.     Most rubbers and plastics, the traditional insulation

materials, emit copious quantities of smoke and toxic gases in a
fire, and in a number of high-profile fire incidents this has been
the main cause of death.

2.     Once a cable has burnt through, the conductors touch and

fuse the circuit, and so electrical power is lost. This has led to the
development of low smoke and fire (LSF) compounds, both for
plastic and rubber materials. It should be realized, however, that
the best performance in a fire will always be obtained from an MI
cable.
A number of specialized materials are used for certain cables.
Supertension cables are oil-filled both for insulation and cooling
properties. Other cables use a hydrocarbon grease known as
MIND, petroleum jelly or a lead sheath. Enamelled wires are
typically made by coating them with a polyurethane enamel
dissolved in cresol.

Cablemaking

In many cables the individual, insulated conductors are twisted

together to form a particular configuration. A number of reels
containing the individual conductors revolve around a central
axis as the cable is drawn through the machine, in operations
known as stranding and lay-up.

Some cables need to be protected from mechanical damage. This

is often done by braiding, where a material is interwoven around
the outer insulation of a flexible cable such that each strand
crosses each other one over and over again in a spiral. An
example of such a braided cable (at least in the UK) is that used on
electric irons, where textile thread is used as the braiding
material. In other cases steel wire is used for the braiding, where
the operation is referred to as armouring.

Ancillary operations

Larger cables are supplied on drums of up to a few metres in

diameter. Traditionally, drums are wooden, but steel ones have
been used. A wooden drum is made by nailing together sawn
timber using either a machine or a pneumatic nailing gun. A
copper-chrome-arsenic preservative is used to prevent the wood
from rotting. Smaller cables are usually supplied on a cardboard
reel.

The operation of connecting the two ends of cables together,

known as jointing, may well have to be carried out in a remote
location. The joint not only has to have a good electrical
connection, but must also be able to withstand future
environmental conditions. The jointing compounds used are
commonly acrylic resins and incorporate both isocyanate
compounds and silica powder.

Cable connectors are commonly made out of brass on automatic

lathes which manufacture them from bar stock. The machines are
cooled and lubricated using a water-oil emulsion. Cable clips are
made by plastic injection machines.

Hazards and their Prevention

The most widespread health hazard throughout the cable industry

is noise. The noisiest operations are:

·     wire-drawing

·     braiding

·     the copper fire refinery

·     continuous casting of copper rods

·     cable drum manufacture.

Noise levels in excess of 90 dBA are common in these areas. For

wire-drawing and braiding the overall noise level depends upon
the number and location of machines and the acoustic
environment. The machine layout should be planned to minimize
noise exposures. Carefully designed acoustic enclosures are the
most effective means of controlling the noise, but are expensive.
For the copper fire refinery and continuous casting of copper rods
the main sources of noise are the burners, which should be
designed for low noise emission. In the case of cable drum
manufacture the pneumatically operated nail guns are the
principal source of noise, which can be reduced by lowering the
air-line pressure and installing exhaust silencers. The industry’s
norm in most of the above cases, however, is to issue hearing
protection to workers in the areas affected, but such protection
will be more uncomfortable than usual due to the hot
environments in the copper fire refinery and continuous casting
of copper rods. Regular audiometry should also be conducted to
monitor each individual’s hearing. 

Many of the safety hazards and their prevention are the same as
those in many other manufacturing industries. However, special
hazards are presented by some cablemaking machines, in that
they have numerous reels of conductors rotating around two axes
at the same time. It is essential to ensure that machine guards are
interlocked to prevent the machine from operating unless the
guards are in position to prevent access to running nips and other
rotating parts, such as large cable drums. During the initial
threading of the machine, when it may well be necessary to
permit the operator access inside the machine guard, the machine
should be capable of moving only a few centimetres at a time.
Interlock arrangements can be achieved by having a unique key
which either opens the guard or has to be inserted into the control
console to allow it to operate.

An assessment of the risk from flying particles—for example, if a

wire breaks and whips out—should be made. 

Guards should preferably be designed to physically prevent such

particles from reaching the operator. Where this is not possible,
suitable eye protection must be issued and worn. Wire-drawing
operations are often designated as areas where eye protection
must be used.

Conductors
In any hot metal process, such as a copper fire refinery or casting
copper rods, water must be prevented from coming into contact
with molten metal to prevent an explosion. Loading the furnace
can result in the escape of metal oxide fumes into the workplace.
This should be controlled using effective local exhaust ventilation
over the charging door. Similarly the launders down which the
molten metal passes from the furnace to the casting machine and
the casting machine itself need to be adequately controlled.

The principal hazard in the electrolytic refinery is the sulphuric

acid mist evolved from each cell. Airborne concentrations must be
kept below 1 mg/m3 by suitable ventilation to prevent irritation.

When casting copper rods, an additional hazard can be presented

by the use of insulation boards or blankets to conserve heat
around the casting wheel. Ceramic materials may have replaced
asbestos in such applications, but ceramic fibres themselves must
be handled with great care to prevent exposures. Such materials
become more friable (i.e., easily broken up) after use when they
have been affected by heat, and exposures to airborne respirable
fibres have resulted from handling them.

An unusual hazard is presented in the manufacture of aluminium

power cables. A suspension of graphite in a heavy oil is applied to
the ram of the extrusion press to prevent the aluminium billet
from sticking to the ram. As the ram is hot, some of this material is
burnt off and rises into the roof space. Provided that there is no
overhead crane operator in the vicinity and that roof fans are
fitted and working, there should be no risk to the health of
workers.

Making either cadmium-copper alloy or beryllium-copper alloy

can present high risks to the employees involved. Since cadmium
boils well below the melting point of copper, freshly generated
cadmium oxide fumes will be generated in great quantities
whenever cadmium is added to molten copper (which it must be
to make the alloy). The process can be carried out safely only with
very careful design of the local exhaust ventilation. Similarly the
manufacture of beryllium-copper alloy requires great attention to
detail, since beryllium is the most toxic of all the toxic metals and
has the most stringent of exposure limits.

The manufacture of optical fibres is a highly specialized, high-

technology operation. The chemicals used have their own special
hazards, and control of the working environment requires the
design, installation and maintenance of complex LEV and process
ventilation systems. These systems must be controlled by
computer-monitored control dampers. The main chemical
hazards are from chlorine, hydrogen chloride and ozone. In
addition, the solvents used to clean the dies must be handled in
extracted fume cabinets, and skin contact with the acrylate-based
resins used to coat the fibres must be avoided.

Insulation

Both plastic compounding and rubber compounding operations

present particular hazards which must be adequately controlled
(see the chapter Rubber Industry). Although the cable industry
may use different compounds than other industries, the control
techniques are the same.

When they are heated, plastic compounds will give off a complex
mixture of thermal degradation products, the composition of
which will depend upon the original plastic compound and the
temperature to which it is subjected. At the normal processing
temperature of plastic extruders, airborne contaminants are
usually a relatively small problem, but it is prudent to install
ventilation over the gap between the extruder head and the water
trough used to cool the product down, mainly to control exposure
to the phthalate plasticizers commonly used in PVC. The phase of
the operation which may well warrant further investigation is
during a changeover. The operator has to stand over the extruder
head to remove the still-hot plastic compound, and then run the
new compound through (and on to the floor) until only the new
colour is coming through and the cable is centralized in the
extruder head. It can be difficult to design effective LEV during
this phase when the operator is so close to the extruder head.

Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) has its own special hazard. It can

cause polymer fume fever, which has symptoms resembling those
of influenza. The condition is a temporary one, but should be
prevented by adequately controlling exposures to the heated
compound.

The use of rubber in making cables has presented a lower level of

risk than other uses of rubber, such as in the tyre industry. In both
industries the use of an antioxidant (Nonox S) containing β-
naphthylamine, up to its withdrawal in 1949, resulted in cases of
bladder cancer up to 30 years later in those who had been
exposed prior to the withdrawal date, but none in those employed
after 1949 only. The cable industry, however, has not experienced
the increased incidence of other cancers, particularly of lung and
stomach, seen in the tyre industry. The reason is almost certainly
that in cable manufacture the extrusion and vulcanizing machines
are enclosed, and employee exposures to rubber fumes and
rubber dust were generally much lower than in the tyre industry.
One exposure of potential concern in rubber cable factories is the
use of talc. It is important to ensure that only the non-fibrous form
of talc (i.e., one which does not contain any fibrous tremolite) is
used and that the talc is applied in an enclosed box with local
exhaust ventilation.

Many cables are printed with identification markings. Where

modern video jet printers are used the risk to health is almost
certainly negligible due to the very small quantities of solvent
utilized. Other printing techniques, however, can result in
significant solvent exposures, either during normal production, or
more usually during cleaning operations. Suitable exhaust
systems should therefore be used to control such exposures.

The main hazards from making MI cables are dust exposure, noise
and vibration. The first two of these are controlled by standard
techniques described elsewhere. Vibration exposure occurred in
the past during swaging, when a point was formed at the end of
the assembled tube by manual insertion into a machine with
rotating hammers, so that the point could be inserted into the
drawing machine. More recently this type of swaging machine has
been replaced with pneumatic ones, and this has eliminated both
the vibration and the noise generated by the older method.

Lead exposure during lead sheathing should be controlled by

using adequate LEV and by prohibiting eating, drinking and
cigarette smoking in areas liable to be contaminated with lead.
Regular biological monitoring should be undertaken by analysing
blood samples for lead content at a qualified laboratory.

The cresol used in the manufacture of enamelled wires is

corrosive and has a distinctive odour at very low concentrations.
Some of the polyurethane is thermally degraded in the enamelling
ovens to release toluene di-isocyanate (TDI), a potent respiratory
sensitizer. Good LEV is needed around the ovens with catalytic
afterburners to ensure that the TDI does not pollute the
surrounding area.

Ancillary operations

Jointing operations present hazards to two distinct groups of

workers—those that make them and those that use them.
Manufacture involves the handling of a fibrogenic dust (silica), a
respiratory sensitizer (isocyanate) and a skin sensitizer (acrylic
resin). Effective LEV must be used to adequately control employee
exposures, and suitable gloves must be worn to prevent skin
contact with the resin. The main hazard to users of the
compounds is from skin sensitization to the resin. This can be
difficult to control since the jointer may not be able to avoid skin
contact altogether, and will often be in a remote location away
from a source of water for cleaning purposes. A waterless hand
cleanser is therefore essential.

Environmental hazards and their prevention

In the main, cable manufacture does not result in significant

emissions outside the factory. There are three exceptions to this
rule. The first is that exposure to the vapours of solvents used for
printing and other purposes are controlled by the use of LEV
systems which discharge the vapours to the atmosphere. Such
emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are one of the
components necessary to form photochemical smog, and so are
coming under increasing pressure from regulatory authorities in
a number of countries. The second exception is the potential
release of TDI from enamelled wire manufacture. The third
exception is that in a number of instances the manufacture of the
raw materials used in cables can result in environmental
emissions if control measures are not taken. Metal particulate
emissions from a copper fire refinery, and from the manufacture
of either cadmium-copper or beryllium-copper alloys, should each
be ducted to suitable bag filter systems. Similarly any particulate
emissions from rubber compounding should be ducted to a bag
filter unit. Emissions of particulates, hydrogen chloride and
chlorine from the manufacture of optical fibres should be ducted
to a bag filter system followed by a caustic soda scrubber.

ELECTRIC LAMP AND TUBE MANUFACTURE

Albert M. Zielinski
Lamps consist of two basic types: filament (or incandescent)
lamps and discharge lamps. The basic components of both lamp
types include glass, various metal wire pieces, a fill gas and
usually a base. Depending on the lamp manufacturer, these
materials are either made in-house or may be obtained from an
outside supplier. The typical lamp manufacturer will make its
own glass bulbs, but may purchase other parts and glasses from
speciality manufacturers or other lamp companies.

Depending on the lamp type, a variety of glasses may be used.

Incandescent and fluorescent lamps typically use a soda-lime
glass. Higher temperature lamps will use a borosilicate glass,
while high-pressure discharge lamps will use either quartz or
ceramic for the arc tube and borosilicate glass for the outer
envelope. Leaded glass (containing approximately 20 to 30% lead)
is typically used for sealing the ends of the lamp bulbs.

The wires used as supports or connectors in lamp construction

may be made from a variety of materials including steel, nickel,
copper, magnesium and iron, while the filaments are made from
tungsten or tungsten-thorium alloy. One critical requirement for
the support wire is that it must match the expansion
characteristics of the glass where the wire penetrates the glass to
conduct the electrical current for the lamp. Frequently, multi-part
lead wires are used in this application.

Bases (or caps) are typically made from either brass or

aluminium, brass being the preferred material when outdoor use
is required.

Filament or Incandescent Lamps

Filament or incandescent lamps are the oldest lamp type still

being manufactured. They take their name from the way these
lamps produce their light: through the heating of a wire filament
to a temperature high enough to cause it to glow. While it is
possible to manufacture an incandescent lamp with almost any
type of filament (early lamps used carbon), today most such lamps
use a filament made of tungsten metal.

Tungsten lamps. The common household version of these lamps

consists of a glass bulb enclosing a tungsten wire filament.
Electricity is conducted to the filament by wires which support the
filament and extend through the glass mount which is sealed to
the bulb. The wires are then connected to the metal base, with one
wire soldered at the centre eyelet of the base, the other connecting
to the threaded shell. The supporting wires are of special
composition, so that they have the same expansion characteristics
as the glass, preventing leaks when the lamps become hot during
use. The glass bulb is typically made from lime glass, while the
glass mount is leaded glass. Sulphur dioxide is frequently used in
preparing the mount. The sulphur dioxide acts as a lubricant
during high-speed lamp assembly. Depending on the design of the
lamp, the bulb may enclose a vacuum or may use a fill gas of
argon or some other non-reactive gas.

Lamps of this design are sold using clear glass bulbs, frosted bulbs
and bulbs coated with a variety of materials. Frosted bulbs and
ones coated with a white material (frequently clay or amorphous
silica) are used to reduce the glare from the filament found with
clear bulbs. The bulbs are also coated with a variety of other
decorative coatings, including coloured ceramics and lacquers on
the outside of the bulbs and other colours, such as yellow or pink,
on the inside of the bulb.

While the typical household shape is the most common,

incandescent lamps can be made in many bulb shapes, including
tubular, globes and reflector, as well as in many sizes and
wattages, from subminiature through to large stage/studio lamps.

Tungsten-halogen lamps. One problem in the design of the

standard tungsten filament lamp is that the tungsten evaporates
during use and condenses on the cooler glass wall, darkening it
and reducing the light transmission. Adding a halogen, such as
hydrogen bromide or methyl bromide, to the fill gas eliminates
this problem. The halogen reacts with the tungsten, preventing it
from condensing on the glass wall. When the lamp cools, the
tungsten will re-deposit back on the filament. Since this reaction
works best at higher lamp pressures, tungsten-halogen lamps
typically contain gas at several atmospheres pressure. Typically
the halogen is added as a part of the lamp fill gas, usually at
concentrations of 2% or less.

Tungsten-halogen lamps may also use bulbs made from quartz

instead of glass. Quartz bulbs can withstand higher pressures than
those made from glass. The quartz bulbs present a potential
hazard, however, since the quartz is transparent to ultraviolet
light. Although the tungsten filament produces relatively little
ultraviolet, prolonged exposure at close range can produce
reddening of the skin and cause eye irritation. Filtering the light
through a cover glass will greatly reduce the amount of
ultraviolet, as well as provide protection from the hot quartz in
the event the lamp ruptures during use.

Hazards and Precautions

Overall, the greatest hazards in lamp production, regardless of

product type, are due to the hazards of automated equipment and
the handling of glass bulbs and lamps and other material. Cuts
from the glass and reaching into the operating equipment are the
most common causes of accidents; material-handling issues, such
as repetitive motion or back injuries, are of particular concern.

Lead solder is frequently used on the lamps. For lamps used in

higher temperature applications, solders containing cadmium
may be used. In automated lamp assembly operations, exposure
to both of these solders is minimal. Where hand soldering is done,
as in repair or semi-automated operations, the exposures to lead
or cadmium should be monitored.

Potential exposures to hazardous materials during lamp

manufacturing have consistently decreased since the middle of
the 20th century. In incandescent lamp manufacturing, large
numbers of the lamps formerly were etched with hydrofluoric
acid or bifluoride salt solutions to produce a frosted lamp. This
has largely been replaced by the use of a low-toxicity clay coating.
While not completely replaced, the use of hydrofluoric acid has
been greatly reduced. This change has reduced the risk of burns to
the skin and lung irritation due to the acid. The ceramic coloured
coatings used on the outside of some lamp products formerly
contained heavy metal pigments such as lead, cadmium, cobalt
and others, as well as using a lead silicate glass frit as part of the
composition. During recent years, many of the heavy metal
pigments have been replaced by less toxic colourants. In cases
where the heavy metals are still used, a lower toxicity form may
be used (e.g., chromium III instead of chromium VI).

Coiled tungsten filaments continue to be made by wrapping the

tungsten around a molybdenum or a steel mandrel wire. Once the
coil has been formed and sintered, the mandrels are dissolved
using either hydrochloric acid (for the steel) or a mixture of nitric
and sulphuric acid for the molybdenum. Due to the potential acid
exposures, this work is routinely done in hood systems or, more
recently, in totally enclosed dissolvers (especially where the
nitric/sulphuric mix is involved).

The fill gasses used in tungsten-halogen lamps are added to the

lamps in totally enclosed systems with little loss or exposure.
Hydrogen bromide use presents its own problems due to its
corrosive nature. LEV must be provided, and corrosion-resistant
piping must be used for the gas delivery systems. Thoriated
tungsten wire (usually 1 to 2% thorium) is still used in some lamp
types. However, there is little risk from the thorium in the wire
form.

Sulphur dioxide must be carefully controlled. LEV should be used

wherever the material is added to the process. Leak detectors may
also be useful in storage areas. Use of smaller 75-kg gas cylinders
is preferred over larger 1,000-kg containers due to the potential
consequences of a catastrophic release.

Skin irritation can be a potential hazard from either the soldering

fluxes or from the resins used in the basing cement. Some basing
cement systems use paraformaldehyde instead of natural resins,
resulting in potential formaldehyde exposure during curing of the
basing cement.

All lamps use a chemical “gettering” system, in which a material is

coated on the filament prior to assembly. The purpose of the
getter is to react with and scavenge any residual moisture or
oxygen in the lamp after the lamp is sealed. Typical getters
include phosphorus nitride and mixtures of aluminium and
zirconium metal powders. While the phosphorus nitride getter is
fairly benign in use, handling aluminium and zirconium metal
powders can be a flammability hazard. The getters are applied
wet in an organic solvent, but if the material is spilled, the dry
metal powders can be ignited by friction. Metal fires must be
extinguished with special Class D fire extinguishers and cannot be
fought with water, foam or other usual materials. A third type of
getter includes use of phosphine or silane. These materials can be
included in the gas fill of the lamp at low concentration or can be
added at high concentration and “flashed” in the lamp prior to the
final gas fill. Both these materials are highly toxic; if used at high
concentration, totally enclosed systems with leakage detectors and
alarms should be used at the site.
Discharge Lamps and Tubes

Discharge lamps, both low- and high-pressure models, are more

efficient on a light per watt basis than incandescent lamps.
Fluorescent lamps have been used for many years in commercial
buildings and have been finding increased use in the home.
Recently, compact versions of the fluorescent lamp have been
developed specifically as replacements for the incandescent lamp. 

High-pressure discharge lamps have long been used for large area
and street lighting. Lower-wattage versions of these products are
also being developed.

Fluorescent lamps

Fluorescent lamps are named for the fluorescent powder used to

coat the inside of the glass tube. This powder absorbs ultraviolet
light produced by the mercury vapour used in the lamp, and
converts and re-emits it as visible light.

The glass used in this lamp is similar to that used in incandescent

lamps, using lime glass for the tube and leaded glass for the
mounts on each end. Two different families of phosphors are in
use currently. Halophosphates, based on either calcium or
strontium chloro-fluoro-phosphate, are the older phosphors,
coming into wide use in the early 1950s when they replaced
phosphors based on beryllium silicate. The second phosphor
family includes phosphors made from rare earths, typically
including yttrium, lanthanum and others. These rare-earth
phosphors typically have a narrow emission spectrum, and a
mixture of these are used—generally a red, a blue and a green
phosphor.

The phosphors are mixed with a binder system, suspended in

either an organic mix or a water/ammonia mixture and coated on
the inside of the glass tube. The organic suspension uses butyl
acetate, butyl acetate/naphtha or xylene. Due to environmental
regulations, water-based suspensions are replacing those that are
organic based. Once the coating is applied, it is dried onto the
tube, and the tube is heated to a high temperature to remove the
binder.

One mount is attached to each end of the lamp. Mercury is now

introduced into the lamp. This can be done in a variety of ways.
Although in some areas the mercury is added manually, the
predominant way is automatically, with the lamp mounted either
vertically or horizontally. On vertical machines, the mount stem
on one end of the lamp is closed. Then mercury is dropped into
the lamp from above, the lamp is filled with argon at low
pressure, and the top mount stem is sealed, completely sealing the
lamp. On horizontal machines, the mercury is introduced from
one side, while the lamp is exhausted from the other side. Argon is
again added to the proper pressure, and both ends of the lamp are
sealed. Once sealed, the caps or bases are added to the ends, and
the wire leads are then either soldered or welded to the electrical
contacts.

Two other possible ways of introducing mercury vapour can be

used. In one system, the mercury is contained on a mercury-
impregnated strip, which releases the mercury when the lamp is
first started. In the other system, liquid mercury is used, but it is
contained within a glass capsule which is attached to the mount.
The capsule is ruptured after the lamp has been sealed and
exhausted, thereby releasing the mercury.

Compact fluorescent lamps are smaller versions of the standard

fluorescent lamp, sometimes including the ballast electronics as
an integral component of the lamp. Compact fluorescents
generally will use a mixture of rare-earth phosphors. Some
compact lamps will incorporate a glow starter containing small
amounts of radioactive materials to aid in starting the lamp. These
glow starters typically use krypton-85, hydrogen-3, promethium-
147 or natural thorium to provide what is called a dark current,
which helps the lamp start quicker. This is desirable from a
consumer standpoint, where the customer wants the lamp to start
immediately, without flickering.

Hazards and precautions

Fluorescent lamp manufacturing has seen a considerable number

of changes. Early use of a beryllium-containing phosphor was
discontinued in 1949, eliminating a significant respiratory hazard
during phosphor production and use. In many operations, water-
based phosphor suspensions have replaced organic suspensions
in the coating of the fluorescent lamps, reducing exposure to the
workers as well as reducing the emission of VOCs to the
environment. Water-based suspensions do involve some minimal
exposure to ammonia, particularly during mixing of the
suspensions.

Mercury remains the material of greatest concern during

fluorescent lamp making. While the exposures are relatively low
except around the exhaust machines, there is potential for
significant exposure to workers stationed around the exhaust
machine, to mechanics working on these machines and during
clean-up operations. Personal protective equipment, such as
coveralls and gloves to avoid or limit exposure and, where
needed, respiratory protection, should be used, especially during
maintenance activities and clean-up. A biological monitoring
programme, including mercury urinalysis, should be established
for fluorescent lamp manufacturing sites.

The two phosphor systems currently in production utilize

materials considered to have relatively low toxicity. While some
of the additives to the parent phosphors (such as barium, lead and
manganese) have exposure limits established by various
governmental agencies, these components are usually present in
relatively low percentages in the compositions.

Phenol-formaldehyde resins are used as electrical insulators in

the end caps of the lamps. The cement typically includes natural
and synthetic resins, which may include skin irritants such as
hexamethylene-tetramine. Automated mixing and handling
equipment limits the potential for skin contact to these materials,
thereby limiting the potential for skin irritation.

High-pressure mercury lamps

High-pressure mercury lamps include two similar types: those

using just mercury and those using a mixture of mercury and a
variety of metal halides. The basic design of the lamps is similar.
Both types use a quartz arc tube which will contain the mercury
or mercury/halide mixture. This arc tube is then enclosed in a
hard, borosilicate glass outer jacket, and a metal base is added to
provide for electrical contacts. The outer jacket can be clear or
coated with either a diffusing material or a phosphor to modify
the colour of the light.

Mercury lamps contain only mercury and argon in the quartz arc
tube of the lamp. The mercury, under high pressure, generates
light with a high blue and ultraviolet content. The quartz arc tube
is completely transparent to UV light, and in the event that the
outer jacket is broken or removed, is a powerful UV light source
that can produce skin and eye burns in those exposed. Though the
typical mercury lamp design will continue to operate if the outer
jacket is removed, manufacturers also offer some models in a
fused design which will stop operating if the jacket is broken.
During normal use, the borosilicate glass of the outer jacket
absorbs a high percentage of the UV light, so that the intact lamp
does not pose a hazard.
Because of the high blue content of the mercury lamp spectrum,
the inside of the outer jacket is frequently coated with a phosphor
such as yttrium vanadate phosphate or similar red-enhancing
phosphor.

Metal halide lamps also contain mercury and argon in the arc
tube, but add metal halides (typically a mixture of sodium and
scandium, possibly with others). The addition of the metal halides
enhances the red light output of the lamp, producing a lamp
which has a more balanced light spectrum.

Hazards and precautions

Other than mercury, potentially hazardous materials used in high-

pressure mercury lamp production include the coating materials
used on the outer envelopes and the halide additives used in the
metal halide lamps. One coating material is a simple diffuser, the
same as that used in incandescent lamps. Another is a colour-
correcting phosphor, yttrium vanadate or yttrium vanadate
phosphate. While similar to vanadium pentoxide, the vanadate is
considered to be less toxic. Exposure to the halide materials is
normally not significant, since the halides react in moist air and
must be kept dry and under an inert atmosphere during handling
and use. Similarly, although the sodium is a highly reactive metal,
it too needs to be handled under an inert atmosphere to avoid
oxidizing the metal.

Sodium Lamps

Two types of sodium lamps are currently produced. Low-pressure

lamps contain only metallic sodium as the light emitting source
and produce a highly yellow light. High-pressure sodium lamps
use mercury and sodium to generate a whiter light.

Low-pressure sodium lamps have one glass tube, which contains

the metallic sodium, enclosed within a second glass tube. 

High-pressure sodium lamps contain a mixture of mercury and

sodium within a high-purity ceramic alumina arc tube. Other than
the composition of the arc tube, the construction of the high-
pressure sodium lamp is essentially the same as the mercury and
metal halide lamps.

Hazards and precautions

There are few unique hazards during manufacturing of high- or

low-pressure sodium lamps. In both lamp types, the sodium must
be kept dry. Pure metallic sodium will violently react with water,
producing hydrogen gas and enough heat to cause ignition.
Metallic sodium left out in air will react with the moisture in the
air, producing an oxide coating on the metal. To avoid this, the
sodium is usually handled in a glove box, under a dry nitrogen or
argon atmosphere. For sites manufacturing high-pressure sodium
lamps, additional precautions are needed to handle the mercury,
similar to those sites manufacturing high-pressure mercury
lamps.

Environmental and Public Health Issues

Waste disposal and/or recycling of mercury-containing lamps is

an issue that has received a high degree of attention in many
areas of the world over the last several years. While at best a
“break even” operation from a cost viewpoint, technology
currently exists to reclaim the mercury from fluorescent and high-
pressure discharge lamps. Recycling of lamp materials at the
present time is more accurately described as reclamation, since
the lamp materials are rarely reprocessed and used in making
new lamps. Typically, the metal parts are sent to scrap metal
dealers. The recovered glass may be used to make fibreglass or
glass blocks or used as aggregate in cement or asphalt paving.
Recycling may be the lower-cost alternative, depending on
location and availability of recycling and hazardous or special
waste disposal options.

The ballasts used in fluorescent lamp installations previously

contained capacitors which used PCBs as the dielectric. While
manufacture of PCB-containing ballasts has been discontinued,
many of the older ballasts may still be in use due to their long life
expectancy. Disposal of the PCB-containing ballasts may be
regulated and may require disposal as a special or hazardous
waste.

Glass manufacturing, particularly borosilicate glasses, can be a

significant source of NOx emission to the atmosphere. Recently,
pure oxygen instead of air has been used with gas burners as a
means of reducing the NOx emissions.

DOMESTIC ELECTRICAL APPLIANCE MANUFACTURE

N. A. Smith and W. Klost*

*Adapted from 3rd edition, Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health

and Safety.

The domestic electrical appliance industry is responsible for the

manufacture of a wide-ranging variety of equipment including
appliances designed for audio-visual, cooking, heating, food
preparation and storage (refrigeration) uses. The production and
manufacture of such appliances involve many highly-automated
processes which can have associated health hazards and disease
patterns.

Manufacturing Processes

Materials used in the manufacture of domestic electrical

appliances can be categorized into:

1.     metals which are used typically for electric conductors in

cables and appliance structure and/or framework

2.     dielectrics or insulating materials used for prevention of

accidental contact with live electrical equipment

3.     paints and finishes

4.     chemicals.

Examples of the materials included in the four categories referred

to are shown in table 81.2 .

Table 81.2 Examples of materials used in the manufacture of

domestic electrical appliances

Metals Dielectrics Paints/finishes Chemicals

Steel Inorganic materials Paints Acids
(e.g., mica)
Aluminium Plastics (e.g., PVC) Lacquers Alkalis
Lead Rubber Varnishes Solvents
Cadmium Silico-organic materials Corrosion-resistant  
treatments
Mercury Other polymers (e.g.,    
nylon)

Note: Lead and mercury are decreasingly common in domestic

electrical appliance manufacturing

The materials used in the domestic electrical appliance industry

must satisfy exacting requirements, including the ability to
withstand the handling likely to be encountered in normal
operation, the ability to withstand metal fatigue and the ability to
be unaffected by any other processes or treatment which could
render the appliance dangerous to use either immediately or after
a prolonged period of time.

The materials used in the industry will often be received at the

appliance assembly stage having already undergone several
manufacturing processes, each of which is likely to have its own
hazards and health problems. Details of these hazards and
problems are considered under the appropriate chapters
elsewhere in this Encyclopaedia.

The manufacturing processes will vary from product to product,

but in general will follow the production flow shown in figure 81.5
. This chart also shows the hazards associated with the different
processes.

Figure 81.5 Typical manufacturing process sequence and

hazards likely to be encountered  in the processes
Health and Safety Issues

Fire and explosion

Many of the solvents, paints and insulating oils used in the

industry are flammable substances. These materials should be
stored in suitable cool, dry premises, preferably in a fireproof
building separate from the production facility. Containers should
be clearly labelled and different substances well separated or
stored apart as required by their flashpoints and their class of
risk. In the case of insulating materials and plastics, it is important
to obtain information on the combustibility or fire characteristics
of each new substance used. Powdered zirconium, which is now
used in significant quantities in the industry, is also a fire hazard.
The quantities of flammable substances issued from storerooms
should be kept to the minimum required for production. When
flammable liquids are being decanted, charges of static electricity
may form, and consequently all containers should be grounded.
Fire-extinguishing appliances must be provided and the personnel
of the storeplace instructed in their use.

Painting of components is usually carried out in specially built

paint booths, which must have adequate exhaust and ventilation
equipment that, when used with personal protective equipment
(PPE), will create a safe working environment.

During welding, special fire precautions should be taken.

Accidents

Reception, storage and dispatch of raw materials, components and

finished products can give rise to accidents involving trips and
falls, falling objects, fork trucks and so forth. Manual materials
handling can also create ergonomic problems which can be
alleviated by automation whenever possible.

Since numerous different processes are employed in the industry,

the accident hazards will vary from shop to shop in the plant.
During component production there will be machine hazards in
the use of machine tools, power presses, plastics injection-
moulding machines and so on, and efficient machinery guarding
is essential. During electroplating, precautions must be taken
against splashes of corrosive chemicals. During component
assembly, the constant movement of components from one
process to another means that the danger of accidents due to in-
plant transport and mechanical handling equipment is high.

Quality testing does not give rise to any special safety problems.
However, performance testing requires special precautions since
the tests are often carried out on semi-finished or uninsulated
appliances. During electrical testing, all live components,
conductors, terminals and measuring instruments should be
protected to prevent accidental contact. The workplace should be
screened off, entrance of unauthorized persons prohibited and
warning notices posted. In electrical testing areas, the provision of
emergency switches is particularly advisable, and the switches
should be in a prominent position so that in an emergency all
equipment can be immediately de-energized.

For testing appliances that emit x rays or contain radioactive

substances, there are radiation protection regulations. A
competent supervisor should be made responsible for observance
of the regulations.

There are special risks in the use of compressed gases, welding

equipment, lasers, impregnation plant, spray-painting equipment,
annealing and tempering ovens and high-voltage electrical
installations.

During all repair and maintenance activities, adequate

lockout/tagout programmes are essential.

Health Hazards

Occupational diseases associated with the manufacture of

domestic electrical equipment are relatively low in number and
not normally considered to be severe. Such problems that do exist
are typified by:

·     the development of skin conditions due to the use of solvents,

cutting oils, hardeners used with epoxy resin and polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs)

·     the onset of silicosis due to the inhalation of silica in

sandblasting (although sand is being increasingly replaced by less
toxic blasting agents such as corundum, steel grit or shot)
·     health problems due to inhalation of solvent vapours in
painting and degreasing, and lead poisoning from use of lead
pigments, enamels, etc.

·     varying levels of noise produced during the processes.

Wherever possible, highly toxic solvents and chlorinated

compounds should be replaced by less dangerous substances;
under no circumstances should benzene or carbon tetrachloride
be employed as solvents. Lead poisoning may be overcome by
substitution of safer materials or techniques and the strict
application of safe working procedures, personal hygiene and
medical supervision. Where there is a danger of exposure to
hazardous concentrations of atmospheric contaminants, the
workplace air should be regularly monitored, and appropriate
measures such as the installation of an exhaust system taken
where necessary. The noise hazard may be reduced by enclosure
of noise sources, the use of sound-absorbent materials in
workrooms or the use of personal hearing protection.

Safety engineers and industrial physicians should be called upon

at the design and planning stage of new plants or operations, and
the hazards of processes or machines should be eliminated before
processes are started up. This should be followed up by regular
inspection of machines, tools, plant, transport equipment,
firefighting appliances, workshops and test areas and so on.

Worker participation in the safety effort is essential, and

supervisors should ensure that personal protective equipment is
available and worn where necessary. Particular attention should
be paid to the safety training of new workers, since these account
for a relatively high proportion of accidents.

Workers should receive a pre-placement medical examination

and, where there is the possibility of hazardous exposure, periodic
examination as necessary.
Many processes in the production of individual components will
involve the rejection of waste material (e.g., “swarf” from sheet or
bar metal), and the disposal of such materials must be in
accordance with safety requirements. Furthermore, if such
process waste cannot be returned to the producer or
manufacturer for recycling, then its subsequent disposal must be
by approved processes in order to avoid environmental pollution.

ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUES

N. A. Smith

The main environmental problems associated with electrical

appliance and equipment manufacture involve pollution and
treatment of materials discarded during the manufacturing
processes, together with the recycling, where possible, of the
complete product when it has reached the end of its life.

Batteries

The exhaust of air contaminated with acid, alkali, lead, cadmium

and other potentially harmful materials into the atmosphere and
the pollution of water from the manufacturing of batteries should
be prevented as far as possible, and where this is not possible it
should be monitored to ensure compliance with relevant
legislation. 

The use of batteries can generate public health concerns. Leaking

lead-acid or alkaline batteries can result in burns from the
electrolyte. Recharging large lead-acid batteries can produce
hydrogen gas, a fire and explosion hazard in enclosed areas.
Release of thionyl chloride or sulphur dioxide from large lithium
batteries can involve exposure to sulphur dioxide, hydrochloric
acid mist, burning lithium and so on, and has caused at least one
fatality (Ducatman, Ducatman and Barnes 1988). This could also
be a hazard during manufacture of these batteries.

Battery manufacturers have become aware of increasing

environmental concern from the disposal of batteries containing
toxic heavy metals by putting them in landfills or incinerating
them with other garbage. Leakage of toxic metals from waste
dumps or alternatively escaping from the chimneys of waste
incinerators can result in water and air contamination. The
manufacturers therefore recognized the need to reduce the
mercury content of batteries, in particular, within the limits
allowable by modern technology. The campaign for mercury
elimination commenced in advance of the legislation introduced
in the European Union, the EC Battery Directive.

Recycling is another way to deal with environmental pollution.

Nickel-cadmium batteries can be recycled relatively easily. The
recovery of cadmium is very efficient and it is re-used in the
construction of nickel-cadmium batteries. The nickel will
subsequently be used in the steel industry. The initial economics
suggested that the recycling of nickel-cadmium batteries was not
cost effective, but advances in technology are expected to improve
the situation. Mercuric oxide cells, which are covered by the EC
Battery Directive, have been used primarily in hearing aids, and
are being replaced typically with lithium or zinc-air batteries.
Silver oxide cells are recycled, especially by the jewellery
industry, due to the value of the silver content.

When recycling harmful materials, care has to be taken similar to

that exercised during the manufacturing processes. During the
recycling of silver batteries, for example, workers may be exposed
to mercury vapour and silver oxide.

The repair and recycling of lead-acid batteries can result not only
in lead poisoning among the workers, and sometimes their
families, but also in extensive lead contamination of the
environment (Matte et al. 1989). In many countries, particularly in
the Caribbean and Latin America, lead car battery plates are
burned to produce lead oxide for pottery glazes.

Electric Cable Manufacture

Electric cable manufacture has three major sources of pollution:

solvent vapours, potential release of toluene di-isocyanate from
enamelled wire manufacture and environmental emissions
during the manufacture of materials used in cables. All of these
require appropriate environmental controls.

Electric Lamp and Tube Manufacture

The major environmental concerns here are the waste disposal

and/or recycling of mercury-containing lamps and the disposal of
PCBs from the ballasts of fluorescent lamps. Glass manufacturing
can also be a significant source of emission of nitrogen oxides into
the atmosphere.

Domestic Electric Appliances

Since the electric appliance industry is to a large extent an

assembly industry, environmental issues are minimal, with the
major exception being paints and solvents used as surface
coatings. Standard pollution control measures should be instituted
in accordance with environmental regulations.

The recycling of electrical appliances involves separation of the

recovered equipment into different materials such as copper and
mild steel which can be reused, which is discussed elsewhere in
this Encyclopaedia.

REFERENCES

Ducatman, AM, BS Ducatman and JA Barnes. 1988. Lithium

battery hazard: Old-fashioned planning implications of new
technology. J Occup Med 30:309–311.
Health and Safety Executive (HSE). 1990. Man-made Mineral
Fibres. Executive Guidance Note EH46. London: HSE.

International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). 1992.

Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans,
Vol. 54. Lyon: IARC.
Matte TD, JP Figueroa, G Burr, JP Flesch, RH Keenlyside and EL
Baker. 1989. Lead exposure among lead-acid battery workers in
Jamaica. Amer J Ind Med 16:167–177.
McDiarmid, MA, CS Freeman, EA Grossman and J Martonik. 1996.
Biological monitoring results for cadmium exposed workers.
Amer Ind Hyg Assoc J 57:1019–1023.
Roels, HA, JP Ghyselen, E Ceulemans and RR Lauwerys. 1992.
Assessment of the permissible exposure level to manganese in
workers exposed to manganese dioxide dust. Brit J Ind Med 49:25–
34.
Telesca, DR. 1983. A Survey of Health Hazard Control Systems for
Mercury Use and Processing. Report No. CT-109-4. Cincinnati, OH:
NIOSH.
Wallis, G, R Menke and C Chelton. 1993. Workplace field testing of
a disposable negative pressure half-mask dust respirator (3M
8710). Amer Ind Hyg Assoc J 54:576-583.

Part XIII - Manufacturing Industries Français