BEHAVIOUR OF HIGH DENSITY

CONCRETE AND LOW DENSITY

CONCRETE IN ALKALINE
ENVIRONMENT

A Project Report Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the award of degree of

MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

in

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

P. SAI SHANKER GOUD

17261D2007

Under the Guidance

of
Dr. K.V.KRISHNA REDDY
PROFESSOR, CED

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad)
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi
Sponsored by Chaitanya Bharathi Educational Society
Gandipet, Hyderabad – 500 075
www.mgit.ac.in
July, 2019
MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Gandipet, Hyderabad – 500 075. (INDIA) (Affiliated to
Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad)
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Certificate
This is to certify that this report “BEHAVIOUR OF HIGH
DENSITY CONCRETE AND LOW DENSITY CONCRETE IN
ALKALINE ENVIRONMENT” is a bonafide record of work done
by P. SAI SHANKER GOUD (17261D2007) and submitted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the award of Master of Technology
in Structural Engineering.

Dr. K.V. Krishna Reddy, Dr. K.V. Ramana Reddy

Professor, CED Professor & Head

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that the work reported in present thesis entitled “Behaviour of High
Density Concrete and Low Density Concrete in Alkaline Environment” is a record of
work done by me in the Department of Civil Engineering, MAHATMA GANDHI
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Hyderabad.

No part of the thesis is copied from books/journals/internet and wherever the portion is
taken, the same has been duly referred to or cited to in the text. The report is based on the project
work done entirely to the best of my knowledge and not copied from any other source. I also take
whole and sole responsibility for discrepancies in the results/reports found if any.

(Signature of student)
Name: P. Sai Shanker Goud
Roll No: 17261D2007
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my sincere thanks to Prof. K. Jaya Sankar, Principal, Mahatma Gandhi

Institute of Technology, for fostering an excellent academic ambience without which this
project would not have been fruitful.

I would like to thank my adored professor Dr. K. V. Ramana Reddy, Professor and
Head, Department Of Civil Engineering for his valuable suggestions and encouragement
throughout the period of project work.

I take immense pleasure in expressing my deep sense of gratitude to my beloved

project guide Dr. K. V. Krishna Reddy, Professor in Civil Engineering, for his constant
support, valuable guidance, constructive criticism and timely suggestion throughout my
project work, without whom this work would not have been possible.

I express my thankfulness to Mr. S. Jaya Prakash Narayana, Asst. Professor for his
help and for granting me permission to use the concrete laboratory whenever needed.

I finally thank Mr. P. Surender for the suggestion of equipment and valuable
assistance while testing the cubes and also Mr. D. Ranjith and Mr. M. Krishna for helping
with the casting and de-moulding of concrete cubes.

P. SAI SHANKER
GOUD
17261D2007
 ABSTRACT

More than two billion tonnes of alkaline residues are produced every year by various
industries around the globe. These residues have a major impact on the strength and
performance of concrete. To eliminate or reduce the problems caused by the alkaline
residues, it is important to understand its behaviour in concrete.

The present study aims to determine the strength parameters of high density concrete and low
density concrete in alkaline environment. Low density concrete mixes are achieved by using
different types of low density aggregates like Pumice and Vermiculite. In one mix 100% of
normal coarse aggregate is replaced with Pumice aggregate and in other mix 30% of fine
aggregate is replaced with Vermiculite to get Low Density Concrete. High density concrete
mixes are achieved by using different types of high density aggregates like Barite and
Haematite. To achieve High density concrete, 100% replacement of normal coarse aggregate
is done in two different mixes using Barite and Haematite as coarse aggregate in each mix.
After casting, concrete specimens are cured in two different curing conditions. In one curing
condition concrete specimens are cured with normal water and in the other curing condition
first concrete specimens are cured in normal water for 7 days then followed by the alkaline
water curing. Using NaOH pellets alkaline solution is created which has a pH of 13.
Compressive Strength, Flexural Strength, Split-Tensile strength and Rapid Chloride
Penetration Test values of the specimens which are cured in alkaline environment are
compared with that of the standard specimens to evaluate the effect of the alkaline curing on
the concrete specimens.
 CONTENTS
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE NO
Abstract
List of Figures i
List of Tables ii
List of Graphs iv
Abbreviations v
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General 1
1.2 Alkaline Environment 2
1.2.1 Effect of sea water on concrete 3
1.3 High Density Concrete 4
1.3.1 Aggregates used for High Density Concrete 5
1.3.1.1 Haematite 6
1.3.1.2 Barite 6
1.3.2 Applications of High Density Concrete 7
1.4 Low Density Concrete 8
1.4.1 Classification of Low Density Concrete 9
1.4.2 Aggregates used for Low Density concrete 10
1.4.2.1 Pumice 11
1.4.2.2 Vermiculite 12
1.4.3 Applications of Low Density Concrete 13
1.5 Scope and Objectives 14
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 15
3 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION 21
3.1 Material and their properties 21
3.2 Cement 21
3.3 Flyash 23
3.4 Fine Aggregate 24
3.5 Coarse Aggregate 25
3.5.1 Normal Coarse Aggregate 25
3.5.2 High Density Aggregates 26
3.5.3 Low Density Aggregates 27
 3.6 Superplasticizer 29
3.6.1 Chemical Composition and Mechanism 29
3.6.2 Features and Benefits 30
3.7 Water 31

4 TESTING OF MATERIALS 32
4.1 Specific gravity of Cement 32
4.2 Fineness of Cement 33
4.3 Initial setting time and Final setting time of Cement 34
4.3.1 Initial Setting Time 34
4.3.2 Final Setting Time 35
4.4. Specific gravity and Water Absorption of Fine aggregate 35
4.5 Fineness Modulus and Grading of Fine Aggregate 37
4.6 Specific gravity and Water Absorption of Coarse aggregate 38
5 MIX DESIGN 40
5.1 Mix Design concept for High Strength concrete 40
5.2 Method of mix design of High Strength Concrete 40
5.3 Mix design of M60 grade concrete 41
5.4 Trial batch adjustments 44
5.5 High Density Concrete mix design 45
5.6 Low Density Concrete mix design 45
6 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION 47
6.1 Mixing of concrete 47
6.1.1 Hand mixing of concrete 47
6.1.2 Machine mixing of concrete 48
6.2 Workability 49
6.3 Slump Cone Test 50
6.4 Casting and Curing of concrete specimens 52
6.4.1 Casting of Concrete specimens 52
6.4.2 Curing of concrete specimens 53
6.4.3 Alkaline Curing 53
6.5 Studies on Hardened Concrete 56
6.5.1 Compressive Strength 56
 6.5.2 Split-Tensile Strength 57
6.5.3 Flexural Strength 57
7 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 59
7.1 Compressive Strength 59
7.2 Split-Tensile Strength 62
7.3 Flexural Strength 63
8 RAPID CHLORIDE PERMEABILITY TEST 69
8.1 Test procedure 69
9 CONCLUSIONS 77
REFERENCES 79
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Structures near sea 4
1.2 Nuclear Power Plant 8
3.1 Barite aggregate 26
3.2 Haematite aggregate 27
3.3 Pumice aggregate 28
3.4 Vermiculite 28
3.5 Superplasticizer 29
4.1 Specific Gravity bottle of Cement 32
4.2 Vicat apparatus 34
4.3 Pycnometer 36
4.4 Sieve analysis of Fine aggregate 38
6.1 Machine mixing of concrete 49
6.2 Different slumps of Concrete 51
6.3 Slump test of M60 concrete 51
6.4 Pumice aggregate in water 52
6.5 Vermiculite in water 53
6.6 NaOH pellets 54
6.7 pH of Alkaline solution 55
6.8 Alkaline curing 55
6.9 Compressive testing machine 56
6.10 Split-Tensile Strength 57
6.11 Flexural testing of beams 58
8.1 Desiccator with pump motor 70
8.2 RCPT test device setup 71
8.3 RCPT test values 74

i
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TITLE PAGE NO

1.1 Analysis of Ocean water 2
1.2 Properties of High Density Aggregates 5
1.3 Properties of Haematite mineral 6
1.4 Properties of Barite mineral 7
1.5 Properties of Vermiculite mineral 12
3.1 Properties of Cement 23
3.2 Properties of Flyash 24
3.3 Properties of Fine Aggregate 25
3.4 Properties of Normal Coarse aggregate 25
3.5 Properties of Barite aggregate 26
3.6 Properties of Haematite aggregate 27
3.7 Properties of Pumice aggregate 28
3.8 Properties of Vermiculite 29
3.9 Properties of Superplasticizer 30
4.1 Initial setting time of cement 35
4.2 Sieve analysis of Fine aggregate 37
4.3 Grading table 38
5.1 Conventional concrete mix ratio 44
5.2 Mix design ratios 46
6.1 Properties of NaOH 54
7.1 Densities of different concrete 59
7.2 Compressive strength for 28 days normal curing 60
7.3 Compressive strength for 56 days normal curing 60
7.4 Compressive strength for 7 days normal and 28 days alkaline 61
cured concrete
7.5 Compressive strength for 7 days normal and 56 days alkaline 61
cured concrete
7.6 Weights of Concrete after 56 days curing 62
7.7 Loads on cylinders 63
7.8 Split tensile strength for 56 days curing 63
7.9 Loads and distance of crack for beams 64

ii
7.10 Flexural strength of beams for 56 days curing 64
8.1 Temperature and current passing 72
8.2 Current in amperes 73
8.3 Comparing charge values of specimens 75
8.4 Chloride permeability based on charge passed 75

iii
 LIST OF GRAPHS

GRAPH NO TITLE PAGE NO

7.1 Comparison of Compressive strength values for 28 days 65
curing
7.2 Comparison of compressive strength values for 56 days 66
curing
7.3 Comparison of Split-tensile strength values for 56 days 67
curing
7.4 Comparison of Flexural strength values for 56 days curing 68

iv
 ABBREVIATIONS

CC Conventional Concrete
HDC-A Barite Concrete
HDC-B Haematite Concrete
LDC-A Vermiculite Concrete
LDC-B Pumice Concrete
IS Indian Standard
ACI American Concrete Institute
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

v
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General:

Concrete is a most common material which is used in construction. It is composed of

Cement, which is a binding material, Fine aggregate (Sand), Coarse aggregate (Stones),
Water. These are the basic ingredients which are used to produce Concrete. Along these,
materials like Fly Ash, Super-plasticizer are also used to produce concrete. It is the leading
and most extensively used construction material in the world as the materials used in this
mixture are easily available. Wherever there is a construction work we can find usage of
concrete there. In early 1970s experts predicted that the maximum strength achieved by the
ready mix concrete would be unlikely to exceed compressive strength greater than 75MPa.
Over the past decades, due to development in the high strength concrete, engineers are able to
surpass this limit of strength. The main difference between the High Strength Concrete and
the Normal Concrete is the Compressive strength. High Strength Concrete is typically a
concrete which has a 28days Compressive strength greater than 40MPa.

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction material in the world because of its
good strength and durability properties. Cost of construction is also less using the
concrete. Concrete gains its strength due to the formation of compounds like C 2S, C3S,
C3A and C4AF1. Cement used in concrete is a complex compound and contains minerals
like sulphates, aluminates in the form of Gypsum which is added to cement. When these
compounds undergo hydration reaction initial setting of concrete takes place and calciu m
silicate and calcium aluminate compounds are formed. When further hydration of these
calcium silicate and calcium aluminate takes place we get a gel type compound known as
CSH gel. This is Calcium-Silicate-Hydrate gel and is responsible for the hardening and
strength of concrete. Throughout the process of development of CSH gel, hydration of
concrete paste takes place and for this process water is required for curing of concrete so
that concrete does not loss its internal water. Water used for curing purpose has to be
clean and free from any foreign materials so that concrete does not get affected through it.

1
1.2. Alkaline Environment:

The quality of water plays an important role in the preparation and strengthening of
concrete. The water used for the production of concrete should be free from any organic
and in-organic materials and should confine the IS code 456 (2000) provisions. This
ensures the strengthening of concrete without any affects. Condition, time and treatment
play a major role on the strength and other mechanical properties of concrete. Even
though water used for mixing of concrete is confined to IS code 456 (2000), the concrete
might get affected due to the water used for curing.

Structures which are constructed in and around water bodies such as oceans, seas will
continuously get affected by the surrounding environment and the structures always will be
subjected to wetting and high amounts of humidity. Sea or Ocean water is an aqueous
solution which principally contain Sodium Chloride and Magnesium sulphate. The water in
the oceans on an average contain about 35 parts per thousand dissolved salts in it. The major
cat-ions present in sea water are Na+, Ca++, Mg++ and K+. These compounds are almost

found in an un-complex state in this water. The major an-ions are Cl-, OH-, HCO3-

, CO3-2, SO4-2. These are also found in un-complex state. The concentration of sea or
ocean water may change from place to place but on testing it has been confirmed that
there are six major elements which are found almost in all places. They are expressed as
milligrams per litre of sea water and are Chlorine 19,000; Sodium 10,600; Magnesium
1,300; Sulphur 900; Calcium 400 and Potassium 380. These six elements almost make 99
percent of the dissolved salts in Ocean water. Other minerals are also present in sea water
but no mineral can make it beyond 65 mg/l. The specific gravity of sea water will be in
the range of 1.03, due to the presence of excess of alkali metals.

Table 1.1. Analysis of Ocean Water

Cat-ion Concentration An-ion Concentration

g/100 ml g/100 ml

Na+ 1.23 Cl- 2.18

Mg++ 0.145 SO4-2 0.32
++ -
Ca 0.057 OH 0.008
K+ 0.045 HCO3- 0.015

2
These are the most common minerals present in sea and ocean water. Concentrations of
major cations and anions are given in the table above and these are common for every
type of sea or ocean water ir-respective of the place from where water sample is taken.

1.2.1. Effect of sea water on concrete:

Structures that are constructed near oceans or seas and that which are immersed and
continuously in touch with sea or ocean water and which are exposed to sea or oceans air
will be subjected to deterioration. During nights when the temperatures fall below
freezing point, freeze and thaw effect takes place. In this process water which is present
in the pores of concrete will get solidified and form ice and leads to expansion of pores.
As the environment near oceans is a humid environment it causes difficulties in the
hydration process of concrete as there will be continuous wind air which carries some
tiny salt particles and deposits on the concrete structure.

When a structure is constructed in the sea or ocean, the concrete is subjected to

continuous tide forces and also the minerals and chemicals present in the water effect the
concrete. All the minerals which are aggressive in nature will react with the concrete and
causes different effects on concrete. Due to the reaction of these minerals on the concrete
and continuous effect of ocean tidal waves concrete may undergo spalling of concrete due
to this steel bars are exposed to atmosphere and causes corrosion of reinforcement. pH of
sea water lies around 8.5-9.0 which also have effect on concrete. Also there are chances
of growing of algae on the concrete.

3
 Figure 1.1. Structure in sea

1.3. High Density Concrete:

High Density Concrete (HDC) is a special type of concrete which has higher density
compared to normal conventional concrete. High Density Concrete is also known as
Heavy Weight Concrete. This is a special type of concrete introduced for the purpose of
arresting ionization radiation in accordance with the limited space available in the Nuclear
power plant, in Hospitals and in other radiation zones. Density of these types of concretes
will be above 2600 Kg/m3. Generally density of these concretes would be around 3000
Kg/m3 to 7500 Kg/m3. These types of concretes are developed using Heavy Weight
Aggregates or High Density Aggregates. Heavy weight concrete is widely used for
radiation shielding of Nuclear reactors and other structures which deals with the radiation
elements and require im-permeability of radiation. The structures which use these type of
devices require a strong barrier which can resist the radiations which are emitted from
these materials. For these structures not only strength of the concrete should be taken into
account but also durability properties like permeability, resistance to adverse
environments, serviceability. As concrete is considered to be an excellent and versatile
shielding material, it is widely used for shielding nuclear power plants. Concrete is
relatively inexpensive material and it can be moulded into any desired shape and can be
handled easily. By using various mixtures of light weight and heavy weight materials
concrete attains capability of attenuation of photons and neutrons.

4
1.3.1. Aggregates used for High Density Concrete:

High density aggregates or Heavy weight aggregates are used to get a high density
concrete. These aggregates have very high specific gravity and have high densities. For
the production of High Density Concrete, it requires same materials which are used in
designing a Normal Conventional Concrete except the use of coarse aggregates. We know
that coarse aggregates take almost 70% of the volume of the concrete. Hence coarse
aggregate plays a major role in defining the properties and behaviour of concrete. Coarse
aggregates used in the production of High Density Concrete have high specific gravities
and densities. Using these High density aggregates or Heavy weight aggregates we can
achieve High Density Concrete.

Aggregates which are used regularly to achieve high density concrete are steel punches and
iron shots. These materials helps us to achieve high strength concrete easily as their specific
gravities are high. But these are not the natural aggregates. Some of the natural aggregates
used in high density concrete are Barite, Haematite, Magnetite, Goethite, Serpentine,
Limonite, Ilmenite. Properties of some of these high density aggregates are as follows.

Table 1.2: Properties of High Density Aggregates

Aggregates Specific Water Absorption Concrete Density

Gravity (%) (Kg/m3)

Goethite 3.4-3.8 10-11 2890-3250
Limonite 3.4-4.1 8-9 2890-3450
Barite 4.0-4.5 0.5 3380-3980
Ilmenite 4.2-4.8 1 3520-3850
Haematite 4.9-5.3 1 3850-4270
Magnetite 4.1-5.2 1 3360-4170
Ferrophosphorus 5.7-6.8 0 4080-5290
Steel Punchings 6.2-7.9 0 4650-6190

In this study Haematite and Barite minerals are used as Coarse aggregates for production
of high density concrete.

5
1.3.1.1 Haematite:

Haematite is a mineral form of one of the oxides of iron. It is ferric oxide and is
designated as Fe2O3. It is the oldest known iron oxide mineral ever formed on earth.
Haematite has a crystalline structure of rhombohedral lattice system. The crystalline
structure of haematite is same as that of ilmenite and corundum. The colour of Haematite
may vary from silver to grey, brown to reddish brown and red. The streak of this will be
rusty-red. Huge deposits of haematite are found in banded iron formation. The red chalk
writings are one of the earliest method of writing in human history. Rich deposits
haematite has been found on island of Elba. Some of the physical properties of Haematite
mineral are given in the table below.

Table 1.3: Properties of Haematite mineral

Category Oxide Mineral

Formula Fe2O3
Crystal system Trigonal
Colour Metallic grey, dull to bright red
Streak Bright red to dark red
Specific Gravity 3.9-5.6

Density 5.3 g/cm3

1.3.1.2 Barite:

Barite is a mineral composed of barium sulphate (BaSO4). It receives its name from greek
word “barys” which means “heavy”. The name is given in response of its specific gravity
or weight which is not common for a non-metallic mineral. Because of its heavy weight it
is widely used in many industrial applications. This mineral is man source for the Barium.
It often occurs as concretions and void fillings in sediments and sedimentary rocks. Barite
is also a common mineral in hydrothermal veins and is a gangue mineral associated with
sulphide ores. Barite occurs in a large number of depositional environments, and is
deposited through a large number of processes including biogenic, hydrothermal and
evaporation among others. It also occurs in lead-zinc veins in limestone, in hot spring
deposits and with haematite ore. The colour of barite varies from colourless to white with
light shades of blue, yellow, grey and brown. Some of the physical properties of the barite
mineral are given in the table.

6
 Table 1.4: Properties of Barite Mineral

Category Sulfate mineral, Barite group

Formula BaSO4
Crystal system Orthorhombic
Colour Colourless, white light shade of
grey,brown
Streak White
Specific Gravity 4.0-5.0

Density 4.88 g/cm3

The selection of aggregates for high density concrete depends upon the physical
properties of those aggregates. In order to achieve workability, High density aggregates
should be free from dirt, oil or grease strain. Or else, it will retard the hydration process
of the concrete and also effects the bonding between the matrix and the aggregates. Some
of the additives like colemanite, borocalcite are used to improve the performance of the
high density concrete. Addition of these additives may affect the setting time of concrete.
Hence trial mixes should be made and tested for depending upon suitability.

1.3.2. Applications of High Density Concrete:

The major utilization of the High Density Concrete is in the Nuclear Industry or in the areas
where radiation materials are used. High density concrete has sufficient energy to absorb
radiation both of neutrons and gamma rays. By doing this the energy of the radiations can be
weakened. It also has good mechanical properties such as strength and performance.

When in wet condition, high density can be moulded into any desired shape. Hence the
ease of construction can be achieved by using this high density concrete. Different
radiations are released in power production plants and factories in which nuclear
materials are processed again and again. In this situation High Density Concrete plays an
important role by shielding the dangerous rays and not allowing them to penetrate
through walls of that area or building.

Except in nuclear power plants and nuclear industry, high density concrete can be used by
offshore oil industry to cover pipelines under the sea. Generally for this purpose Magnetite is
used as coarse aggregate for achieving High Density Concrete. It can also be used as a
stabilizer in foundation of bridges where large mass is needed but area is limited. By using

7
normal conventional concrete we cannot get the desired mass within a small area. At
these places High Density Concrete is used to achieve the required mass. This concrete
can be used in underwater construction also. High density concrete can resist high
temperatures which normal conventional concrete cannot withstand. From this we can say
that High Density concrete can be used in industries and near places where we have high
temperatures, which affect buildings.

High density concrete can also be used as Breakwater structures, Gravity seawalls which
helps in ensuring the protection of Costal Structures. It is also used as Ballast for oceans,
for mass concrete projects, high density concrete columns, Off-shore platforms noise and
vibration dampers, bridge counter weights.

Figure 1.2. Nuclear Plant

1.4. Low Density Concrete:

A concrete is known as a Low Density Concrete when its density is less than 1900
Kg/m3. This Low Density Concrete is also known as Light Weight Concrete. It is a
concrete mixture made with entire lightweight coarse aggregates with fine aggregates and
cement. This concrete has a density of ranging from 1450 Kg/m3 to 1850 Kg/m3. Normal

concrete has a density ranging from 2240 Kg/m3 to 2400 Kg/m3. With the great demand
of construction materials, sustainable developments in the concrete technology has taken

8
 place that should be essentially used as an alternative material of construction in place of
normal concrete.

Structure self-weight is the basic force which acts on building and is responsible for the
structural behaviour of the structures. In this weight factor, Coarse aggregate plays an
important role in defining the weight of the structure as the coarse aggregate takes nearly
70% of volume of concrete. By using low density aggregates or light weight aggregates
we can reduce the net weight of the building. Consequently, the application of light
weight concrete in Long-span bridges and high rise buildings will reduce weight of the
building and also cost of the building. Light weight aggregates that are used in the
structural light weight concrete are typically expanded shale, clay and slate materials that
are fired in the rotary kiln to develop a porous structure and also products like air-cooled
blast furnace slag are also used. These materials inherently have a large number of pores
which in-turn results in lower strength, lower stiffness and greater deformability. From
this we can say that light weight aggregates are weak and effects the strength of the
concrete and leads to failure of concrete.

Light weight concrete has been in used in construction before the days of the Roman
Empire. First type of light weight concrete has been developed using pumice stone. This
concrete has very low velocity. Some claim that romans used air entertainers to reduce
density but not light weight aggregates. Since the last 20 years there is a significant
development in the design of the Low Density Concrete or Light Weight Concrete which
can be used for non-structural purpose.

1.4.1. Classification of Low Density Concrete:

Depending upon the type of aggregate used and type of method used in producing Light
Weight Concrete, Light Weight Concrete can be classified into three types.
 
 No fines Concrete:
As the name suggests in this type Low Density for the concrete is achieved by
eliminating fine aggregate content in the mix. In this type normal weight coarse
aggregates are used. Nominal single sized materials which are in the range of 10mm
to 20mm. The aggregate to cement ratio in No-fines concrete generally would be in
the range of 6:1 to 10:1. The water to cement ratio for this type of concrete is kept in
the range of 0.38 to 0.52. This should be chosen very carefully considering the

cohesiveness of the mixture. Density of no-fines concrete may vary from 1600 to

9
 1900 Kg/m3. For no-fines concrete compressive strength varies from 4MPa to
14MPa. This type of concrete is used for construction of external load bearing walls
and small retaining walls. It is also used for construction of temporary structures.

 
 Light weight aggregate concrete:
In this type of concrete, Light weight aggregates are used to produce Light Weight
Concrete or Low Density Concrete. Usually these materials are porous in nature

 and have very light weight which in-turn reduces the weight of the concrete.
The use of Light Weight Concrete was accepted in UK in early 1950s. Soon after
different types Light weight concretes are developed using different light weight
aggregates. Different types of aggregates which are used in producing Light
Weight Aggregate Concrete are Pumice, Scoria, Expanded clay, Shale, Slate,

Vermiculite, Clinker, Foamed slag, Perlite.

 
 Aerated Concrete:
Aerated concrete is a concrete which is formed by introducing large voids into the
concrete. These voids should be clearly distinguished from extremely fine voids
which are formed due to air entrainment. This type of concretes are produced by
combining foam and low density aggregates to impart special properties to the

 concrete. This type of concrete is also known as Cellular concrete, Foamed concrete

or Gas concrete. Density of aerated concrete ranges in between 300 Kg/m3 to 800

Kg/m3.

1.4.2. Aggregates used for Low Density Concrete:

We know that selection of coarse aggregate plays a very important role in designing the
light weight concrete. For production of this type of concrete, light weight aggregates are
used which has very low specific gravities. The main characteristics of this type of light
weight aggregate is its high porosity which results in low specific gravities. In a 24 -hour
water absorption test, they generally absorb 5% to 20% by mass of dry aggregates. Light
weight aggregates can be divided into two groups.

10
  
 Natural light weight aggregate:
1. Pumice
2. Scoria
3. Volcanic cinders
4. Palm oil shells

 
 Artificial Light weight aggregate:
1. Coal cinders
2. Sintered fly-ash
3. Expanded perlite
4. Exfoliated vermiculite
5. Expanded shale and slate
6. Thermo coal beads
7. Foamed slag
8. Bloated clay

Designing of this type of concrete can be achieved depending upon the usage of the
aggregate and its type. From the above classification we can use different materials to
obtain different Low Density Aggregates. In this study two aggregates are used to
produce Low Density Concrete. They are Pumice and Vermiculite.

1.4.2.1. Pumice:

Pumice is a type of volcanic rock formed when lava with extremely high levels of gases
and water is ejected violently from the volcano. When the gases escapes from the molten
lava it becomes frothy and when the lava hardens we get a very light and extremely
buoyance material known as Pumice or amorphous aluminate silicate. The word Pumice
is derived from a latin word “pumex” which means foam. The main use of pumice stone
is to reduce the weight or density of the structure so that we get a light weight concrete.
Small pumice stones are also used at home or in beauty salons to remove the dry skin and
calluses from areas such as feet. Pumice stone is found near pyroclastic flows or
accumulated drifts, piles and banks by wind or wave action.

Pumice has a chemical composition similar to that of obsidian or volcanic glass. It has very
thin, translucent bubble walls of extrusive igneous rock. Pumice stone as used in salons are
generally high in silica and low in iron and magnesium. Due to the presence of gases or air

11
bubbles and water during its formation the obtained pumice is light in weight which we
get after rapid cooling of the molten lava. Density of the pumice stone depends upon the
thickness of the solid material between the air bubbles. Porosity of pumice stone is 90%
on average, which is very high for a rock material. Hence the specific gravity of the
pumice stone ranges from 0.75 to 1.0.

As pumice stones are light in weight, they usually float on water for a time and then after
absorbing water they eventually sink. These stones are abrasive in nature and hence used
in salons to remove dry skin and calluses form feet. Colour of pumice is commonly pale
ranging from white, cream, blue or grey to green-brown, black. Most of the pumice is in
wgite ot light grey in colour.

1.4.2.2. Vermiculite:

Vermiculite is a hydrous phyllosilicate material. It undergoes significant expansion when

heated. When the material is heated sufficiently, Exfoliation of the material takes place.
This material is formed due to the process of weathering or Hydro-thermal alteration of
biotite or phlogopite. In 1984, Vermiculite was first described for an occurrence in
Millibury. Its name is derived from a Latin name Vermiculare, to bread worms, the way
in which it expands when heated. Some physical properties of vermiculite are given in the
table below.

Table 1.5: Properties of Vermiculite Material

Category Phyllosilicates

Formula [(Mg, Fe+2, Fe+3 )3.(Al, Si)4O10 ] .OH2.4H2O

Crystal system Monoclinic
Colour Colourless, White, Yellow, Green, Brown and
black
Streak White or Yellowish, Shinny light brown
Specific gravity 2.4-2.7

12
1.4.3. Applications of Low Density Concrete:

Structural light weight concrete or Low density concrete mix can be designed to achieve
similar strength as that of normal conventional concrete. The most important application
and primary use of Low Density Concrete is to reduce the self-weight of the structure or
building. This allows or helps designer to reduce the size of Column, Beam and other
load bearing elements. It is ideal for stair pan fill, elevated floor slabs or overlays on
existing floor slabs, roof deck repairs. It can also be used for constructing small elements
like fish ponds, gutters, curbs, balconies, floors, walls, setting posts, steps, castings,
platforms. It can be used where lifting and carrying are important.

Nowadays with the advancement of technology, this Low Density Concrete ca n also be used
for insulating purpose. To achieve this, Perlite is used to develop Low Density Concrete. It is
also used as loose-fill in masonry constructions as it enhances fire rating, reduces sound
transmission. By the use of High Strength Light weight Concrete (HSLWC), we can obtain
longer lengths and light weight girders. Researchers at Georgia Institute of Technologies has
shown that, HSLWC can be designed with a compressive strength of 70MPa with very low
permeability while achieving 20% decrease in shipping weight.

13
 1.5 Objectives and Scope:

In this study we are going to design High Strength Concrete with Normal aggregates. For
this mix, High Density Concrete and Low Density Concrete are achieved by replacing
aggregates on the basics of the specific gravity of the aggregate materials and there
properties. The objectives of this study are:

 To develop High Density Concrete and Low Density Concrete using different
high density aggregates and low density aggregates.

 To compare densities of Conventional Concrete, High density Concrete and Low
Density Concrete.

 To know the effect of different curing conditions such as Normal curing and
Normal + Alkaline curing on different concrete mixes.

 The important objective of this study is to compare the strength features of
Conventional Concrete, High Density Concrete and Low Density Concrete like
Compressive Strength, Split-Tensile strength, Flexural Strength and RCPT test
results which are cured in different curing conditions.

 To know the essential properties of materials used as a part of mix to obtain
normal Conventional concrete.

Conventional Concrete is designed to achieve High Strengths up-to 60MPa, and are
known as High Strength Concrete. High Density Concrete is achieved using aggregates
such as Barite and Haematite. Low Density Concrete is achieved using aggregates such as
Pumice and Vermiculite. For these mixes Cubes, Cylinders and Beams are casted and
tested for 28 days curing and 56 days curing. Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) is
also conducted to know the durability of mixes. The difference between densities and
strengths of these mixes are compared.

14
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

S. Kilincarslan, I. Akkurt, C. Basyigit (2006), conducted experiment on physical and

mechanical properties of concrete by replacing normal aggregates with Barite aggregates
to get High Density Concrete. In this study, normal aggregates are replaced with high
density aggregate at different percentages like 0%, 50%, 60%, 70% and 100%. With these
percentages of replacement, different concretes are casted with water-cement ratios as
0.65, 0.51 and 0.43, a total of 15 different mixes of High Density Concrete are casted and
tested after 28-days of curing. For each sample of concrete cylindrical specimen of
dimension 15cm in diameter and 30cm in height. For each mix Unit weight, Ultrasound
Pulse Velocity, Schmidt hardness and Modulus of Elasticity tests are performed after 28
days of curing. They found that as the percentage of Barite was increasing, unit weight
was also increasing and found maximum for 100% replacement with a water -cement
ratio of 0.51. It was found that there was no effect on Schmidt hardness with the barite
percent for water - cement ratio of 0.65 and 0.51 but found a decrease in value for 0.43
ratio and the relation between w/c and Schmidt Hardness is non-linear. Similarly for the
USPV test, the value was decreasing for 0.43 w/c ratio. In the case of Elasticity Modulus
it was found there was an increase in value as the barite percent increases.

Harshavardhan.C, BalaMurugun S (2016), studied concrete subjected to high elevated

temperatures and comparing results of Normal concrete and High Density Concrete which
was made using barite as aggregate. In this investigation along with high density aggregate,
steel fibres were also added in percentages of 0%, 0.5% and 1% in both concretes. A total of
6 mixes are produced using normal mix procedure and are cured in a curing tank at ambient
temperatures. Once curing is finished testing of the specimens is done. High density concrete
which is made of Barite aggregate showed around 30% increase in its density compared to
normal concrete. Specimens which are subjected to 200oC showed greater strength compared

to 400oC and 600oC. Addition of steel fibres increased strengths of concrete which are kept at
elevated temperatures. High density concrete with 0% steel fibres has low split-tensile and
flexural strength. Addition of steel fibres reduced spalling and sudden failure of concrete
when it is subjected ultimate load point while testing.

15
Athira Suresh (2015), has done experiment on heavy weight concrete using Haematite and
Laterite stones as high density aggregates. In his study he replaced normal conventional
coarse granite stone aggregates with high density aggregates of Haematite and Laterite.
Normal coarse aggregates are replaced with high density aggregates at percentages of 0%,
25%, 50% and 100%. M30 grade of concrete is used in this study with a water-cement ratio
of 0.42. A total of 7 concrete mixes are prepared and cubes, cylinders and beams are casted.
Testing of specimens are done at 7 days and 28 days curing. As the percent of high density
aggregates is increasing slump value of the concrete is decreasing due to water absorption of
aggregates. Laterite has higher water absorption than haematite and normal aggregate. Hence
Laterite has low slump value. Concrete made with Haematite aggregate has achieved highest

density which is 3004 kg/m3 and for laterite it is 2663 kg/m3. Concrete with 25% replacement

has achieved highest strength compared to other mixes in both cases due to the porosity of
aggregates. Same in case of Split-tensile strength and Flexural strength. He concluded that for
25% replacement density and strength are both increased.

Osman Gencel, conducted experiment on properties of High Density Concrete containing

Haematite as coarse aggregate. In this study normal aggregates are replaced with high
density aggregates at percentage of 0%, 15%, 30%, 45% and 60%. Along with this
cement content is changed as 300, 350, 400 and 450 kg/m3 with a constant water-cement
ratio of 0.40. Total 20 mixes are prepared and cured. Haematite has good adhesion
property with the cement. Increase in haematite content witnessed increase in slump and a
slump of 22cm is measured. Hardness, pulse velocity and unit weight increased as
increase in haematite content.

D. Ramachandran, R.P. George, Vinita Vishwakarma, Sudha U, Arul Maximus Rabel

(20017), have researched on concrete containing Haematite for its properties. In this
research M35 grade of concrete is used as normal conventional concrete. In this paper
Flyash modified concrete (FAC) and Haematite concrete (HC) are prepared. FAC is
prepared by replacing 20% of cement with Flyash and also in HC cement is replaced with
20% flyash and 10% of fine aggregate with fine Haematite aggregate and haematite
coarse aggregate is used of size 20mm. Cubes, Cylinders and prisms are casted in the
same procedure as of normal concrete and are cured in the curing tank and testing of the
specimens is done at 7 days, 28 days and 56 days of curing. HC exhibits better
Compression, Split-tensile and Flexural strength than the FAC because of use of finer and

16
denser haematite. HC showed less values for Porosity measurement and RCPT test
compared to FAC. 1 mm carbonation depth was measured in FAC after 56 days of curing.

Rajeswari S, Dr. Sunilaa George (2015), conducted experiment on Low Density Concrete
using Pumice stone as coarse aggregate. In this paper, M25 concrete grade mix is considered.
For this mix he has replaced normal coarse aggregate with the pumice stone in percentages of
50%, 60% and 70%. Casting of specimens using pumice stone is done in the same way as
normal concrete but properties like specific gravity and water absorption has to be taken into
consideration before mixing. In this study cubes and cylinders are casted and tested after
completion of their curing period. Testing of these specimens is done at 7days, 14days and
28days of there curing period. Compared to normal M25 grade concrete pumice concrete
resulted in less weight. The compressive strength and Split-tensile strength value of Pumice
concrete is less than normal M25 grade concrete but for 60% replacement of normal stone
aggregate with the pumice stone strength obtained is comparable. Hence concluded that this
type of concrete can be used in wall panels of non-load bearing type.

R Rajesh Kumar, M Venkatadinesh (2018), performed tests to cast light weight concrete. The
main aim of this study is to create a light weight concrete using Pumice as coarse aggregate.
In the conventional mix design of M25 grade concrete, the coarse aggregate is replaced by
pumice stone in different percentages to cast moulds using the light weight concrete and to
know its properties. Normal coarse aggregate is replaced using pumice stone at percentages
of 10%, 20%, 30% and 40%. Along with this cement is replaced with Flyash and GGBS in
weight percentages of 10%, 20% and 30%. A total of 15 different concrete mixes are
generated. Using these mixes specimens like Cubes, Cylinders and beams are casted and
tested for their properties. Cubes are tested at 3, 7, 28 and 56 days of curing. Cylinders and
beams are tested at 3, 7 and 28 days. For 30% replacement of cement with GGBS and Flyash
and 40% replacement of normal coarse aggregate with the pumice has given higher
compressive, Split-tensile and Flexural strength than the conventional concrete mix. This is
due to the strong bonding between pumice aggregate and mortar. For Young’s modulus also
this mix has obtained maximum value.

R.S. Muralitharan, V Ramasamy (2015), performed tests on concrete to get a light weight
concrete with the help of pumice stone. In this study, the controlled concrete is made with a
mix ratio of 1:1.3:2.33 with a water-cement ratio of 0.4. Light weight concrete is made by
complete replacement of coarse aggregate with the pumice stone. In this paper 24hrs of

17
pre-wetting of pumice is done due to its high water absorption nature. Once mix is done
concrete is tested for its fresh and hardened properties. The slump of normal concrete
obtained is 1.87 cm and for light weight concrete it is 3cm. Cubes and cylinders are
casted and tested after 7 day and 28 days curing. The light weight concrete has obtained a
density of 1650kg/m3 whereas for normal concrete it is about 2350kg/m3. Specimens
made with pumice concrete showed 56% less strength compared to normal conventional
concrete in case of both Compression and Split-tensile strength. When these specimens
are tested for acid resistance, compared to normal concrete light weight concrete showed
17% reduction. In case of thermal resistance also, strength of pumice concrete is 16% less
than compared to normal concrete.

Chandra Sekar G, Hemanth Kumar Ch, V Manikanta, M Simhachalam (2016), performed

experiment on light weight concrete using vermiculite as replacement of fine aggregate.
In this study, fine aggregate is replaced with vermiculite so that Light weight concrete is
achieved. In this study three different mix ratios like 1C:1S:1V (M-1) with a water-
cement ratio of 0.6, 1C:1S:2V (M-2) with a water-cement ratio of 0.65 and a mix ratio of
1C:6V (M-3) with a water-cement ratio of 0.6125. For all these mixes cement is replaced
with flyash at percentages of 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%. Hence a total of 12 different mixes
are obtained. For all these mixes Slump, Density and compressive strength values are
determined. For M-3 with flyash as 30% low density is obtained which is 1194 kg/m 3.
From the results obtained it is confirmed that M-1 can be used for structural element
purpose and for flyash percentages of 10% and 20% optimum values of density and
compressive strength are obtained. Replacement of cement with flyash has shown long-
term effect on compressive strength and density. But effect of flyash is less on concrete
with 100% replacement of sand with vermiculite than with 33% replacement.

A.V.V. Sairam, K. Sailaja (2017), have done an experimental study on light weight
concrete with replacement of fine aggregate with Vermiculite. In this experiment fine
aggregate is replaced with vermiculite at percentages of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and
30% to the total weight of fine aggregate. Along with this, cement is replaced with Flyash
at percentages of 10%, 15% and 20% and also Silica fume is used in this experiment in
percentages of 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5% by weight of cement in addition to flyash as a
separate mix. For this purpose M35 grade concrete with a water-cement ratio of 0.42 is
used for all mixes. In this experiment Cubes and Cylinders are casted to know the
compressive strength and split-tensile strength of all the mixes. As the percentage of

18
Vermiculite is increasing, density of the concrete goes on decreasing and is low for 30%
replacement. With the decrease in density the strength parameter is also decreasing.

Dinesh A, I. Padmanaban and M. Maruthachalam (2016), have studied properties of Low

density aggregate made with the partial replacement of coarse aggregates with the Perlite and
Vermiculite aggregates. In this study, M30 grade of concrete is considered as normal
conventional concrete and to this concrete the coarse aggregate is replaced with vermiculite
and perlite at percentages of 0%, 40%, 50% and 60%. Total of 8 mixes of concrete are formed
and for all these mixes cubes and cylinders are casted to know the properties of the mix. As
the percentage of replacement of coarse aggregate is increasing the density is of concrete is
decreasing. The strength values of mixes is also decreasing with the increase in the percentage
of replacement of coarse aggregate with Perlite and Vermiculite aggregate.

Rajat S. Tembhurne, (2018) has studied the strength and durability properties of High
Strength Concrete by replacing normal coarse aggregate with Recycled Coarse aggregate in
0%, 40%, 60% and 80% percentages. In his study, he has designed three grades of concrete
M40, M50 and M60. In each grade of concrete, normal coarse aggregate is replaced with
Recycled coarse aggregate. He casted cubes of size 150mm*150mm*150mm and are tested
for strength and durability properties at 28 days, 56 days and 90 days of curing. He conducted
tests on cubes like Compressive strength, Water permeability test. He also casted moulds for
Rapid Chloride Penetration Test of size 10mm in diameter and 5mm in height. Once the
specimens casted they are cured in clean water which is free from any organic and foreign
materials and these cubes are tested at 28 days, 56 days and 90 days of curing. After testing
he concluded that there is a decrease in the compressive strength of the concrete which are
replaced with recycled coarse aggregate. There is a decrease in strength of concrete about
10% when normal coarse aggregate are replaced about 50% with recycled coarse aggregate.
Water-cement ratio is increased, hence plasticizer are used. From water permeability test it is
found that water penetration level is low and medium for M60 and M50, M40 grade of
concretes. Water permeability decreases with the increase in grade of concrete. From RCPT
test it has been found that the chloride penetration levels are in medium range. This does not
affect much the strength of concrete. For High Strength concrete more than 70% replacement
of the normal coarse aggregate with the Recycled Coarse aggregate is not recommended. He
also concluded that without having considerable amount of change or decrease in strength
and durability properties of

19
concrete natural coarse aggregate can be replaced up-to 40-45% with the recycled coarse
aggregate.

Venkateswara Rao A, K. Srinivas Rao (2017), have performed experiment on effect of flyash
on the properties of concrete. In this experiment cement is replaced with flyash at different
percentages like 30%, 40% and 50%. Using these percentages the behaviour of concrete of
two grades M30 and M60 is studied. For M30 grade the mix ratio is 1:1.8:3.14 with a water
content of 0.48 and for M60 grade the mix ratio is 1:1.39:3.43 with a water content of 0.32.
Using all these mixes cubes and cylinders are casted and tested after a curing period of 7days,
28days, 56days and 90days. From the results it is observed that for 30% replacement of
cement with flyash maximum value of strength is obtained in both cases. Above 30%
replacement, it is observed that strength value is decreasing.

Sonu Pal, M.K. Mishra, V.Pandey (2016), conducted experiment on curing conditions of
polyester fibre reinforced concrete. In this work, M25 grade concrete is selected with a
water-cement ratio of 0.43. For this mix fibres are added at percentages of 0%, 0.20%,
0.225%, 0.250%, 0.275% and 0.30% by weight of cement. After casting of specimens
they are cured in two curing conditions like in normal water and alkaline water. Alkaline
water is created with the help of NaOH pellets and a pH of 9 is created by adding
0.0004gms of NaOH into 1 litre of water. By the addition of fibres compressive strength
value of concrete is increased. Compared to normal curing specimens which are cured in
alkaline water has shown a decrease in strength.

20
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION

3.1. Materials and their Properties

High Strength Concrete are made with extreme low water-cement ratio. The use of low
water-cementitious ratio will decrease the workability of concrete and high cementitious
material will increase thermal expansion during strength development and drying
shrinkage in longer term. Hence a High strength Concrete is not necessarily a High
Performance Concrete.

In this study, the effect of Alkaline environment on High Density Concrete and Low
Density Concrete, which are obtained using different High Density Aggregates and Low
Density Aggregates, are compared with the results of Conventional Concrete of M60
grade. For this experiment Cube specimens of size 15cm*15cm*15cm, Cylinders of size
15cm in diameter and 30cm length and Prismatic members of size 15cm*15cm*70cm are
used. Also Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) is also done which have size of 5cm
in height and 10cm in diameter.

This chapter deals with the materials used in this study to achieve the required
Conventional Concrete, High Density Concrete and Low Density Concrete. To achieve
High Density Concrete materials like Barite aggregates and Haematite aggregates are
used and for Low Density Concrete Pumice stone and Vermiculite are used.

3.2. Cement:

Cement is the one of the most important ingredient of concrete. A cement is binder
material which helps to bind all materials in a concrete mix. The most important reason
for selection of cement is because of its ability to bind and harden the concrete when it
sets. It also produces improved microstructure in concrete. The word “cement” traces
back to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe the masonry work
which is resembling to the modern day concrete work. Volcanic ash and pulverized brick
supplements were added to the burnt lime to obtain a binder material, which were later
referred as cementum, cimentum, cament and later modified as cement.

Cement used in the construction industry are usually inorganic, often lime or calcium
silicate based, and can be characterized as either Hydraulic or Non-hydraulic cements,

21
depending on the ability of the particular cement to set in presence of water. Non-
hydraulic cements cannot set in presence of water or in underwater. Instead it sets as it
dries and by reacting with the carbon dioxide in air. This cement can be attacked by some
aggressive chemicals after setting.

Different types of cement available are as follows:

i. Portland cement
ii. Energetically modified cement
iii. Portland cement blends
iv. Portland blast furnace cement
v. Portland fly ash cement
vi. Portland Pozzolan cement
vii. Portland silica fume cement
viii. White blended cements
ix. Pozzolana-lime cements
x. Slag-lime cements
xi. Super-sulphated cements
xii. Calcium sulfo aluminate cements
xiii. Masonry cements
xiv. Natural cements
xv. Expansive cements
xvi. Geo polymer cements
xvii. Coloured cements

In this study OPC 53 grade of “Coromandel King” cement is used. OPC 53 grade cement
is required to conform with a designed strength of 53MPa after 28 days of curing of cube
mould of size 7cm*7cm*7cm. Because of its properties like optimum particle distribution
and superior crystalline structure, OPC 53 grade cement provides high strength and
Durability.

OPC 53 grade cement attains High early Strength than compared to any other cement but
does not increase much after 28 days. It attains high early strength because of its faster heat
of hydration. Due to this, the chances of developing micro cracking in concrete are higher.
Hence OPC 53 grade cement should be used where there is requirement of higher strength
with good supervision and quality assurance measures are in place and where proper

22
precautions are taken to relieve the high heat of hydration by following a proper curing
process. For this cement different tests like Standard Consistency, Fineness of Cement,
Specific Gravity of Cement, Initial Setting and Final Setting time of Cement are
performed so that the cement used is according to the IS : 12269-1987.

Table 3.1: Properties of Cement

S. No Physical Properties Results IS:12269-1987

Obtained Specifications
1 Standard Consistency 35%
2 Fineness of Cement 7.5%
3 Initial Setting Time (Minutes) 36 Not less than 30
4 Final Setting Time (Minutes) 326 Not greater than 600
5 Specific Gravity 3.15 3.15

6 Compressive strength (28 days) 53.5 N/mm2 53 N/mm2

3.3. Fly Ash:

Flyash also known as flue ash and also known as pulverised fuel ash, is coal combustion
product which is composed of particulates that are released out of coal-fired boilers, when
coal is burnt, together with the flue gases. The constituents of flyash depends on the
specific coal bed composition. Flyash also contain elements like boron, arsenic,
vanadium, mercury. In past, flyash is directly released into the atmosphere, but nowadays
due to the air pollution the government control board does not allow industries to release
these particulates into the atmosphere. Hence these materials are captured using various
procedures like Electrostatic precipitators. Flyash is generally stored in coal plants or in
landfills. Fly-ash particles are generally spherical in nature ranging size from 0.5µm to 300
µm. To replace cement with flyash, it must satisfy certain standard regulations such as
fineness of 75% of fly-ash should be 45 µm or less and have a carbon content measured
through loss of ignition of less than 4%. Depending upon the lime content, flyash is
divided into two groups. Class F flyash and Class C flyash.

In India the fly-ash available is generally Class F type of fly-ash. By burning of older and
harder anthracite and bituminous coal we get Class F type of fly-ash. This type of fly-ash has
less than 10% of lime (CaO) content in them and are pozzolanic in nature. As it possess

23
pozzolanic properties, glassy silica and alumina of class F fly-ash requires a cementing
agent such as Portland cement which reacts with water and produces cementitious
compounds.

Table 3.2. Properties of Fly-Ash

S. No Value Result Specifications

obtained
1 Specific Gravity 2.24 2.2-2.7
2 % Coarser than 45 µm 5.6 Less than 25%
3 Loss of ignition, percent by 0.57 Less than 4%
mass

3.4. Fine Aggregates:

Fine aggregate is nothing but sand or stone dust used in the concrete mix. Size of this fine
aggregates ranges as those particles which are less than 4.75mm. Fine aggregate particle
shape and surface texture influence properties of freshly mixed concrete than hardened
concrete. Rounded and smooth aggregate particles require less water to produce workable
concrete than angular, elongated and rough textured particles. If angular, elongated and
rough textured particles are used for concrete mix, then more water is required to produce
workable concrete and also cement content will also be increased to meet the requirement
of water-cement ratio. Hence for concrete mix purpose rounded and smooth fine
aggregate particles are preferred. Generally these angular particles are avoided or limited
to about 15% of weight of total aggregate.

In this study locally available fine aggregate which is free from moisture is used. This
sand is free from any clayey matter, salts or any other inorganic matter. Fine aggregates
which has to be used in the concrete mix has to be tested for properties like specific
gravity, Fineness modulus and grading zone of aggregate. The following tests are
performed on the fine aggregate and are given in the table.

24
 Table 3.3. Properties of Fine Aggregate

S. No Property Result
1 Specific Gravity 2.64
2 Fineness Modulus 2.71
3 Zone according to IS 383-1970 ZONE II

4 Water absorption (%) 0.6

3.5. Coarse Aggregates:

3.5.1 Normal coarse aggregates:

In a concrete mix Coarse aggregate takes large fraction or larger volume compared to any
other materials that are used in the mix. Those particles which are predominantly retained
on 4.75mm sieve are known as Coarse Aggregates. Normal size of coarse aggregates
which are used in concrete mix ranges from 10mm to 20mm. Maximum the size Coarse
Aggregate used in concrete mix lies in this range. In normal strength concrete, as the size
of the Coarse aggregate increases water requirement decreases. Hence the result obtained
is gain in strength. Whereas in a High Strength Concrete mix, as the size of aggregate
increases, strength is reduced. The shape of aggregate should be angular to obtain good
bonding between the matrix and the aggregate. For rounded aggregate bonding between
the matrix and the aggregate will not be that good. This factor has to be taken into
consideration for selecting Coarse aggregate of High Strength Concrete.

In this study, 20mm aggregate crushed stone is used which was brought from Stone
Crushing Plant near Gandipet area. For this aggregate tests like Specific Gravity, Water
Absorption and Bulk Density are tested. Following results are obtained for the coarse
aggregate.

Table 3.4. Properties of Normal Coarse Aggregate

S. No Property Result
1 Specific Gravity 2.59
2 Water Absorption (%) 0.70
3 Size of aggregate (mm) 20

25
3.5.2. High Density Aggregates:

High Density aggregates are used to achieve High Density Concrete. Specific Gravity of
these aggregates will be in the range of 3.5 to 7.0. Materials such as Goethite, Limonite,
Barites, Magnetite, Haematite, Steel punches are used to produce High Density Concrete.
Steel punches will have a specific gravity of 6.8 -7.8. The usage of these materials in
concrete require proper care so that they have no effect on the concrete mix. Usually
these aggregates properties differ from Normal Aggregate properties like Specific
Gravities, Water Absorption, which have effect on the concrete mix. Hence before using
these aggregates directly for mixing purpose, properties of these aggregates have to be
tested. As mentioned above in this study, Barites and Haematite High Density Aggregates
are used to design High Density Concrete.

Figure 3.1. Barite Aggregate

Table 3.5. Properties of Barite Aggregate

S. No Property Result Obtained

1 Specific Gravity 4.0
2 Water Absorption (%) 0.30
3 Size of aggregate (mm) 20

26
 Figure 3.2. Haematite Aggregate

Table 3.6. Properties of Haematite Aggregate

S. No Property Result Obtained

1 Specific Gravity 4.2
2 Water Absorption (%) 2.0
3 Size of aggregate (mm) 20

3.5.3. Low Density Aggregates:

Low Density Aggregates are used to produce concrete with low density. Materials such
as Pumice, Scoria, Volcanic cinders, Sintered Fly-ash, Vermiculite, Perlite are used to
produce concrete with low density. As these materials have less density compared to
normal aggregate when they are replaced with normal aggregate density of the concrete
will be reduced and we get Low Density Concrete. In this study, Pumice and Vermiculite
are used as low density aggregates to get Low Density Concrete. For these materials tests
like Specific Gravity, Water Absorption are performed so that after knowing these values
we can calculate the effect of these aggregates on the concrete mix.

27
 Figure 3.3. Pumice Aggregate

Table 3.7. Properties of Pumice Aggregate

S. No Property Result Obtained

1 Specific Gravity 0.87
2 Water Absorption (%) 11.1
3 Size of aggregate (mm) 20

Figure 3.4. Vermiculite

28
 Table 3.8. Properties of Vermiculite

S. No Property Result Obtained

1 Specific Gravity 2.06
2 Water Absorption 2.6
3.6. Super Plasticizer:

In this study, MasterGlenium SKY 8630 is used as Super Plasticizer. MasterGlenium

SKY 8630 is an admixture based on modified poly-carboxylic ether. This super
plasticizer has been developed for application in High Strength Concrete and High
Performance Concrete where the highest durability and performances are required.
Masterglenium SKY 8630, is a super plasticizer which is free from chloride and has low
alkali. It can be used with all types of cement.

3.6.1 Chemical Composition and Mechanism:

MasterGlenium SKY 8630 differs from the traditional super plasticizers. It has a unique
mechanism which greatly improves the effectiveness of cement dispersion. Traditional
super plasticizers are based on the Melamine and Napthalene sulphonates are polymers
which are absorbed by the cement particles. These polymers wrap around the cement
granules and sulphonic groups increases the negative charge of the cement particles and
helps in dispersion of the particles by electrostatic repulsion. This mechanism causes the
paste to disperse and as a consequence of requiring less water for mixing to obtain a
particular concrete workability. MasterGlenium SKY 8630 has a different chemical
structure compared to that of traditional super plasticizers. This super plasticizer consists
of carboxylic ether, which is a polymer with

Figure 3.5. Super Plasticizer

29
 Long side chains. During beginning of the mixing process it initiates same electrostatic
dispersion mechanism as the traditional super plasticizers, but the side chains linked to
the polymer generates a steric hinderance which greatly stabilizes the cement particles
and helps in separate and dispersion of particles.

Table 3.9. Properties of Super Plasticizer

S. No Property Value
1 Colour Light brown l

2 Relative Density 1.08±0.01 at 25oC

3 pH 6
4 Chloride ion content < 0.2%
5 Density 1.06
Dosage of MasterGlenium Sky 8630 should be found with trial mixes. Generally, a
dosage of 300ml to 1200ml is recommended per 100kg of cementitious material. Over
dosage of this plasticizer can result in extension of initial and final setting time, it may
cause bleeding and segregation of mix.

3.6.2 Features and Benefits:

MasterGlenium SKY 8630 is a ready use liquid which is dispensed into concrete along
with thw mixing water. Plasticizing effect and water reduction are higher when super
plasticizer is added to damp concrete after mixing the materials with 50 to 70% of water.
Thorough mixing of the mix is essential for the super plasticizer to show its effect. This
super plasticizer is recommended for the following uses as mentioned below.

 Used in High early and ultimate strength of concrete.


 Applied to High performance of concrete for durability.

 Used in production of Smart Dynamic concrete.

 Also used in pre-cast and pre-stressed concrete.

 High workability without segregation or bleeding of mix.

The benefits of using this super plasticizer are as follows:

 Eliminates vibration and reduces labour cost.


 Reduces permeability.

 Improves adhesion to the reinforcing and stressing steel.

30
  Increases E modulus.

 Definite increase in early and ultimate strengths.

MasterGlenium SKY 8630 ensures that rheoplastic concrete remains workable in excess
of 45 minutes at 250C. Workability loss depends upon the temperature and on the type of
cement, aggregates used and method of transportation. To achieve longer workability, use
MasterSet RT 55 as retarder along with this Super plasticizer. It is highly recommended
that concrete should be cured properly in hot, windy and dry climates.

3.7. Water:

The water which is used for casting purpose should be clean from chemicals and foreign
materials. The pH of the water should be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5 which is normal and
can be used for casting and curing purpose of concrete. To achieve strength for concrete
curing is also one of the main process. Strength of concrete depends upon the various
aspects such as:

o Compaction
o Quality of raw material
o Water-Cement ratio
o Coarse and fine aggregate
o Curing of concrete

The water-cement ratio is the most significant feature in determining the strength of
concrete. As water reacts with cement and helps in the process of hydration, it should be
free from organic and in-organic materials like oils, grease and any dissolved salts which
may affect the strength of the concrete. Presence of these impurities may lead to corrosion
of steel, introduction of salts and silts which affect the hardening process of the concrete
and thus results in decreasing of the strength.

31
 CHAPTER 4

TESTING OF MATERIALS

Testing of materials is an important phase of project. Before starting mixing and casting
of the specimens, materials which are going to be used in the study has to be tested. By
performing different tests on the materials we can know the properties of materials and
their effect on the concrete during mixing process and on the properties of concrete in
fresh and hardened states. Tests like Specific gravity of cement, Initial setting time and
Final setting time of cement, Specific gravity of Fine aggregate, Grading of Fine
aggregate, Fineness Modulus of fine aggregate are performed in this study.

4.1. Specific Gravity of Cement:

To determine the specific gravity of cement, we require Le-chatelier’s flask, kerosene,

cement and weighing balance. Generally we will use water to find the specific gravity of
any material. But in this case we use kerosene because cement reacts with water and gets
hardened whereas cement cannot react with kerosene. Hence kerosene is used for this test.

Procedure


 The flask should be clean and neat in dry condition,should not contain any dust
particles. Weigh of the flask weight is noted as W1
 
 Fill the flask with cement about 1/3 of its volume and note its weight as W2
 
 Now fill the remaining entire bottle with kerosene and note its weight as W 3.
 
 After that clean the bottle and fill bottle with kerosene and note its weight as W 4.
 
Now again clean the bottle and fill it with water and write the value as W5.

Figure 4.1. Specific Gravity Bottle of Cement

32
 Observations and calculations:

o W1= 30 gms
o W2= 44.7 gms
o W3= 85 gms
o W4= 72 gms
o W5= 83 gms
 
 Specific gravity of Kerosene Sk= (W4-W1) / (W5-W1) = (72-30) / (83-30) = 0.79
 
Specific gravity of Cement = (W2-W1)*Sk / (W4-W1)-(W3-W2)


= (44.7-30)*0.79 / (72-30)-(85-44.7) = 3.147

 
Specific gravity of cement = 3.15

4.2 Fineness of Cement:

Fineness of cement plays an important role in the process of hydration of cement. Finer
the cement particle more is the hydration this is because finer cement offers greater
surface area of particular for hydration. In this test we require a 90 micron mm sieve and
a weigh balance which can measure correct upto 1gm.

Procedure:


Weight accurately 100gms of cement and note it as W1 and place it in a 90 micron
sieve.
 
 If there are lumps in the cement, break down them into pieces with the help of hand.
 
 Now sieving process has to be done for the cement in the 90 micron sieve.


 of cement which is retained on the sieve has to be weighed and note it
The amount
 as W2.

Percentage of weight ofcement retained with respect to weight considered gives
us Fineness of cement.

Observations and Calculations:

o W1= 100 gms

o W2= 7.5 gms

Percentage of residue = (W2/W1)*100 = (7.5/100)*100 = 7.5%
 
Fineness of cement = 7.5%.

33
 4.3. Initial Setting Time and Final Setting Time:

4.3.1. Initial setting time:

To determine the initial setting and final setting time of cement we require Vicat’s
apparatus with two needles in which one needle has 1mm square diameter for initial
setting time and 10mm square needle for final setting time.

Procedure:


Prepare a neat cement part by gauging the cement  with a 0.85 times the water
 required to give the paste standard consistency.

Temperature of water, appliances and surroundings at the time of testing shall be
 
in 27±2oC.

Start a stopwatch from the instant when water is added to the cement 
and paste is
 placed into the Vicat mould. This should not be more than 3 minutes.

Now place the vicat mould which is filled with non-porous cement paste under the
rod bearing the needle gently in contact with the surface of the test block. Quickly
 release the rod allowing needle to penetrate into the test block.

In the beginning the needle will penetrate completely piercing through the test
block. This procedurehas to be repeated until the needle fails to pierce the test
 block from 5 to 7 mm.

 failed to pierce 5 to 7
The time taken from water added to the cement and needle
mm of cement paste is known as Initial Setting Time.

Figure 4.2. Vicat Apparatus

34
Observations:

Table 4.1. Initial Setting Time of Cement

Time Reading on scale of

Vicat’s apparatus in
mm
5 0
10 0
15 0
20 0
25 0
30 0
32 0
33 1
35 4
36 6.5

It is observed that Initial Setting time of cement is 36 minutes.

4.3.2. Final setting time:

For Final setting time also same procedure is followed as Initial setting time except that
10mm square needle is used. In this test final setting time is determined when the rod is
released and the needle makes an impression on the surface of test block i.e. the needle
does not penetrate into the test block.

Observations:

It is observed that final setting time of cement is 326 minutes.

4.4. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of Fine Aggregates:

To determine the specific gravity and water absorption of fine aggregate we require
pycnometer, weighing balance, water, fine aggregate and oven. These tests have to be
performed to known the specific gravity which helps in measuring the quantity of fine
aggregate required for concrete and water absorption give us the amount of required for
the mix of concrete.

35
 Procedure:
 
 First weight of dry, pycnometer with no foreign material has to be noted.

Take 500 gms of fine aggregate and immerse it in water for 24 hrs and then after
completion of 24 hrs period water is allowed to drain from the sample through
filter paper and then aggregates are allowed to dry in air. The weight of this

 sample is taken as Wa and known as Saturation Surface Dry Weight (SSD).


Now aggregates are placed in the pycnometer and filled with water upto its
 nozzle. This weight is taken as Wb.

Now empty the device and collect all the aggregate particles with the help of filter
paper and are placed in the oven for 24 hrs. Again fill the whole pycnometer with
 water and note it as Wc.


After completion of 24 hrs of oven dry, take the weight of aggregates and note it
as Wd.

Figure 4.3. Pycnometer

Observations and Calculations:

o Wa= 500 gms

o Wb= 1824 gms
o Wc= 1512 gms
o Wd= 497 gms

 
 Specific gravity = Wd / Wa-(Wb-Wc) = 497 / 500-(1824-1512) = 2.64
 
Water Absorption = 100*(Wa-Wd) / Wd = 100*( 500-497) / 497 = 0.6%

36
4.5. Fineness Modulus and Grading of Fine Aggregates:

Grading of fine aggregates is done to categorize the fine aggregates into particular zones
as per IS 383-1970. This test is done according to the IS 2386 part3 -1963 code book. To
perfume this test we have to arrange the sieves number in the descending order starting
from highest 10mm to lowest 150 micron i.e. 10mm, 4.75mm, 2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µ,
300 C, 150 µ and pan. A sample of fine aggregate of mass 2000 gms (2 kgs) is considered
for this test. This sample is poured on the top of 10mm IS sieve which is arranged in the
descending order. The whole system or collection of sieves is placed on a mechanical
siever and is allowed to undergo sieving process for 15 minutes. Then the system is taken
away from the sieve shaker and weights retained on each sieve is noted in a tabular form.
Then cumulative percentages of weights is calculated and then it is decided in which zone
the given sample of aggregate falls.

Observations and Calculations:

Table 4.2. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate

Sieve No Weight Cumulative % of % of passing

retained weight retained cumulative
weight retained
10 mm 0 0 0 100

4.75 mm 9 9 0.45 99.55

2.36 mm 185.4 194.4 9.72 90.28

1.18 mm 368.2 562.6 28.13 71.87

600 µ 462.9 1025.5 51.27 48.725

300 µ 655.2 1680.7 84.0 15.965

150 µ 280.4 1961.1 98 1.945

Pan 38.9 Total = 271.29

Compare the values of above table with the values of IS 383-1970 grading table.

37
 Figure 4.4. Sieve Analysis of Fine Aggregate

Table 4.3. Grading Table

IS sieve No Percent of passing for grades

Zone I Zone II Zone III Zone IV

10 mm 100 100 100 100

4.75 mm 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100

2.36mm 60-95 75-90 85-100 95-100

1.18mm 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100

600 µ 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100

300 µ 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50

150 µ 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15

As per this table the fine aggregate which is taken for this study belongs to ZONE II.

From the above grading table Fineness modulus of fine aggregate can be calculated.

Fineness modulus = 271.29/ 100 = 2.71

Fineness modulus of the Fine aggregate is 2.71

4.6. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregate:

To determine specific gravity of coarse aggregate we require an iron bucket and oven. This
test is done by following the IS 2386 part 3 - 1963 code book. This test has to be performed

38
 to know the specific gravity of coarse aggregate which helps us to measure the quantity of
coarse aggregate required for the concrete preparation and Water Absorption which may
affect the mix ratio of the concrete. To perform this test Oven, dry cloths, Glass vessel are
required.

Procedure:


Take 2 kgs of coarse aggregates and sieve them with 10mm sieve. The particles
which passed this sieve are taken and kept
 in oven for 24 hrs and then weight of
 the oven dry particles is measured(W1).

Immerse the aggregates which are oven dried in water for 24hrs. After 24 hrs
remove the aggregates from water and wipe them with a dry clothand then the
 weight is taken and is known as Saturation surface dry weight (W2).


Now measure the weight of the aggregates in water by immersing aggregates in
density basket kept in water (W3).

Observations and Calculations:

o W1= 1995 gms

o W2= 2010 gms
o W3= 1238 gms
 
 Specific gravity = W1 / W2-W3 = 1995 / (2010-1238) = 2.59
 
Water absorption = W2-W1 / W1 = 2010-1995/ 1995 = 0.70 %

39
 CHAPTER 5

MIX DESIGN

5.1. Mix Design Concept of High Strength Concrete:

A concrete is defined as High Strength Concrete when its compressive strength is greater than
or equal to 40MPa. From this we can say that High Strength Concrete (HSC) is mainly
depended on its strength property. The main difference between the Conventional Concrete
and High Strength Concrete is its strength. HSC can be made by reducing the amount of
porosity, non-homogeneity and reducing micro cracks in the cement. To achieve workable,
durable and high strength concrete the following points have to be considered.

 To achieve high strength concrete, water-cement ratio of the mix has to be

preferably 0.30 or even less. This makes concrete dense in both matrix and
interfacial zone.

 In producing HSC, selection of coarse aggregate plays an important role.
Strengths upto 60MPa, maximum size of 20mm aggregate is used and for
achieving strengths greater than 60MPa 12.5mm is the maximum size of the
coarse aggregate has to be used.

 The bonding between cement matrix and aggregate should be strengthened by
replacing cement with some percentages of admixtures such as Silica Fume,
Flyash etc. By replacing cement with these pozzolonic materials, micro structure
of the concrete can be developed and it makes cement matrix dense.

 To obtain good workable of concrete, chemical admixtures like Super
Plasticizers has to be used.

 Fine aggregate should have a fineness modulus in the range of 2.5 -3.2. Grading
of the fine aggregate should be either of ZONE I or ZONE II.

 At-most care has to be taken for curing of HSC.

5.2. Method of Mix Design of High Strength Concrete:

Normal strength concrete can be designed using the codes which are available in India. But
these codes can be applied or valid upto a strength of M40. When we require to design a
concrete of grade greater than M40 then we have to apply American Concrete Institute (ACI)
codes. To get a strength of M50 or M55 and more admixtures has to be added in the

40
mix because using the plain concrete materials like sand, coarse aggregate, cement and
water we cannot get high strengths. Admixtures like Flyash, Silica Fume and Chemical
admixtures like Super plasticizers and retarders are added in-order to get a High Strength
Concrete. Also there is no standard code or procedure for designing High Strength
Concrete, a simplified procedure of mix design is formulated by combining both the IS
codes and ACI codes and also some literatures are available on HSC using silica fume
and flyash.

5.3. Mix Design of M60 Grade Concrete:

The mix design procedure for M60 grade concrete is done using codes such as ACI
2114R-93 and by using the materials which are good for this mix and test results of these
materials known with the help of IS 10262: 2009.

Design Stipulations for M60 grade concrete:

a) Grade designation : M60

b) Type of cement : OPC 53 grade
c) Maximum nominal size of aggregate : 20mm

d) Minimum cement content : 320 kg/m3

e) Workability : 75-100mm (Slump)
f) Exposure : Severe
g) Degree of supervision : Good
h) Type of aggregate : Crushed, angular aggregate
i) Chemical admixture : Superplasticizer (HRWR)

j) Dry rodded bulk density of Coarse aggregate : 1630 kg/m3

k) Dry rodded bulk density of Fine aggreagete : 1725 kg/m3

Step 1. Slump and grade of concrete:

Slump values for High strength concrete are given in the Table 4.3.1 of ACI 211.4R-93.
According to this prior to the addition of superplasticizer, an initial slump of 1 to 2 inches
is recommended. But as HRWR is used it increases slump to 2 to 4 inches.

41
Step 2. Size of Coarse aggregate:

Size of coarse aggregate depends upon the strength requirement of the study. From ACI
211.4R-93 Table 4.3.2, it is recommended that for strengths upto 62MPa size of coarse
aggregate of size 20mm can be used.

From ACI 211.4R-93 Table 4.3.3, volume of coarse aggregate is selected and is depended
on the size of aggregate and fine aggregate should have fineness modulus in the range of
2.5-3.2. For 20mm size aggregate, optimum coarse aggregate content to be used with a
fineness modulus of fine aggregate in the range of 2.5-3.2 is 0.725.

Step 3. Calculation of Coarse aggregate content:

From ACI 211.4R-93 table 4.3.3, optimum coarse aggregate content for 20mm size
aggregate is 0.725. Now calculate the coarse aggregate content using equation 4.1 of ACI
211.4R-93 for which dry rodded bulk density is required.

Weight of coarse aggregate = 0.725 × 1630 = 1181.75 kg/m3

Step 4. Calculation of Water content:

Assuming a slump of 75-100mm for coarse aggregate of size 20mm, the water required
for mixing is estimated from the code book ACI 211.4R-93 Table 4.3.4. From this table
water content selected for the above values is 290 lb/yd3.

Table 4.3.4 gives us first estimate of mixing water requirement and air content of fresh
concrete based on using a sand with 35 percent voids.

Fine aggregate void content for this mixing water = 35%

Void content of fine aggregate Vv is given in equation 4.2 of ACI 211.4R-93 as:

Vv = (1-(dry rodded density / bulk specific gravity × 1000)) × 100

= (1-(1725 / 2.6 × 1000)) × 100

Vv = 33.65%

Since fine aggregate void content is not equal to 35% an adjustment is required in the mixing
water content and is given in equation 4.3 of ACI 211.4R-93. For each percent of deviation of

the void percent from 35, results in adjustment of water as 8 ld/yd3 of concrete.

42
Adjustment in mixing water = (Vv-35) × 8

= (33.65-35) × 8

= - 10.8 lb/yd3.

Total water required for mix = 290 + (-10.8) = 279.2 lb/yd3 = 164.1 kg/m3

Water required for mixing = 164.1 litres per cubic meter

Step 5. Selection of w/c+p ratio:

In order to obtain a High Strength Concrete, admixtures like flyash and silica fume are
added to the mix by replacing cement. The w/c+p ratio is calculated by dividing the
weight of mixing water by the combined weight of cement and flyash.

From ACI 211.4R-93 book Table 4.3.5(b), w/c+p can be selected which is depended on
the strength of concrete which we require and for this consider strength value as fc’+1400,
where fc’ is the compressive strength of the concrete. According to this table, for M60
grade concrete w/c+p is calculated by interpolating the values and is 0.31.

Step 6. Calculation of Cement content:

From ACI 211.4R-93 Table 4.3.5(b), w/c+p ratio is selected as 0.31

Weight of cement = 164.1 / 0.31 = 529.35 kg/m3

Since specifications do not set a minimum for cemntitious content this value can be used.

Step 7. Calculation of Fine aggregate content:

1. Cement = 529.35 / 3.15 × 1000 = 0.168

2. Water = 164.1 /1 × 1000 = 0.164
3. Coarse aggregate = 1181.75 / 2.59 × 1000 = 0.45
4. Air content for this is = 1.5% = 0.015
5. Total aggregates content except Fine aggregate = 0.79
6. Volume of Fine aggregate = 1-0.79 = 0.21
7. Weight of fine aggregate = 0.21 × 2.6 × 1000 = 550 kg

43
Step 8. Proportion of Flyash and Chemical Admixture:

As given in code book ACI 11.4R-93 Table 4.3.6, Class F flyash can be used by replacing
cement about 15 to 25%. As Class F flyash is more available in India, it would be best to
use Class F flyash.

Let flyash content be 20% = 530 × 0.2 = 106 kg / m3.

Let us start with a Superplasticizer dosage of 1% of cementitious material.

Superplasticizer = 0.01 × 530 = 5.3 ltr/m3

Step 9. Mix proportion for Batch-1:


Cement = 530-106= 424 kg

Flyash = 106 kg

Fine aggregate = 550 kg

Coarse aggregate = 1182 kg

Water-cement ratio = 0.31

Superplasticizer = 1%
Mix ratio of this concrete is

Table 5.1 Conventional Concrete Mix Ratio

Cement Flyash Fine Coarse Water Superplasticizer

Kgs % aggregate aggregate (litres) dosage

(kgs) (kg) (kg) (ltr/m3)

424 106 550 1182 164 5.3
1 1.03 2.23 0.31
5.4. Trial Batch Adjustments:

Design of High Strength Concrete has many assumptions which are used while designing
the concrete. But in reality these assumptions and theoretical values may or may not be
true. As there is involvement of different materials such as Flyash, Silica Fume and
Chemical admixtures like Superplasticizers and Retarders it becomes difficult to produce
a HSC of required properties. For this purpose to get required HSC with good properties
trial mixes has to done. If necessary the mix proportions has to be changed like water-
cement ratio, percentage of cement replacement by Flyash, dosage of Superplasticizer and

44
aggregate content also. HSC is achieved when required fresh concrete properties like
slump, workability and hardened properties of concrete like strength are achieved after
28days of curing.

After several trial mixes and after referring different journals HSC is achieved with good
fresh concrete properties and with required strength. The final mix with which HSC
achieved is: 1: 1.15:1.95 with a water-cement ratio of 0.29, cement is replaced with flyash
at percentage of 11% and with a Superplasticizer dosage of 0.47%.

5.5. High Density Concrete Mix Design:

The mix which obtained for normal conventional concrete can be applied to High Density
Concrete, but the properties of High Density aggregates like density and water absorption
should be kept in mind at time of mixing. High density aggregates have different water
absorption property compared to normal aggregate like Barite has less water absorption than
normal aggregate and Haematite has more water absorption. Also densities of normal
aggregate and high density aggregate are different and high density aggregate has more
density which increases density of concrete which affects the concrete while mix and during
compaction. For High Density Concrete also trial mixes are done and mix is finalized.

The mix ratio for High density Barite Concrete (HDC-A) is: 1:1.2:3.15 with a W/C ratio
of 0.29 and Superplasticizer dosage of 0.47% of cementitious material.

The mix ratio for High Density Haematite Concrete (HDC-B) is: 1:1.5:3.0 with a W/C
ratio of 0.31 and Superplasticizer dosage of 0.49% of cementitious material.

5.6 Low Density Concrete Mix Design:

In case of Low Density concrete also similar to High Density Concrete, normal mix can be
applied. But in this case also properties like water absorption and specific gravity have to be
referred. Pumice has very low density and hence care has to be taken while mixing the Low
Density Concrete and it is difficult to mix concrete with Vermiculite aggregate. These two
low density aggregates are first placed in water and then used for mix. This is done because
of absorption properties of the materials. Pumice aggregate has a lot of pores and hence it is
first placed in water for 24hrs and then it is kept in the air for 30minutes before adding it to
the mix. In case of Vermiculite also, before mixing the concrete with it, Vermiculite is placed
in water for about 30minutes and then water is removed from the

45
vermiculite by squeezing. Then vermiculite is added in the mix. For Low Density
Concrete also trial mixes are done and then mix is finalized.

The mix ratio for Low Density Vermiculite Concrete (LDC-A) is: 1: 1.11: 1.9 with a W/C
ratio of 0.29 and Superplasticizer dosage of 0.47% of cementitious material. In the fine
aggregate content, normal fine aggregate is replaced with Vermiculite upto 30%.

The mix ratio for Low Density Pumice concrete (LDC-B) is: 1: 1.15: 1.3 with a W/C ratio
of 0.32 and Superplasticizer dosage of 0.5% of cementitious material.

Mix designs of all the concretes are given in the table below:

Table 5.2. Mix Design Ratios

S.no Concrete Type Mix Ratio W/C ratio Superplasticizer

%
1 M60 Grade concrete 1: 1.15: 1.95 0.29 0.47%
2 HDC-A 1:1.2:3.15 0.29 0.47%
( Barite High Density Concrete)
3 HDC-B 1:1.5:3.0 0.31 0.49%
(Haematite High Density concrete)
4 LDC-A 1:1.11:1.9 0.29 0.47%
( Vermiculite Low Density concrete)
5 LDC-B 1:1.15:1.3 0.32 0.50%
(Pumice Low Density Concrete)

46
 CHAPTER 6

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

The main purpose of this experimental study is to compare the behaviour of High Density
concrete and Low Density concrete in alkaline curing environment to the normal curing
environment keeping conventional concrete of grade M60 as reference. The properties of
concrete which are going to be compared in this study are density of concrete,
Compressive strength, Split-Tensile strength, Flexural strength and Rapid Chloride
Penetration test. These tests are performed after completion of 28 days and 56 days curing
of concrete specimens in both normal water curing and alkaline water curing.

A total of 5 mix designs for which 5 group of specimens are casted each containing cubes
of dimensions 150mm×150mm×150mm, Cylinders of length 300mm and diameter of
150mm, beams of size 150mm×150mm×700mm and RCPT mould of 100mm in diameter
and 50mm in height. For each mix of concrete and for each curing period these specimens
are casted and tested after completion of curing period. In this experiment alkaline water
is created using NaOH. A pH of 13 is generated by mixing these NaOH pellets in the
water at certain concentration and then specimens are placed in the alkaline water.

6.1. Mixing Of Concrete:

The main objective of the process of mixing of concrete is to obtain a homogeneous,

uniform and workable concrete. The constituents materials of the concrete have to be
calculated correctly and all these ingredients have to be mixed thoroughly. The process of
mixing of concrete involves rolling, folding and spreading of the all the ingredients
throughout the concrete paste. This through mixing of concrete paste ensures that cement
water paste will completely cover the aggregates and which will lead to the bonding of
concrete. This mixing of concrete can be done in two methods such as hand mixing and
machine mixing.

6.1.1. Hand mixing of concrete:

Mixing of concrete by hand is employed when there is less requirement of concrete paste and
quality is of no concern. This method is used when there is a difficulty in using a machine. In
this method, initially measured fine aggregate is placed on ground and to this sand cement is
added. These materials are mixed using trowels and with spades by turning

47
 and twisting. Then required coarse aggregate is measured and poured into this mix. Now
these materials have to be mixed thoroughly for 3 to 5 minutes like making a hollow at
centre and by doing turns and twists from side to centre of mix. This mix has to be in a
homogenous state such that whole mix attains same colour. When this method of mixing
is followed 5 to 10% more cement is added to the mix.

Now water is added in stages like 2 to 3 or 4 times by making a hollow at centre. Initially
half amount of water is added to the mix and mixed. Then the other half is added and
concrete paste is mixed thoroughly. The concrete paste which is prepared by following
this mix should be used within 30 minutes after preparation of mix. This method of
concrete mix is generally implied when requirement of concrete paste is less and quality
is of that important.

6.1.2. Machine mixing of concrete:

Machine mixing process of concrete is chosen when there is requirement of large amount
of concrete like for footings, columns and slabs. A rotatory drum like device which
consists of blades inside it is used in this process of mixing of concrete. All the materials
which are used in concrete are placed in an order in the drum. For a certain period of time
the drum is rotated and concrete mix is formed.

In this process first coarse aggregates are added and then fine aggregate and cementitious
material are added. These ingredients are allowed to mix for 3 to 4 minutes in dry state.
Then water is added in stages and mixed to get concrete paste. If any chemical admixture
is required for concrete mix, then that has to be added in the water and then it has to be
poured into the mix. Some of the features of machine mixing of concrete are:

 Machine mixing helps in generating a homogenous and uniform concrete mix

within in a short time and ensures good quality of the produced mix.

 The materials in this machine mixing should be arranged in descending order like
first coarse aggregates then fine aggregate and then cement.

 The machine has to be cleaned properly after every use.

 The speed of rotation of the drum and time of mixing of concrete should be
checked correctly.

 The concrete mix which is obtained has to be used within 30 minutes or else the
concrete paste becomes hard.

48
 Figure 6.1. Machine Mixing of Concrete

6.2. Workability:

Workability is a property of freshly mixed concrete which tells us the homogeneity and
uniformity of the mix. It also tells us the ease with which it can be mixed, placed,
transported, consolidated and finished without any segregation. There are many factors
which affect workability of concrete like water-cement ratio, mixing method of concrete,
size of aggregates, use of chemical admixtures, thickness of section of element, method
of placement, distance of transportation, surrounding conditions. Among the water-
cement ratio is the primary reason and cause which affects the workability of concrete.
The increase in water-cement ratio increases the workability of the concrete. Hence,
workability is directly proportional to the water-cement ratio.

There are different tests which are used to determine the workability of concrete. They are:

i. Slump cone test

ii. Compaction factor test
iii. Vee-Bee test
iv. Kelly ball test
v. Flow test

49
In this experimental study Slump cone test is used as test for determining the workability
of concrete.

6.3. Slump Cone Test:

In this study Slump cone test is used to determine the workability of the concrete. Slump
cone test also measures the consistence of the freshly prepared concrete before it hardens.
This test helps to ensure the uniformity of the mix. The factors which influence slump
cone test are mentioned above.

Slump cone test is performed using a conical frustum which has a top diameter of 10cm and
bottom diameter of 20cm and the height of the cone frustum is 30cm. The freshly prepared
concrete has to be poured into this cone frustum in three different layers like about 1/3rd of
height of cone and tamped about 25 times using a tamping rod. At the last stage, the
remaining concrete is struck off flush with the top of the mould. Now the mould is lifted
vertically upwards without disturbing the concrete cone. The slump of concrete is measured
as the distance from the top of concrete mould to the top of concrete cone.

Result of slump cone test depends on the shape of the concrete cone after removal of
slump cone mould. According to these shapes, slump results are classified into three
types. They are:

i. True slump:
True slump is a slump which can be measured in this test. The measurement is
taken from the top of cone to the top of concrete after the cone is removed. This
slump indicates correct mix and correct water-cement ratio.
ii. Zero Slump:
When there is very low water-cement ratio, then after removal of slump cone
there will be no change in the shape of concrete cone. This type of mix results in
dry mixes and is mostly used for road construction.
iii. Collapse Slump:
When the water-cement ratio is too high then after removal of the cone the
concrete will flow just like water. This indicates concrete mix is too wet and high
workable for which slump test is not appropriate.

50
 iv. Shear Slump:
When the cone is removed and if concrete slips off from one side then the
obtained slump is known as Shear slump. For this concrete mix again mix has to
be designed and test is performed.

Figure 6.2. Different Slumps of Concrete

Observations:

After several trial mixes a slump of 75 to 100 mm has obtained. The shape of the
obtained slump is true slump.

Figure 6.3. Slump Cone Test of M60 Concrete

51
6.4 Casting and Curing of Concrete Specimens:

6.4.1. Casting of concrete specimens:

After getting required slump, concrete specimens like Cubes of size 150mm×150mm
×150mm, Cylinders of length 300 mm and diameter of 150mm and Beams of size
150mm×150mm×700mm are casted. Each mould is cleaned and oil is applied inside of
the mould and then the concrete is poured into the moulds in three layers and placed on a
vibration machine which helps in compaction of the concrete. High Strength Concrete
and High Density Concrete mixes are prepared and casted in the same way as
Conventional Concrete. But in case of low density the aggregates such as Pumice
aggregate and Vermiculite are first placed in water to overcome the water absorption
property of the materials. Pumice has to be removed from water and kept in a tray for
about 30 minutes before including in the mix.

Figure 6.4. Pumice Aggregate in Water

Similarly, Vermiculite has to be removed from water and squeeze it and place it in a tray
so that the vermiculite can be mixed in the concrete mix neatly. Vermiculite has to be
spread in the mixing machine and should not be dumped in one place. In this way we can
avoid formation of lumps of vermiculite in the mix.

Then the moulds are kept in laboratory for 24hrs so that the concrete will get hardens.
After 24hrs the concrete specimens are demoulded and kept in curing tank for 28 days
and 56 days for curing of the concrete specimens.

52
 Figure 6.5. Vermiculite in Water

6.4.2. Curing of concrete specimens:

After demoulding the concrete specimens, they are cured in two different conditions like
normal curing, and 7 days normal curing then followed by alkaline curing. In this way for
one mix two different curing conditions are considered and specimens are cured. For
normal curing the specimens are cured in a water tank which consists of fresh water. But
for alkaline curing an alkaline solution is prepared using NaOH pellets.

6.4.3. Alkaline Curing:

Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) pellets are white, odourless and hemispherical which has
uniform thickness and uniform diameter. It is the most common type of inorganic basis
available and also known as Caustic Soda or iye.

53
 Figure 6.6. NaOH Pellets.

Some of the properties of Sodium Pellets are as follows:

Table 6.1. Properties of NaOH

Property Result

Chemical Formula NaOH

Molecular weight 40.00

Density ( g/cm3 ) 2.13

Melting point (o C) 318.4
Boiling point (o C) 1390

Solubility in water (g/100g H2O) 42 at 0oC

In this study, a pH of 13 is achieved using NaOH pellets. To achieve this pH 40 grams of
NaOH is added to one litre of water at a concentration of 1M. Calculation of pH is done
according to the pH required which depends on the molecular weight of NaOH.
According to this 1M (Molar) of mass of NaOH is added to 1 litre of water.

1M of NaOH = 40 gms

54
 Figure 6.7. pH of Alkaline Solution

In this alkaline solution concrete specimens are cured for two conditions. First specimens
are directly cured in the alkaline solution for a period of 28 days and 56 days. For the
second method of curing concrete specimens are first cured in normal water for a period
of 7days and then the specimens are cured in alkaline solution for a period of 28 days and
56 days. For the rest of curing period a pH of above 13 is maintained.

Figure 6.8. Alkaline Curing

55
6.5. Studies on Hardened Concrete Specimens:

Concrete specimens which are cured becomes hard and attains strength. These hardened
concrete specimens are allowed to be tested to find the quality of the concrete which will
be used in construction work. There are many tests which can be performed on the
hardened concrete. In this study Compressive Strength, Split-tensile strength test and
Flexural test are performed on the hardened concrete.

6.5.1 Compressive strength:

Compressive strength of concrete is defined as the ability of the concrete to resist loads
which tends to compress it. The compressive strength is performed on a machine known
as Standard Digital Compressive Testing Machine (CTM). In the laboratory, the cubes are
placed on a plate inside the device and is adjusted with the specimen. The testing of the
specimen is done according to the IS 516 code. The loading rate and specimen type have
to be selected and run the machine. The reading will be displayed on the digital screen of
the machine. At some load level initial and first crack will be developed and then the load
is further increased to the ultimate level at which the specimen will fail.

The compressive strength is calculated by dividing the failure load with the cross-
sectional area of the concrete specimen on which the load is acting.

Figure 6.9. Compressive Testing Machine

56
6.5.2. Split-Tensile Strength:

Split-Tensile strength of concrete greatly affects the size and extent of cracking of the
structure. In this test, the cylinder specimen is placed horizontally in the compression
testing machine and load is applied as mentioned in the IS code: 5816 (1999). The value
of Split-Tensile Strength is calculated by using the formula:

T = 2P/ πLD

where, P = compressive load on the cylinder,

L = length of cylinder,

D = Diameter of cylinder

Figure 6.10. Split-Tensile Strength

6.5.3. Flexural Strength:

Flexural strength of beam is one of measure of tensile strength of concrete. A beam is casted
which has 150mm×150mm×700mm as dimensions. It is a measure of un-reinforced concrete
beam to resist failure in bending. It is also known as Modulus of Rupture, Bending strength,
Fracture strength. It represents the highest stress experienced by the material.

57
 Figure 6.11. Flexural Testing of Beams

Flexural strength is calculated depending upon the distance between the crack of the beam to
its nearest support. On the basis of this condition flexural strength is calculate as follows:

a) If ‘a’ is greater than 20cm

Flexural strength = Pl / bd2

b) If ‘a’ is less than 20 cm but greater than 17cm

Flexural strength = 3Pa / bd2

c) If ‘a’ is less than 17 cm then recheck the concrete beam.

58
 CHAPTER 7

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this study, different concretes are studied like Conventional Concrete (CC), High
Density Concrete and Low Density Concrete which are made with high density
aggregates and low density aggregates. In this study two High Density Concretes and two
Low Density Concretes are made. One of the high density concrete is made with Barite
and is designated as HDC-A, and the other high density concrete is made with Haematite
and is designated as HDC-B. Low Density concretes are made with Vermiculite and
Pumice and designated as LDC-A and LDC-B respectively. The densities of these
concretes are noted and are given in the table below.

Table 7.1. Densities of Different Concrete

S. No Concrete Weight (Kgs) Density

Type (Kg/m3)
Sample- Sample- Sample-3 Average
1 2
1 CC 8.33 8.38 8.20 8.30 2460.24

2 HDC-A 10.458 10.668 10.250 10.458 3111.11

3 HDC-B 10.17 10.21 10.07 10.15 3007.40

4 LDC-A 7.728 7.52 7.718 7.65 2268.24

5 LDC-B 5.26 5.04 5.11 5.136 1521.975

7.1 Compressive Strength:

The compressive strength of concrete is tested for 28 days and 56 days curing period for
different curing conditions. The results of concrete cured in normal water for 28days and
56days are given in the table.

59
 Table 7.2. Compressive strength for 28 days normal curing

S. No Concrete Compressive strength Average

Type Mpa Strength

Sample-1 Sample-2 Sample-3

1 CC 63.27 68.48 66.53 66.09

2 HDC-A 78.87 78.81 76.27 78.01

3 HDC-B 45.88 46.7 48.23 46.9

4 LDC-A 30.17 31.68 32.73 31.52

5 LDC-B 15.66 14.68 15.24 15.193

Table 7.3. Compressive strength for 56 days normal curing

S. No Concrete Compressive strength Average

type Mpa strength

Sample-1 Sample-2 Sample-3

1 CC 68.21 67.73 68.33 68.90

2 HDC-A 79.52 81.22 80.03 80.45

3 HDC-B 47.44 48.35 47.46 47.75

4 LDC-A 30.7 32.32 33.39 32.13

5 LDC-B 15.9 14.97 15.54 15.501

60
In other condition, first concrete specimen was cured in normal water for 7 days and then
cured in alkaline water for 28days and 56 days.

Table 7.4. Compressive strength for 7 days normal and 28 days

alkaline cured concrete

S. No Concrete Compressive strength Average

Type Mpa Strength
Sample-1 Sample-2 Sample-3 Mpa

1 CC 63.63 65.67 64.58 64.5

2 HDC-A 75.87 77.2 76.72 76.59

3 HDC-B 45.2 43.36 44.69 44.41

4 LDC-A 27.58 28.37 28.63 28.19

5 LDC-B 13.23 12.92 13.45 13.2

Table 7.5. Compressive strength for 7 days normal and 56 days

alkaline cured concrete

S. No Concrete Compressive strength Average

Type Mpa strength
Sample-1 Sample-2 Sample-3 Mpa

1 CC 64.64 66.9 65.89 65.04

2 HDC-A 77.41 78.277 78.76 78.149
3 HDC-B 44.25 45.6 46.18 45.843

4 LDC-A 27.96 29.21 28.94 28.70

5 LDC-B 13.72 13.4 14.12 13.75

As the specimens are cured in alkaline curing there is a small reduction in the weight of
the concrete of every type.

61
 Table 7.6 Weights of Concrete after 56 Days Curing

S. No Concrete Type Weights of Concrete in Kgs

Normal curing N + Al curing

1 CC 8.30 8.20

2 HDC-A 10.45 10.4

3 HDC-B 10.15 10.0

4 LDC-A 7.65 7.33

5 LDC-B 5.136 4.67

There is a loss of mass of concrete when they are placed in alkaline solution made which
has a pH of above 13. This is due to the attacking nature of NaOH solution which
consists Na+ and OH- ions and liberates some amount of heat.

7.2 SPLIT TENSILE STRENGTH:

Now cylinders which are 150mm in diameter and 300mm in length and beams of
dimensions 150×150×700mm are cured in all curing conditions for 56 days and are
tested. A total of 15 cylinders and 15 beams are casted one as a sample for each mix and
curing condition.

The Split-Tensile strength of the cylinder is calculated after 56 days of curing by using
the formula:

T = 2P/ πLD

Where, P= maximum load in Newton applied

L= length of the cylinder

D= Diameter of the cylinder

The value of loads applied on the cylinders are given in the table.

62
 Table 7.7 Loads on Cylinders

S. No Concrete Type Load on Cylinder (KN)

Normal Curing (N) N + Al Curing

1 CC 295 274.6

2 HDC-A 342.8 341.2

3 HDC-B 269.5 261.4

4 LDC-A 214.8 198.1

5 LDC-B 139.1 127.23

Using these load values Split-Tensile strength is calculated using the formula mentioned.
The values which are obtained using these values are as follows.

Table 7.8 Split-Tensile Strength for 56 Days Curing

S. No Concrete Type Split Tensile Strength (Mpa)

Normal Curing (N) N + Al Curing

1 CC 4.173 3.884

2 HDC-A 4.849 4.815

3 HDC-B 3.81 3.61

4 LDC-A 3.038 2.81

5 LDC-B 1.967 1.79

7.3 FLEXURAL STRENGTH:

Now beams are tested for flexural strength. As mentioned in Chapter-6, calculation of the
flexural strength depends on the distance between the crack and to its nearest support. Based
on this distance flexural strength is calculated as per the conditions. The distance of the crack
from nearest support for every beam and the load values are given in the table.

63
 Table 7.9 Load and Distance of Crack for Beams

S. No Concrete Curing Type

Type Normal Curing (N) N + Al Curing

Load in Distance in Load in Distance in

KN cm KN cm

1 CC 33.72 29 29.72 25
2 HDC-A 36.14 24 35.80 23.7
3 HDC-B 24.31 24.8 23.9 27
4 LDC-A 22.82 20 21.1 18.5
5 LDC-B 16.79 29.5 14.72 25

Using all these values flexural strength is calculated which is based on three conditions as
explained in the chapter-6.

Table 7.10 Flexural Strength of Beams for 56 Days Curing

S. No Concrete Type Flexural Strength Mpa

Normal Curing (N) N+Al Curing

1 CC 5.99 5.28

2 HDC-A 6.42 6.36

3 HDC-B 4.32 3.95

4 LDC-A 4.05 3.7

5 LDC-B 2.98 2.61

64
The graph of compressive strength values of concrete cubes which are cured for 28 days
in different curing conditions is given below.

90

80

70
Compressive strength in Mpa

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
CC HDC-A HDC-B LDC-A LDC-B
Concrete type

Normal Curing N+Al curing

Graph 7.1 Comparison of Compressive strength values for 28 days curing

From this graph it is observed that Barite Concrete designated as HDC-A has achieved
highest strength followed by Conventional concrete, Haematite Concrete (HDC -B),
Vermiculite Concrete (LDC-A) and last is Pumice Concrete (LDC-B).

65
The graph of compressive strength values of concrete cubes which are cured for 56 days
in different curing conditions is given below.

90

80

70
Compressive strength Mpa

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
CC HDC-A HDC-B LDC-A LDC-B
Concrete Type

Normal Curing N+Al Curing

Graph 7.2 Comparison of Compressive Strength values for 56 days curing

From this it is observed that Barite concrete (HDC-A) has achieved highest strength
compared to other concrete. The least affected concrete by alkaline solution is Barite
concrete.

66
The graph of Split tensile strength of cylinders of each mix which are cured in different
curing conditions for 56 days is given below.

5
Split Tensile Strength in Mpa

0
CC HDC-A HDC-B LDC-A LDC-B
Concrete Type

Normal Curing N+Al Curing

Graph 7.3 Comparison of Split tensile Strength for 56 days curing

From this graph it is clear that the Barite Concrete has achieved highest strength Split
tensile strength than the other concrete mixtures.

67
The graph of Flexural strength of beams which are cured for 56 days in different curing
conditions is given below.

6
Flexural Strength in Mpa

0
CC HDC-A HDC-B LDC-A LDC-B
Concrete Type

Normal curing N+Al Curing

Graph 7.4 Comparison of Flexural strength of beams for 56 days curing

In this Flexural strength also, barite Concrete has achieved the highest strength compared
to other concrete mixes.

68
 CHAPTER 8

RAPID CHLORIDE PENETRATION TEST

Concrete is a structure which consists of many tiny pores in it. Due to the presence these
pores there are chances of penetration of chemicals and other harmful elements which can
cause damage to the structure like corrosion of reinforcement. As there is an increase in
the usage of concrete, there is a great demand for the durability of the concrete. The more
durable a concrete the longer lifespan it has. To know this RCPT test is introduced which
deals with the chloride penetration into the concrete. Chloride causes corrosion of steel
reinforcement in the concrete due to ingress of the chloride ions. It is the most common
type of problem concrete structures face in the environment. Corrosion related problems
mainly occur in the bridge deck overlays, parking garages, marine structures and other
manufacturing plants.

Chloride penetrates into the concrete by a variety of mechanism such as capillary

absorption, hydrostatic pressure diffusion, evaporative transport. Among all these
mechanisms diffusion occurs predominantly. When the concentration of chloride ions on
the outer side of concrete is greater than the interior diffusion process occurs. This
diffusion of chloride into the concrete mainly depends on the internal pore structure of the
concrete. In general concrete structures are not protected to the rough environmental
conditions of the surroundings of the building. Hence there are many chances for the
building to get affected by the surrounding climatic conditions. Among all the affects the
most common and affected phenomenon is Chloride diffusion into the building. To check
this diffusion of chloride into the concrete Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT) is
introduced. According to the American code of ASTM C1202 RCPT test will be
performed. To perform this test Transparent acrylic material of 150×150×50mm thick
cells as per ASTM C1202 - 05, plexi glass chambers, NaOH and NaCl solutions,
Concrete specimen of 100mm in diametr and 50mm in height, RTV sealant.

8.1. Test Procedure:

 To perform this test concrete specimen of size 100mm in diameter and 50mm in
height is casted and is allowed to be cured for 56 days.

69
 Figure 8.1 Desiccator with Pump Motor
 After completion of curing period the specimen is removed and is kept in a device
known as desiccator for creating vacuum and the concrete specimen is immersed
in it.

 Now the specimen is kept in a vacuum chamber for 1 hour by adjusting the
pressure using isolation valve. The specimen is allowed to have vacuum saturated
for 1 hour and allowed to soak for 18 hours.

 Next the concrete specimen is cleaned and kept in the glass chamber of the RCPT
testing device by applying sealant so that there will be no leakage.

 The test device consists of left and right chambers. Right chamber which is black
in colour is filled with 3% NaCl solution and the left chamber which is red in
colour is filled with 0.3N of NaOH solution.

 The device is connected to a 60volt potential for 6 hours. Readings are taken every
30 minutes. At the end of 6 hours the sample is removed from the cell and the
amount of coulombs passed through the specimen is calculated.

70
 Figure 8.2 RCPT Test Device Setup

Observations:

The current is recorded from the display of the digital meter of the device for every half-
hour continuously for 6 hours. The noted values are substituted in a formula to know the
charge, so that it will match with the value displayed on the meter with some variation.

Specimen-1 = Conventional M60 grade concrete

Specimen-2 = Vermiculite Low density concrete made with Vermiculite

Specimen-3 = Barite High density concrete made with Barite

Specimen-4 = Haematite High density concrete made with Haematite

71
 Table 8.1 Temperature and Current Passing

Time Specimen-1 Specimen-2 Specimen-3 Specimen-4

I(mA) Temp I(mA) Temp I(mA) Temp I(mA) Temp

(oC) (oC) (oC) (oC)

00:00 69.9 32 151.7 32 37.7 31 43.6 31

00:30 89.9 34 172.1 35 51.5 32 46.5 32

01:00 93.8 35 150.6 37 45.3 33 49.9 34

01:30 96.8 36 135.8 3 42.9 35 52.1 35

02:00 101.8 38 159.4 42 40.3 35 52.9 36

02:30 105.7 39 158.7 44 43.5 35 53.7 36

03:00 108.2 40 181.9 44 45.6 36 51.5 37

03:30 109.1 40 194.3 45 45.9 36 51.8 38

04:00 113.3 41 147.1 45 47.3 37 54.1 38

04:30 110.6 41 124.6 46 45.6 37 53.7 38

05:00 115.7 42 159.2 46 46.6 37 54.6 39

05:30 116.4 42 120.1 45 52.2 38 55.0 39

06:00 114.8 42 128.3 46 51.8 38 55.1 39

The formula which is used to calculate the charge is:

Q = 900(I0 + 2I30 + 2I60 +………..+2I330 + I360)

Where,

Q= Charge passed (Coulombs)

I0 = Current immediately after voltage is applied

It = Current at t minutes

72
 The values which are mentioned in the above TABLE are in milliamperes. Hence they have
to be converted into amperes and then those values should be substituted in the formula.

Table 8.2 Current in Amperes

Time Specimen-1 Specimen-2 Specimen-3 Specimen-4

I(mA) I(A) I(mA) I(A) I(mA) I(A) I(mA) I(A)

00:00 69.9 0.0699 151.7 0.1517 37.7 0.0377 43.6 0.0436

00:30 89.9 0.0899 172.1 0.1721 51.5 0.0515 46.5 0.0465

01:00 93.8 0.0938 150.6 0.1506 45.3 0.0453 49.9 0.0499

01:30 96.8 0.0968 135.8 0.1358 42.9 0.0429 52.1 0.0521

02:00 101.8 0.1018 159.4 0.1594 40.3 0.0403 52.9 0.0529

02:30 105.7 0.1057 158.7 0.1587 43.5 0.0435 53.7 0.0537

03:00 108.2 0.1082 181.9 0.1819 45.6 0.0456 51.5 0.0515

03:30 109.1 0.1091 194.3 0.1943 45.9 0.0459 51.8 0.0518

04:00 113.3 0.1131 147.1 0.1471 47.3 0.0473 54.1 0.0541

04:30 110.6 0.1106 124.6 0.1246 45.6 0.0456 53.7 0.0537

05:00 115.7 0.1157 159.2 0.1592 46.6 0.0466 54.6 0.0546

05:30 116.4 0.1164 120.1 0.1201 52.2 0.0522 55.0 0.0550

06:00 114.8 0.1148 128.3 0.1283 51.8 0.0518 55.1 0.0551


+ 0.1018 + 0.1057 +
Q1 = 900 (0.0699 + 0.1148 + 2 (0.0899 + 0.0938 + 0.0968
0.1082 + 0.1091 + 0.1131 + 0.1106 + 0.1157 + 0.1164))

= 900 (0.0699 + 0.1148 + 2 (2.1226))

= 900(2.3073)

Q1 = 2076.57 Coulombs

73
  
Q2 = 900 ( 0.1517 + 2 ( 0.1721 +0.1506 + 0.1358 +0.1594 + 0.1587 + 0.1819 +
0.1943 + 0.1471 + 0.1246 + 0.1592 + 0.1201 ) + 0.1283 )
= 900 (0.1517 + 0.1283 + 2(3.4076))
= 900 (3.6876)

Q2 = 3318.840 Coulombs


 + 0.0435 + 0.0456 +
Q3 = 900 ( 0.0377 + 2( 0.0515 + 0.0453 + 0.0429 + 0.0403
 0.0459 + 0.0473 + 0.0456 + 0.0466 + 0.0522) + 0.0518)
= 900 (0.0377 + 0.0518 + 2(0.5067))
= 900(1.1029)

Q3 = 992.61 Coulombs


 + 0.0537 + 0.0515 +
Q4 = 900 ( 0.0436 + 2( 0.0465 + 0.0499 + 0.0521 + 0.0529
 0.0518 + 0.0541 + 0.0537 + 0.0546 + 0.0550) + 0.0551)
= 900 (0.0436 + 0.0551 + 2(0.5758))
= 900(1.2503)

Q4 = 1125.27 Coulombs

These are the values which we get when we introduce the current values into the formula.
The difference between the values displayed on the RCPT test device monitor and the
calculated values is less.

Figure 8.3 RCPT Test Value

74
 Table 8.3 Comparing Charge Values of Specimens.

Specimen type Monitor display value Calculated value

(Coulombs) (Coulombs)

Specimen-1 (Q1) 2284 2076.57

Specimen-2 (Q2) 3247 3318.84

Specimen-3 (Q3) 999 992.61

Specimen-4 (Q4) 1126 1125.27

The above values are compared with the chloride permeability table to know the
permeability of the chloride based on the charge passed.

Table 8.4 Chloride Permeability based on Charge Passed

Charge passed Chloride permeability Typical of

(Coulombs)
>4000 High High W/C ratio (>0.6)
conventional PCC
2000-4000 Moderate Moderate W/C ratio (0.40-
0.50) conventional PCC
1000-2000 Low Low W/C ratio (<0.40)
conventional PCC
100-1000 Very low Latex-modified concrete or
internally-sealed concrete
< 100 Negligible Polymer-impregnated
concrete, Polymer concrete

75
 On comparing the values of RCPT test with the above table values the following
conclusions are made.

 Specimen-1 is a conventional M60 grade concrete has got charge value as 2284
coulombs which has moderate chloride permeability and typically has a W/C ratio
of 0.40-0.50 of conventional PCC.

 Specimen-2 is a Vermiculite Low Density Concrete made with Vermiculite has
got charge value as 3247 coulombs which has moderate chloride permeability and
typically has a W/C ratio of 0.40-0.50 of conventional PCC.

 Specimen-3 is a Barite High Density Concrete made with Barite has got charge
value as 999 coulombs which has very low chloride permeability and is typically
of Latex-modified concrete or internally-sealed concrete.

 Specimen-4 is a Haematite High Density Concrete made with Haematite has got
charge value as 1126 coulombs which has low chloride permeability and typically
has low W/C ratio as < 0.40 of conventional concrete.

76
 CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSIONS

The density of Barite concrete is 3111.11 Kg/m3 and Haematite concrete is 3007.40
Kg/m3. The density of Vermiculite concrete is 2268.24 Kg/m3 and Pumice concrete is
1521.97 Kg/m3. The Compressive strength of Conventional concrete after 56 days
normal curing was 68.90Mpa and Split tensile strength was 4.173Mpa. Flexural strength
was found to be 5.99Mpa.

 On comparing Compressive strengths of normally cured concrete mixes, Barite

concrete has 14.35% greater strength than Conventional concrete. Haematite
concrete has 30.6%, Vermiculite concrete has 53.36% and Pumice concrete has
77.5% less strength than the conventional concrete.

 Split tensile strength of Barite concrete is 13.9% greater than the Conventional
concrete. Haematite concrete has 8.6%, Vermiculite concrete has 27.2% and
Pumice concrete has 52.68% less Split tensile strength than the conventional
concrete.

 Similarly in case of Flexural Strength also Barite concrete has 6.6% greater
strength than the Conventional concrete. Haematite concrete has 25.8%,
Vermiculite concrete has 32.38% and Pumice concrete has 50.25% less Flexural
strength than the conventional concrete.

 The Compressive strength of alkaline cured conventional concrete is 5.6% less
than normally cured concrete. Similarly Barite concrete has 2.8%, Haematite
concrete has 3.99%, Vermiculite concrete has 10.6% and Pumice concrete has
11.3% less compressive strength than the normally cured concretes.

 In case of Split tensile strength also alkaline cured conventional concrete has 6.9%
less strength than the normally cured concrete. Similarly Barite concrete has
2.8%, Haematite concrete has 5.24%, Vermiculite concrete has 7.5% and Pumice
concrete has 8.9% less Split tensile strength than normally cured concrete.

 Flexural strength of alkaline cured conventional concrete is 10.05% less than the
normally cured concrete. Barite concrete has 0.93%, Haematite concrete has
5.1%, Vermiculite concrete has 11.64% and Pumice concrete has 12.41% less
Flexural strength than the normally cured concrete.

77
  From RCPT test values it shows that Barite concrete which has a charge of 999
Coulombs has Very Low chloride permeability then follows Haematite concrete
whose charge is 1126 Coulombs has Low chloride permeability. Conventional
concrete has a charge value of 2284 Coulombs which has Moderate chloride
permeability and charge of Vermiculite concrete is 3247 Coulombs whose
chloride permeability falls in Moderate range.

 From all the above discussions, it can be said that Barite concrete is least affected by
the alkaline environment than the other mixes. Then follows the Haematite Concrete,
Conventional concrete, Vermiculite concrete and last is Pumice concrete.

78
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