MODULE 5
Sub Module 5.6
Contents
INTRODUCTION A ‘computer’ today implies much more than just doing the
difficult arithmetic manipulations for the user. Computers can
A computer is an electronic device, which can accept and receive inputs automatically, process them according to the way
process data by carrying out a set of stored instructions in it has been instructed through a program, take decisions, and
sequence. This sequence of mathematical and logic operations drive outputs. A complicated industrial process or a safety-
is known as a Program. critical aircraft flight control system could be entirely handled by
a computer with minimal human interaction.
The computer is constructed from electronic circuits, which
operate on an ON/OFF principle. The data and instructions, The main concern of this module is to establish the construction
used in the computer, must therefore be in logical form. and operation of a new generation digital computer used in
general applications or aviation-specific applications.
The computer uses the digits "1" and "0" of the binary
numbering system to represent "OFF" and "ON". All data and Somehow, analogue computers and analogue-mechanical
program information must, therefore, be converted into binary hybrid computers too are in use today in certain applications.
form, before being fed into the computer circuitry.
COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY
One of the most important characteristics of a computer is that it
is a general-purpose device, capable of being used in a number Bit: A binary digit is given the name bit. A bit is the basic
of different applications. By changing the stored program, the unit of information in computing and digital communications.
same machine can be used to implement totally different tasks. A bit can have only one of two values, and may therefore be
physically implemented with a two-state device. The most
Modern aircraft use increasingly sophisticated avionic systems common representation of these values are 0 and1.
which involve the use of microprocessor-based computer
systems. These systems combine hardware and software and Byte: A group of eight bits, operated on as a unit, is
are capable of processing large amounts of data in a very small referred to as a byte.
time.
Nibble: Groups of four bits are referred to as nibble.
In general, aircraft computers only have to perform one
particular task so that fixed programs can be used. Word: The basic unit of data that can be manipulated as an
entity is often referred to as word. Words can be any
convenient length but 16, 32 and 64-bit words are common.
Software: The programs that are written for a computer are When the central processing unit (CPU) is enclosed in a chip
called its software. using large-scale integration (LSI) or a higher level of
integration, it is termed a microprocessor. A computer built with
Firmware: An intermediate form between hardware and a microprocessor is called a microcomputer.
software is firmware, which consists of programs embedded
in electronic devices during manufacture. The CPU has got two sub-modules: the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) and the control unit.
In electronic systems and computing, firmware is the
combination of persistent memory and program code and Integrated Circuit (IC):
data stored in it. Typical examples of devices containing
firmware are embedded systems (such as traffic lights, An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also
consumer appliances, and digital watches), computers, referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of electronic
computer peripherals, mobile phones, and digital cameras. circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
The firmware contained in these devices provides the normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete
control program for the device. Firmware is held in non- circuit made from independent components.
volatile memory devices such as ROM, EPROM, or flash
memory. Changing the firmware of a device may rarely or Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment
never be done during its economic lifetime; some firmware today and have revolutionized the world of electronics.
memory devices are permanently installed and cannot be Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home appliances
changed after manufacture. are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies,
made possible by the low cost of producing integrated circuits.
start in the megabit range, but because they are basically TYPES OF ROM
sequential devices, access time is slow, especially if the
information required is at the wrong end of hundreds of metres Programmable ROM (PROM):
of tape
The user can program a PROM after purchase. Each memory
The use of semi-conductor memory elements (bistables) has bit element in the PROM contains a nichrome or silicon link that
been made possible by the use of large scale integrated circuits acts as a fuse. The user can selectively 'butt out' or 'blow' these
(LSI) which provide reliability, ease of application and good fuses by applying pulses of current to the appropriate pins of the
storage capacity per unit volume. There are two types of semi- IC. A memory element with an non-ruptured fuse stores a 1,
conductor primary memory: ROM (Read Only Memory) and whereas one with a ruptured fuse stores a 0. The programming
RAM (Random Access memory). Both types employ solid state is irreversible, so it must be right first time.
circuitry, and are packaged in Integrated Circuit (IC) form.
PROMs are capable of high operating speeds, but consume a
ROM: relatively large amount of power. However, since they are non-
volatile, they can be switched off when not being accessed.
As would be expected, information can only be read from this
memory unit. Normally the information is fixed into the memory Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):
during manufacture. It is a non-volatile memory; that is, if
power is removed, the contents remain unaltered. These memory devices can be programmed, erased and then
reprogrammed by the user as often as required. In some
devices the information can be erased by flooding them with
RAM: ultraviolet light, whilst in others, voltages are applied to the
appropriate pins of the device.
This is read/write memory. Information can be written into the
memory (overwriting the old), or copied out from the memory.
RAM’s are usually volatile - that is, if power is removed, the Electrical Altered Read Only Memory (EAROM):
information will be lost unless battery back up is available.
Information may be written into the memory in any location; This memory device combines the non-volatility of the ROM
hence the term random access (as opposed to a serial access with the electrically alterable characteristic of the RAM. It is,
memory such as magnetic tape). These are often referred to as therefore, considered as a non-volatile RAM.
“Read/Write” memories.
Flash Memories:
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
It has five basic parts: arithmetic logic unit, control unit, memory,
input devices, and output devices.
The CPU has got two sub-modules: the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) and the control unit.
The function of the control unit is to coordinate and oversee the Random access memory consists of registers that can hold data
operation of the computer. words. The name random access implies direct accessibility of
a memory location. But it is generally accepted as a volatile
Cache Memory read-write memory. When the power is removed from the
computer, the RAM loses its data – this is why it is called
Cache is a small memory located in the microprocessor for the volatile.
purpose of holding recently accessed data. It is more likely that
the same data would be repeatedly used for some time in the Read-Only Memory (ROM)
continued execution of the program. Because the data are
available in the locality of the central processing unit, it can be Read-only memory does not allow writing into the memory, and
accessed fast. A greater time would be needed if the same data it is a non-volatile memory. An example of a ROM application is
were to be fetched from main memory. This feature helps in the basic input-output system (BIOS), which contains the
speeding up the computer operation. Nevertheless it is costlier instructions to be carried out at the start-up of the computer.
to have memory on a microprocessor chip than to have the RAM is not useful at this stage because it cannot hold any
same on a separate chip in the main memory block. instructions in the absence of power.
Main memory is a location where the digital information required A bus is a set of lines over which information is transferred from
for the computer operation is held. This could be termed as a any of several sources to any of several destinations.
sub-storage unit whose hardware is semiconductor integrated
circuits. The typical bus structure of a computer consists of three buses:
address bus, data bus, and control bus.
By contrast, storage of bulk data is on external hardware whose
access is through input/output devices. These are typically not The address bus is unidirectional i.e., information flows in only
semiconductor devices. one direction. This bus is used to transmit an address from the
microprocessor to the memory, input or output units.
The memory of a computer contains two types of information:
data and instructions. An operand is an example of data. The The data bus is bi-directional i.e., information can flow in either
instructions tell the CPU what to do with the operand: add, direction on these lines. Data bus is the path for data flow.
subtract, multiply, divide, move etc.
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PIA Training Centre Module 5 – DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 5.6 – Basic Computer Structure
The control bus is the set of lines over which the signals travel The execution usually requires data to be entered into the
to maintain timing and status information. Some of these lines arithmetic logic unit (ALU) where the circuitry manipulating the
are bidirectional; others are unidirectional. data is contained. During the course of computation or its
completion, the derived results are sent to at the output
Programs interface.
Power Supply
Figure 5.6.4
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PIA Training Centre Module 5 – DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS
Category – A/B1 Sub Module 5.6 – Basic Computer Structure
Complementing and enhancing the results of the use of The input devices are radio sensors such as VOR, DME,
computers in design is the pervasive use of computers on board Omega, ADF, Doppler, Loran, Decca, ILS, and non-radio
the aircraft itself. Computers are used to test and calibrate the sensors such as the Air Data Unit and Inertial Navigation
aircraft’s equipment, so that, both before and during flight, System. The output of such sensors will be electrical analogues
potential problems can be anticipated and corrected. Whereas of the quantities being monitored. The electrical signals contain
the first autopilots were devices that simply maintained an the necessary information needed to solve the navigation
aircraft in straight and level flight, modern computers permit an problem, the solution being achieved by the computer.
autopilot system to guide an aircraft from takeoff to landing,
incorporating continuous adjustment for wind and weather The computer consists of a variety of analogue circuits such as
conditions and ensuring that fuel consumption is minimized. In summing amplifiers, integrators, comparators, sine cosine
the most advanced instances, the role of the pilot has been resolvers, servo systems, etc. The patching network
changed from that of an individual who continuously controlled determines the way, in which the analogue circuits are
the aircraft in every phase of flight to a systems manager who interconnected, which will be such as to achieve the required
oversees and directs the human and mechanical resources in outputs for given inputs.
the cockpit.
ANALOGUE
INPUT OUTPUT
COMPUTING
DEVICES DEVICES
ELEMENTS
Digital Computers
Figure 5.6.6
Coded information is passed to the memory in which it is stored The control acts on instructions held in store in the appropriate
until needed by the other units. The memory is divided into a sequence. The basic task will be to transfer data from store to
large number of cells, each of which can store a word the arithmetic unit, to carry out the necessary calculations using
representing a piece of information. Each cell has a unique registers to store the intermediate results, then writing the final
address, through which access to the information contained result into the store.
within that cell can be obtained. There are usually two types of
memory, long term and temporary stores. The latter, often The final control function will be to transfer data from store to
termed registers, will be used to hold intermediate results in the output as a result of built in instructions, or on specific
calculations and data, which is to be processed next in the instructions from the pilot.
calculating sequence.
This process of input - store - calculate - store - output is carried
The arithmetic unit performs the actual arithmetic operations out sequentially in accordance with software requirements.
called for by instructions. It can be compared with a calculator.