Proceedings of the Eleventh (2001) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference
Stavanger, Norway, June 17-22, 2001
Copyright © 2001 by The International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers
1SBN 1-880653-51--6(Set); ISBN 1-880653-53-2 (VoL 11); ISSN 1098-6189 (Set)
Anchor Selection and Installation for Shallow and Deepwater Mooring Systems
Roderick Ruinen and Gijs Degenkamp
Vryhof Anchors BV
Krimpen ad Yssel, The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
The exploration and production of hydrocarbons is steadily
progressing into deeper and deeper waters. Currently development plans
are being made for projects in waterdepths exceeding 3000 m. This
large range of waterdepths in which anchors are used, results in the
requirements for an anchor being different for shallow and deep water
locations. This paper will focus on the selection of anchors for shallow
and deep water environments and present a way for the anchors to be
installed.
KEY WORDS: Anchor, catenary, taut leg, installation, vertically
loaded anchor, VLA.
~TRODUCTION
In shallow water (in this paper selected as 1000 m or less) the most
common mooring line arrangement is the catenary mooring using
predominantly chain and wire rope. An important feature of such a
mooring is that part of the mooring line will generally be laying on the
seabed during all loading situations. This results in a requirement for an
anchor that can withstand large horizontal loads with small vertical
loads. For these applications a wide selection of drag embedment
anchors is available, of which a few will be reviewed indicating their
area of application and restrictions based on project experience.
In a deep water mooring system (1000 m and deeper) the weight of
a catenary mooring system using chain and wire rope will tend to
become very large, giving restrictions to the design of the floater. One
solution would be to lighten the weight of such a mooring line by
including synthetic rope inserts. A more common solution for deep
water mooring systems is to use a taut leg mooring, where the mooring
lines enter the seabed at a large angle (up to 45°). These large mooring
line angles in a taut leg mooring system result in an anchor being
required that can withstand both large horizontal and vertical loads. For
such an application a new type of drag embedment anchor has been
developed, the vertically loaded anchor (VLA). The performance of the
VLA will be examined, based on project experience.
600
One of the most common methods for the installation of anchors,
both conventional and VLA, has been to use an anchor handling vessel
to generate the required horizontal pulling forces. This system of
installation works fine as long as the required installation load is within
the capabilities of the anchor handling vessels. With the use of ever
larger floaters, mooring in harsh environments and moving to ever
deeper waters, the forces acting on the anchor have steadily increased,
resulting in installation loads in the order of 6000 kN to 8000 kN
becoming more common. For such installation loads a more efficient
method of installation is to use a subsea tensioning device, allowing the
anchors to be installed with vertical pulling capacity only using the
vessels winches. The required vertical pulling capacity is generally in
the order of 40% to 50% of the required anchor installation load. The
use of the subsea tensioning device will be explained using project
experience from both shallow and deep water areas.
DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
To allow an anchor to be used successfully for a certain project, the
following information should be available for the anchor design
process:
1. The calculated maximum intact and damaged design loads,
2. The soil conditions present at the site,
3. The type of anchor forerunner that is used,
4. The type of mooring system that will be used,
5. The required classification society for approval.
The importance of these parameters will be discussed in more detail
below.
Design loads and classification society. The design loads will, in
combination with the safety factors according to the specified
classification society, determine the required anchor holding capacity.
Typically the maximum design loads will be specified for the mooring
line with the highest loads, resulting in the anchors all being designed
for the same maximum holding capacity. However in a situation where
the loading of the anchors is greatly dependent on the anchor location,
for instance due to very directional environmental forces, it is possible
to base the anchor design on the individual anchor loads. The design
loads will also determine the required anchor installation load which is
typically equal to the maximum intact design load. When compared to
the required anchor holding capacity, the anchor installation load will
generally be equal to 50% to 70% of the required anchor holding The fluke/shank angle is adjustable into two positions, the mud angle
capacity (design loads multiplied by relevant factor of safety). for very soft clay and the sand angle for soil such as medium and hard
Soil conditions. For the dimensioning and proper installation of clay and sand. The Stevin Mk3 is comparable in performance with the
drag embedment anchors the availability of site specific soil data is Flipper Delta anchor.
important. The quality of the soil data determines both the choice for
the size of the anchor and the accuracy of the installation parameters
such as drag and penetration. Basically there are two extremes for the li
type of soil data that is supplied for the anchor design. The first is the
situation where little or no soil data is provided for the intended
mooring location. The second is the situation where a soil investigation
has been performed at each of the intended anchor locations such as
required for piles. The type of soil encountered at the intended mooring
location will not only influence the anchor size, but will also determine
the optimum setting of the fluke/shank angle. In the case where little or
no soil data is available, the anchor design will be based on the worst
soil conditions that can be expected at the site. The anchors that are
designed for the site will be conservatively sized, to ensure sufficient
holding capacity in the expected soil conditions. When soil data is
Fig. 1 - Stevin Mk3 anchor.
available at all of the intended anchor locations, it is possible to
optimise the anchor design for each location. The anchors can be Stevpris Mk$ (see Fig. 2). An anchor design with a very high ratio of
optimised for each anchor location or for a cluster of anchors, ultimate holding capacity (UHC) versus anchor weight and a very quick
depending on the clients wishes. This can lead to 2 or 3 different anchor and deep penetration, i.e. a very short drag length. The deep penetration of
sizes and even different types being required for the project. the Stevpris anchor makes it very suitable to resist uplift forces that might
Anchor forerunner. For the forerunner on the anchor either chain occur in deep water where the anchor lines are relatively short. Most omen
or wire rope can be used, although the use of a chain forerunner is more the anchors are being used by pipe-laying barges, dredges, dfill-rigs and
common. The use of a wire forerunner can however have significant other vessels that move rather often and that set their anchors also on a
benefits on the anchor performance in certain soil conditions, as a wire regular basis. The Stevpris Mk5 anchor is comparable in performance
rope will have less resistance in the soil when compared to a chain with the FFTS Mk4 anchor.
forerunner of similar breaking strength. In very soft clay soil conditions,
the use of a wire rope forerunner will allow the anchor to penetrate
much deeper into the seabed and as a consequence a much smaller
anchor is required than when a chain forerunner is used. The wire rope
forerunner will also benefit the anchor performance in situations where
there is a crust of hard soil overlaying a softer soil. The wire rope will
penetrate much easier through the hard crust and thus allow the anchor
to penetrate much deeper into the softer soil below.
Mooring system. For offshore mooring applications two different
types of mooring system are commonly used, the catenary mooring
where the restoring forces are generated by the weight of the mooring
line and the taut leg mooring system where the restoring forces are
generated by the elasticity of the mooring line. The catenary mooring
system is generally used in shallow water while the taut leg mooring Fig. 2 - Stevpris Mk5 anchor
system is more appropriate in deep water applications. A catenary
mooring system is generally designed in such a way that part of the Stevshark Mk5 (see Fig. 3). For difficult soils the Stevpris anchor is
mooring line is always in contact with the seabed. This results in a adapted to penetrate cemented carbonate soils and renamed Stevshark. The
requirement for an anchor which is capable of withstanding large Stevshark anchor can be equipped with serrated shank and cutter-teeth for
horizontal loads but does not need to withstand significant vertical better penetration. The fluke points are specially reinforced to withstand
loads. For the catenary mooring system the conventional drag high point loads.
embedment anchor is appropriate. In a taut leg mooring system the
mooring lines enter the seabed at a significant angle (generally between
30 ° and 45°). This means that the anchor has to be able to withstand
both high vertical and horizontal loads. For this type application the
vertically loaded anchor (VLA) has been developed.

ANCHORS F O R S H A L L O W W A T E R M O O R I N G SYSTEMS.

For catenary mooring systems in shallow water there are many

different anchors available on the market. Some examples are given below.
Stevin Mk3 anchor (see Fig. 1), The Stevin Mk3 anchor is a hinged
anchor type (allows movement of the shank to both sides of the fluke),
which means that when landing on the seabed it always turns itself into Fig. 3 - Stevshark Mk5 anchor
the fight position for burial. It can be simply dropped without assistance
from an anchor handling tug. The Stevin Mk3 is still used around the
globe on dredgers, drilling rigs, barges, supply vessels and crane barges.

601
DIMENSIONING OF CONVENTIONAL DRAG EMBEDMENT 3OOO
ANCHORS.
i! :.5i T:.IIII II 2OO0
A reliable method for the dimensioning of anchors is based on the
comparison of anchor behaviour in similar soils. The test data gathered .< . . . . . . ~ .... 1500

over the years have allowed Vryhof to derive design lines by plotting all
the data for tests in similar soil on log-log paper. The design lines that 10O0
iil i':'~
represent these data are shown in Fig. 4 and show a relation between
anchor weight and UHC based on a power law formula. Such a formula is i :i :I •~:!:!~
• '~?t:e~'~
~..... i~:.~
: " --r,~;~!~
....~~~A~'/'~':~t~
9OO
8OO
7O0
used to determine the UHC of other (usually larger) anchors by 6OO
extrapolation. L~-=.S~r.. ~=: : . ~ .~..~:........
..= ~~ : . i.i:.~. SOQ
UHC = A × W s [ld',I] (1)
T ~
The parameters UHC and W in the formula have been expressed in
[kN], the parameter B has no unit, the parameter A has the unit [kNt'a]. ~.l... ; i~ i .... ~"!:
300 c
Both contain all the unknown factors that are related to scale and other " : ! ! i !; "
:••:s :-•:-:1:•••:~•~ii. ........ • 250 ~
influences. The values of A and B depend on the type of anchor and the . : . . ~,, ! . . L : . . : , ......
!, i i !:i ........: : 1 i il i!; ! : i
type of soil conditions encountered. Fig. 4 shows the holding capacity t:/•:: •. ,j• .ii:!••:N . . . . . . r ....
chart for the Stevpris Mk5 anchor based on the above mentioned formula. !": i:i:::T%i:i 'IT..: ........~!........ 1S0 ~
,L.L : i' "
For the Stevin Mk3 and Stevpris Mk5 anchors, the following A and
B parameters have been derived for use in formula (1), depending on
the soil conditions and the type of forerunner (chain or wire) that is ......... i:~ ; i"~,'~~' i

used. :!i!:!.!!!:!!
! i!iiiii.!
•. } i.:.:ii.
............. ~ .i.~=il
90 ~

........... ; - - - i - - - - - ~ ; : ~
~![i!~es~t~!~on ::. f6rerun~er
:":'. '"i":..t:.~:r'i so ~
40
, , • , , , L.?r~-,~ J
; : ~
+"~ ? ......i.........."
very soft clay chain 20 48 0.92
3O
very soft clay wire 20 66.3 0.92 ........ r.. 7. - y..., ..: . °
..................... I "~" ~ ! - i
medium clay both 28 67 0.92
hard clay and sand both 37 86 0.92 !! ! i~ ao
• [ .~ t i : : /1~

Table 1 ° ' ! ? 1; ii , , ~' 15

V-..-.;..-~...I.--~-:-.;......
The holding capacity for a type and size of anchor can also be • I ii! i" !-':" - + ........ ~ ! ~
: 10
calculated by geotechnical methods provided the anchor dimensions, I 1.5 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 20 25 30 40 SO

the forerunner and the anchor penetration are known as well as the
shear strength parameters, the permeability and the dilatancy of the soil.
Because some of these data are normally not available, the calculation
is not sufficiently accurate. It is therefore more reliable and easier to use
the above mentioned empirical method.
The UHC of an anchor is commonly expressed in conjunction with
the weight of the anchor, the ratio UI-IC over weight being called the
anchor efficiency. In very soft clay, the UHCs o f a 1 t and 10 t Stevpris
Mk5 anchor are 40 t and 330 t respectively, that is efficiencies of 40 and
33. The anchor efficiency is not a unique value, that is, it varies with
weight. Efficiency, although traditionally used, is not a good way to
express the anchor holding capacity.
Stevpris Mk5 size in t
Fig. 4 - Stevpris Mk5 typical holding capacity graph
A N C H O R S F O R D E E P W A T E R M O O R I N G SYSTEMS.
When moving from shallow to deeper water, a catenary mooring
will at a certain water depth start to become too heavy for the floater to
be economically moored. A taut leg mooring system will then become
the more appropriate solution. However, the catenary mooring system
can still be used in deeper waters, for example a drilling rig has been
operating in 1800 m of water with a catenary mooring system, when
synthetic rope inserts are used in the mooring line. Due to the very low
weight of the synthetic rope, the resulting vertical forces on the vessel
will also stay low and conventional drag embedment anchors can still
be used. For taut leg mooring systems a vertically loaded anchor
(VLA) is the appropriate type of anchor.
Conventional drag embedment anchors in deep water moorings.
In deep water catenary mooring systems, a significant reduction in
mooring line length can be achieved if some uplift is allowed at the
anchor. Anchors are well capable to resist uplift loads when they are
deeply embedded. Anchors in sand and firm to hard clays do not
penetrate very deep and only take small uplift loads. Stevpris anchors
installed in very soft clay and mud penetrate deep, a typical penetration
for a 15 t anchor is 15 to 25 meters. Due to the inverse catenary in the
soil, the anchor line arrives at the anchor at an angle of 20 ° to 30 ° with
the mud line. Once the anchor is installed, a load making an angle up to
20 ° with the horizontal at mud line will not change the loading direction
at the anchor!

602
 A Stevpris anchor has been tested in the Gulf of Mexico with
gradually increasing pull angle. The maximum resistance was obtained
for 180 upli~ at mud line. Although a slightly lower load was expected,
this load happened to be equal to the UHC determined at 0 ° uplift. The
API RP-2SK on Floating Production Units recognises this effect and
allows a 50 uplift in intact condition and 10° in damaged condition.
These angles appear small, but they can mean an enormous saving on
anchor lines in deep water areas.
V L A - T h e S t e v m a n t a (see Fig. 5). To meet industry demands for
an anchor suitable for taut leg mooring systems, an extensive testing
program has been completed which has led to a new type of anchor, the
Stevmanta VLA, where a traditionally rigid shank has been replaced by
a system of wires connected to a plate. The anchor is designed to accept
vertical (or normal) loads and is installed as a conventional drag
embedment anchor with a horizontal load at the mudline to obtain the
deepest penetration possible. By changing the point of pulling at the
anchor, vertical (or normal) loading of the fluke is obtained thus
mobilising the maximum possible soil resistance.
As the Stevmanta VLA is deeply embedded and always loaded in a
direction normal to the fluke, the load can be applied in any direction,
i.e. between 0 ° and 90 °. Generally the anchor is used for taut-leg
mooring systems, where generally the load angle varies from 25 ° to
45 ° . The angle adjuster changes the mode of the anchor from pull-in
mode to vertical (or normal) mode.
Currently Petrobras has the Stevmanta VLA in use on 3 production
platforms offshore Brazil, being the P-27, the P-36 and the P-40 in
waterdepths of 500 m, 1500 m and 1000 m respectively.
Fig. 5 - Stevmanta VLA
STEVMANTA VLA CALCULATION.
Based on geotechnical principles for embedded plates in soil, the
ultimate resistance, referred to as the _ultimate l~ull-out capacity (UPC),
of the Stevmanta VLA can be calculated with the following formula:
UPC = N c xS u x A (2)
With N¢ the beating capacity factor, Su the undrained shear strength
of the soil at the penetration depth of the Stevmanta VLA and A the
area of the Stevmanta VLA.
In the soil conditions where the Stevmanta VLA is currently
designed for (very soft to soft clay), the undrained shear strength of the
soil is generally given as a function of the penetration depth (D) below
seabed, i.e. a formula of the following form:
Su = k 0 + k I x D (3)
For a plate installed to a certain depth in the soil and subjected to
vertical or inclined loads, two different failure mechanisms can be
identified, being:
1. Shallow failure. This failure mechanism occurs when the
anchor is not deeply embedded, typically less then 3 fluke
lengths. The failure mechanism is characterised by the anchor
603
being pulled out of the soil with the entire column of soil
above it.
2. Deep failure. When the anchor has embedded more than 3
fluke lengths into the soil the deep failure mechanism will
occur. The failure mechanism is characterised by the flow of
soil from the top of the plate to the bottom of the plate (plastic
failure of the soil).
The most economical anchor design occurs when the anchor can be
embedded to a depth were the deep failure mechanism occurs, typically
more than 20 m below seabed.
Based on the test results of the Stevmanta VLA, the bearing
capacity factor Nc is found to be equal to 12 for a Stevmanta VLA
which has penetrated deeply into the soil (3 or more fluke lengths). This
value of 12 for the bearing capacity factor corresponds well with values
found in literature.
With the UPC known for a specified anchor size at a specified depth
in specified soil conditions, a method had to be found for determining
the attainable depth for this situation. Firstly the different factors
affecting the penetration depth of the anchor were inventoried. The
following factors were found to be of influence to the attainable
penetration depth:
* The undrained shear strength of the soil, basically given by the
factor kl in formula (3).
• The diameter of the mooring line (d) connected to the angle
adjuster. The larger the diameter becomes, the higher the
resistance is to the mooring line and the shallower the
penetration becomes.
• The area of the anchor (A). A larger anchor will encounter
more resistance in the soil.
• The fluke/shank angle (~) used.
Applying the results of the tests with the different Stevmanta VLAs
to the above mentioned factors affecting the anchor penetration, the
following formula was derived:
D = 1.5 x kt °'6 x d -0"7 x A °'3 x (tan~) 1"7 (4)
The required Stevmanta VLA area can now be calculated using the
previously mentioned formula. The only variable that still needs to be
determined is the required installation load (Fi,st). The required
installation load is given by:
UPC
Finst = (5)
rv/h
Based on the test results of the Stevmanta VLA, the ratio between
the applied horizontal load and the vertical load (rye) we use, varies
between 2.5 and 3.5. Evaluating the performance of the Stevmanta VLA
over the years, it can be concluded that the ratio between the UPC and
the installation load has increased from 1.8 : 1 with the early prototypes
to 3.5 : I with the current model of the Stevmanta VLA.
Using the above mentioned formulas, the design method for the
Stevmanta VLA is as follows (see also Fig. 6):
1. Determine the required Ultimate Pull-out Capacity (UPC) in
kN.
2. Determine the undrained shear strength profile of the soil.
3. Determine the anchor penetration depth as function of the fluke
area.
4. From formulas (2), (3) and (4) the required Stevmanta VLA
fluke area (A) is found.
5. The required Stevmanta VLA installation load is determined by
using formula (5).
 /
2000
ANCHOR INSTALLATION.
1800
For the installation of anchors, various methods are commonly used
today. Three of these methods will be discussed in more detail.
1
4"
1600
i
Anchor installation using an anchor handling vessel (AHV). The
most common method for anchor installation is using an AHV. The
(.,
1400 AHV deploys the anchor and the mooring line to the seabed and uses
the bollard pull to embed the anchor into the seabed to the required
tO
installation load (see Fig. 7). The maximum installation load that can be
1200
generated depends on the boUard pull that is available. In case the
0 required installation pull exceeds the bollard pull of the AHV, an option
=,
1000 is to use two AHVs to pull in tandem.

I SO0
( /, •

! #I ~ • •~ 0
! e •
6
D..
600

tl
t i
"5. 4OO It

200
/a .....

0 /
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Stevmanta Fluke Area (m ~) - - - ~ .

Fig. 6 - Stevmanta VLA typical holding capacity graph
Curve A - 76 mm diameter wire rope Fig. 7 - Anchor installation with AHV
Curve B - 121 mm diameter wire rope Subsea tensioning device and conventional drag embedment
Curve C - 151 mm diameter wire rope anchor. A different method to install the anchors is to use a subsea
tensioning device. Using this method two anchors are tensioned against
S T E V M A N T A VLA E X P E R I E N C E each other (see Fig. 8). The installation vessel applies a vertical force to
the subsea tensioning device, which results in a larger horizontal force
The Stevmanta VLA has been successfully used on three projects to on the anchors. Typically the required vertical force will be in the order
date, the P-27 (Ruinen and Degenkamp 1999), P-36 (Henriques et al. of 40% to 50% of the required anchor installation load. This means that
2000) and P-40 production units offshore Brazil. A summary of the using a subsea tensioning device the installation can be performed using
design and installation data is presented in table 2. The values presented an AHV or a crane barge. One of the requirements for conventional
for the installation load, penetration depth and drag length are the drag embedment anchors is that they are installed in a direction that is
avera values encountered. approximately the same as the direction that the actual mooring load is
applied in. This results in the anchor having to be tensioned across the
Required UPC 6852 kN centre of the mooring circle. In situations where there is no anchor
Anchor 11 m z Stevmanta VLA present directly opposite the actual mooring anchor (for instance when
Installation load 2805 kN 9 anchors are used for the mooring in 3 cluster of 3 anchors) a reaction
Penetration depth 23.5 m anchor will have to be used to tension the anchor against.
Drag length 45 m

Required UPC 8600 kN

Anchor 13 m ~ Stevmanta VLA
Installation load 3442 kN
Penetration depth 30 m
Drag length 75 m
Fig. 8 - anchor installation with subsea tensioner
> ) i : ~ ~,;~ !~!, ~ :i:~,i ~ ,, ~:~~4S~)P~i
Required UPC 9208kN
13m 2 Stevmanta VLA
Subsea tensioning device and vertically loaded anchor (VLA).
Anchor
Like a conventional drag embedment anchor, the VLA can also be
Installation load 4609kN
installed using a subsea tensioning device. But because the Stevmanta
Penetrati0n depth 20m VLA can be installed in any direction compared to the actual mooring
Drag length 43m direction, the possibilities for the anchor installation are much greater.
Table 2 For example, in a mooring system with the anchors grouped in clusters,
it is possible to install the two anchors situated next to each other

604
instead of tensioning across the centre of the mooring (see Fig. 9). For
the Stevmanta VLA a new installation procedure has been developed
using only one AHV to perform the installation of two anchors at the
same time. This method uses the newly developed subsea connectors
and a subsea tensioning device. Briefly the methods is as follows:

disconnector

Stevmanta 1

Fig. 9 - alternative installation with subsea tensioner

The AHV deploys the installation system consisting of the

Stevmanta VLA 2, a subsea connector, the subsea tensioner with a male
disconnector and break link
portion of a subsea connector on top, a tri-plate with male portion of the
subsea connector and a breaking link and Stevmanta VLA 1. The Stevtensioner and disconnector
deployment wire is connected though a subsea connector to the tail of
Stevmanta VLA 1 (see Fig. t0).

disconnector

Stevmanta 2

//// "////////////
Fig. 10 - anchor deployment
When the entire system is on the seabed, the deployment wire is
disconnected from the tail of Stevmanta VLA 1 (position 1 in Fig. 11)
and moved to the male part of the subsea connector on the subsea
tensioner (position 2 in Fig. 11). The AHV then performs the tensioning
procedure. When the tensioning has been completed, the break link will
free Stevmanta VLA 1 from the tensioner. The subsea connector on
Stevmanta VLA 2 is then also disconnected and the subsea tensioner is
recovered to the surface. The mooring lines can then be connected to
the male parts of the subsea connectors that are connected to the anchor
forerunner of Stevmanta VLA 1 and 2.

605
 2
I\

\
Fig. 11 - configuration on seabed (rotated 90 °)

CONCLUSION

The importance of the anchor design parameters such as the design

loads and soil conditions has been shown and how they influence the
performance of the anchor. The application of different types of anchors
in mooring systems has been discussed and how anchors can be used in
shallow and deep water mooring systems. Using the presented
installation methods for the anchors, it is shown how economical
mooring system installation can be performed in any water depth.

REFERENCES

Henriques CCD and Fachetti, MB (2000). "Roncador Field: Transport

and Installation of the Mooring System" Offshore Technology
Conference, OTC 2000, Houston, USA, OTC 12141.
Ruinen, RM and Degenkamp, G (1999). "First Application of 12
Stevmanta Anchors (VLA) in the P27 Taut Leg Mooring System."
Deep Offshore Technology, DOT 1999, Stavanger, Norway, Vol.. 2.,
session 15.

606