Engineering Material Presentation

Presented To:
Engr. Nadeem Hassan
Presented By:
Abdul Rauf
2k17-che-17
 Chemical Bonding

➢ A chemical Bond is a force ,which holds together

two or more atoms or ions to form a large variety of
compounds.
➢ Atom form bonds to complete their outermost shell
and become stable . All other atoms form bonds to
be like noble gases and follow the octet rule.
 Bonding Forces
 Two isolated atoms interact as they are brought close together from an infinite separation.
 At large distances, interactions are negligible because the atoms are too far apart to have an
influence on each other; however, at small separation distances, each atom exerts forces on
the others
 These forces are of two types, attractive (FA) and repulsive (FR), and the magnitude of
each depends on the separation or interatomic distance (r)
 The net force FN between the two atoms is just the sum of both attractive and repulsive
components; that is,
FN = FA + FR
 Bonding Energies

 When the distance of separation is r0, the attractive

and the repulsive forces exactly balance each other
and the net force is zero. This distance
corresponds to stable equilibrium with a minimum
in potential energy W. The magnitude of the
minimum energy W0 is called the bond energy.
 Unit : KJ mol-1
 1 eV/bond = 100 KJ mol-1
 Inter-Relation Between Bonding Forces &
Energies
 At Equilibrium FA + FR = 0

 : Work= Force * displacement

 Bonding Length
 The Length of a bond r0 is defined as the
center to center distance of bonding atom
 Strong bonds pulls the bonding atom closer
together and have smaller bond length as
compared to weak bonds
 Primary Bonds have length in Range 1-2 Å
(0.1-0.2 nm)
 Secondary Bond lengths are larger in Range
2-5 Å (0.2-0.5 nm)
Effect of Temperature on Bonding Length

 At higher temperatures, under the

influence of thermal energy
 Atoms vibrate about their mean
positions, the amplitude of
vibrations increasing with
increasing temperature.
Force &
Energy
Curves
 Types Of Bonding

Bonding

Mixed
Primary Secondary
Bonding

Fluctuating Polar molecule Permanent

Ionic Covalent Metallic Induced Dipole Induced Dipole Dipole Bond
 Ionic Bonding
General Concept
 This type of bond is established by transfer of an electron from one atom to another.
 Let us consider a general case when an atom A has one electron in the valence shell and another
atom B has seven electrons. A has one electron in excess and B has one electron short than the stable
octet.
 Therefore, A transfers an electron to B and in this transaction both the atoms acquire a stable
electron octet.
 The resulting positive ion (cation) and negative ion (anion) are held together by electrostatic
attraction.
 Ionic Bonding

Occurs between Metals and Nonmetals

 Metals lose electrons
 Nonmetals gain electrons
 Very strong bond – usually solids – with high
melting temperatures
Conditions
Conditions
1-Number of for the
valence formation of
electrons 3-Net
Ionic Bond lowering of
Energy

(2) Electronegativity
difference of A and B
 Conditions for the formation of
Ionic Bond
(1)- Number of valence electrons
 The atom A should possess 1, 2 or 3 valence electrons, while the atom B should have 5, 6 or 7
valence electrons.
 The elements of group IA, IIA and IIIA satisfy this condition for atom A and those of groups
VA, VIA, and VIIA satisfy this condition for atom B.
(2)-Electronegativity difference of A and B
 A difference of 2 or more is necessary for the formation of an ionic bond between atoms A and
B.
 Thus Na has electronegativity 0.9, while Cl has 3.0. Since the difference is (3.0 – 0.9) = 2.1, Na
and Cl will form an ionic bond.
3- Net lowering of Energy

 To form a stable ionic compound, there must be a net lowering of the energy.
 Energy must be released as a result of the electron transfer and formation of
ionic compound by the following steps :
 (a) The removal of electron from atom A (A – e– → A+) requires input of
energy, which is the ionization energy (IE). It should be low.
 (b) The addition of an electron to B (B + e– →B – ) releases energy, which is
the electron affinity of B (EA). It should be high.
 (c) The electrostatic attraction between A+ and B – in the solid compound
releases energy, which is the electrical energy. It should also be high.
 FACTORS
GOVERNING
THE
FORMATION
OF IONIC
BOND (3) Lattice
1-Ionization
Energy
Energy

(2) Electron
Affinity
 Factors Governing the formation of
Ionic Bond
1-Ionization Energy
Lower the ionization energy greater will be the tendency of the metal atom of
change into cation and hence greater will be the ease of formation of ionic bond.
(2) Electron Affinity
Higher the electron affinity more is the energy released and stable will be the anion
formed.
(3) Lattice Energy
The value of lattice energy depends upon the following two factors :
 (a) Size of the ions: size should be small as the force of attraction is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them
 (b) Charge on Ions: Greater the charge on ions greater will be the force of attraction between them
 FORMATION
OF IONIC
BOND
1-Production
3-Short
of ions of
Range
opposite
Repulsion
charges

2-The
coulomb’s
Attraction
 + =
Sodium – a soft grey Chlorine - a highly poisonous Table
highly Flammable metal green gas Salt
 Formation of Ionic Bond
1-Production of ions of opposite charges
 The element sodium has an atomic number Z = 11 and an electronic configuration 1s22s22p63s1
 Being an alkali metal, the first ionization potential for sodium is relatively small, 496 kJ mol–1 (5.1
eV/atom). The outermost electron is removed by supplying this much energy:
Na Na+ + e–
 The released electron is then available to occupy the only vacant state in the chlorine atom to
produce a negatively charged ion:
Cl + e– Cl–
 The electron affinity of chlorine is 369 kJ mol–1 (3.8 eV/atom).
 Formation of Ionic Bond
2- The Coulomb Attraction
 From Coulomb’s law of electrostatics, as two opposite charges are brought together, the attractive
force between them increases in magnitude inversely as the square of the distance of separation r.
 The attractive energy EA is a function of the interatomic distance according to
 Formation of Ionic Bond

 Here E0 is the permittivity of a vacuum (8.85

*1012 F/m),
 |Z1| and |Z2| are absolute values of the
valences for the two ion types,
 e is the electronic charge (1.602 *10-19C).
 Formation of Ionic Bond
3-The short range repulsion
 The Pauli exclusion principle will come into the picture if there is an appreciable overlap between the
two electron clouds. Not more than one electron can occupy a given quantum state. This gives rise to a
repulsive force between the ions which is short range in nature.
 The repulsive energy is taken to vary as the reciprocal of some power m (m > 1) of the distance of
separation r.
 It is represented by B/rm, where B and m are empirically determined constants.
 The value of m varies between 9 and 15.
 Energy Changes

Summing up the three steps, the Repulsive energy ER

potential energy W of the system of
the bond forming atoms is given by
Interatomic separation r

Net energy EN

Attractive energy EA
Formation of Ionic Bond
Forces Curve for NaCl
 Covalent Bonding
 Similar electronegativity or Comparable Electronegativity Difference
elements share electrons
 Bonds determined by valence – s & p orbitals dominate bonding
 Example: CH4
shared electrons
C: has 4 valence e-, H from carbon atom
needs 4 more CH 4
H: has 1 valence e-,
needs 1 more H C H

Electronegativities shared electrons

are comparable. from hydrogen
H
atoms
 Covalent Bonding

Types
 Single Covalent Bond i.e H2 or Cl2
 Double Covalent Bond i.e O2 or CO2
 Tripple Covalent Bond i.e N2
Covalent Bonding
 Bond Hybridization In Carbon
 Hybridization—the mixing (or combining) of two or more
atomic orbitals with the result that more orbital overlap during
bonding results
 consider the electron configuration of carbon: 1s22s22p2
 Under some circumstances, one of the 2s orbitals is promoted
to the empty 2p orbital.
 the 2s and 2p orbitals can mix to produce four sp3 orbitals that
are equivalent to one another, have parallel spins, and are
capable of covalently bonding with other atoms.
 Bond Hybridization In Carbon

 Each sp3 orbital contains one electron, and, therefore, is half-filled

 Bonding hybrid orbitals are directional in nature—that is, each
extends to and overlaps the orbital of an adjacent bonding atom.
 angle between each set of adjacent bonds is 109.5.8 The bonding of
sp3 hybrid orbitals to the 1s orbitals
 of four hydrogen atoms, as in a molecule of methane (CH4),
Bond Hybridization In Carbon
 Bond Hybridization In Carbon

 Other types of hybrid bonds is sp2, in which an s orbital and two p

orbitals are hybridized
 To achieve this configuration, one 2s orbital mixes with two of the
three 2p orbitals—the third p orbital remains unhybridized
 2pz denotes the unhybridized p orbital
 Three sp2 hybrids belong to each carbon atom, which lie in the
same plane such that the angle between adjacent orbitals is 120
degree lines drawn from one orbital to another form a triangle
 Bond Hybridization In Carbon

 These sp2 bonds are found in graphite,

another form of carbon, which has a
structure and properties distinctly different
from those of diamond
 Graphite is composed of parallel layers of
interconnecting hexagons.
 Metallic Bonding

 Metallic Bonding is final primary bonding type and is found in metals and
it’s alloys.
 The peculiar type of bonding which holds the atoms together in metal
crystal

Need of Metallic Bonding

 In metals the number of valance electrons to each atom is small
 It is not possible to fully satisfy the requirement of 8 electron in outershell
 So there is partial satisfying of this condition
Forces Involved In Metallic Bonding

 Attraction due to gravity

 Repulsion due to negatively charged electron shell

Theories Involved In Metallic Bonding

 Molecular Orbital Theory
 Electron Pool/Gas Theory
 Molecular Orbital Theory

 The electrons in completely filled orbitals are essentially localized

 Atomic Orbitals containing the valance electron interact or overlap
to from a set of delocalized orbitals
 These delocalized orbitals are molecular orbitals which extend
over the entire crystal lattice
 Such a combination of atomic orbitals produce a large number of
closely spaced states
 These states of energy are also known as bands of energy (For details
See Chapter 5 William Smith)
 Electron Sea/Gas Theory

 Metal atoms are characterised by :

(1) Low ionization energies
which imply that the valence electrons in
metal atoms can easily be separated.
(2)-A number of vacant electron orbitals in their outermost shell.
Magnesium atom with the electron configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p0
has three vacant 3p orbitals in its outer electron shell.
 Electron Sea/Gas Theory

 Thus it is possible for an electron to be delocalized and move freely in

the vacant molecular orbital encompassing the entire metal crystal
 As a result of the delocalization of valence electrons, the positive
metal ions that are produced, remain fixed in the crystal lattice while
the delocalized electrons are free to move about in the vacant space in
between.
Electron
Sea/Gas
Theory
 Metallic Bonding

 The metallic sharing changes with time and the bonding electrons
resonate between different atom
 The metallic state can be visualized as an array of positive ions, with a
common pool of electrons to which all the metal atoms have
contributed their outer electrons
 These electrons have freedom to move anywhere within the crystal
 These Free electrons act as glue to hold ion cores together.
 This is in sharp contrast to the electrons in covalent bonding, which are
localised, bind just two neighbouring atoms,
Metallic
Bonding
In
Aluminu
m
 Bond Energy in Metallic Bonding

 Fewer the valance electron per atom involved in metallic bonding

the more metallic bonding is strong
 The variation in energy with separation distance will be similar to
that of ions
 Separation distance r0 = Atomic Diameter
 Bond Energy in Metallic Bonding
Metal Symbol Bond Energy No.Of Bounding Melting Boiling
Neighbours of an Point point
atom
KJ mol-1 C C
Copper Cu 56.4 12 1083 2595
Silver Ag 47.5 12 961 2210
Gold Au 60.0 12 1063 2970
Aluminum Al 54.0 12 660 2450
Nickel Ni 71.6 12 1453 2730
Plantinum Pt 94.3 12 1769 4520
Lead Pb 32.5 12 327 1725
Cobalt Co 70.8 12 1495 2900
 Bond Energy in Metallic Bonding
Metal Symbol Bond Energy No.Of Bounding Melting Boiling point
Neighbours of an Point
atom
KJ mol-1 C C
Magnesuim Mg 24.6 12 650 1107
Cadmeium Cd 18.6 12 321 765
Zinc Zn 21.9 12 420 906
Sodium Na 27.0 8 98 892
Tungsten W 212.3 8 3410 5930
Iron Fe 104.0 8 1535 3000
Chromium Cr 99.3 8 1875 2665
Molybdenum Mo 164.6 8 2610 5560
SECONDARY
BONDING
 Secondary Bonding

Van der Waals Bonding

 If two electrical charges +q & -q are separated by a distance d , the

dipole moment is defined as the product of q and d
 Atoms are neutral ,therefore they have no dipole moment
 When a neutral atom is exposed to electric field ,the atom become
polarized ( the centers of positive & negative charges separate)
 Types of Dipole i.e Permanent & induced
 Van der Waals Bonding

 Molecules or atoms in which there is either

an induced or permanent dipole moment Van der Waal’s
attract each other .The resulting force is Interactions
known as Van der Waals force

London Debye Keesom

Forces Forces Forces
 Van der Waals Bonding

 If the interactions are between two dipoles that are induced in atom or molecule, we
refer them to London Force and will give rise to induced dipole Bond
 When an induced dipole interacts with a molecule that has permanent dipole ,We refer
the interaction as a Debye Interaction and will give rise to Polar Molecule-Induced
Dipole Bond
 If the interaction between both permanently polarized such interaction we refer such
interaction as Keesom’s interactions and will give rise to permanent dipoles bonding
or Hydrogen Bonding
 Van der Waals Bonding

Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonding

 All atoms experience constant vibrational motion that can cause

instantaneous and short-lived distortions of this electrical
symmetry for some of the atoms or molecules and the creation of
small electric dipoles.
 One of these dipoles can in turn produce a displacement of the
electron distribution of an adjacent molecule or atom, which
induces the second one also to become a dipole that is then
weakly attracted or bonded to the first
Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonding
 Fluctuating Induced Dipole Bonding

 Melting and boiling temperatures are extremely low

 Of all possible Intermolecular bonds these are the weakest, Found mostly in Inert Gases
 Van der Waals Bonding

Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonding

 Permanent dipole moments exist in some molecules by virtue of an

asymmetrical arrangement of positively and negatively charged
regions; such molecules are termed polar molecules.
 Polar Molecules can also induce the dipoles in adjacent non polar
molecules
 A bond forms as a result of attractive forces between two molecules
 The magnitude of energy of this bond is greater than fluctuating
induced dipoles
Polar Molecule-Induced Dipole Bonding
 Van der Waals Bonding
Permanent Dipole Bonding
 Consider the example of water molecule
 The electronegativity of Oxygen is 3.5 and that of Hydrogen is 2.1
 Therefore ,the oxygen atom pulls the bonding electrons to itself more strongly than hydrogen .
 Permanent Dipole Bonding

Hydrogen Bonding

 This result in a net negative charge at the oxygen end and net
positive charge on Hydrogen end of the molecule .
 Due to imbalance in electrical charge ,the water molecule
possesses a permanent dipole moment
 The bond that is formed between positively charged
hydrogen end and the negatively charged (molecule of High
electronegativity ) end of other molecule is Hydrogen Bond
 Example: NH3 ,HF ,H2O
Hydrogen Bonding
 Secondary Bonding

Van der Waals Bonding

 There bond energy is calculated by Mie Equation

 For this type of bonding m=6 and n=12

 Their energy range is from 4 to 50 KJ mol-1
 Secondary Bonding

Applications
 Adhesives—van der Waals bonds form between two
surfaces so that they adhere to one another
 Surfactants—compounds that lower the surface
tension of a liquid, and are found in soaps, detergents,
and foaming agents
 Desiccants—materials that form hydrogen bonds with
water molecules (and remove moisture from closed
containers dressings, milk, and mayonnaise
 Applications Of Secondary Bonding

 Emulsifiers—substances that, when added to

two immiscible materials (usually liquids),
allow particles of one material to be
suspended in another (common emulsions
include sunscreens, salad dressings, milk, and
mayonnaise)
 Finally, the strengths, stiffnesses, and
softening temperatures of polymers, to some
degree, depend on secondary bonds that form
between chain molecules
Mixed
Bonding
 Bonding Tetrahedron

 Represent the four Bonding Types

1-Ionic 2- Covalent
3- Metallic 4-Van der Waal
 A three Dimension tetrahedron with one of
these “Extreme” Types located at each Vertex
 Three Mixed Bond Type
1. Covalent-Ionic
2. Covalent Metallic
3. Metallic- Ionic
Bonding Tetrahedron
 Covalent-Ionic Mixed Bonding

 For Mixed Covalent-Ionic Bonds ,There is Some Ionic Character

To most Covalent bonds and vice versa
 The greater the difference in the electronegativity of elements
involved in Mixed Covalent-Ionic ,the greater the degree of ionic
Character

 Where XA & XB are electronegativity of Element A and B

 Covalent-Metallic Mixed Bonding

 some elements in Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA of the periodic

table (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te, Po, and At).
 Interatomic bonds for these elements are mixtures of metallic
and covalent
 These materials are called the metalloids or semi-metals, and
their properties are intermediate between the metals and
nonmetals
 In addition, for Group IV elements, there is a gradual
transition from covalent to metallic bonding
A. bonding in carbon (diamond) is purely covalent,
B. whereas for tin and lead, bonding is predominantly metallic.
 Metallic-Ionic Mixed Bonding

 Mixed metallic–ionic bonds are observed for compounds composed

of two metals when there is a significant difference between their
electronegativities.
 This means that some electron transfer is associated with the bond
inasmuch as it has an ionic component.
 Furthermore the larger this electronegativity difference, the greater
the degree of ionicity
 For example, there is little ionic character to the titanium–
aluminum bond for the intermetallic compound TiAl3 because
electronegativities of both Al and Ti are the same
 However, a much greater degree of ionic character is present for
AuCu3; the electronegativity difference for copper and gold is 0.5.
Comparison
 Reference References

 Introduction to engineering material Varnon Jhon 3rd Ed

 Materials Science and engineering an introduction 9th edition
 Materials-Science-and-Engineering ,V Raghvan 5th Ed
 Introduction to material science for engineer , James.F.Shackelford
 Donald Askeland Science Engineering Materials 7th Ed
 Essential of physical Chemistry By B.S Bahal
 Principles of Material Science And engineering ,William Smith 3rd Ed