of religious thought. He outlines his thread of thought well, and follows the
outline to a considered conclusion. "
American Literary Press reviewing staff
"The authors arguments against many Christian doctrines and tenets are
presented with clarity and supported through his interpretation of his own
research and his own experiences. For these reasons, the work makes an
interesting and powerful statement of faith and conviction. "
iv
Introduction
viii
Chapter One
28
Chapter Two
The first two of these three themes, it will be recalled, are part of
the promise that had been made to Abraham. The third, most scholars
feel, was original with the J. Writers. The threefold promise, whether
based entirely upon tradition or in part original, runs, nonetheless, like
a thread throughout the entire work of the J. Writers. Their primary
purpose in retelling the stories of the patriarchs was to show that what-
ever happened to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was in accordance with
Yahweh's plan. The patriarchs did not seek a new land merely to find
better pasture grounds or more profitable outlets for their cattle busi-
ness. They went to Canaan because it was part of Yahweh's promise
that Israel should possess the land.
On the other hand, the J. Writers pointed out that it was not easy for
the patriarchs always to achieve the promise. Time and again, the patri-
archs found themselves in embarrassing situations, even despairing that
Yahweh would help them. Yahweh, however, never abandoned his
people whom He had chosen. Each time, at the critical moment, the J.
Writers told, Yahweh intervened to save the situation and to renew the
39
promise. The thread of this theme can be seen as we examine the narra-
tives connected with each patriarch.
The J. Writers told three different stories about Abraham in which
the promise of Yahweh was on the verge of being lost. The first story
concerned Abraham's wife, Sarah. During a famine, Abraham took his
family to Egypt where food was available. In order to gain Pharaoh's
favor, Abraham used Sarah, who was a beautiful woman, as a lure.
When Pharaoh wanted to marry her, Abraham did not protest. He even
lied, claiming that she was his sister. If the marriage had taken place,
the promise of Israel's future through the seed of Abraham would have
been impossible. At the very last moment, however, Yahweh inter-
vened, and the J. Writers describe how Abraham and Sarah were sent
away from Egypt with great riches. Upon his return to Canaan,
Abraham called once again upon the name of Yahweh.
The second incident occurred between Abraham and Lot. Because
of a quarrel between their shepherds, Abraham suggested that they
divide the land between them. The future fulfillment of Yahweh's
promise hung in delicate balance upon Lot's decision at that moment.
If Lot were to choose the land of Canaan instead of the area of the
Jordan Valley, Yahweh's promise to Abraham that he would possess the
land would be lost. The J. Writers told, however, that Lot chose the area
of the wicked cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. Once again all turned out
well, and in the next verses they described how Yahweh renewed again
his promise to Abraham.
The third threat to the fulfillment of Yahweh's promise was the fact
that Abraham had no son. For lack of an heir who could carry on the
family line, the promise of Yahweh would remain forever barren. The
barrier appeared even more insurmountable because Eliezer,
Abraham's slave, was destined to inherit the family fortune. In a
moment of weakness, Sarah offered Hager, her handmaid, to Abraham
as a wife. Little did she realize that her offer would not solve the
problem. Although Yahweh was concerned with Ishmael, who was born
to Abraham and Hagar, the fulfillment of Yahweh's promise, according
to the J. Writers, could be accomplished only through Sarah, whose
family was related to Abraham's. Nonetheless, Yahweh once again
renewed his promise by sending three messengers to Abraham at
Mamre as he sat in the door of his tent. They told him that despite the
fact that both he and Sarah were old, a son would be born to them.
Sarah, however, was more skeptical, and she laughed at the very
thought that even Yahweh could accomplish such a result. The J.
40
Writers played upon this incident and told that the name "Isaac" was
taken from the same Hebrew root as the word "laugh."
Shortly after, the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed.
Because of Abraham's favorite role in Yahweh's plan, he was informed
in advance of Yahweh's intentions. The J. Writers even permitted him
to intervene on behalf of the doomed cities. The fact that not even ten
righteous men were to be found in Sodom and Gomorrah was used by
the J. Writers to emphasize further the wisdom of Yahweh's choice of
Abraham as the instrument through whom His promise was to be
fulfilled.
The J. Writers did not emphasize the life of Isaac. Their story of his
birth was very fragmentary, and what we do have of it contains much
material from the later editors of the Torah, namely E and P. The three
incidents which the J. Writers did emphasize, however, indicated
clearly that Isaac, like his father Abraham, was to be the instrument of
Yahweh's promise.
First, the very fact of Isaac's birth was in itself important. Despite
the laughter of Sarah and the doubt of Abraham, a son was bom to them
in old age, as Yahweh had promise. The second episode in which the J.
Writers advanced their interpretation of history was the manner in
which a wife was selected for Isaac. Just as Abraham's marriage to
Hager could provide no acceptable heir according to the terms of
Yahweh's promise, so the promise would be voided if Isaac were to
marry a local girl. A wife had to be sought for him in Mesopotamia
where the family homestead was established. The J. Writers, in relating
this story, took full advantage of its drama. Would the servant of
Abraham be able to find a suitable partner for Isaac? If Eliezer did,
would she be willing to return to Canaan? Everything, however, turned
out according to plan. For the J. Writers, nothing happened by chance.
Yahweh was concerned constantly with his chosen people.
Little else was told by the J. Writers about Isaac. He seemed to be
more like a carbon copy of his father. Like Abraham, he, too, tried to
escape a famine but went to the land of the Philistines instead of Egypt
He also claimed that his wife Rebekkah was only his sister. (The use of
the term "Philistines" is a good example of an anachronism. As
mentioned earlier, the Philistines did not enter Canaan until 1187 BCE.
One of the cities which they took over was Gerar. the city identified with
Isaac. It was only natural, therefore, for the J. Writers, who wrote after
the Philistines came to Canaan, to say that Isaac went to the land of the
41
Philistines.) Once again, however, Yahweh intervened at the crucial
moment, and the promise was renewed.
In contrast to the life of Isaac, the story of Jacob was told in great
detail by the J. Writers. Each episode, however, fitted carefully into the
outline of history in which Yahweh guided the outcome. Nonetheless,
Jacob's path to success also was strewn with many obstacles. In fact, in
the very birth of Jacob, the fulfillment of the promise was put to a
severe test. Like Sarah, Rebekkah too, was barren and bore a son only
after Yahweh had made her a special promise to this effect. When she
finally gave birth, she bore twins. Jacob, however, was born last, and
the family inheritance, including the fulfillment of the promise,
belonged to the eldest.
Since the tradition of Israel was continued through Jacob and not
Esau, the J. Writers had to explain away the problem of the order of
Jacob's birth. This goal they achieved by telling two stories. The
problem of the birthright gave the J. Writers little trouble. Since Esau
had meager understanding of the meaning of the inheritance, the J.
Writers concluded that it must have been of small worth to him; conse-
quently, he was most willing to sell his birthright to Jacob for no more
than a mess of pottage. The problem of securing his father's blessing as
the first born, however, proved to be somewhat more difficult. The J.
Writers, aware that an oath or a blessing even though pronounced in
error was irrevocable, solved the problem by permitting Jacob to trick
his father. With the help of his mother, Jacob covered his arms with
hairy garments and appeared before the aged and almost blind Isaac. At
first Isaac was not deceived, and he thought "the voice is the voice of
Jacob, but the hands are the hands of Esau." Despite his doubt, he
pronounced the blessing of the first-born over Jacob. In this manner,
Jacob gained both the birthright and the privileges which Yahweh
would confer upon Abraham's descendants.
No sooner had the J. Writers resolved one problem than they were
confronted with another. Because of the animosity between the two
brothers, Jacob had to flee the land of Canaan. Once again, the promise
that the patriarchs would inherit the land was jeopardized. The J.
Writers were fully aware of their problem, and they explained away
their dilemma by telling three stories about Jacob. The J. Writers wove
into each of these incidents their theme of Yahweh's concern for the
patriarchs so that his plan for all mankind could be fulfilled through
Israel.
42
The first story, which in its present form contains some of the E.
Writer's material, dealt with Jacob's departure for Haran. The J. Writers
pictured Jacob in a very dejected mood. Despite all that he had done to
outsmart his brother, it seemed as though Esau had won after all. Since
Esau was a hunter, a man who knew how to handle a bow and arrow,
there was no doubt in Rebekkah's mind that he would seek his revenge.
Therefore, she persuaded Isaac to send Jacob to Haran in Mesopotamia
to find for himself a wife among their kinsmen. Jacob, understanding
his mother's intentions, obeyed his father's wishes to go to Haran. With
heavy heart, he set out on his way, reaching Beth-El that same night.
Taking one of the stones of the field as his pillow, he lay down to sleep,
and dreamed a dream. There was a ladder reaching to the heavens, and
angels were descending and ascending. Then Yahweh appeared beside
him and renewed the threefold promise given originally to Abraham:
(1) that he would give to Israel the land; (2) that he would make Israel
a great and numerous people; and (3) that through Israel all the families
of the earth would bless themselves. When Jacob awoke in the
morning, he realized that Yahweh had spoken with him. Strengthened
by this promise, Jacob made a vow to be faithful to Yahweh, providing,
of course, he be successful on his mission to Haran.
The second story that the J. Writers told combined a series of
legends. Originally, these legends were no more that entertaining
adventures that had befallen Jacob. The J. Writers, however, retold
these legends to emphasize that Yahweh did concern himself with
Jacob's welfare. For example, the familiar story of the well was rein-
terpreted to teach that it was not coincidence alone that Jacob found
Rachel, who was his mother's brother's daughter. Again, the old legend
that Jacob possessed great herds of cattle and many flocks of sheep had
special significance for the J. Writers. To them it was not by mere
chance that Laban's flocks gave birth to streaked, speckled, and spotted
offspring, which then belonged to Jacob. Jacob had to be a man of
wealth because Yahweh was guiding his destiny. Later, Jacob would
need to use this very wealth to win over his brother Esau with lavish
gifts.
The third story was the account of Jacob's wrestling with the angel
when he was returning to Canaan. Yahweh had kept his promise, and
Jacob had become prosperous. Now it was necessary for Jacob to reaf-
firm the vow which he had made as a dejected young man when he first
went to Haran. This story, too, was based upon an older non-Israelite
source in which the angel's role originally had been taken by a night
43
demon. All through the night the angel wrestled with Jacob; neither
could outmaneuver the other.
Finally the angel blessed Jacob, even though Jacob came out of the
contest limping. Strengthened now by the renewed promise of Yahweh,
Jacob went on to meet his brother Esau, and a reconciliation took place.
The J. Writers had carried the story full circle. Jacob, now a prosperous
man, not only was back in the land of Canaan but also was married and
had many sons through whom the line on inheritance could pass. There
no longer remained any question that the promise of Yahweh could be
fulfilled.
The patriarchal narratives were brought to a close by the J. Writers
with the introduction of a short story. The stories of Joseph formed a
bridge between the account of the fathers, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob,
and the enslavement in Egypt. Although the J. Writers did not choose
to mention the promise of Yahweh even once in their story of Joseph, it
is quite obvious to the modern reader that the theme of Yahweh's
concern and purpose in human affairs was woven into every incident.
For example, even though Joseph was sold into slavery by his brothers,
it was not the evil intention of his brothers which was responsible for
Joseph's becoming governor of Egypt. The very actions of his brothers
were only a part of Yahweh's plan. Again, it was not a question of
economics which prompted Jacob to move with his family to Egypt.
The Hebrews settled in the land of Goshen because it was Yahweh's
intention that they be enslaved in Egypt. In this way, the J. Writers set
the stage for the appearance of Moses, the Exodus, and most important
of all, the establishment of the covenant relationship in the Sinai desert-
wilderness.
The origin of the Joseph story went back undoubtedly to popular
folklore. Many years before the appearance of the J. Writers, Hebrew
storytellers were very familiar with the exploits of Joseph.
Archaeologists today feel that the core of these stories is historically
valid, because the ancient storytellers colored their accounts with much
authentic Egyptian material. In this way the ancient Hebrew storytellers
preserved the traditions of Joseph which were to play such an important
part in the J. Writers' account of Yahweh's plan to let all mankind be
blessed through Israel.
The version of the Joseph cycle of stories that the J. Writers used,
however, was based not only upon authentic traditions but also upon
popular stories which in their origin had nothing to do with Joseph.
Because of their popularity the Joseph narratives had attracted to them
44
many other popular stories. The account of Joseph and Potipher's wife
is, perhaps, the best illustration of this process.
In the British Museum in London is an old Egyptian papyrus
manuscript. 1225 BCE. It tells the story of two brothers, Anubis and
Bitis, and the circumstances of the plot are very similar to the biblical
story of Joseph and Potipher's wife. Bitis was the younger brother,
who lived in the same house with Anubis. Just as Joseph was entrusted
with all the affairs of Potiphar, so Bitis was given the responsibility of
caring for all his older brother's property. This warm relationship
between the two brothers was disturbed, however, by the wife of
Anubis. One day when Bitis went to the house to get some seed for
planting in the field, the wife tried to seduce him. Angrily, Bitis
resisted and rejected the offer of his brother's wife. When he saw
Anubis, however, he told him nothing about the incident. The wife, in
the meantime, was seized by a strong feeling of guilt. Later that same
evening, she complained to her husband that she had been mistreated
by Bitis. Anubis was greatly angered, and Bitis had to flee from the
house for his life.
In the Egyptian account, Anubis finally learned the truth and killed
his wife, throwing her body out to the dogs. The J. Writers, in their rein-
terpretation of the story, did not tell what happened to Potipher's wife.
They were concerned more with the fact that Joseph was imprisoned.
There he would be able to interpret dreams and come to the attention
of Pharaoh. The story of Potipher's wife, for the J. Writers, provided
another illustration of how Yahweh's purpose operated in human life.
The third part of the J. Writers' reinterpretation of history — the
Exodus from Egypt, the establishment of the covenant in the Sinai
desert-wilderness, and the experiences leading up to the conquest of the
land of Canaan — is found today in the books of Exodus, Numbers, and
Joshua. These events were reviewed fully earlier, so it is unnecessary to
repeat them here. What is important to restate, however, is the histor-
ical setting within which the J. Writers wrote.
The J. Writers lived in the golden age. The Israelites were not only
prosperous but also international-minded. They eagerly welcomed all
kinds of ideas from the farthest corners of the earth. Encouraged by
their new-found wealth and influenced by the thinking of their neigh-
bors, the Israelites during the age of David and Solomon began to
challenge the effectiveness of the old Mosaic religion. They were now
cosmopolitan worldly people. The covenant relationship with Yahweh,
however, had been established in a desert-wilderness when they were
45
no more than newly freed slaves. Perhaps, they concluded, a new reli-
gion was now in order.
The answer to this religious challenge was given by the J. Writers.
The old religion was still valid. It had only to be modernized, they
argued, not rejected. They set themselves, therefore, to this task and
wove a reinterpretation of history into the oral and written memories of
Israel. Yahweh was not just the God of the Exodus; he was nothing less
than the God of all mankind, the Creator of the world itself. Yahweh,
moreover, had a special relationship with Israel. Israel was to be the
instrument by which Yahweh used to carry out his purpose in the world
— that man finds the fullness of life by learning to live with Yahweh
and with his fellow man. At first man rejected Yahweh; therefore, to
accomplish his goal, Yahweh had to make a threefold promise to
Abraham. By the terms of this promise, He would give the land of
Canaan to Abraham's descendants, Israel would become a great nation;
and all the nations of the world would bless themselves through Israel.
Now, in the golden age, reasoned the J. Writers, the promise of Yahweh
was being fulfilled. The very evidence of David's and Solomon's reigns
proved the fact of fulfillment: was not the conquest of the land of
Canaan complete? Was it not evident to all that Israel was a great
nation, enjoying abundant material prosperity and international pres-
tige? Were not the nations of the world turning to Israel for leadership?
Indeed, the period of Israel's greatest influence was yet to be, believed
the J. Writers. There can be no doubt, concluded the J. Writers, that the
covenant-relationship with Yahweh was just as valid now, if not more
so, than it had been in the days of Moses. In the golden age, the Torah
received its written outline. It remained now for the other schools of
editors and writers to enlarge that outline.
The united kingdom of the golden age came to an end in the year
922 BCE. Despite the brilliant efforts of the writers of the J. School to
weld the people together through a modern interpretation on the
covenant relationship with Yahweh, the rivalry between the northern
and the southern tribes was too deeply ingrained to be overcome.
Moreover, Solomon's forced labor policy and taxation measures had
served only to intensify the existing differences. The consequences
were inevitable. In the next generation the leaders were unable to cope
with the crisis. They had neither the personal charm nor the political
prestige with which to keep the fighting factions from destroying the
empire which David and Solomon had built. As a result, the bitterness
and the resentment between the north and the south continued to grow,
46
until at last revolution broke asunder the kingdom. Never again was
Israel to attain such status as a political power as she had during the
golden age. Towards the end of her two hundred year existence as an
independent kingdom, Israel experienced briefly a political and
economic revival that recalled the prosperity and prestige of the golden
age itself. Jeroboam II, a man of dynamic personality and strong ambi-
tion, ruled Israel for forty years (786 - 746 BCE). He renewed the treaty
with the Phoenicians, who were then at the peak of their commercial
and colonial activity in the Mediterranean Sea. Once again the market-
place teemed with merchants, and the rich were able to build for
themselves both luxurious summer and winter homes. Literally, the
people of the northern kingdom during this period reveled in the
comforts and luxuries of the ancient world.
The reign of Jeroboam II was not only a period of national revival
but also an age of religious ferment which saw the production of the
northern equivalent of the J. Writer's edition of the Torah. Ever since
the division of the kingdom, Israel had begun to emphasize what it
considered to be the true Mosaic tradition. It was in the north that the
traditions of the old tribal confederacy, which David had minimized,
were preserved most strongly. In fact, Israel's first capital city was
Shechem, where originally Joshua had brought the Israelites to reaffirm
their covenant with Yahweh. It was in the north, too, that the idea of
leadership through "charisma," through the spirit of Yahweh rather than
through heredity, remained strongest. Perhaps this may explain, in part
at least, why the Israelites had so many political upheavals and were
never able to establish one royal line, as happened with David in Judah.
The spirit of the north, quite obviously, was different from that of the
south. It was inevitable, therefore, that, in an age of restored nation-
alism and renewed material prosperity and international prestige, Israel,
too, should want to bring together her sacred historic tradition. Out of
this ferment came the writings of what scholars have called the E.
School because of the preference for the name Elohim instead of
Yahweh for God.
In Israel, there was a strong force present that worked constantly to
corrupt the pure worship of Yahweh. The northern kingdom, unlike its
sister southern kingdom, was closer to the culture of the Fertile
Crescent. Its territory was more accessible, and, as a result, the religious
ideas of the surrounding nations were able to spread to Israel quickly
and easily.
47
In 1929, with the discovery of the Rash Shamra tablets, there
emerged a clear picture of the religion of the western part of the Fertile
Crescent. The peoples were polytheists, believing in the existence of
many gods. There was one god, however, who stood out above all the
others, and whose life and death was told in the famous Epic of Baal.
Baal was the storm-god, the god of rain and fertility who was pictured
in the form of a bull, an animal, which represented strength and birth.
In the beginning Baal was one of many gods; however, after a victo-
rious struggle with a water dragon, his new-won fame brought him
prominence. In time Baal, together with his sister Anath, began to build
a temple. Suddenly their plans were interrupted by their brother Mot,
the god of the summer drought, who killed Baal and carried his body
into the underworld. All the gods, except Anath, mourned deeply the
death of Baal, the lord of the earth. Anath, instead, was enraged and
undertook a long and difficult search to find her brother. When she did,
a furious struggle ensued. Mot was killed, and Baal was brought back
to life and placed again on his throne. With Baal's resurrection, the gods
in heaven rejoiced once again.
The Epic of Baal formed the basis of a very practical religion for
the farmers of the western part of the Fertile Crescent. Baal's death and
resurrection represented for them the conflict waged in nature, namely,
the changing of the seasons. Spring paralleled his birth, and fall his
death. By dramatizing in a religious ceremony the story of Baal's birth
and death, these peoples believed that they could guarantee the fertility
of the soil and their own well-being.
When the Israelites settled in Canaan, they turned as previously
explained, to the gods of the land. They did not mean to turn away from
Yahweh, but soon Baal and Yahweh stood side by side. Especially in
the popular religion was there a tendency to confuse the two. Yahweh
often was referred to as "Baal." The Israelites also worshipped Yahweh
according to the rituals of Baal. They took over the sacred trees and
special altars that were located on hilltops. The Israelites also began to
name their children after Baal. Some of the people even carried around
small figurines or statues of the Canaanite gods.
The stories about Elijah were used by the ancient writers to illus-
trate the basic conflict between the worshipers of Yahweh and the
followers of Baal. While these narratives were based upon popular
legends, the Biblical writers, attempting to restore the true Mosaic
worship of Yahweh, wove them into the Books of Kings to prove that
Yahweh and not Baal was the true God.
48
The work of the E. Writers, despite a number of differences, tells
fundamentally the same story as do the writers of the J. School. "It is
probable that J and E go back to a common original. It is reasonable to
regard them as parallel recessions of a common original transmitted in
different parts of the land, though both contain material handed down
independently." The E. Writers, however, in contrast to the J. Writers,
attempted neither to present a new interpretation of history nor to show
that Yahweh was the creator of the world. Their goal was to develop a
sense of national pride; consequently, their interest lay in describing
the history of Israel's historic experiences. The E story began,
therefore with the call to Abraham. Other main themes that they
pursued were: (1) the deliverance from Egypt; (2) the wandering in the
wilderness; and (3) the conquest of the land of Canaan. These three
elements are found in the books of Exodus and Numbers. A summary
of the E. History can be found in the book of Deuteronomy.
The E. Writers, in relating their national epic, emphasized the
importance of Moses. In this way also they hoped to bring about a
return of the people of their generation to the pure Mosaic tradition. For
example, they attached considerable significance to the fact that the
name Yahweh was revealed for the first time in the days of Moses
(Exodus 3). The J. Writers held that the name Yahweh was known from
the beginning of the world. Again, whenever a miracle took place, the
role which Moses played became more exaggerated in the E. Version.
For example, The J. Writers recorded that a natural force, an east wind,
had caused the waters of the Red Sea to be pushed back; for the E.
Writers, on the other hand, the waters parted only after Moses had
raised his rod. According to the E. Writers, Moses was the most impor-
tant person in the history of Israel. Only to Moses did Yahweh speak
"mouth to mouth," and appear "face to face." To all others, Yahweh no
longer spoke directly as He did in the J. Writers' accounts. Yahweh now
made His will known through dreams, as in the cases of Abimelech,
Abraham, Jacob, and Joseph, and through the sending of angels or
messengers.
The E. Writers also gave prominence to the Book of the Covenant
found in Exodus. This earliest body of law was presented as the basis
of the Sinaitic covenant, and its specific ordinances were regarded as
those to which the Hebrews originally had agreed when they entered
the covenant. Moses, therefore, was pictured writing the words of
Yahweh "in the book of the covenant" that appears also to have
49
included the "words" of the Decalogue or Ten Commandments. This
book, however, was to be distinguished from the "two tables of stone"
inscribed by God with "law and commandment."
It is doubtful whether the Book of the Covenant in its present form
actually stems from the time of Moses. The Book of the Covenant, as
we have seen, was not a fixed code of law. As the Israelites learned to
live in Canaan, they met situations that were unknown in the days of
Moses and even Joshua. These conditions called for a clearer under-
standing of the basic laws of the covenant with Yahweh. For nearly two
hundred years these explanations and interpretations of the old laws as
well as the enactment of new laws were directed by the various judges
who arose in Israel and by the elders in the meetings of the various
tribes. The present Book of the Covenant, therefore, reflects the settled,
agricultural environment of Canaan rather than the semi-nomadic shep-
herd life of the Sinai desert-wilderness. Nonetheless, the E. Writers
sought to develop a sense of national pride by giving prominence to
those persons and places connected with the northern kingdom.
Special emphasis was placed also upon the incidents connected
with Beth-el and Shechem, two important northern shrines. Again, in
keeping with northern traditions, the E. Writers preferred to use the
term Horeb for Sinai and Amorites for Canaanites. The words Sinai and
Canaanites were part of the southern or J. Tradition.
Within their outline of national history, the E. Writers championed
the cause of Yahweh, whom they preferred to call Elohim. It was
Elohim, not Baal, who called Abraham to go to the land of Canaan. Nor
was it Baal who saved the Hebrews from the bondage of Egypt and
guided them in their wanderings through the desert-wilderness. It was
Elohim who not only had rescued them from the bondage of Pharaoh
but also had enabled the Israelites to settle in the land of Canaan.
Elohim had been the God of Israel from the very beginning of its
history.
Into this broad outline, covering the periods from the patriarchs to
the entrance into the land of Canaan, the E. Writers wove many inci-
dents that indicated the evils of the Fertile Crescent religions and
emphasized the positive aspects of the worship of Israel's God. The
story of the sacrifice of Isaac was such an example. Near the city of
Jerusalem, the capital city of the southern kingdom of Judah, was the
valley of Hinnom. Here for many generations the Canaanites had prac-
ticed child sacrifice. In order to gain the favor and to influence their
gods they would bring their eldest sons and through an act of religious
50
faith, offer them as burnt offerings to the gods. This practice was wide-
spread throughout the Fertile Crescent. Not even the Israelites,
whether of the northern or the southern kingdom, escaped this prac-
tice. As they took over more and more of the Baal worship, they also
began to participate in this ceremony. Even the kings were not exempt
from this failing. For example, Ahaz, the king of Judah, burned his
own son as an offering in the Valley of Hinnom. Jerusalem was being
besieged by an enemy, and the king, already terror-stricken, hoped by
this pagan rite to win the favor of some god who would then save the
city.
The E. Writers were concerned about this trend in the northern
kingdom. They recalled that their ancestors were different from their
neighbors in this respect. While the patriarchs had offered animal sacri-
fices, they had never participated in the sacrifice of human beings. The
E. Writers chose to emphasize this point, therefore, by telling the story
of Abraham. Whether the narrative of the near-sacrifice of Isaac was
created by the E. Writers or was part of an old tradition is not certain.
Whatever the origin, the fact remains that in either instance the story of
Abraham and Isaac was woven by the E. Writers into the national epic
of the northern kingdom in order to counteract the growing Baal influ-
ence and to emphasize that Yahweh did not require the sacrifice of
children. Yahweh, they emphasized, wanted the children of Israel to
live and to fulfill their responsibilities under the covenant.
Midway in the history of the northern kingdom (c. 850 BCE) there
was a reawakening among the people of Mesopotamia. After nearly six
hundred years of military insignificance, a mighty political force arose
in the Tigris-Euphrates river valley. A new Assyrian Empire was begin-
ning to stir again, and within a hundred years they were to become the
most important political and military power of the time. Both Israel to
the north and Judah to the south were to feel the effect of Assyria's
might. In 721 BCE, the Assyrian armies attacked the kingdom of Israel.
The Israelites, no match for the world's mightiest military force, were
defeated. This marked the end of the northern kingdom. Never again
was the kingdom of Israel to be restored.
The kingdom of Israel, as we know, was composed of ten out of the
original twelve tribes. After the victory of the Assyrians, no more is
heard of the northern tribe. A number of interesting theories have been
put forth to explain this mystery of the "Ten Lost Tribes of Israel." For
example, some say that the American Indians are the ancestors of the
Israelites. In similar fashion, the ten tribes have been identified with a
51
host of other people. The truth of the matter, scholars contend, is that
the ten tribes were neither lost nor preserved in some distant part of the
world. The Assyrians practiced a simple policy of forced migration
with their defeated enemies. They would take the leaders and a substan-
tial segment of the defeated population and move them into a different
country. Then they would bring into the defeated country other peoples.
In this way the Assyrians would keep their conquered lands populated,
and, at the same time, would forestall any future rebellions. This same
policy was applied to the northern tribes of Israel. The Assyrians forced
a large group of the leaders and the people to migrate, presumably to
the Tigris-Euphrates area. There the people assimilated. They married
their neighbors and took over their practices so that they could not be
identified any more as Israelites. Into Israel itself, in the meantime, the
Assyrians brought other people. These, too, chose husbands and wives
from among the remaining Israelites. Many of them became followers
of Yahweh, and today a small group of their descendants still lives in
Israel. They are known as Samaritans. Interestingly enough, their Bible
consists only of the Five Books of Moses and the Book of Joshua,
preserving the main literary sources that formed the basic writings of
the E. School.
When the northern kingdom was destroyed, the E. School came to
an end. The E. Document, however, was preserved. A writer from the J.
School, living in the southern kingdom of Judah, either was familiar
with the tradition of the north or had a copy of the E. Document. For him
this literary record was no less sacred than his own J. Materials. Even
though the kingdoms had separated, each shared a common historical
tradition and was bound in a covenant relationship with the same God
Yahweh. This J. Writer, therefore, took the E. Tradition and combined it
with his own J. Version. Since this editor was himself a follower of the
J. School, he gave preference to the J. Material. For example, whenever
the two versions recorded the same event, it seems that he retained the
J. Account and discarded presumably the E. Interpretation. On the other
hand, whenever the two sources supplemented each other, he appears to
have used both materials by combining them into one continuous narra-
tive. This new document has come to be known as JE.
In support of the J. and E. Writers, there arose both in Israel and in
Judah a group of men which has left an indelible imprint upon Israel's
ancient religion and particularly upon the story of the birth of the Torah.
These religious giants were the prophets of the eighth, seventh, and
early sixth centuries BCE, who were not only the staunch defenders of
52
the covenant but also the champions of social justice, which they
considered to be the heart of the agreement between Israel and
Yahweh.
The prophets, according to the time of their appearance, have been
divided generally into three groups. The point in history around which
these distinctions are made is the Babylonian exile which took place in
587/6 BCE. This was the year in which the Babylonians, who had
succeeded the Assyrians as the world's most powerful empire,
conquered the city of Jerusalem and destroyed the Holy Temple. The
Babylonians then transported many of the Jewish people to Babylonia,
where they lived in exile for fifty years Finally, in 536 BCE, the Persian
king Cyrus, who had destroyed the Babylonian power, issued a decree
permitting the people to return to the land of Judah.
The E. Tradition was incorporated into the J. Version to form what
we have called JE, presumably during the last years of the reign of King
Hezekiah (715 - 687 BCE). Nearly a half century was to pass before
another significant step was to be taken in the birth of the Torah. During
these decades, Judah was to go through a dark age because of the new
king Manasseh, a true vassal to Assyria, who used his long reign (687 -
642 BCE) to prove his loyalty. He began by reintroducing the same
foreign religious practices that his father had tried so hard to root out.
For example, he brought into the Temple the worship of the sun, moon,
and stars which the Assyrians regarded as deities, and he also erected
altars so that they could be worshipped. Since the Assyrians sanctioned
astrology, magic, and divination, Manasseh also revived the old cult of
necromancy. He also restored human sacrifices, even offering his own
son, because this, too, was an accepted way in Assyrian circles to court
divine favor. Once Manasseh began introducing pagan practices to
please his Assyrian overlords, however, he opened the gates wide to a
whole host of influences.
His actions also gave encouragement to the Baal worshipers among
the people. Soon the high places which Hezekiah had destroyed were
rebuilt, and the local shrines outside of Jerusalem which had been
closed were reopened. Even sacred prostitution was practiced openly
once again in Judah. Under Manasseh, therefore, conditions were not
favorable for significant developments in the birth of the Torah.
With the death of Manasseh in 642 BCE, and the assassination of
his son Amon two years later, and with the coming to the throne of the
youthful Josiah, who had been trained carefully by the priests, a new
chapter in the development of the Torah was to unfold. The turning
53
point came in the year 621 BCE, the eighteenth year of King Josiah's
reign (640 - 609 BCE).
One day, while workmen were repairing the Temple in Jerusalem,
an old scroll entitled the "Book of the Covenant" was discovered.
The finding of the manuscript was reported to Josiah, and he had its
contents read to him. As he listened, Josiah realized that the scroll was
a very ancient document, reporting what seemed to him to be the very
words which Moses had used when the Israelites were about to enter
the land of Canaan. Immediately, Josiah began to tear his garments.
Having been trained by the priests, he realized at once that the words of
Moses urging the Israelites to keep the covenant really was being
directed at him, for neither he nor his father had been loyal to the
covenant with Yahweh. Deeply stirred, Josiah ordered that the people
of Judah be summoned to the Temple for a ceremony of covenant
renewal. When they were assembled, he read to them the contents of
the newly discovered "Book of the Covenant," and together they
renewed their covenant with Yahweh.
Having reaffirmed the covenant, Josiah undertook to carry out a
thoroughgoing religious reformation. His first step was to eliminate all
pagan practices from the Temple. The worship of Baal and of the
Assyrian gods was abolished. Child sacrifice was forbidden, and the
practice of sacred prostitution prohibited. He then proclaimed that the
Temple was to be the central sanctuary for all Judah. Here the true
worship of Yahweh would be watched over carefully by the official
priests. To insure the centrality of the Jerusalem Temple, he ordered that
all high places wherever sacrifices could be brought to the gods should
be torn down. He closed the Temple at Beth-el as well as other shrines
dedicated to Yahweh and he disqualified their priests from performing
any religious functions. Finally, Josiah climaxed his reformation by
ordering that the long-neglected feast of Passover, which commemo-
rated the heroic struggle of Moses and the Hebrews to free themselves
from their Egyptian masters, be celebrated once again in its full and
proper manner. Thus, Josiah sought to re-establish the covenant with
Yahweh that had been neglected and even violated by his father, the
priests, and the people of the land of Judah.
The tradition of covenant renewal provided the priests of the
seventh century BCE, with the perfect means of restoring the true
worship of Yahweh. It was quite apparent to them, however, that they
could do nothing during the long reign of Manasseh. Patiently biding
54
their time, they waited until Josiah came to the throne. Having trained
him from early childhood, they had every reason to believe that he
would be responsive to the idea of publicly renewing the covenant.
Even during the dark days of Manasseh, therefore, new hope welled up
within the small but faithful priestly group.
The reformation under Josiah marked a turning point in the story of
the birth of the Torah. For the first time, a book of the laws of Yahweh
was established as the basis of national life. When Josiah ordered that
the "Book of the Covenant" be read before the people, he was estab-
lishing a "constitution," as it were, which was to be the guiding rule for
all the people. It was a book to be studied and to be followed by all the
people.
The principle of a Torah book, in contrast to a Torah literature, thus
began to take shape in the minds of the people. This step was most
important for the future of Jewish life, for it laid the foundation stone
upon which later generations erected the superstructure of Judaism. The
events in the time of Josiah, in effect, foreshadowed the importance of
the reading of "the book of the law" by Ezra some two centuries later
when the Torah in its completed form became the constitution of Jewish
life.
The "Book of the Covenant" that the workmen had allegedly
"discovered" in the Temple forms today the nucleus of the Book of
Deuteronomy, and its priest-editors are known as the D. School. Their
influence is said to have extended from around 700 - 650 BCE, when
the composition of the "Book of the Covenant" may have begun, until
sometime during the Babylonian Exile (586 - 536 BCE) when the Book
of Deuteronomy attained its present form. The D. Writers are respon-
sible not only for the Book of Deuteronomy but also the present form
of the books of Joshua, Judges, I and II Samuel, and I and II Kings.
They had reworked the existing records from the time of Joshua to
Josiah and preserved them for mankind.
Like the authors of the J. and E. Schools, the D. Writers remain
anonymous; however, they did develop a style and philosophy all their
own. The D. Writers wanted not only to preserve a tradition but also to
teach and to inspire the people to carry out the terms of Yahweh's
covenant. They chose, as a result, a style completely different from that
of the J. and E. Writers. Instead of being storytellers, they were more
like Rabbis or Ministers who give sermons, or even like debaters who
try to convince people of the truth of what they are saying. The style of
the D. Writers, therefore, was hortatory or didactic, for they felt that
55
they had to teach the people of Judah how to be faithful to the covenant.
Consequently, the D. Writers used certain phases that they kept empha-
sizing over and over again. They warned the people not to go after or
to serve other gods, nor to do that which is evil in the eyes of Yahweh,
but to hearken unto the voice of Yahweh. Moreover, the people are to
be faithful to Yahweh, they taught, so that "it may be well with you"
and that "you may prolong your days in the land." The language and
style of the D. Writers was also a reflection of their formula of reward
and punishment: obedience to Yahweh's commands would bring
victory and prosperity; disobedience would bring Yahweh's judgment
of suffering and failure.
The D. Writers, although composed by priests in Jerusalem, the
capital of the southern kingdom, are regarded by scholars as part of the
northern tradition. This conclusion is derived from the tradition of
Joshua's renewal of the covenant at Shechem, a northern shrine, and
also from a similarity in proper names used by both the D. and E.
Writers. At the time of its discovery, the Book of the Covenant basically
consisted only of the material now found in chapters 12 to 26 of
Deuteronomy. With time, however, this material was enlarged upon
until it came to have its present form.
The D. Writers, like the J. and E. Writers before them, were
concerned with the fact that the people regarded the covenant with
Yahweh as an ancient ceremony with little practical value for their own
times. Therefore, almost from the outset they, too, dwelled upon the
idea that the law of Moses was binding for all generations. While
projecting themselves backwards to the time of Moses, the D. Writers
really were speaking to the people of their own generation. Thus, they
speak through Moses to the people.
Once they sounded the obligation for covenant renewal, the D.
Writers began to review the laws of Moses, i.e., the contemporary laws
which for the sake of effectiveness were being presented as the "Words
of Moses." They began with the Ten Commandments, known in
Hebrew as The Ten Words, which represented for them a summary of
their religious reformation.
After explaining the significance of the Sinai experience, the D.
Writers introduced a second summary which sought in positive terms to
convey to the people their responsibilities. This passage, known in
Hebrew as the Shma, from the first Hebrew word, meaning "hear," has
taken on unusual significance for Judaism. For Jewish people, the first
line, "Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One," has become
56
its watchword, and together with the remaining verses has formed an
essential part of the prayer book.
After presenting these two summaries, the D. Writers turned their
attention to their interpretation of the meaning of Israel's History. They
explained to the people that Israel stood in a unique relationship with
Yahweh. It was not because their ancestors were more numerous than
other peoples that a covenant had been made with them. Yahweh had
redeemed Israel from Egypt and established the covenant because of his
love for Israel. Yahweh knew that Israel was numerically the smallest
of the nations; nonetheless, he chose to be faithful to Israel and to keep
His covenant with them throughout all generations. It is important,
therefore, reasoned the D. Writers, that Israel now should remain
faithful to Yahweh and keep the commandments, statutes, and ordi-
nances of the covenant. The very knowledge of Yahweh's choice of
Israel should itself lead the people to consecrated service.
Israel should remember that Yahweh did not choose Israel because
of any special righteousness on its part cautioned the D. Writers. The
entire experience in the Sinai desert-wilderness they stated, was to
teach the people that it was the wickedness of the people of Canaan, the
Amorites, coupled with Yahweh's faithfulness to the promise made to
Abraham that his seed would inherit the land, which resulted in their
entry and conquest of the land. Therefore, neither smug complacency
nor self-sufficient righteousness should become the people now, for it
was still because of Yahweh's and not necessarily the people's faithful-
ness that the covenant remained in effect. Lest the people deny this, the
D. Writers reviewed the story of Israel's own rebelliousness in the
desert-wilderness, where time after time they sought to reject Yahweh.
Israel, in the view of the D. Writers, was a holy people. Yahweh had
chosen them to be "His own treasure, out of all the people that are upon
the face of the earth." Therefore, it was important for Israel to avoid all
temptations from the surrounding cultures. Just as Moses had warned
the people against intermarrying with the Amorites and adopting their
culture, so the D. Writers believed that the people now should remove
all foreign influences from the land and should return to their true state
as a holy people. Israel should abolish everything which defiled the
community, and not the least of these were idolatrous practices and the
sexual abuses.
Israel's task as Yahweh's treasure, however, was not just to separate
itself from the influences of pagan culture. It was also to dedicate itself
to special service on behalf of Yahweh. Israel was to be a loyal
57
worshiper of Yahweh and a true champion of Yahweh's justice. Thus,
the D. Writers incorporated in the Book of the Covenant detailed elab-
orations of the many ritual and ethical responsibilities that the people
should pursue.
There were the ritual obligations of appearing three times yearly at
the Temple in Jerusalem — on the Feast of Unleavened Bread
(Passover), the Feast of Weeks (Pentecost), and on the Feast of
Tabernacles (Tabernacles) — and of bringing the required and free-will
offerings. There were the social or ethical responsibilities as well. Israel
was to plead the cause of the legally weak or helpless: the orphan, the
widow, and even the stranger who comes to dwell in the land. All
members of the community, whether rich or poor, free or slave, of high
or low esteem, were to be equal before the law. No Israelite was to
exploit another through murder, adultery, theft, dishonesty, false
witness, or the taking of interest. Injustice in any form destroyed
Israel's holiness as a people. As a capstone to their demand for social
justice, the D. Writers reminded their generation that many years ago
their ancestors, too, had once been slaves in Egypt.
In keeping with their formula of reward and punishment, the D.
Writers placed both immediately before and after the Book of the
Covenant two passages of curses and blessings. It is their final warning
to the people that if they obey faithfully, they will be blessed with good
harvests and a high level of general social welfare; if not, then all kinds
of disasters will befall them and they will be destroyed. The people did
not heed the warning and in 598 BCE, the Babylonian armies
descended upon Judah; Jerusalem was besieged and conquered, the
Babylonians withdrew temporarily only to return shortly afterwards
and besiege Jerusalem again. The Judeans fought bravely, but were no
match for the mighty military strength of Nebuchadnezzar. Within a
few months the walls were breached; within a year, the city and the
temple were destroyed. In 687/6 BCE, a final exile of Judeans was
carried out. The destruction of the nation had been accomplished, and
the period of The Babylonian Exile was about to begin. With the
Babylonian exile the last phase used in the birth of the Torah came into
existence.
The period between the conquest of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar
(587/6 BCE) and the edict of the Persian King Cyrus permitting the
deported people to return to Judah (536 BCE) is known as the
Babylonian Exile. Despite their tragic military defeat, the exiles were
to undergo during these years a period of great spiritual ferment. During
58
the Exile and the events immediately following, the Torah was to
receive the form in which we have it today and to become, as it were,
the constitution for the development of Judaism in the future.
Although the Temple in Jerusalem lay in ruins and many of the
priests had gone into exile, the priestly influence was able to re-estab-
lish itself quickly in Babylonia. This influence was evident already in
Ezekiel, who lived at the very beginning of the Exile. In his description
of the new Temple, Ezekiel's priestly background came to the fore. The
restored community, as he envisaged it, would be centered in the priest-
hood and the activities of the Temple. This new priestly emphasis
which took hold in Babylonia proved to be of tremendous significance
for the birth of the Torah.
The years of the Babylonian captivity represented an era of intense
religious activity. Prophet and priest alike felt destined to strengthen the
sense of covenant between Israel and Yahweh. The people, too, recog-
nizing that they were no longer held together by a common national
allegiance, devoted themselves to the twofold task of (1) studying their
ancient traditions to discover their meaning for the new age, and (2)
committing their heritage to writing so that it might be preserved for the
future. The Babylonian Exile, thus, became a period of continuous
creativity. This was the age in which the synagogue came into being;
also, it was the time when the Torah in its completed form was born.
Among those who had come to Babylonia were the priests of
Jerusalem. Although King Josiah, during the Deuteronomic
Reformation, had tried to emphasize the ritual role of the priests, the
people still remembered them as teachers, as the transmitters of the
rules and procedures by which Yahweh was to be worshipped and
served. To the priests, therefore, the people turned for leadership, for
many of them not only had learned the tradition by heart but also had
brought along copies of the ancient writings.
While scholars differ about how familiar the priests were with the
JE and particularly the D. Traditions, they agree on the fact that they did
not have a tradition of their own. Therefore, the priests undertook a
twofold task: (1) to preserve and teach the various traditions as they
knew them, and (2) to record their own priestly heritage. Out of this
creative urge emerged a series of writings which modern scholars have
assigned to the P. School, after their priestly authors and editors.
The P. Writings can be recognized readily because of their
emphasis upon ritual observance and concern for detail. Their careful
consideration of details is demonstrated further by their interest in
59
genealogies. Above all, however, the P. Writings can be detected
because of a point of view. First of all, an atmosphere of worship
pervaded their work. There were no dramatic narratives about human
affairs as those found in J. and E. Traditions: P. was concerned with
instructing the people how to worship Yahweh — as worship was
understood, of course, by the Jerusalem priests. Second, the P. Writings
were governed by a theological purpose. From the P. School's point of
view, Yahweh's revelation followed a prearranged, systematic plan.
There were four successive stages to this plan, each one marked by the
granting of certain privileges and the placing of responsibilities.
Revelation for the P. Writers emphasized what Yahweh gave to man
instead of what man discovered in seeking his God. This preference
was to have far-reaching implications for the future of Judaism. Since
the P. Writers were the last editors to rework the text of the Torah, it was
their imprint that became the dominating influence in Jewish life. For
example, their strong Yahweh-centered emphasis upon revelation ulti-
mately grew in later years into the belief that the entire Torah, and not
just the commandments, had been delivered by Yahweh to Moses at
Sinai. In their time, however, the P. Writers noted four successive stages
in the process of revelation, each of which portrayed Yahweh's purpose:
the selection of Israel for special service. The four stages of the revela-
tion were: (1) the Creation; (2) the covenant with Noah; (3) the
covenant with Abraham; and (4) the covenant at Mt. Sinai.
Like the J. Writers, the P. School was familiar with the creation
stories of ancient Babylonia. Today, thanks to archaeological discov-
eries, we have the text of one of the Babylonian accounts. On March 4,
1875, more than two years after he had found the now famous clay
tablets containing the Gilgamesh Epic and its flood story, the English
archaeologist George Smith told the scientific world that he had discov-
ered in addition seven tablets describing the creation of the world.
Although there were many gaps in the original text of the Seven Tablets
of Creation, recently discovered fragments have made Smith's account
more complete.
The Babylonian story of creation was contained in a long poem that
was recited each year during the New Year's celebration. It began
with a picture of the earliest imaginable period of time when only two
gods were in existence. They were Apsu, the fresh water, and Tiamat,
the salt water. In time, several generations of gods sprang from the
first pair. Soon enmity arose between the generations, until finally
Apsu decided to destroy his descendants. Under the leadership of Ea,
the wise earth-
60
and-water god, however, the younger gods joined together and slew
Apsu. The bereaved mother-goddess, Tiamat, planned her revenge, but
the younger gods were prepared. They had chosen Marduk, the prin-
cipal god of the city of Babylon, as their champion. In the ensuing
battle Marduk was victorious, and immediately thereafter he undertook
the process of creation.
First, Marduk split Tiamat's body, like a shellfish, into two parts.
From one half he made the sky, and from the other half he established
the firmament. Then he caused the moon to shine at night, after which
he set the constellations in their course. Finally, Marduk proclaimed
that he would bring blood and bone together and establish a "savage."
This savage would be called "man," and it was to be savage man's
destiny to serve the gods so that they might be at ease. To draw the
blood for savage-man, Marduk and the gods chose the god Kingu, who
had undertaken to lead Tiamat's revenge. Since he was guilty, they
severed his blood vessels and from his blood fashioned mankind. When
all was done, the gods sat down at a banquet and feasted, and then the
gods took over their assigned stations of heaven and earth, over which
they were to rule.
While both the P. and Babylonian Versions contain materials not
found in the other (the P. Version tells of the creation of animals, fish,
and fowl; the Babylonian story, the building of the temple Esagila) you
will recognize in the comparison below, the elements which they do
hold in common.
61
5. Creation of the lights 5. Setting up the in
the firmament. constellations.
6. Creation of man to 6. Making man for
the have dominion over service of the gods.
animal life.
7. Resting of God on the 7. The divine
banquet. Seventh day.
As you can see, the P. Writers, like their earlier predecessors, were
not indiscriminate borrowers. They, too, adapted what they needed, but,
in turn, they then poured into the material their own interpretation and
emphasis. For the P. Writers, a conflict between gods was incompre-
hensible. Yahweh, to them, was the undisputed sovereign of the
universe. He alone was not created, and without His supporting power,
the world would return immediately to primeval and meaningless
chaos. Carefully, therefore, the P. Writers detailed the account of
creation, emphasizing the creative act of Yahweh.
As the climax of all creative acts came man. In the P. Writer's
conception of creation, man was to be created "in the image of
Yahweh," and not, as in the Babylonian account, to be a "savageman"
fashioned from the material of the most guilty of the gods. Man was to
be Yahweh's "image" or representative on earth, in the same way as
the image or statue of a king was regarded as the symbol of the ruler's
power wherever it was set up throughout a kingdom. Thus, Yahweh
blessed man so that he could multiply and have dominion over an
other living creatures.
As a fitting conclusion, and in keeping with their emphasis upon
ritual observance, the P. Writers closed the account of Creation with the
Sabbath Day. Since the Sabbath was one of the basic institutions of
Israel, they sought to enhance its meaning for their generation by
making Sabbath rest the goal of Yahweh's creative work.
The P. Writers were familiar not only with the Creation Epics, but
also with the Flood Stories so characteristic of the Ancient World. The
present text of the Torah preserves the P. Account of the Rood. Unlike the
Creation Story, which was placed side by side with the earlier J.
Account, the P. Flood Story is interlaced with the J. Version. Only the
skillful scholarly eye can often detect the differences.
The P. Version gives the following account of the Flood. The gener-
ation in which Noah lived was corrupt; he alone was considered a
62
righteous man. When Yahweh decided to destroy the earth that was
filled with violence, He commanded Noah to build an ark. The
measurements of the ark and those people and animals to be saved were
carefully outlined. Only Noah and his family and two of each kind of
animal, male and female, were to survive in order that Yahweh, after the
flood, might establish a covenant with them. Noah was six hundred
years old when he and his family and the designated animals entered
the ark. For 150 days the water covered the earth, and all perished
except Noah and those who were with him in the ark. Finally Yahweh
remembered Noah, and he stopped the fountains of the deep and the
windows of heaven so that the waters began to recede. The ark rested
on Mount Ararat. When the earth had dried sufficiently, Noah, his
family, and all the animals went out from the ark. Yahweh then estab-
lished a covenant with the survivors, promising them never again to
destroy the earth. As a token of his promise, Yahweh placed the
rainbow in the sky.
In setting forth their interpretation of the Flood Story, the P. Writers
sought to impress upon their generation ideas which they felt were
fundamental. For example, they emphasized the basic importance of
the sacrificial system by describing how Yahweh through the new
covenant gave man the privilege of eating meat, providing it was blood-
less and had been properly sacrificed or slaughtered. Previously, man
had been forbidden, according to some scholarly interpretations of the
P. School, to eat any meat at all; man was to be a vegetarian. Also, the
dignity of man, that he had been created in "the image of Yahweh" and
that Yahweh's was good, was emphasized by the P. Writers when they
prohibited the wanton shedding of a man's blood. Finally, they pointed
out that Yahweh originally had made his covenant with all men and not
merely with Israel. All the nations of the world were descended from
Noah and his sons; thus, the covenant with Noah was universal in its
scope.
Jewish tradition has continued to emphasize the universal signifi-
cance of the laws of Noah. There are seven altogether, and they have
been called "The Seven Laws of the Sons of Noah" or simply the
"Noachian Covenant" or "Noachian Laws." They are binding upon all
men. Those who wish to take on the additional responsibilities of
Judaism may do so; however, the seven laws of Noah represent for
Judaism the minimum essentials for the establishment of a civilized
society, and from which no man or nation is exempt. The Rabbis who
63
lived after the Torah was completed did not differentiate between the
different Schools of Writers. For them, the Torah was all of one piece.
Like their predecessors, the P. School believed that Abraham would
be the father of many nations, and, more particularly, to him and his
descendants the land of Canaan would be given as an everlasting
possession. Thus, with Abraham, too, Yahweh had established a
covenant. As a consequence, Abraham's name was changed from
Abram, meaning "may the (divine) father be exalted," to Abraham,
which, according to the P. Writers, meant "father of a multitude." The
covenant, moreover, was to be sealed by the rite of circumcision which
the priests regarded as a basic institution of the Priestly Religion.
Whoever refused to be circumcised broke, in their opinion, the
covenant. He was to be excluded from the community of Israel and the
claim that his heirs would inherit the land would automatically be
forfeited.
By recounting the story of the Cave of Machpelah, the P. Writers
also sought to encourage their people in exile. Abraham and Sarah had
been buried, they taught, in a cave near Hebron. Even though the
promise was not fulfilled in their own lifetime, at least in death the
patriarchs would come to inherit the land with their posterity. In this
way the P. Writers sought to impress upon the exiles the ultimate fulfill-
ment of the promise.
The P. Writers believed that Yahweh's special revelation had been
given to Israel at Mount Sinai. In the beginning, Yahweh had estab-
lished the Sabbath for all men. The covenant with Noah also was
universal in its emphasis. Mankind, however, did not wish to accept the
responsibility of a covenant relationship. It was necessary, therefore,
for Yahweh to pick a special people with whom His covenant could be
established. He began with Abraham, the father of all peoples; finally,
he selected only Israel to be a Holy People, separated from all the other
nations in order that He might dwell in their midst. At Mount Sinai,
moreover, Yahweh revealed the laws and institutions that were to be
followed if Israel was to be a holy people. Thus, the P. Writers carefully
detailed all procedures, for neither ethical nor ritual impurity would be
permitted to defile the Holy People. This material was introduced into
the JE Account between the story of the making of the covenant and the
departure from Sinai.
The version of the Ten Commandments as they are best known to
us today also comes from the period of the P. School. It is said that the
P. Writers took the original shortened form of the Commandments and
04
elaborated upon it in keeping with their own point of view. The D.
Writers had done the same thing before them. Apparently, a common
tradition had grown up around the original Commandments, so that
both the D. and P. Schools were familiar with the same interpretations
and developments. It is in the Fourth Commandment particularly that
the P. point of view was emphasized. The D. Writers had based the
setting aside of the Sabbath as a day of rest upon the fact that Israel
once had been enslaved in Egypt; therefore, as a free people it was now
fitting for them to observe a day of rest. The P. Writers, on the other
hand, concerned with the ritual purity of Israel, ascribed the Sabbath as
a day of rest to the fact that such was Yahweh's intention in the very act
of Creation.
Each of the four stages of Yahweh's systematic plan of revelation,
according to the P. Writers, used its own special name for Yahweh. In
fact, it was not until the fourth phase — the Revelation at Sinai — that
they introduced the name Yahweh itself. In the first two stages, the P.
Writers used the name Elohim, which has been translated as "God."
When the revelation was given to Abraham, Yahweh was made known
by the name of El Shaddai, often translated as "God Almighty." Only
when the revelation was directed to Israel alone at Sinai did the name
Yahweh appear.
The Babylonian Exile witnessed the birth of the Torah book. Ever
since King Josiah had established the "Book of the Covenant" as the
basis of national life, the thought of a "Constitution," as it were,
continued to pervade the thoughts of the people. Out of the religious
ferment of the exile, this Constitution was to emerge.
After the destruction and exile, remorse and contrition seized the
people, rising out of their sense of sin and estrangement from Yahweh.
The simple faith in Yahweh's nearness and immanence in Israel's
History was shattered. It was as if the Ancient Covenant had been
broken. By acts of repentance the people sought to heal the breach that
had opened between them and Yahweh and to renew the Covenant. This
meant, first, to observe the Torah that was given the people as a basis
of the Ancient Covenant. By this alone could Israel hope to be rein-
stated in divine favor. The idea of collecting all the ancient traditions
into one book that could serve as the Constitution of the penitent
community came into being. The leaders of the community undertook
to finish the task begun by the creator of Deuteronomy: to compile and
complete the Torah Book.
65
JED and P. were looked upon as parallel schools, each of which
developed simultaneously from antiquity until they were brought
together in the Torah Book. The unifier(s) of the Torah Book was of the
Priestly group. The unifier(s), however, remains shrouded in the
mystery of history. The anonymous editor(s) began with the J. and E.
Traditions that had been blended together shortly after the fall of the
Northern Kingdom of Israel in 721. Into this narrative the editor(s)
inserted at various points the Priestly Tradition, which had grown up
among the Jerusalem priests. Finally, the editor(s) inserted the Book of
Deuteronomy into the Priestly Edition of JE just before the story of
Moses' death. (Deut. 34) Thus, the Pentateuch took shape, and the
Torah was born. It consisted of 5 scrolls; Bereshith, ("In the
Beginning") Shernoth, ("Names") Wayigra, ("And he called")
Bemidbar, ("In the wilderness") and Davarim (Words.)
The unifier(s) used from the J. Writer's Tradition; The Creation
Story, The Flood, Noah's Drunkenness, The Towel of Babel, The
Patriarchal Traditions, chronology, and readings on Mosaic Covenant
Traditions. From the E. Writer's Tradition; the Traditions of The
Patriarchs, the Joseph Story, The Traditions of Bondage and Exodus,
the Birth of Moses and The Mosaic Covenant Traditions were used.
From the D. Writer's Tradition; their Book of The Law better known as
The Book of The Covenant was used. From the P. Writer's Tradition,
the unifier(s) used; their Creation Story, the genealogy from Adam to
Noah, The Flood, The Covenant with Noah, the traditions of; (1) the
Patriarchs, (2) the Exodus, and (3) the wandering. These traditions
included; The Nazirite Laws, offerings, appointed offerings, vows and
tithes, purification of priests, priestly provisions, and etc.
Although the Torah was born during the Babylonian Exile, nearly
150 years elapsed before it was recognized as the Torah Constitution of
Israel.
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Chapter Three
The Prophets
(Nevi'im)
69
Chapter Four
The Writings
(Kethuvim)
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Chapter Five
The Gospel of Mark was written to and for the Romans. It is the
most concise account of the beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ,
the Son of God. Mark is generally thought to be the oldest surviving
written Gospel. The document itself never mentions its author, nor the
place, time, or circumstances of its origin, but scholars have inferred
that the Gospel was composed at about the time of the Roman Judean
War (66-70 CE), perhaps in Greek-speaking Syria. Most scholars use
the traditional name "Mark," perhaps the 'John Mark' mentioned in
Luke's Acts of the Apostles (Acts 12:12, 25; 15:37-39).
If Mark's is the first gospel, its 'predecessors' would not have been
evangelists in a literary sense, but instead prophets, teachers, mission-
aries, or community organizers, who passed along memories and stories
of Jesus in their own particular social and church situation. When
composing his text, Mark drew on many sorts of existing material for
his own new purposes of narration. Identifying Mark's sources, and
judging whether they were available in written or oral form, make a
difficult enterprise. It is believed that there was a pre-Marcan "Passion
Narrative" used not only by Mark but also by John (and perhaps also
by the Gospel of Peter).
The Gospel of Mark is written in a lively and direct story-teller's
style. During the process of copying and recopying Mark's Gospel,
Christian scribes introduced some major expansions into the text, most
famously at the end of the story. Unsatisfied with the bleak conclusion
showing the terrified women running away from the tomb (at 16:8),
early copyists preferred to continue with additions of various lengths to
portray the risen Jesus appearing to his Disciples and commanding
them to begin the work of evangelization. These additions are tradi-
tionally called the "Shorter Ending" and "Longer Ending" of Mark,
though it would be more appropriate to term them shorter and longer
"Supplements."
74
The Gospel of Luke
Paul
Paul was born Saul in Tarsus of Cilica, a prosperous commercial
center on the south coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). His parents
were wealthy Jews of Tarsus. He was born a Roman citizen. Tarsus was
known for its many philosophical schools; however, Paul, being a
Pharisee, was sent to Jerusalem to be educated in accord with his strict
Jewish faith and traditions. He studied in Jerusalem under Gamaliel I.,
and was proud of his Jewish heritage. He was converted to Christianity
about 34 CE. We only have some letters by Paul's own hand as a source
of information about his life and they provide little detail. He was and
is considered as one of the organizers of the early Christian Church.
After his conversion, his whole life changed. He astonished the Jews by
beginning to preach the Gospel of Christ in their synagogues. He was
so successful in converting the Jews that he had to secretly flee the city.
He was arrested and stayed in jail four years. Legend has it that he died
in Rome about 64/5 CE, by beheading on Nero's orders. Though Paul
had a theological education, his letters are only records of his thoughts
and not theological abstracts. They are responses to practical situations
and were often written in situations of conflict. When reading Paul's
Letters, you will see that he had an eschatological viewpoint. He saw
Christ's return as imminent and everyone should be prepared.
I Corinthians
II Corinthians
Romans
This letter was written by Paul probably during a stay in Corinth,
but certainly from somewhere in Greece. It was most likely written
during the time Gallio was proconsul of Achaia that would be about
51/2 CE, but a date of as late as 56-58 CE, also has been suggested for
the writing. It is unclear why Paul wrote this letter. It contains no clear
summary of Paul's thoughts. It is believed that he wrote it to prepare the
way for his planned visit to the church at Rome. His plan was to work
among the Christians there for a while and then, with their support, to
go on to Spain. He wrote to explain his understanding of the Christian
faith and its practical implications for the lives of Christians. It is a real
letter expressing real concerns, even if they were not unique to the
79
Roman church. These concerns deal with an almost unrelieved picture
of humanity without Christ, justification of all by faith that depends not
on the Law, but on faith, and on their individual God given talents or
gifts and how to exercise them without envy or jealousy. The formulas
of conclusion, which multiply towards the end bear witness to
surcharges and retouchings.
Galatians
Ephesians
Thessalonians
Philippians
Philemon
Colossians
The Epistle to the Colossians, which some critics would attach to a
hypothetical captivity at Ephesus, seem rather to have been written
while Paul was a prisoner in Rome between 59 and 61 CE, but the
authenticity of Colossians is contestable. In it there is developed a
mystical gnosis in affinity with that in Romans, though sensibly
different in its formulas, and akin to the Epistles to the Hebrews. This
gnosis has the appearance of being affirmed in opposition to another of
Judaizing tendencies that may possibly be the cult of Zeus Sabazios.
Certain incoherences in the editing of the Epistle lead us to think that a
document of Christian gnosis was attributed to Paul, as an afterthought,
by means of the additions concerning his captivity, an authentic letter
being utilized at the end for establishing a close relationship between
the Epistle to the Colossians, and that to Philemon, as we now have
them. The authenticity of the latter, as a whole, presents no great diffi-
82
culty. But the Epistle to the Colossians should rather be referred to the
beginning of the second century.
The church that it was written to had not been established by Paul,
but was in the area for which Paul felt responsible, as he sent out
workers from Ephesus, the capital of the Roman province in Asia. Paul
had learned that there were false teachers in the church at Colossae who
insisted that in order to know God, and have full salvation, one must
worship certain "spiritual rulers and authorities." In addition, these
teachers said, one must submit to special rites such as circumcision and
must observe strict rules about foods and other matters.
Paul writes to oppose these teachings with the true Christian
message. The heart of his reply is that Jesus Christ is able to give full
salvation and that these other beliefs and practices actually lead away
from him. Only in union with Christ is there hope of salvation for the
world. Paul then spells out the implications of this great teachings for
the lives of believers. It is noteworthy that Tychicus, who took this
letter to Colossae for Paul, was accompanied by Onesimus, the slave on
whose behalf Paul wrote to Philemon.
Hebrews
This letter is of unknown authorship to an unknown readership. It
has been ascribed to Paul, but the style of writing and the fact that the
author indicates he belongs to a later generation (Heb 2:3-4) seems to
rule out Paul as the writer. The book was probably written in the late
first century, but was said to have been written to a group of Hebrew
Christians based on references in the letter. These Christians who, faced
with increasing opposition, were in danger of abandoning the Christian
faith. The writer encourages them in their faith primarily by showing
that Jesus Christ is the true and final revelation of God.
Though it is called an epistle or letter, it has few of the characteris-
tics of the classic letter style. Rather, it is a discussion of a major
theological issue relating to Christian revelation as being the final reve-
lation of God. The writer draws on many references in the Hebrew
Scriptures to prove his case. Also, the writer continues to exhort his
readers not to give up their faith, even in the face of persecution, but to
hold on because their salvation and hope is in Christ.
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I and II Timothy and Titus
(The Pastoral Epistles)
The Pastoral Epistles consist of I and II Timothy and Titus. They are
referred to as "pastoral" because the main concern of these letters seems
to be dealing with the role of church members and conduct of the
churches.
The author of these letters traditionally has been thought of as Paul.
The reason for this belief is related to the personal notes found in the
letters. For this to be true, Paul would had to have been released from
prison in Rome, traveled to Asia and Macedonia, and then perhaps to
Crete. Then he would have been arrested again, tried, convicted, and
executed in Rome sometime in the early to mid sixties.
Many scholars feel that the letters were written by a much later
author writing in Paul's name and addressing the concerns as Paul
would have addressed them. As discussed previously, this was a
common practice of the time. This would place the writing of these
letters in the early second century.
The major concerns of the letters appear to be two-fold. The threat
of serious heresy and the urging of preventative measures to stabilize
the church and make it witness more effective. The heresy that was
being dealt with is uncertain, but some of the behavior of the heretics
are described. To combat the heresy "sound doctrine" is to be preached
and leaders of the church must be capable teachers and exhibit conduct
above reproach. The writer expresses concern for the leaders of the
church and proceeds to describe the function of each.
James
The author of this letter identifies himself as "James, a servant of
God and of the Lord Jesus Christ." (1:1) One view of the identity of
James is that he is the brother of Jesus. However, the excellent Greek
style that is used would be unlikely for a person of that background.
Also the discussing of the abuse of Paul's letters in the church and the
fact that there was a discussion in the early church about who wrote this
letter seems to lead to the obvious conclusion James, the brother of
Jesus was not the author.
It is difficult to identify the audience for this letter, but they seemed
to be experiencing much difficulty with poverty, sickness, giving to the
poor, and the attractiveness to the culture of the secular world.
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The Epistle begins with the standard introduction, but that is as far
as it resembles the classic letter style of the time. There seem to be no
coherent development of a major theme, but the writer seems to deal
with several issues in small sections. These issues include: how to deal
with wealth and generosity, wisdom, testing, ethical conduct, and
encouragement towards works of compassion as a demonstration of
faith. The issue of good works as addressed by the writer seems to be
almost a counterpoint to Paul and his theology of justification by faith
alone. The writer of James tells his readers that good works are a neces-
sary part of one's faith and part of Jesus' love command. While it seems
to contradict Paul's position, it does not. Paul's main problem was with
circumcision and dietary regulations as a means of salvation, not with
works of compassion that Jesus commanded. Thus, the writer of James
could have been writing to correct abuses of Paul's theology.
I Peter
While this letter claims to come from the Apostle Peter, the Greek
style used would seem to come from a person more educated than Peter
would likely have been. The letter was probably written the latter part
of the first century by a follower of Peter who wished to address a new
situation in Asia Minor in the spirit of Peter. The suggestion that Peter
gave Silvanus (5:12) the authority to write it in Peter's name is also
possible, but the situation described in the letter takes place in the late
first century long after Peter's death.
The letter is a summary of Christian exhortation. It serves to tell the
newly baptized converts of their new life in Christ, how to live this new
life in Christ and putting this new life in perspective with Christ's
suffering and resurrection. The letter also aims to socialize the new
converts by giving them a coherent view of their new life in terms of
Christian stories and symbols.
II Peter
Jude
The letter of Jude is one of the general Epistles of the Christian
Scriptures. The author of the letter describes himself as "a slave of Jesus
Christ and brother of James." This would seem to make Judas one of the
brothers of Jesus described in Matthew 16:33, and Mark 6:3. However,
the evidence in the letter would seem to indicate a later date for the letter
that would make such an authorship unlikely. The author challenges the
readers to contend for the faith "once for all delivered to the saints" (v.
17) and to "remember" the word of the Apostles (v. 17). This seems to
suggest that the author is not contemporary with the Apostles.
The letter does not conform to the style of the classic Greek letter.
It does not identify the readers nor does it have a closing greeting. It
seems to be addressed to a general audience about the inroads being
made by heretical groups who endanger the faith. The heretics are
described as those who "set up divisions." (V. 19) Scholars think these
heretics may be an early sect of the Gnostics. The author denounces the
heretics and warns of severe punishment.
Revelation
This book was written by a John of Patmos. This John has been by
tradition equated with John the Apostle. Most scholars feel that this is
not the case. The John who wrote the Revelation is an unknown who
lived on the island of Patmos. From the material contained in the book,
scholars have categorized it as a type of a "Prophetic" Book written
about 95/6 CE.
Revelation makes use of traditional images. Thus it is kind of an
allegorical narrative. There are two levels of meaning: the old story
evoked by traditional images and the new story that is the substance of
the narrative.
Revelation contains letters to seven churches in Asia Minor. The
writer's main concern is to give his readers hope and encouragement,
and to urge them to remain faithful during times of suffering and perse-
cution. For the most part the book consists of several series of
revelations and visions presented in symbolic language that would have
been understood by Christians of that day, but would have remained a
mystery to all others. They deal with roughly similar problems in which
each church is told to repent or face having its relationship with Christ
broken. The problems generally deal with how the individual churches
are living out the faith in Christ. It seems most of the churches are
involved in some type of compromise, such as, tolerating sexual
immorality or eating food sacrificed to idols. It tells of the New
Jerusalem where God will reign for eternity and there will be eternal
peace for those who have been found worthy and whose names have
been written in the book of life. The seven churches dealt with are
Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and
Laodicea.
In the next chapter I will share with you my assessment of my
research into the origin of the King James Version of the Holy Bible, and
what I now accept as truth about it and its contents as a result of my
research.
87
Chapter Six
Assessment of My
Research
99
Chapter Seven
I. Heaven
The Heaven described in the Bible does not exist nor will it ever
come into existence. The Creator created humankind from the elements
of this earth to live on this earth. I will go into more detail later. The
only true and logical definition of heaven is the firmament or sky
above.
II. Hell
There is no such place as the Hell described in the Bible. Also, there
will be no such thing or event like or called Armageddon. Hell is a man
made Biblical word, used to describe the place where anyone who does
not believe in and live by the laws of God (Yahweh) will go and spend
eternity. It is described as being an eternal furnace for eternal punish-
ment for the wicked and unrighteous.
Please allow me to elaborate on this. If the Creator of this earth did
not and is not going to create a Heaven for the righteous, he is not going
to create an eternal burning place for the unrighteous. However, there
is a Hell for humankind. I will explain when, where, and what it is later.
I believe that the writers of the Torah created their Hell to put fear into
the lives of those who chose not to obey the code of ethics and laws of
God (Yahweh). If you comprehended what you read in the introduction
of this book, then you will see that it not only served its purpose then,
but is still serving its purpose because it worked on me almost three
thousand years after it was created.
101
III. Sin
IV. Angels
Angels, as we know them, are fictitious and the creations of man.
The J. School of writers said that they were created by Yahweh to carry
out his will. I understand and can accept that now because I know the
following: (1) they (the J. Writers) created Yahweh, the creator of this
earth, (2) they created him in the image of man (mainly because they
102
had never seen the Creator of this earth and could not even imagine
what he looks like), (3) they created the angels in the image of man,
(4) their purpose for the angels was and is to carry out the will of
Yahweh, and (5) their will was the will of Yahweh. Therefore, the
Creator had nothing whatsoever to do with the angels that are in the
Bible. He did not create them nor use them to carry out his will. I sure
wish you understood what I am saying. This is not fiction, it is fact and
reality. I no longer believe in angels as they are presented in the Bible;
however, I do believe in spirits and in spiritual creations, but only in
those created by the Creator. I have never visually seen any of them
just as I have never visually seen the Creator, but I believe that he (who
is without gender), exists because I believe with all of my being that he
created me (mankind).
The fictitious stories created in the Torah were expounded on and
exaggerated by later writers and editors of the other parts of the Hebrew
Bible, (the Prophets and the Writings) who based their writings and
editing on the falsified contents of the Torah. The Jews enjoyed the
local, national and even international recognition and prestige that the
contents of the Hebrew Scriptures were bringing to them. Even though
there were other religions in existence with their traditions in writing,
none of them were as organized nor recognized by the Creator of this
earth as the Jews were. They were looked upon and accepted by many
as God's chosen people. They only socialized with their own kind,
acted like they were better than anyone else, and considered all non-
Jews Gentiles. They were also very powerful. Other people wanted to
become a part of them and worship the God who created the Heavens
and Earth, but was not allowed to. This was around the time that Jesus
came on the scene.
V. Jesus
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Chapter Eight
Conclusion
150
Something To Think About:
Something You Will Remember:
Your Spirit, my Spirit and the Spirits that control every Human
Being living on this earth today, have lived on this earth before. Not one
of us has achieved the purpose we were created for, if we had, we
would not be here now. If any one of us created a spiritual creation that
achieved the purpose we created it for, would we destroy it and begin
all over again? 'No, and neither would the Creator.'
Ronnie H. Ingraham
P.S.
I forgot to tell you something very very important. I cannot
conclude this book without at least giving you an idea of what is in
store for those who program their Spirits properly and achieve the
purpose they were created for. My friends, you have no idea and words
cannot begin to express what is in store for you if you are one of them.
The fictitious Heaven described in the Holy Bible is not even in the
same class as what you will experience. Religion as it is known today
will not even exist. Sickness nor poor health will never be a problem
again. War and fighting will not exist. Eternal peace and happiness will
be your destiny. It will be an eternal paradise beyond belief. Here is the
icing on the cake. Communication with the Creator. Need I explain
this? There is nothing more anyone in their right mind can ask for... All
of this for just doing unto others as you would have them do unto you.
That is only fair. What more can anyone in a reasonable frame of mind
ask for? Again, the decision is yours. There is no punishment for your
decision unless you make the wrong one. If you do, then your punish-
ment is the consequences for the negative things you did to others while
on this earth. Doesn't that make sense? Once your debt is paid, you are
recycled and start all over again. So you see my friends, you and only
you control and decide your future. Please do yourself a favor and base
that decision on fact and not fiction. You owe it to yourself.
151
Essay "The Holy Bible"
By Ronald Ingraham
January 31, 1996
Book:
Origin - Ancient Mesopotamia now called Iraq. They developed
writing on clay tablets. Then it was modernized to the papyrus scrolls
produced in Egypt. These scrolls were unrolled as they were read. The
earliest book contained prayers, rituals and incantations, laws and
government, records, medical and scientific observations arid epics
previously passed down orally Next came book binding and the gradual
development of the codex. (which was folding leaves or pages
contained within two or more wooden tablets covered with a wax
writing surface and held together by rings.) By the fourth century, these
codices had largely replaced the scrolls. The codex marked a revolu-
tionary change from the rolled manuscript. Great Bibles and service
books were produced. Examples are the Book of Kells (8th century)
and the Winchester Bible (pre-13th century.)
The Holy Bible is a book containing the sacred writings of Judaism
and Christianity. It consist of two parts. The first part called 'The Old
Testament' by Christians consist of the sacred writings of the Jewish
People and was written in Hebrew, except for some portions in Aramaic.
The second part called 'The New Testament' was composed in Greek
and records the story of Jesus and the beginning of Christianity.
Translated in whole or in part into more than 1500 languages. The Bible
is the most widely distributed book in the world. Its influence on history
and culture is incalculable.
755
The Old Testament:
The Old Testament was written over a period of 500 years by Jews,
for the Jews and only the Jews. They are not a nationality or race of
people, but people who trace their decent from a group of people their
writers call the Israelites, and who are united by the religion they call
Judaism. They believe that their religion is founded on 'Covenants'
God offered them and they had accepted, and that Yahweh (their name
for God) had agreed to make them (and only them) his specially
'Chosen People' and protect them, but only if they obeyed his laws.
They believed these covenants were made with Noah, Abraham, and his
descendants. Because of this belief, they didn't and don't believe that
Jesus was the 'Messiah.' The Jewish High Priest and his associates
feared him as a threat to the 'Established Order', and persuaded the
Roman Governor (Pontius Pilate) to have him crucified. The Jews don't
acknowledge, accept nor believe in the New Testament.
156
The Nevi'im or Prophets:
These writings were written after the Prophets and prior to the 3rd
century BC, by Jews. They consist of; Psalms, Job, Proverb, Ruth, Song
of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Ester, Daniel, Ezra - Nehemiah
and I and II Chronicles. The collection was completed around 90 BC.
The traditional order and the Extant Hebrew Texts all derive from
one Hebrew source of the first century AD called the Masora. All books
in the Old Testament prior to and including Samuel have been exten-
sively edited by writers who shared the theology of the Deuteronomy
Source. The origin of the 'Masora Version' is unknown. The Old
Testament, long used in the Christian church was derived not from the
'Masoretic', but from an entirely different text called the 'Septuagint.'
It is a Hellenistic Jewish translation into Greek about the 3rd century
BC, and became the Old Testament of Christianity, and later transla-
tions wore made from it or patterned after it. Translators later improved
and altered it to include books of apocrypha and pseudepigrapha trans-
lated from texts now lost. The Canon of the Septuagint was 'entirely
different' from that of the Masora.
'Christianity':
There were and still are many many versions of the "Holy Bible.'
Some have just the Old Testament in them, some have just the New,
some have both, some have both with apocrypha books in them and
etc... The Apocrypha (especially the Old Testament) may be viewed as a
Fourth Collection. Fourteen of these books were accepted by early
Christians and Greek-speaking Jews outside of Palestine especially in
Egypt. These books shed valuable light on the History and Religious
thoughts of the period between the two testaments called by some as the
'Intertestamental' period. In Greek and Latin Bibles, these books are
dispersed throughout the Old Testament; however, in Bibles used by the
Protestant denomination, they are either omitted or are made a separate
section at the end of the Old Testament. They are regarded as Canonical
(scripturally accepted) by Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox
Churches, but not in Judaism or Protestantism. Some early versions are;
The Aramaic Targum (Jews), The Septuagint (Greek), Peshitta (Syriac),
Vulgate (Latin), (The Roman Catholics accept this version) Armenian,
Gothic, Egyptian Coptic and Ethiopic versions.
The Old Testament was written for Jews and the religion called
Judaism. The New Testament was written for Jews and non-Jews and
called Christianity. There were other religions, religious beliefs and
Bibles written for them. Some before Judaism and Christianity. For
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example Hinduism, the world's oldest known religion. It dates from
about 4500 BC. Their Bible is called Bhaqauad-Gita; Taoism,
Confucianism. Buddhaism and Islamism dates from 500 BC to 500
AD. All of these religions have their own Bibles and name for their
God(s) or Higher Power(s).
The Holy Bible in my estimation is a very good book. I believe that
the problem in the Christian Society who is suppose to believe in it and
live by it, is that they don't.
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A Profile Of Ronald H. Ingraham
As I look back over my life span, I would like to share with you a
short profile of how I come into existence, why I am what I am today,
and my plans for the future.
I was born out of wedlock to a poor woman who had 3 children
before me and one after me. My father was a musician with a bad
drinking habit. My mother kept him away from us so that we wouldn't
grow up like him. She dedicated her life to us and raised us as best she
could. But, that wasn't good enough for me. I was an extremely bad
child. Without a father around to put this important input in my life, I
RAN WILD...
My mother used to go to church all of the time and took us with her
whenever she went. She was a pioneer member of the St. John
Missionary Baptist Church. As a child, I did as most children do, copy
what they see adults do. There was a quartet at the church called The
Bibletone Gospel Singers who could sing very well. I liked them, so I
got my brothers together and we started a singing group calling
ourselves The Ingraham Brothers and went around singing in different
churches in our community. Also, during testimony services I used to
watch people in the congregation sing a song, and then testify of God's
goodness in their lives. So, I started doing it. I used to sing a song "It's
nobody's fault but mine." If I die and my soul be lost, it's nobody's fault
but mine. After the song, I would testify of God's goodness in my life.
However, the words of that song meant nothing to me. There were very
few kids around who could beat me lying and stealing. I even went to
court and lied so well on my mother until the Judge took my brother
and I away from her and put us in foster homes. Yet, I was in church
testifying that Christ was in my life. But you see, I was only doing
what I had seen other people doing. No one took the time to sit me
down and tell me what religion was all about because they didn't know
themselves. Instead, they thought what I was doing was cute and
patted me on my back.
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I lived in foster homes until I was able to take care of myself. At the
age of 12, I gave my life to Christ and was baptized by Reverend Hester
at the Twelfth Baptist Church. In reality, my life hadn't changed at all.
I just felt guilty one Sunday morning and went and joined the church.
My baptism did nothing for me either and I went through my teenage
years claiming salvation when in reality, I didn't know what it meant.
All of those years I walked around with my eyes wide open and not
seeing a thing. No one tried to help me get my life together. How could
they? They were doing the some thing I was doing. THAT'S WHY I WAS
DOING IT! What our society falls to see and understand is that our chil-
dren can only be what we teach them to be. Not in our words, but in our
actions every day, 24 hours a day because our children are watching us
when we don't think they are. If we don't show our children how we
believe in and fear God at all times, how can we expect anything
different from them? Our children are duplicates of us, however, we fail
to understand this and when our children go astray, we place the blame
elsewhere.
In 1960, my mother taught me how to play my first song on the
piano. Later that year I started playing for the Gospel Chorus of The St.
John Missionary Baptist Church while my mother played for the Senior
Choir. Through this talent, I got to visit other churches and denomina-
tions and saw how they worshipped. When I saw the Holiness
Movement, I was amazed. These people seem to have a better time in
their services than we did. I liked what I saw and wanted to become a
part of their movement. I was told that the Baptist Movement was
wrong and that I had to be Saved, Sanctified, and filled with the
precious Holy Ghost if I wanted to become a part of their movement. I
was CONFUSED and Afraid. Some unknown force seem to take these
people's mind and body over at times, and they would shout and speak
in tongues I didn't understand. I decided to watch this movement and
see if it was what I really wanted before getting into it. So I stopped
claiming salvation and watched the Holiness movement.
In this movement I saw people professing to be Saved, Sanctified,
and filled with the Precious Holy Ghost living not only worse than the
Baptist Faith I came from, but WORSE than the people who didn't go to
church at all. To add insult to injury, some of the Ministers and Church
Leaders were living WORSE than their members. There were more ille-
gitimate babies in their movement than any other that I've seen. I've
never seen as many homosexuals in the street as I've seen in this move-
ment. Most of the ministers and church leaders, male or female, were
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either married and going with someone other than their spouse, homo-
sexual, or both.
I saw self-made Bishops, Ministers, Elders, Evangelists, and their
PAWNS STEALING IN THE NAME OF THE LORD. Taking MONEY from the
POOR and NEEDY and stuffing their pockets. Buying big cars, property,
and new churches for their own personal gain. I just couldn't understand
how they could believe in God and do the things I saw them do.
In 1961, I organized a young people's choir at St. John's and called
the St. John Juniors. This choir is still in existence today. Their name
was changed to the Kelly Choir. From that choir I took I took 4 girls
and started a group. We called ourselves the Gospel Parisians.
Bill Moss, a well known singer in the city organized a group and
asked me to play for them. The group was called "Bill Moss and the
Celestials." To me, Bill was a genius and a great influence in my music.
He taught me how he wanted his original songs played, and we toured
the country off and on for about four years. During our travels 1 got to
personally meet many popular professional singers and was very disap-
pointed in what I learned about them. To me, they were all HYPOCRITES.
I couldn't understand how they could sing so well and sincere in front
of audiences and be something else behind closed doors. All of this
added to my confused religious beliefs. The only one of them who had
a positive impact on me was Mahalia Jackson. She told me of the many
sacrifices she had to make to get where she was at. I didn't understand
what she meant then, but found out as I climbed the ladder of success.
In 1965 when I reorganized the New Hope Concert Choir, I made
them aware of my musical objectives and my religious confusion. I
refused to pretend to be something that I wasn't and tried to instill that
in my choir member's minds. I did openly what the Church Society was
doing behind closed doors. 1 believed that if I couldn't hide from God,
WHY SHOULD I HIDE FROM MAN.
The Black Church Society accepted R.I.C.C. in our early years.
Some of them even tried to get me saved. I refused every time
because I knew that I couldn't live the way the Bible says I should. I
wasn't going to make a FOOL of myself trying to FOOL GOD. I didn't let
my opinion and decision influence my group because Religion to me
is a personal thing and I didn't want to be held responsible if my belief
was wrong, for leading INNOCENT SOULS ASTRAY. I allowed some
Evangelists to work with my group through Bible classes and before
long, about half of my group claimed they were Saved. The Evangelists
told them to come out from amongst us. The next thing I knew, my
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group had split. The newly saved members left us because we weren't
saved and joined the Evangelists' churches and church choirs. I picked
up the pieces and continued on. The more I got into being a leader of a
Religious group, the more corruption I saw in the Black Church
Society. When I spoke out against it, I was condemned especially by
the SAVED SOCIETY. They didn't want to hear me of all people telling
them that they were living wrong. I watched them take in INNOCENT
SOULS, and once they had them in their folds, DESTROY THEIR
MINDS. Instead of teaching them to FEAR GOD, they teach them to fear
man. Before long, these INNOCENT SOULS ARE AS CORRUPT AS THEY
ARE.
Things got worse when I allowed my group to perform at a local
Night Club for a week doing Gospel Music. Bethel Pentecostal Church,
where we had performed at 22 times without ever receiving a dime,
BANNED US from singing in their church. What hurt so bad was that this
church was a HOMOSEXUAL'S HAVEN from the pulpit to the door. The
assistant pastor was having sex with one of my friends, and one of the
female ministers was going with my barber's sister-in-law. My barber
told me that this MINISTER CHARGED his sister-in-law's sexual prefer-
ence, made her break up with her boyfriend, and the two women
became lovers. He doesn't believe in or go to church anymore because
of that. He said that his sister-in-law went to church normal, looking for
religion, and turned into a LESBIAN. I can't and never will understand
how these people can condemn us for singing gospel songs in a Night
Club, and they GET OFF ON HOMOSEXUAL'S PREACHING TO THEM. I'm in
no position to nor Do I CONDEMN HOMOSEXUALITY, BUT THE BIBLE
DOES AND THAT'S WHAT WE'RE SUPPOSE TO LIVE BY. The more I spoke
out against what I saw, the more enemies I made, and the more the
Black Church Society CONDEMNED me. Before long, I couldn't take my
choir in a church around here to sing without the people looking at us
like we were a BUNCH of FREAKS. We couldn't even buy an AMEN.
In 1975, I stopped letting my choir sing in churches around here
and looked elsewhere for support. I wasn't going to force my group on
anyone nor was I going to PLAY WITH GOD. I added other types of
music to our repertoire and looked elsewhere for support. I wasn't too
successful because the Black Organizations were a part of the Black
Church Society, had their own groups they supported, and/or were
JEALOUS of our success. I didn't know what to do. I didn't want to break
up my group nor did I want to give into the Powerful Black Church
Society. I decided to wait and see what would come my way. All during
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this time I was getting closer to my interpretation of God and didn't
even know it.
In 1976, I auditioned R.I.C.C. for a national talent search to go to
Africa to represent the Black Communities of the U.S.A. at The 2nd
World Black & African Festival of Arts & Culture. The odds were so
great against us going. I knew we didn't have a hope or a prayer but I
still entered us in it. I told God if we got to go, I knew he was in the
plan. There were hundreds of applicants from this area and thousands
nationally. Not only did we get to go, but come in as Top Contender in
our discipline in the entire country. I knew then beyond any shadow of
doubt that God was in my life and had smiled on me. When we got to
Africa, our delegation was so poorly organized until I had to go out on
my own to try to get to perform. Because God was in the plan, we
performed more than the 15,000 artists who were there from all over the
world. Our first performance was at the newest and best site Nigeria
had. When the Choir was on stage waiting to perform for the thousands
in the audience and the millions who were going to see us via satellite
throughout Africa and Europe, I found out that the piano was locked.
No one had the key. I had to decide whether to let the Choir sing
without me playing or wait until another time. I decided to let them sing
one song. I stood on the sideline and watched my many years of hard
work unfold before me. When it was over, it was INSTANT STARDOM.
I'm not going to go into anymore details because they're not important
to me anymore. God was in my life and I knew it. My life was changing
and I was riding on CLOUD 9. I had no idea then that I was going to have
to make a choice between stardom and God. When the time come for
me to make my decision, I chose God. I thought that my group was
experiencing the same thing I was, but I was wrong. I apologize to them
for choosing God over fame and fortune because if I played the game
like our sponsors wanted me to, RICC would be a household word in
the Black Communities of this country by now. Instead, I condemned
them and they used their influences and kept our name and accom-
plishments from the Media and Public in this country. They gave an
Awards Banquet in New York for the U.S. Delegation, and gave
everyone who went to Africa an award except us. So you see, I made
enemies everywhere. When we came back home from Africa, we came
back as the same NOBODIES we were before we left. There was so much
JEALOUSY from our PEERS and enemies here until we weren't even
recognized at home for this great accomplishment. One of the reasons
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I'm sure is because everyone wanted to go and we were the only ones
in the entire New England area who qualified and went.
In 1979, when Dolores Jackson died, our PEERS and ENEMIES were
so glad. They thought that R.I.C.C. was dead. They didn't know what
I'm telling you now. If they did, maybe they would understand that
FAME & FORTUNE was mine two years before she died if I wanted it.
Dolores knew where my head was at. She even kept some things from
me that she knew I wouldn't approve of. I LOVED Dolores for herself,
NOT HER VOICE. I WAS WORRIED ABOUT HER SOUL, NOT HER VOICE.
I believe that God prepared me for her death, and that I prospered
more than anyone else from it. When I was told that she wasn't
expected to live after her blood clot, I didn't know one minister in this
city who I could go to, to help Dolores make peace with God. DEATH IS
NOTHING TO PLAY WITH. When the doctor told us that Dolores' brain
was dead, and they wanted permission to pull the plug, the family said
No. I went to her sick room and talked to her and God as Humble as I
knew how. The next morning, we had 3 different kinds of weather
within an hour. Then my phone rang. It was one of her kids who was at
the hospital. She told me that the SAME DOCTOR who told us that
Dolores' brain was dead, was in her room, heard her cough, and saw her
move her arm. I said THANK YOU JESUS. I KNEW GOD WAS DEALING
WITH HER, AND WHATEVER HE DID WAS ALL RIGHT WITH ME. AS close
as I was to Dolores, it was out of my hands. After Dolores DIED, MY
LIFE WAS VERY DIFFERENT. NOT ONLY DID I BELIEVE IN GOD, I FEARED
HIM. Immediately, I stopped doing things that I knew were wrong and
started getting my act together. I know that I have to pay the same debt
she paid, and I don't want to do it alone. I want this SAME GOD that I
believe in now, to be there to carry me from mortal to immortality. I
don't want any surprises.
Little by little my life started changing. THE REVENGE AND HATE in
my heart started leaving me. Now I LOVE EVERYBODY. If I didn't, a lot
of people here today would not have been invited. I feel so good and
free now. And most of all, I'M NOT CONFUSED ANYMORE. AS FOR MY
FUTURE PLANS, I WANT TO LIVE SO GOD CAN USE ME, ANYTIME,
ANYWHERE, AND ANYHOW ...... THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME AND
PATIENCE .....
Ronald H. Ingraham
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To The Reader
Dear Reader:
Thank you so very much for reading this book. Whether you accept
the facts in it or not, you have been made aware of the true purpose for
the existence of mankind. I stumbled on it by accident. I never expected
to find out what I found out, and it completely blew my mind. It took
me years to digest what I have written in this book.
If you will recall, I was seeking and trying to find spiritual meaning
and understanding for my existence. I researched the source from
which I was taught and found out that that source is not the one that I
now choose to accept. I choose to acknowledge and accept the Creator
of Heaven and Earth as the God responsible for my existence and the
purpose for it. I no longer believe in not accept Yahweh, the God of
Mount Sinai and of the Jewish People, as the Creator of Heaven and
Earth. This title was later given to Yahweh as explained in the book.
Yahweh is the God of the Hebrew scriptures. Yahweh is the God of the
Old Testament. Yahweh is the God that the New Testament is based on.
Yahweh is the God I was taught is the Creator of Heaven and Earth.
Yahweh is the God who is credited with and being identified in our
churches today as the Creator of Heaven and Earth. I now know and
accept the fact that the Creator of Heaven and Earth and of mankind,
never considered any of his human creatures a 'special people.' Every
human being is equal as far as our Creator is concerned, and there are
'NO' exceptions whatsoever. We are entitled to believe and accept what
we want to, but this entitlement does not change that fact. Common
sense dictates that we should be honest at least with ourselves if with
no one else. Before writing this book, I didn't do that because the
honesty and common sense I used throughout most of my life was
based on a falsehood.
What I've uncovered and explained to you in this book have to be
and will be condemned by the Religious Societies of this world. If they
accept it, it will destroy them. I understand this, and it is not my inten-
tion to destroy, get rid of, nor even harm them in any way whatsoever.
My only intent and hope is for them to update and adjust their teach-
ings to correspond with what archeology now confirm as facts about
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past religious beliefs and the true Creator of heaven, earth, and all that
is within it. They will 'NEVER' do this, and so I sincerely apologize to
them and accept whatever consequences they deem appropriate.
Regardless of what it is, I have 'No' regrets.
Those whom I have offended from the results of my research, I
apologize from the bottom of my heart. It is nor was my intention to
offend anyone. I was looking for a spiritual understanding for my exis-
tence and found it through my research. Those of you who feel that I
should not have shared these findings with the public, I give my
'Deepest Sympathy.'
Ronald H. Ingraham
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